International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 12 Issue: 05 | May 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072
Bio-Based Materials in Sustainable Concrete: A Review on Mechanical Performance, Environmental Impact, and Practical Challenges
Muskan1 and Nitu2
Civil Engineering Department, Matu Ram Institute of Engineering & Management, Model Town, Rohtak, Haryana 124001
Abstract - Concrete remains a cornerstone of modern infrastructure, yet its production especially cement manufacturing contributes significantly to global CO₂ emissions and environmental degradation. This review explores the emerging use of bio-based materials as partial replacements for conventional concrete constituents such as cement, sand, and coarse aggregates. Specifically, wood ash, rice husk ash, and corn cob granules are examined for their pozzolanicactivity,silicacontent,andlightweightproperties, respectively. These materials offer environmental and economic advantages including reduced carbon footprint, lower material costs, and enhanced durability and thermal performance. However, challenges such as variability in chemical composition, lower early-age strength, high water absorption, and limited structural applications persist. The reviewhighlightscurrentexperimentalfindings,performance metrics, and case studies demonstrating the practical feasibility of these bio-materials. It also identifies gaps in knowledgerelatedtomixoptimization,long-termdurability, andstandardization.Assustainableconstructiongainsglobal momentum, the integration of bio-based waste into concrete presents a promising pathway toward low-carbon, circular constructionpracticesprovidedfutureresearchaddressesthe material limitations and performance uncertainties.
Key Words: Bio-basedmaterials,Woodash,Ricehuskash, Corn cob aggregate, CO₂ emissions, Cement replacement, Greenconstruction,Wasteutilization
1 INTRODUCTION
This Concrete, a widely used construction material, is composedprimarilyofcement,sand,water,andaggregates. Its unparalleled versatility, strength, and durability have made it a fundamental material in modern infrastructure. However,theenvironmentalimpactofconcreteproduction issubstantial,primarilyduetotheenergy-intensiveprocess of cement manufacturing. Cement production alone is responsibleforasignificantshareofglobalcarbondioxide emissions,contributingtotheongoingchallengesofclimate change.Asaresult,thereisincreasingpressuretodevelop more sustainable alternatives to traditional concrete ingredients.
One promising approach to reducing the environmental footprint of concrete is the use of bio-based materials as partialreplacementsforconventionalmaterialslikecement,
sand,andcoarseaggregates.Bio-materialsarederivedfrom renewable, natural sources and offer several advantages, includingwastereduction,lowerenergyconsumption,and potentially enhanced material properties. By replacing a portionofconventionalconcreteingredientswithbio-based materials,itispossibletonotonlymitigateenvironmental harm but also improve the performance characteristics of theresultingconcrete.
1.1 Problem Statement
Theconstructionindustry isheavilyreliant onconcrete, a material whose production has significant environmental consequences,primarilyduetotheenergy-intensiveprocess ofcementmanufacturing.Cementproductionaloneaccounts for approximately 8% of global carbon dioxide emissions, makingitamajorcontributortoclimatechange.Despiteits widespreaduse,traditionalconcretehaslimitationsinterms of sustainability, resource depletion, and environmental impact.
Withthegrowingemphasisonsustainabledevelopmentand eco-friendlyconstructionpractices,theneedtoreducethe environmentalfootprintofconcretehasbecomeincreasingly urgent.Oneapproachtoaddressingthisissueisthroughthe partial replacement of conventional materials, such as cement, sand, and coarse aggregates, with bio-based materialsderivedfromrenewablesources.Thesematerials, including wood ash, rice husk ash, and corn cob granules, offer promising alternatives due to their availability, low cost,andpotentialtoreducethedemandfornon-renewable resources.
Table1:Variousbio-basedmaterials,theirproduction methods,andtheirusesinconcrete:
Bio-based Material Usesin Concrete Benefits Challenges
WoodAsh Cement replacement, enhances strength ReducesCO₂ emissions, Cost-effective Chemical variability, Delayedearly strength
RiceHusk Ash(RHA) Sand/cement replacement, improves durability
Highsilica content, Reduces water permeability Quality variability, Affects workability
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 12 Issue: 05 | May 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072
CornCob Granules
Coarse aggregate replacement, reducesdensity
Hempcrete Non-load bearing insulation material
FlyAsh Cement replacement, improves workability
Sugarcane Bagasse Ash
Palm Kernel Shells
Lightweight, Improves thermal insulation
Carbon negative, Good insulation, Lightweight
Enhances durability, Reduces carbon footprint
Cement/fine aggregate replacement Reduces waste, Enhances strength
Coarse aggregate replacement
Coconut Shells Coarse aggregate replacement
Banana StemFiber
Wheat StrawAsh
Low compressive strength, Highwater absorption
Low compressive strength, Nonstructuraluse
Lowearly strength, Requires composition control
Composition variability, Availability
Lightweight, Sustainable Reduced compressive strength, Highwater absorption
Highstrength whentreated, Lightweight
Reduced strengthat high replacement levels
Reinforcement inconcrete Improves tensile strength, Renewable Needs treatment, Limited structuraluse
Cement replacement
Highsilica content, Enhances properties
TireRubber Coarse aggregate replacement Reduces waste, Provides flexibility
Algae Additivefor sustainability
Carbon neutral, Renewable
Composition variability, Limiteduse
Lowstrength, Bonding issues
Highcost, Limited availability
However, the incorporation of bio-based materials into concrete formulations raises several questions about the impactonthematerial'smechanicalproperties,durability, andoverallperformance.Theeffectofvaryingreplacement levelsofbio-materialsonconcrete'scompressivestrength, tensilestrength,workability,anddurabilitycharacteristicsis notfullyunderstood.Additionally,theoptimalpercentageof replacementforeachmaterialremainsunclear,anditslongtermperformanceinreal-worldconstructionapplicationsis yettobeestablished.
Thisstudyseekstoaddressthesegapsbyinvestigatingthe effect of replacing cement with wood ash, sand with rice husk ash,andcoarseaggregatewithcorncobgranules on the mechanical and durability properties of concrete. The findings aim to contribute to the development of more sustainableconcretemixesthatcanreduceenvironmental impactwithoutcompromisingtheperformanceorsafetyof constructionmaterials.
1.1.1 An alternative solution
Inthisstudy,threebio-basedmaterialswoodash,ricehusk ash, and corn cob granules are explored as partial replacements for cement, sand, and coarse aggregate, respectively. These materials are considered sustainable alternativesduetotheiravailability,cost-effectiveness,and potentialtoreducetheenvironmentalimpactoftraditional concrete production. Below, each material is described in detail,highlightingitspropertiesandrelevanceinconcrete applications.
1.1.2 Wood Ash as Cement Replacement
Wood ash is a byproduct of the combustion of wood and other biomass materials in industries such as pulp and paper,andenergyproduction.Thechemicalcompositionof wood ash mainly consists of oxides of calcium, silicon, potassium,andmagnesium,alongwithtracesofaluminum andiron.Thepotentialofwoodashasacementreplacement liesinitshighcalciumcontent,whichenablesittoreactwith water and form compounds similar to those produced duringthecementhydrationprocess.
1.1.3 Properties and Benefits:
Pozzolanic Activity: Wood ash has pozzolanic properties, meaning it can react with calcium hydroxide(producedduringcementhydration)to formadditionalcalciumsilicatehydrate(C-S-H)gel, whichimprovestheconcrete'sstrength.
Environmental Impact: By replacing a portion of cement with wood ash, the carbon footprint of concrete can be significantly reduced, as cement productionisamajorcontributortoCO₂emissions.
Cost-Effectiveness:Woodashisalow-costmaterial, oftenavailableasawasteproductfromindustrial processes.Utilizingitinconcretenotonlyreduces environmental impact but also provides a costeffectivealternativetotraditionalmaterials.
Challenges:
The chemical composition of wood ash can vary significantly depending on the source and type of woodburned,makingitimportanttocharacterize theashbeforeuse.
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 12 Issue: 05 | May 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072
Excessive replacement of cement with wood ash may reduce the early strength development of concrete, as the pozzolanic reaction takes time to develop.
1.1.4 Rice Husk Ash as Sand Replacement
Ricehuskash(RHA)isproducedfromthecombustionofrice husks,amajoragriculturalwastebyproduct.Theashisrich insilica,whichcancontributetothepozzolanicactivityof concrete. In countries where rice is a staple crop, large quantitiesofricehuskasharegeneratedannually,providing an abundant and sustainable resource for use in constructionmaterials.
1.1.5 Properties and Benefits:
HighSilicaContent:RHAisprimarilycomposedof amorphous silica, which enhances the concrete's strength and durability by reacting with calcium hydroxideduringhydration.Thisreactionresultsin the formation of additional C-S-H gel, which improvestheoverallpropertiesoftheconcrete.
Improved Durability: The addition of RHA to concretehasbeenshowntoimproveresistanceto chemical attacks, including sulfate and chloride ingress,andreducewaterpermeability.
Waste Utilization: As rice husk is a commonly availableagriculturalwaste,itsconversionintoash for concrete applications provides a sustainable way to recycle a waste material that would otherwisebediscarded.
Challenges:
VariabilityinQuality:ThequalityofRHAcanvary depending on the temperature and method of burning, which can affect its reactivity and performancewhenusedinconcrete.
WorkabilityIssues:TheuseofRHAmayreducethe workabilityoffreshconcrete,requiringtheaddition of plasticizers or other additives to maintain the desiredconsistency.
CornCob Granules as Coarse Aggregate Replacement
Corncobgranulesarederivedfromthehuskofcorn,which isawastematerialfromtheagricultureindustry.Corncobs are lightweight and porous, making them a potential candidate for use as a partial replacement for coarse aggregates like gravel or crushed stone in concrete. The granulesaretypicallyproducedbygrindingdriedcorncobs intosmall,uniformparticles.
PropertiesandBenefits:
Lightweight: Corn cob granules are significantly lighterthanconventionalcoarseaggregates,which canreducetheoveralldensityofconcrete,leading toalighterstructure.
ImprovedThermalInsulation:Duetotheirporous structure, corn cob granules can improve the thermalinsulationpropertiesofconcrete,whichcan bebeneficialforenergy-efficientbuildingdesigns.
Sustainability:Usingcorncobgranuleshelpsreduce agricultural waste and offers an eco-friendly alternative to traditional aggregates, which are oftenminedandhavehighenvironmentalcosts.
Challenges:
LowerStrength:Theporousandlightweightnature ofcorncobgranulescanleadtoareductioninthe overallcompressivestrengthofconcrete,especially whenusedinhighproportions.Thislimitstheiruse tonon-load-bearingorlow-strengthapplications.
Water Absorption: Corn cob granules have relatively high water absorption rates, which can affecttheworkabilityanddurabilityoftheconcrete ifnotproperlymanaged.
2 Literature Review
Thisstudyreviewsexistingliteratureontheuseofbio-based materialsinconcrete,focusingonwoodash,ricehuskash, and corn cob granules as partial replacements for conventional ingredients like cement, sand, and coarse aggregates. The use of such materials is motivated by the need for sustainable alternatives that can reduce the environmental impact of concrete production, which is a major contributor to carbon emissions. Research on the incorporation of bio-based materials into concrete has growninrecentyears,asthesematerialsnotonlyaddress wastemanagementissuesbutalsocontributetoimproving thepropertiesofconcrete.Woodashandricehuskash,both of which are by-products of agricultural activities, have shown promise as supplementary cementitious materials that can enhance the strength and durability of concrete. Similarly, corn cob granules have been explored as a potential lightweight and eco-friendly coarse aggregate alternative.
Aduldejcharas(2024)investigatesthepotentialofmanaging bio-wastematerials,specificallymusselshellwaste,inSamut Songkhram Province's Bang Ja Kreng Community, where shellwastehasbeenasignificantenvironmentalissue.The studyfocusesontheperformanceofburnedmusselshellsas a bio-responsive block material for concrete. Traditional disposalmethodsformusselshellshaveprovenineffective,
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
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and the research explores innovative solutions to address community pollution and enhance sustainability. The burningofmusselshellsatvarioustemperaturesalterstheir chemicalstructure,withthekeycomponent,calciumoxide (CaO),increasingsignificantly,contributingupto80.14%of theshell'sweight.Thematerial'scompressivestrengthwas testedrigorously,achieving500kg(4,000N),demonstrating its potential as a durable building material. Analytical techniques such as X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were employed to assess the chemical compositions, confirming the enhanced structural properties.Thefindingsindicatethatmusselshellscanbe effectively recycled into valuable products that not only improveconcretestrengthbutalsocontributetosustainable wastemanagementpractices.Engaginglocalcommunitiesin recyclinginitiativesiscrucialforsuccessfulimplementation, as it reduces environmental impacts and supports the development of cost-effective, sustainable construction materials. This approach enhances both the community environmentandwastemanagementstrategies 1)
Al-Sabaeeietal.(2022)exploretheutilizationofcrudepalm oil (CPO) and its by-products in green construction, emphasizing their potential for creating sustainable and cost-effective materials. Palm oil waste materials, such as palm oil fuel ash (POFA) and palm oil clinker, have been successfullyusedinbio-asphaltandbio-concrete,offeringan eco-friendlyalternativetopetroleum-basedmaterials.The incorporation of POFA in concrete enhances compressive strengthanddurability,whilepalmoilclinkerimprovesthe mechanical properties of asphalt mixtures. Additionally, palmoil-derivedbindersincreasetheelasticityandfatigue life of modified asphalt, with bio-asphalt demonstrating comparable thermal sensitivity and resistance to conventional asphalt but requiring lower mixing temperatures.ThesebenefitshighlighttheviabilityofCPO and by-products in replacing traditional materials in the construction industry. However, the study identifies challenges,includingsecuringsufficientpalmoilresources for non-food applications and addressing performance variabilitybasedonthetypeandpropertiesofpalmoilused 2) .
Amantinoetal.(2022)assessthepropertiesofbio-concretes madewithricehusk(RH)bio-aggregates,focusingontheir mechanical,thermal,andphysicalperformanceoverasixmonthperiod.Thestudyevaluatestheeffectsofreplacing cementwithricehuskash(RHA)atan8%substitutionlevel andreplacingnaturalsandwithricehuskat5%and10%. Theresultsshowthatwhilethebio-concretesmaintaingood thermal performance, their mechanical properties are somewhatcompromised.Specifically,compressivestrength decreased by 25% and 36% for the 5% and 10% RH mixtures,respectively,whiletensilestrengthincreasedby 7%and5%forthesamecompositions.Thedensityofthe bio-concretesdecreasedby5%and13%astheRHcontent increased.Additionally,themodulusofelasticityreducedby
30%and40%forthe5%and10%RHsamples.Shrinkage levels remained stable at approximately 0.11% after 180 days. Microstructural analysis revealed weak interfacial transitionzonesinthebio-concretes.Despitethedecreasein mechanicalstrength,thebio-concreteswithricehuskoffer enhanced thermal performance, making them suitable for lightweight, insulating applications. Furthermore, the substitution of RHA reduces the carbon footprint and increasesthesustainabilityanddurabilityofthematerial 3)
Ansari,Tabish,andZaheer(2025)presentacomprehensive review on hemp-infused concrete, highlighting its environmental and structural benefits, particularly in reducing carbon emissions in construction. Hempcrete, made from hemp and lime, offers excellent thermal insulation and moisture control, which enhances energy efficiencyinbuildings.Itsporousstructurenotonlyprovides insulationbutalsosoundproofing,contributingtoahealthier indoorenvironment.Hempconcreteisalsoresistanttofire, pests, and mold, making it durable and low-maintenance. Additionally,itsequesterscarbonovertime,reinforcingits sustainability as a building material. However, the review notes that hempcrete has low compressive and flexural strength, limiting its use in load-bearing applications. Despite this, its ductility and ability to regulate humidity make it suitable for earthquake-resistant structures. One significant challenge to the widespread adoption of hempcreteisthelackofstandardizednorms,whichhinders consistencyandregulatorycompliance.Variationsinhemp content also affect its material properties, necessitating furtherresearchtooptimizeitsperformance.Highercosts andlongercuringtimesareadditionaldrawbacks 4)
Bardouhetal.(2024)provideacomprehensivereviewofthe mechanical behavior of bio-based concrete under various loadings,analyzingdatafromaround120studies.Thepaper highlights the complexities of predicting the mechanical propertiesofbio-basedconcrete,emphasizinghowfactors suchasaggregatecontent,aggregatesize,bindertype,and aginginfluencethematerial’sperformance.Itwasfoundthat increasedaggregatecontenttendstodecreasemechanical properties,whilefineraggregatescanenhancemechanical strength and reduce porosity. The study covers bio-based concrete's response to compression, flexion, and shear, identifyingthatthematerialexhibitselastoplasticbehavior, which aids in energy dissipation during seismic events. Specificformulations ofbio-basedconcrete, suchashemp concrete,showcompressivestrengthsrangingfrom0.1to2 MPa,whilemiscanthus,cornstalk,andricestrawcomposites offer higher strength. Wood-based concrete also demonstrates high rigidity, with compressive strength reachingupto1100MPa.Additionally,thepapernotesthat aging enhances the influence of mineral binders on the concrete's properties. The review suggests that bio-based concrete, due to its sustainability and carbon-negative potential, offers a promising alternative in the building sector, although its mechanical behavior requires careful
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
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formulation to meet the required structural standards for constructionapplications 5) .
Caldasetal.(2021)conductedanassessmentofgreenhouse gas(GHG)emissionsintheproductionofwoodbio-concrete, focusing on different types of wood bio-concrete with varying wood shavings content. The study employed Life CycleAssessment(LCA)methodologytocalculatetheGHG emissionsthroughouttheproductionprocess.Thefindings revealed that increasing the wood waste content in bioconcretesignificantlymitigatesclimatechangeimpacts,asit reduces overall GHG emissions. Additionally, the research highlightedthesignificantroleoftransportationefficiencyin influencing GHG emissions outcomes, with transportation contributing notably to the overall carbon footprint. The studycomparedtheenvironmentalimpactofusingrecycled woodshavingsversusvirginwoodshavings,withtheresults showingthatrecycledwoodshavingswerelessimpactfulin termsofemissions.Thissuggeststhatrecyclingwoodwaste not only serves as a viable CO2 sink but also provides a sustainable strategy for reducing carbon footprints in the construction industry. Furthermore, the research emphasizes the importance of efficient transportation in maximizingtheenvironmentalbenefitsofusingwastewood. Overall, the study advocates for the use of waste wood shavingsovervirginsources,makingitapreferableoption forpromotingalow-carbon,circulareconomyinthebuilding materialssector. 6)
Cavallietal.(2024)provideacomprehensivereviewofbiobasedrejuvenatorsinasphaltpavements,focusingontheir eco-friendly and renewable characteristics. These rejuvenators are designed to mitigate the aging effects on asphalt,particularlybyrestoringtherheologicalproperties ofagedbinders.Theyeffectivelyreducestiffness,enhance elasticity, and improve the workability and temperature susceptibilityofasphalt.Byimprovingcrackresistanceand fatigue performance, bio-based rejuvenators extend the service life of pavements. Additionally, they offer environmental benefits by lowering greenhouse gas emissions compared to traditional petroleum-based alternatives,aswellasbeingbiodegradable,non-toxic,and safer for both workers and the environment. The study highlights the importance of long-term performance monitoringtoensuretheeffectivenessoftheserejuvenators. While bio-based rejuvenators show promise in improving asphalt durability and sustainability, their effectiveness variesdependingonthetypeanddosage,andcompatibility withexistingmaterialsiscrucial 7)
ChenandYu(2024)investigatethesurfacemodificationof miscanthusfiberusinghydrophobicsilicaaerogeltoenhance its compatibility with cement, particularly in lightweight concrete. The study demonstrates that the hydrophobic treatment significantly improves the mechanical and insulatingperformanceofconcrete.Specifically,themodified miscanthusfibers exhibitreducedwaterabsorption(36% after 3000 minutesof immersion), improvedcompressive
andflexuralstrength,andenhancedthermalinsulationand soundabsorption.Theaerogelmodificationalsominimizes organicmatterleaching,particularlysugarleachingfromthe miscanthusfibers,whichtypicallyaffectsthedurabilityand strength of the material. The study suggests that the hydrophobic silica aerogel enhances the mechanical properties of miscanthus fiber, making it a promising material for improving the performance of lightweight concrete in construction. Additionally, the modification lowers thermal conductivity compared to traditional insulating materials, positioning aerogel-modified miscanthus fibers as a viable eco-friendly option for enhancingtheinsulatingandacousticpropertiesofbuilding materials.Thismodificationmethodusingethanolisnoted as particularly efficient in achieving the desired hydrophobicity 8) .
Chen, Yu, Wang, and Yu (2024) explore the bio-corrosion mechanismsaffectingmarineconcrete,whichiscrucialfor infrastructureinmarineenvironments.Thepaperidentifies threemainbio-corrosionmechanisms:fouling,biophysical, and biochemical processes. These mechanisms contribute significantly to the degradation of concrete, reducing its lifespan by altering its mineral composition and microstructure, ultimately affecting its mass and compressive strength. The review emphasizes the importanceofunderstandinghydrodynamicsinrelationto bio-corrosion, as these factors influence the behavior of fouling organisms and the effectiveness of protective coatings. Concrete in marine environments is particularly vulnerabletobio-corrosion,withsignificanteconomiclosses attributed to its deterioration globally. The authors argue thatbio-corrosioncanbeginwithinsixmonthsofexposure in harsh marine conditions, making early intervention crucialforpreservingconcretestructures.Additionally,the review highlights the role of antifouling measures, suggestingthattheyshouldbedesignedwithconsideration ofthebio-corrosionmechanismsandhydrodynamicfactors. Despite the advances in understanding bio-corrosion, the papernotesthatthereisstilllimitedresearchoncorrosion ratesundernaturalexposureconditions,indicatingtheneed forfurtherstudiestobetterpredictandmitigatetheimpacts ofbio-corrosiononconcretedurability 9) .
DeAndradeetal.(2024)evaluatethepotentialofmacauba endocarpasacoarseaggregateinbio-concretes,exploring its chemical composition, anatomical characteristics, and physical properties. The study assesses the chemical compatibilityofuntreatedandhotwater-treatedendocarp with cement, finding that the treatment improves its chemicalcompatibility.Bio-concreteswereproducedwith varying levels of macauba endocarp substitution, and mechanicaltests,includingaxialcompressionandsplitting tensilestrength,wereconducted.Theresultsdemonstrate that macauba endocarp could be a viable material for constructionapplications.Thecompressivestrengthranged from 20.78 to 30.40 MPa, with the 25% endocarp mix
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
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showinga7%strengthincrease,whilehighersubstitution levels(50%and100%)ledtostrengthdecreasesof9%and 27%, respectively. The addition of endocarp improved ductility, cracking control, and fracture energy, with increasesof72%,75%,and182%observedintherespective mixes.However,theelasticmodulusdecreasedwithhigher endocarpcontent.Themacaubaendocarp’slowbulkdensity (1.23 g/cm³) and absorption capacity (9%) make it a promising bio-aggregate for sustainable construction, particularlyinnon-criticalload-bearingapplications,where enhancedductilityandfracturecontrolarebeneficial 10)
DePascaleetal.(2024)investigatethepotentialuseofwaste bivalve shells, such as those from mussels, oysters, and clams, as biofillers in porous asphalt concrete. Given that bivalveshellsareprimarilycomposedofcalciumcarbonate, they present an opportunity to replace conventional limestonefillers,thusaddressingbothwastereductionand sustainability in construction materials. The study demonstratesthattheadditionofthesebiofillersdoesnot result in significant differences in the physical properties, such as skid resistance and air void content, compared to controlmixtures.Allmixtures,includingthosewithmussel (PA-M),oyster(PA-O),andclam(PA-C)shellbiofillers,met the Italian specifications for skid resistance and had adequateairvoidscontent.Notably,thestudyfindsthatPAMexhibitshigherverticalpermeabilitycomparedtoother mixtures,andallexperimentalmixturesshowlowerparticle lossthanthecontrolmix.Whiletherheologicalpropertiesof the mastics with biofillers are similar to those with limestonefiller,thestudyhighlightsthatoystershellfiller showssuperiorruttingresistance,whereasclamshellfiller negativelyimpactsthemechanicalpropertiesoftheasphalt. Additionally,oystershellfillerismoresusceptibletowater, potentiallyaffectingthedurabilityoftheconcrete.Thestudy suggeststhatcombiningdifferentbiofillerscouldoptimize recyclabilityandimprovetheoverallperformanceofasphalt mixtures, presenting an eco-friendly solution for constructionwastemanagement 11) .
Elgaali,Lopez-Arias,andVelay-Lizancos(2024)investigate theeffectsofCO2exposuretreatmentonrecycledconcrete fine aggregates (RCFA) to enhance the bio-receptivity of mortars. The study compares two mixtures: natural fine aggregate(NFA)andRCFA,assessingtheirpropertiessuch aspH,waterabsorption,porosity,andbio-receptivity.The acceleratedCO2exposuretreatmentsignificantlyimproved the bio-receptivity of RCFA mortars, primarily due to increasedporosityandareductioninsurfacepH.Thestudy found that RCFA mortars exhibited a 36% porosity, compared to 27% for NFA mortars. Additionally, CO2 exposuretreatmentreducedthesurfacepHofRCFAby12%, which is beneficial for bio-receptivity as lower pH values enhancethegrowthofbiofoulingorganisms.Theaccelerated CO2 treatment also led to an 83% increase in the compressivestrengthofRCFAmortars.Furthermore,RCFA enhanced the porosity and carbonation depth of the
composites, contributing to better bio-receptivity. The findingshighlightthatcombiningRCFAwithCO2 exposure cancreatelow-carbon,bio-receptivecementitiousmaterials, promoting sustainable construction practices. These materials, with improved porosity and reduced pH, offer environmental benefits and foster life on the material surfaces, making them suitable for applications where biofoulingisdesired 12)
Hadjadjetal.(2024)investigatetheuseofseashellpowder (SSP) and granite waste (GW) as partial replacements for cementandnaturalsand,respectively,inconcretemixtures. Thestudyfocusesonevaluatingthefresh,mechanical,and durability properties of concrete incorporating these biobasedmaterials.Thefreshproperties,assessedusingslump flowandV-funneltests,showedadeclinewithgranitewaste substitution; however, the inclusion of seashell powder helpedmitigatetheseadverseeffects,leadingtoimproved flowability. The results demonstrated that the optimal mixture, consisting of 10% SSP and 50% GW, achieved a compressivestrengthof67MPa,amodulusofelasticityof40 GPa, and a reduced porosity of 2.9%. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and modulus of elasticity improved with higher granite waste content, suggesting better structural integrity.Additionally,theporosityandwaterabsorptionof the mixtures decreased significantly, and the concrete displayedenhancedresistancetoacidattackscomparedto controlmixtures.Microstructuralanalysisrevealedadenser structureandstrongerinterfacialtransitionzone,indicating improveddurability 13) .
Jakubovskis et al. (2023) explore the potential of living layeredconcrete(LLC)panelsforurbangreening,focusing on their economic, aesthetic, and environmental benefits. Thesepanels,designedtosupportthenaturalcolonizationof non-vascular plants, offer a sustainable alternative to traditionalurbangreeningsystems,whichoftenrequirehigh maintenance and significant costs. The study reveals that LLCpanelsrequireminimalmaintenanceandarecapableof naturally supplying water to the plants, promoting the growthofmossandothernon-vascularspecies.Long-term testsdemonstratesuccessfulplantsurvivalandcolonization, withnon-vascularplantsdominatingtheperviousconcrete surface two years after installation. The panels exhibited excellentwaterpermeabilityandinfiltrationrates,making them highly effective for managing urban runoff. A key featureofthesystemistheinnovativebio-boostermaterial, which enhances the sustainability and simplifies the productionofLLCpanels.Thismaterialfacilitatedtheinitial germination of moss within two months, and after ten months, well-developed moss tufts were observed on specificsamples 14) .
Kawaai,Nishida,Saito,andHayashi(2022)exploretheuseof bio-based materials for concrete crack and patch repair, focusingonBacillussubtilisandalginate-basedagents.The studyfindsthatBacillussubtilisenhancesbothself-healing efficiency and corrosion resistance in concrete. By
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facilitatingcalciteprecipitation,thisbacteriaeffectivelyseals cracksinmortar,preventingfurtherdamage.Alginate-based materials are also highlighted for their ability to improve wateringressresistance,therebyreducingwaterabsorption in cracked mortar. The study further demonstrates that bacterialgrowthisinfluencedbytheculturemedium,with optimalresultsobservedintheN1-G1-T0mixtureforcrack repair. Additionally, bio-based materials reduce the dissolvedoxygenconcentrationinconcrete,whichhelpsin mitigating macrocell corrosion. The research shows that, particularlyinspecimenswithhighchloridecontent,steel barsexhibitedearlycorrosion;however,theuseofbio-based agents,likeBacillussubtilis,preventedre-deteriorationfrom corrosion.Calciteprecipitation,inparticular,wasidentified as a key mechanism in effectively sealing cracks and improvingtheoveralldurabilityofrepairedconcrete.This studyunderscoresthepotentialofbio-basedmaterials,such asBacillussubtilisandalginate,inenhancingthelongevity andsustainabilityofconcretestructuresbypromotingselfhealing and improving resistance to corrosion and water absorption 15)
Merino-Maldonadoetal.(2024)exploretheuseofdiatom culture techniques to enhance the surface protection of recycledconcrete.Asconstructionwastecontinuestorise, recycling concrete offers an eco-friendly solution by reducingresourceextractionandlandfillwaste.Thestudy focusesonthebio-depositionofbiogenicsilicafromdiatoms, whichformsaprotectivebiofilmonconcretesurfaces.This biofilm significantly decreases capillary absorption, improves impermeability, and enhances the concrete's mechanical strength. The research shows that diatom treatment increases compressive strength by 4-8% and reduces the capillary absorption coefficient by 25-31%, therebyenhancingthematerial'sdurability.Additionally,the treatment lowers carbonation penetration by 49-88%, contributing to increased resistance to environmental factors. The biofilm formed by diatom deposition seals concreteporesandmicrocracks,improvingwaterproofing and protecting against water and gas permeability. The studyalsoindicatesthatdiatombio-depositionsuccessfully improvesrecycledconcrete’ssurfacemorphology,makingit more resilient and sustainable. The results support the potentialofdiatomcultivationasaneco-friendlyalternative tosynthetictreatmentsforenhancingconcrete'sdurability, makingitapromisingsolutionfortheconstructionindustry. The effectiveness of the treatment was consistent across different growing environments, demonstrating its versatility and practical application in improving the propertiesofrecycledconcrete 16)
Pokorný et al. (2022) explore the use of bio-based aggregates in concrete production as a sustainable alternative to conventional materials, which significantly impact the environment. These bio-based aggregates, includingcarbonizedlightweightvariants,enhanceboththe thermal and acoustic properties of concrete. Notably, the
incorporation of bio-based aggregates reduces thermal conductivityby63%andimprovesacousticperformanceby 16.2%comparedtotraditionalconcrete.Despitethereduced bulkdensityandincreasedporositywithhigherbio-based aggregatecontent,thecompressivestrengthremainsabove 27 MPa for up to 50% volume replacement, making it suitable for structural applications. The use of bio-based aggregatesalsocontributestothesustainabilityofconcrete production by reducing the material's unit weight and mitigating environmental impacts associated with traditionalaggregates.However,higherbio-basedaggregate contentcannegativelyaffectthestrengthpropertiesdueto increased porosity. The study concludes that bio-based aggregates are a viable option for enhancing concrete’s thermal insulation and acoustic performance while maintaining structural integrity, and further research is neededtoapplythesefindingstoreal-worldconcretepanel applications 17)
Pramanik et al. (2024) examine the critical issue of biocorrosion in concrete sewer systems, which leads to significantmaintenancecostsandareducedservicelifeof infrastructure. The study highlights the role of hydrogen sulfide(H₂S),which,whenoxidized,formssulfuricacidthat accelerates the deterioration of concrete. Bio-corrosion is influenced by various factors, including environmental conditions,thequalityofconcrete,andthecompositionof wastewater. The lack of standardized test methods complicates the development of effective mitigation strategies,ascurrenttestingapproachesoftenfailtocapture the dynamic nature of bio-corrosion. The paper reviews existingcorrosionteststrategiesandassessestheirefficacy, notingthatcoatingsandoptimizedmixdesignscanimprove concrete durability and resistance to bio-corrosion. However,thelong-termeffectivenessofprotectivemeasures remains uncertain. The authors emphasize that biocorrosionnotonlyescalatesrepaircostsbutalsoshortens thelifespanofsewersystems.Toaddressthesechallenges, the study advocates for the development of more reliable andstandardizedtestingmethods,improvedcoatings,and resilient concrete materials. Moreover, it calls for the adoption of simulation tests that account for key environmental factors to better predict and manage biocorrosioninconcretesewerstructures 18)
Raza et al. (2023) review the use of self-healing biomineralizedconcreteinbuiltenvironments,focusingonits sustainability,structuralperformance,andchallenges.The study examines the role of microorganisms, particularly Bacillus species,intheself-healingprocess,wherebacteria precipitate calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to repair concrete fractures. This bacterial activity improves compressive strength and enhances the concrete’s resistance to water permeation,chlorideionmigration,andacidrain.However, challenges remain, particularly in maintaining bacterial viabilityovertime,whichincreasesthecostsofproduction. Despite these challenges, the use of microbial-induced
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calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) offers a costeffective and sustainable solution for enhancing concrete durability and structural performance. The study shows promising laboratory results, suggesting that biomineralized concrete could be a viable option for future construction, particularly in environments prone to aggressiveconditions 19)
Sarkaretal.(2023)investigatetheself-healingpropertiesof bio-concrete,focusingontheroleofBacilluscohniimicrobes inenhancingthestructuralefficiencyofconcrete.Thestudy evaluates the healing process through the mechanical strength and durability of bio-concrete, finding that microbial activity leads to the deposition of calcium carbonate, which effectively seals cracks and reduces porosity. The healing process is particularly efficient in sealingcracksrangingfrom0.02to2mminwidth.Bacillus cohnii microbes degrade nutrients to produce healing agents, primarily calcium carbonate, which significantly improves the concrete's strength by precipitating calcite. Theresultsshowanotableincreaseincompressivestrength, with a 40% improvement at 3 days and up to 60% at 28 days. The total porosity of bio-concrete is reduced by 3248%, and the material shows higher mechanical strength and durability compared to conventional concrete. Water absorptionisalsoreducedduetothedenserstructureofbioconcrete, and the flexural strength mirrors the trends observedincompressivestrength.Thestudyhighlightsthat microbialcalciteprecipitationnotonlyimprovesmechanical properties but also enhances the durability of concrete against environmental challenges, such as chloride ion penetration. Overall, bio-concrete demonstrates effective sealing and self-healing properties, offering a sustainable solution for enhancing the resilience and longevity of cement-basedstructures 20)
Sempere-Valverde et al. (2024) investigate the ecological performance of concrete compared to basalt boulders in coastalenvironments,focusingontherecruitmentofbenthic organisms. Their study highlights how surface integrity significantlyaffectstheecologicalperformanceofartificial shorelines, such as coastal protection structures. The findings show that benthic assemblages on concrete have lower biomass and abundance compared to basalt, with fastersurfaceerosionratesobservedonconcretesurfaces. Thesedifferencesinbiomassandorganismabundanceare attributed to the physical characteristics of the surfaces, particularlysurfaceintegrity,ratherthanchemicaleffects. Concrete surfaces also show higher detachment rates of biocrusts, further affecting the stability of benthic communities. The study underscores basalt as a more sustainable material for coastal constructions due to its superiorsurfaceintegrity,whichsupportsmorerobustand stablebenthicassemblages.Theresearchprovidesvaluable insights for future ecological studies and coastal management practices, suggesting that surface integrity should be a key consideration in the design of artificial
shorelines.Additionally,thestudynotesthatenvironmental stressors can limit differences in intertidal benthic assemblages, but subtidal habitats show more significant variations 21)
Silvaetal.(2024)reviewthedevelopmentandpotentialof bamboobio-concretesasasustainablealternativeforlowcarbon construction. Over the past decade, research, particularly from NUMATS, has focused on leveraging bamboo bio-concretes for their eco-friendly properties, including carbon sequestration and the mitigation of greenhousegasemissions.Thestudyhighlightsthatbamboo bio-concretes exhibit reduced workability as the bamboo bio-aggregatecontentincreases,withdensitiesrangingfrom 694 to 1390 kg/m³, classifying them as lightweight materials. The incorporation of metakaolin and fly ash further enhances the material’s performance, making it suitable for residential and public building applications. Alkaline treatment of bamboo aggregates improves their characteristics,contributingtotheoveralldurabilityofthe bio-concrete. This material, by promoting carbon sequestrationandofferingfavorablemechanicalproperties, emerges as a viable and energy-efficient alternative for sustainable construction, helping to reduce the environmentalimpactoftraditionalconcrete 22)
Varshney and Khan (2024) explore the use of metakaolin (MK)asacementsubstituteinconcrete,assessingitsimpact on mechanical properties and permeability. The study evaluates MK substitution ratios up to 15% by weight of cement and identifies 10% MK as the optimal level for enhancingconcreteperformance.Incorporatingbacteriainto the mix further improves the compressive strength and reducespermeabilitythroughbio-mineralization,specifically calciumcarbonatedeposition.Theresearchshowsthatthe MK10mixachievedthehighestcompressivestrengthof104 MPa, a 19% increase compared to the control mix. The addition of bacteria and MK also reduced permeability by 43.23%. While workability decreased with higher MK content due to its high surface area and rough texture, bacterial incorporation did not significantly affect the workabilityoffreshconcrete.Flexuralstrengthincreasedby up to 26.31% with the inclusion of MK, and biomineralization enhanced the strength increment nearly twofoldat28days.However,thestudynotesthatexcessive MKcontent(beyond10%)maynegativelyaffectthestrength properties.Overall,theresearchadvocatesfortheuseofMK andbio-mineralizationinsustainableconcreteproduction, providingapotentialsolutionforreducingpermeabilityand enhancingmechanicalproperties23)
Wangetal.(2024)explorethebio-inspiredfunctionalization ofrecycledconcretepowder(RCP)throughtannicacid(TA) treatmenttoenhancethesustainabilityandperformanceof alkali-activatedslag(AAS)mortars.RCP,whileofferingan environmentallyfriendlyalternativetotraditionalconcrete, suffersfromlowreactivityandaporousmicrostructure.By
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applying tannic acid to RCP, the researchers significantly improved the material’s properties, resulting in a 41.4% increaseinthecompressivestrengthofAASRmortarafter 28days.TheTAtreatmentalsoenhancedtheflowabilityof the mortar, reduced porosity, and improved the overall quality of the recycled powder. Furthermore, the functionalizationprocessincreasedtheeco-efficiencyofthe mortar by 28.2% and boosted the cost-benefit ratio by 41.6%.Thestudysuggeststhattannicacidinteractswiththe calciumionsinRCP,formingCa-TAcomplexesthathelpfill poresandcracks,improvingthematerial'smicrostructure. Additionally,thetreatmentdelaysthehydrationofground granulatedblast-furnaceslag(GBFS),therebyprolongingthe settingtimeandallowingforbetterworkability.Overall,the research highlights the potential of tannic acid as a sustainable solution for improving the quality of recycled concrete, thereby contributing to both environmental and economicbenefitsinconstructionapplications 24)
Wu, Chen, and Brouwers (2024) investigate the incorporation of miscanthus into vegetal concrete to enhance plant growth and water absorption. The study reveals that miscanthus significantly improves water absorption,withincreasesrangingfrom119%to246%,and reduces the density of concrete, with miscanthus mortar havingadensityrangefrom379to597kg/m³.Theoptimal cement-to-miscanthusratioforplantgrowthisfoundtobe between0.5and0.75,promotingbetterplantperformance. Additionally, sowing seeds directly on the surface of the concretemortarimprovesbothplantheightandcoverage, witha 36.5%increaseinplant coverobservedwhen10% miscanthus is added. The study also highlights the importanceoflowalkalinityforbetterseedgerminationand growth. While miscanthus incorporation reduces the mechanicalstrengthofconcrete,itenhanceswaterretention andcontributespositivelytorootsystemdevelopment.The findingssuggestthatmiscanthus-enrichedconcretecanplay akeyroleinecologicalrecovery,offeringaneffectivewayto reduce environmental degradation while promoting sustainable plant growth in urban areas. The study advocates for a miscanthus content of around 10% to optimize both plant growth and concrete performance, making it a viable material for green construction applications 25)‼.
Xu et al. (2024) explore the use of waste wood as an aggregate in ecological foam concrete (WFC), aiming to reducetheenvironmentalimpactoftraditionalconstruction materials.ThestudyevaluatesthepropertiesofWFC,such asdensity,strength,durability,andthermalinsulation,and finds that waste wood significantly enhances energy absorption and reduces cracking in the concrete. As the proportionofwastewoodincreases,thedrydensityofthe foam concrete decreases, which also affects the softening coefficient and thermal conductivity. Despite the benefits, thehighwaterabsorptionofwastewoodnegativelyimpacts thedurabilityofWFC.However,theadditionofwastewood
improves the material's resistance to chloride ion permeability,waterabsorption,andsulfateattacks.Italso enhancesfreeze-thawresistance,maintainingtheintegrityof the concrete through multiple cycles. The study indicates thatWFCisamoresustainablealternativetoconventional foamconcrete,makingitsuitableforapplicationsinprecast walls and coastal structures, where its improved thermal insulationanddurabilitypropertiescanprovidesignificant advantages 26)
Yewetal.(2022)investigatetheperformanceofbio-based aggregatesinconcrete,specificallyfocusingontheimpactof a wet grout binder treatment on lightweight bio-based coarseaggregates(LWBCA).Theresearchdemonstratesthat pre-treatmentwiththegroutbinderenhancestheproperties ofconcrete,notablyimprovingcompressivestrength,slump value, and elastic modulus. The density of the modified concreteremainsbelow2000kg/m³,andwaterabsorption for all mixes is less than 10%, indicating good concrete quality.Thetreatmentalsosignificantlyincreasestheslump valueto145mmintheTDOPS0.65mix,whichisanotable improvement in workability. The compressive strength of thetreatedconcreterangesfrom47-57MPaat28days,and the elastic modulus increases to 19.0 GPa. Microscopic analysis reveals enhanced interfacial bonding strength betweentheaggregatesandthecementmatrix.Overall,the studyconcludesthatthegroutcoatingeffectivelyenhances the mechanical properties and workability of bio-based aggregate concrete, making it a promising sustainable materialforconstruction 27) .
Yong et al. (2024) examine the use of bio-based and industrialwasteaggregates,includingoilpalmshell(OPS) and polyurethane (PU) aggregates, in lightweight foamed concrete (LWFC) to enhance its mechanical and thermal properties. The study also explores the addition of polypropylene (PP) fibres and silica fume for further improvements.PPfibreswerefoundtosignificantlyenhance thecompressive,tensile,andflexuralstrengthofLWFC,with compressivestrengthincreasingby40.4%,splittingtensile strengthimprovingby102.9%,andflexuralstrengthrising by70.8%.Additionally,theinclusionofPPfibresreducedthe thermal conductivity of the concrete by 0.2% to 16.3%, making it more energy-efficient. Silica fume was incorporated to enhance both early and long-term compressive strength, while crushed OPS demonstrated strongeradhesioncomparedtotheoriginalOPS.Thestudy alsoobservedthatworkabilitydecreasedwithincreasingPP fibre volume, with the control mix (0% fibre) showing optimalworkability.Thesefindingshighlightthepotentialof using waste materials in concrete production to improve mechanicalandthermalproperties,therebypromotingmore sustainable construction practices. The research supports theuse of eco-friendlyaggregates and fibresin producing high-performance, low-carbon concrete materials, contributing to the advancement of sustainable building materialsintheconstructionindustry 28) . International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
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Zelloufi et al. (2024) conducted a study evaluating the impact of seawater exposure on the durability and biocolonization of two concrete formulations designed for marine infrastructure: one incorporating magnetite aggregatesandtheotherusingoystershellwaste.Over24 monthsofexposuretoseawater,bothformulationsexhibited similarbio-receptivityandsurfacebiomass.However,oyster shell-basedconcretedemonstratedbetterresilience,witha significantly slower decline in compressive strength comparedtothemagnetiteformulation.After24months,the compressivestrengthoftheoystershellconcretedecreased by 40%, while the magnetite concrete lost 23%. Both concrete types showed similar bio-colonization patterns, wherebiofilmformationreducedwater-accessiblepores,but chemical degradation continued to affect mechanical behaviordespitethedecreaseinporosity.Thestudyfound that surface roughness, rather than aggregate type, influencedbio-colonization,andnomacroscopicdamageor carbonation was observed in either concrete formulation. Elemental mapping showed no significant zonation of elements.Theresearchhighlightstheslowandminorimpact ofseawateronconcrete,demonstratingthatbio-colonization and cement type are critical factors affecting marine concrete'sperformanceandlongevity 29)
Zhangetal.(2023)optimizedasodiumalginate-aidedbiodepositiontreatmenttoenhancethepropertiesofrecycled concrete aggregates (RCA). The study demonstrated significant improvements in the mechanical strength and durability of treated concrete. The density of the treated concrete was increased to 2232 kg/m³, and its apparent density reached 2512 kg/m³, suggesting a denser and strongermaterial.Additionally,saturatedwaterabsorption decreasedby15.3%,furtherenhancingtheconcrete'swater resistance. These results highlight the effectiveness of the sodiumalginate-aidedbio-depositionprocessinimproving the quality of recycled aggregates, making them more suitable for use in concrete. By enhancing both the mechanicalpropertiesanddurabilityofrecycledaggregates, thistreatmentoffersapromisingapproachforincreasingthe sustainabilityandperformanceofconcreteinconstruction applications,particularlyintermsofresourceconservation andwastereduction 30) .
3. CONCLUSIONS
The growing environmental concerns surrounding traditionalconcreteproduction,particularlyduetothehigh carbonemissionsfromcementmanufacturing,necessitate the development of sustainable alternatives. This review highlights the potential of bio-based materials such as woodash,ricehuskash,andcorncobgranules aspartial replacements for cement, sand, and coarse aggregates in concrete. These materials, derived from renewable agricultural and industrial waste, offer several environmentalandeconomicbenefits,includingreducedCO₂ emissions, improved waste management, and enhanced
thermal insulation. Research indicates that, when used appropriately, these bio-materials can maintain or even improve key properties of concrete, such as compressive strength, durability, and workability. However, challenges remain in terms of material variability, reduced early strength, high water absorption, and limited structural applications, particularly at higher replacement levels. To fully realize the benefits of bio-based concrete, further research is needed to standardize processing methods, optimize mix proportions, and evaluate long-term performance under real-world conditions. Overall, the integration of bio-based materials presents a viable and sustainable path forward for reducing the environmental footprintoftheconstructionindustry,aligningwithglobal efforts to promote circular economy practices and lowcarboninfrastructure.
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