A Review of Advanced Database Security: Mitigating Cyber Threats and Access Control Mechanisms

International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056

Volume: 12 Issue: 04 | Apr 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072

A Review of Advanced Database Security: Mitigating Cyber Threats and Access Control Mechanisms

Mohd Adeel Ahtram1 , Deepshikha2

1Master of Technology, Computer Science and Engineering, Lucknow Institute of Technology, Lucknow, India 2Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Lucknow Institute of Technology, Lucknow, India

Abstract - Owing to the fast expanding data driven technologiesandtheevergrowingdependenceondatabases in industries, database security has become a key issue in cybersecurity. In this review paper, we review advanced database security landscape, aimed to improve its security with mitigation strategies in case of cyber threats, and enhanced access control mechanisms. With advanced, state ofthe artcyberattackonarise,SQLinjection, data breaches and insider threats, traditional security measures are no longersufficient.Theprovenanceanalysisthatwepresented in Section 6 can fully integrate with cuttingedge techniques such as encryption methods, intrusion detection and prevention systems (IDPS), database activity monitoring (DAM) and integration of blockchain technology for ensuring data integrity. Furthermore, it looks into modern access control mechanisms like Role based access control (RBAC), attribute based access control (ABAC) and fine grained access control and also discusses the pros and cons of each access control mechanism. Some emerging trends that are discussed include the implications of quantum computing, application of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) for predictive threat analysis, and challenges of securing database in cloud and edge computing environments. Key challenges are: security performance trade off, scalability, compliance in terms of data protection, etc. This review is meant to present a roadmap for researchers and practitioners on developing robust, adaptive, and future-proof database security solutions through synthesis of the recent advancements and discussion on the open issues. Finally, this paper highlights the constant need for innovation and team work to counteract emerging threats in cyber space keeping the critical data in this space secure, available and with integrity.

Key Words: Database Security, Blockchain for Data Integrity, SQL Injection, Data Breaches, Artificial IntelligenceinCybersecurity,CloudDatabaseSecurity

1.INTRODUCTION

1.1.Background

Moderncomputersystemsarebuiltupondatabasesasthe main storage, management, and retrieval of important data fromindustriesrangingfrom financeandhealthcare,

to e-commerce and government. However, their ability and responsibility in data driven decision making, business operations and innovation cannot be stressed any further. With more data being generated and processedatevenhigherspeeds,however,databaseshave becomeafavoredtargetofcybercriminals.

Figure-1: Database Security Threats

Traditional database security measures have been exposedforthevulnerabilitiestheyareinthepresence of increasing frequency and sophistication of cyber threats such as SQL injection, data breach, ransomware attacks and insider threats. In addition to the detrimental impact on the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of sensitive information, these threats bring massive financiallosses,reputationaldamage,andlawsuitsagainst organizations. Need for stronger security measures is specially required at this time. The main focus of this paperistoaddressthesechallengesbylookingintorecent research techniques and mechanisms designed to protect databaseagainstevolvingcyberthreats.

1.2.Objectives of the Review

In short, the main goal of this review is to summarize in detail these techniques that expand the database security with their efficiency in defense of cyber threats and boosting the access control techniques. The paper specificallylooksintoinnovativeapproachlikeencryption,

International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056

Volume: 12 Issue: 04 | Apr 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072

intrusion detection and prevention systems (IDPS), and blockchain technology, which radically changes the current approach towards database security. Moreover, it attempts to assess the use of modern access control mechanisms such as Role Based Access Control (RBAC) and Attribute Based Access Control (ABAC) to determine their capabilities and shortcomings in securing sensitive data.Withthesynthesisofrecentresearchandreal-world cases,thisreviewhopestoprovideusefulinsightstowards researchers, practitioners and policymakers that care to fortify database security amid an increasingly interwoven anddataorientedworld.

1.3.Scope of the Paper

In this paper, recent database security advances are discussed (cyber threats and an improvement in access control mechanisms are taken). Security in aspect of databases is considered in both theoretical and practical way, focusing also on emerging technologies prone to affect the database security greatly, like the artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML) and quantum computing. Although the review covers a wide variety of topics,thefocusisespeciallyontechniquesandstrategies that can be applied directly to mitigate cyber threats and providestrongaccesscontrol.Itwillalsocoverissueslike trade off between security and performance, compliance with data protection regulations and the human factors contributingtosecurityvulnerability.

2.OVERVIEW OF DATABASE SECURITY

2.1.Importance

Securityof database means thesetofmeasures,toolsand protocols used for protection of the databasesagainst the unauthorized access, misuse, corruption or theft. It consistsofverywiderangeofpracticestoensurethatthe sensitive information is confidential, in intact and accessible only to authorized users only. The database security is the integral element of the database cybersecurity. This is especially true in today’s times of digital age, where data is key for the business operations oforganizations.Acompromisedorabreachofadatabase could result to a lot of severe consequences including financial losses, legal liabilities and damage to an organization’s reputation. The stakes are even higher for industriesthatstoresensitivepersonalandorganizational data like healthcare, finance, and government. Database security is not only a technical necessity but it is also a business imperative and is essential for customers’ trust, regulatory compliance and smooth operation of the business.

2.2.Key Components of Database Security

Confidentiality,Integrity,andAvailabilityformthebaseof database security. Confidentiality makes sure that sensitive information is only available to the authorized people and it can be ensured by encrypting data and accesscontrolmechanisms.Integrityensuresthatthedata is neither altered nor modified by anyone without authorized and correct purposes. Availability guarantees thatthedataisaccessibletouserswithappropriaterights when it is required for instance, protected against a denial-of-service (DoS) attacks or hardware failure. Once we go beyond the CIA triad, database security also comprisesthreecriticalprocesses;thesearetobelistedas Authentication, Authorization, and Auditing. Authenticationprovestheidentityofuserstryingtoaccess the database usually by using a password, biometrics or multi factor authentication (MFA). Authorization is appliedatthelevelofauthenticatedusersinordertogrant them access within a limited scope. Auditing is about tracking & logging of database activities so that during incidents I can investigate them and suspicious activities can be detected and security policies can be followed. Together, these create a solid framework for protecting databasesfrommanythreats.

2.3.Evolution of Database Security

Now although, over the decades, the field of database security has grown as the complexity of data has grown and complexity of cyber threats has grown also. Database securityintheearlydaysofcomputingwascomparitively simple, revolved round physical security and basic access controls.Overtime,untodatabasesbecamemoreessential to the operation of business, and along with that, more advanced forms of security built up to meet the demand. Networked systems brought new vulnerabilities, which necessitated the creation of encryption protocols, firewalls, and intrusion detection systems to address the vulnerabilities. Over the past few years, the prevalence of cloudcomputing,bigdata,andInternetofThings(IoT)has only served to accelerate the complexity of the security landscape, and the recent emergence of machine learning

International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056

Volume: 12 Issue: 04 | Apr 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072

based threat detection, blockchain for data integrity, and zero-trustarchitectureshasonlyindicatedhow entirely it has evolved in the recent past. This is typical of the transitionfrom traditional toadvancedsecuritymeasures that occur in the ongoing arms race between cyber defenders and attackers as it necessitates constant innovationandadaptationindatabasesecuritymethods.

3.CYBER THREATS TO DATABASES

3.1.Types

of Cyber Threats

In this enterprise, cyber threats aimed mainly on databases increase noticeably, which pose specific problemstothesecurityofdatabases.SQLInjectionisone ofthemostcommonanddangerousthreatthatanattacker canexploitthevulnerability ina webapplication toinject amaliciousSQLQuerytoadatabase.Thisenablesthemto getsensitivedatafromormanipulateitwithoutdetection. Denial of Service (DoS) attacks, namely when database servers are overwhelmed with too many requests, effectively making them inaccessible to legitimate users and hindering business operations, is another major threat.

Figure-3: Working of Cyber Threats to Databases

Malicious or negligent employees with access to the database are also a serious insider threat, able to be purposely or inadvertently put data at risk. Furthermore, malware and ransomware attacks are more and more frequent, and attackers employ malicious software that encrypts or steals data in order to demand ransom in exchange for the release of the data. Data breaches and exfiltratewhereunauthorizedaccesstodatabasesleadsto the theft or leakage of sensitive information is the last. Thisdemonstratesthevariousandchangingrisksrelevant tomoderndatabases.

3.2.Impact of Cyber Threats

Cyber threats to databases can have devastating consequencestoorganizations.Financiallossesareamost immediate impact many breaches directly cause theft, ransom, or even the costs of investigating and fixing a problem. Organizations suffer monetary damage beyond anythingelse,butthedamagetotheirreputationcomesas

customers and other stakeholders no longer trust that their information is safe. If trust is lost, then the business wouldalsocomedown,theclientswouldstarttakingtheir business somewhere else. Additionally, organizations suffer legal and regulatory ramifications due to data breaches as they typically run afoul of activities like the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) or the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA). The other associatedcostsarealsohugeasnoncomplianceevencan lead to hefty fines, lawsuits and in some cases mandatory audits. The combined body of consequences makes it necessarytoestablishtightdatabasesecurity.

3.3.Case Studies

For instance, real world examples of database breaches canshedlightontheworldofcyberthreatsinnatureand behavior. One of the most known cases of online exploitationhappenedin2017whenEquifaxhadtoadmit that hackers had managed to hack the personal data of none less than 147 million individuals, when they used vulnerabilityinthecompany’swebapplication.Itseverely damaged the reputation, finances, and led to legal consequences for Equifax in the end. For instance, the 2013 Target breach resulted from attackers getting into the company’s database via third party vendors, compromising the credit card information of 40 million customers. This incident brought the danger of being vulnerable throughout the supply chain, as well as securingaccesspointstotheaccesstothedatabasehome. This was similarly exemplified by the 2021 attack on the ColonialPipelinethrougharansomwareattackwhichboth shut down the operational pipeline and resulted in significant business impact and financial losses for the company. These examples reveal the extent of damage database breaches can cause and some of the efforts that must be taken moving forward to protect us all from future incidents of this kind. These incidents have taught us about the critical role of timely vulnerability patching, strong access control and consistent monitoring to detect andrespondtothreats.

4.ACCESS CONTROL MECHANISMS

4.1.Role-Based Access Control (RBAC)

Access control mechanism widely used is Role Based AccessControl(RBAC),whichassignspermissiontousers according to the role in an organization. In this model, a role is imposed according to function of the job, and that role is provided certain rights to access database resources. For instance, a manager might be granted access to financial data where as an employee may only see general operational data. With RBAC, you assigned users in groups of roles and then simplified permissions control. On the other hand, it is scalable, easy to administer, and is better able to comply with security policies. RBAC suffers from limitations, including its

International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056

Volume: 12 Issue: 04 | Apr 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072

rigidity in dealing with the dynamic and context sensitive requirements for access. For example, it may not be suitable for cases in which temporary or conditional accessisrequired.Whiletheselimitationsarewellknown, RBAC remains the main access control approach in many organizations.

4.2.Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC)

The Attribute Based Access Control (ABAC) is a more flexible and dynamic access control model where the evaluation of the user access request is done based on a combination of attributes. Some of these attributes could be user characteristics (e.g., job title, department), resource properties (e.g., sensitivity level, ownership), environmental conditions (e.g., time of day, location). ABAC determine access should be allowed by using policies, and hence it is highly customizable to meet complex and varied security demands. For instance, in a policy,ausermaybeallowedtoaccessadatabaseaslong as the user is in a particular department and at a certain time of the day. Modern databases that accesses are dynamic and context dependent, for example in cloud settingsorinmultitenantsystems,thesearepreciselythe situations where ABAC is of great use. However, this flexibility comes at the expense of increased policy definition and management complexity which is challengingtoorganizations.

4.3.Mandatory Access Control (MAC) and Discretionary Access Control (DAC)

There are two different ways for access control, namely Mandatory Access Control (MAC) and Discretionary Access Control (DAC). MAC is a strict model in which accessdecisionsat the instance of anaccesscontrol point are made by a central authority on the basis of well defined security labels and policies. MAC is highly secure, because user cannot alter access permissions, but also inflexible. This is generally considered for the environments where confidentiality levels are very high and are suitable for government or military systems. On the other hand, DAC grants more freedom to resource owners regarding who to allow access, while it is less centralizing. DAC is easier to implement and manage, but it is more prone to misuse or errors due to an accidental grant of too many permissions by the users. The decision between MAC and DAC is a matter of these security requirements and related operational context of the organization.Sometimes,amiddleoftheroadapproachis taken adopting features from both models to match securitywithflexibility.

4.4.Multi-Factor

Authentication (MFA)

One of the most important elements of modern access control is Multi‑Factor Authentication, which is meant to improve the security by requesting the user to furnish a

variety of proofs of identity when getting access to the database. MFA frequently involves something the user knows a password, something the user has a smartphone orsecuritytokenandsomethingtheuserisbiometricdata like fingerprints or facial recognition. MFA drastically minimisestherisk ofunauthorisedaccessasitaddsextra layers of verification that is even if 1 of the factors (Password)is compromised.It’s no surprise,MFAis most successful atpreventingcredential theft andphishing, the twowaysusedbyhackerstoaccessacomputernetwork’s database. MFA only improves security and can introduce usabilitychallenges,like a slowerlogin timeandthe need to purchase additional hardware. Nevertheless, these inconveniencesaremorethanoffset bythesecurityvalue of MFA, which is why MFA is an established best practice forprotectingsensitivedatabases.

4.5.Fine-Grained Access Control

More Grained Access Control (FGAC) is the strategy used when access restrictions are enforced to a very detailed level, such as on a row or column level of a database. For instance, row level security makes sure that user can see only specific rows of data as per pre defined rules, like their department or geographic location. Column level security, on the other hand, limits data access only to certain columns, for instance, for columns that contain privateorfinancialinformation.

In particular, situations where various levels of user or group require access for a subset of data within an identical database are where FGAC is most effective. Nevertheless, implementing FGAC is difficult because of thecomplexityofaccesspoliciesdesignanditsintegration with the existing database systems. However, issues like supporting performance, scalability, and ability to handle policy update exist. However, in spite of these challenges, FGAC is a strong tool for reducing data exposure and securityenhancementinscenarioswherediverseaccessis needed.Theseimplementationchallengesareincreasingly being addressed with solutions like policy based

International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056

Volume: 12 Issue: 04 | Apr 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072

5.EMERGING TRENDS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

5.1.Artificial

Intelligence and Machine Learning in Database Security

Theartificial Intelligence(AI) andMachineLearning(ML) toolsarechangingthedatabasesecurityfieldbyproviding the predictive threat analysis, and automated response tools. These technologies are capable of processing large volumes of data and spotting the pattern and anomalies that could indicate a potential cyber threat. For example, ML algorithms can identify unexpected access patterns or abnormalqueriesthatareoutoftheordinaryandalerton thesethingsassomethingtoinvestigatefurther.Historical dataandrealtimemonitoringisutilizedbythepredictive threat analysis to predict and mitigate risks before happening which can be referred to as database security on a pro active basis. In addition, an automated response system driven by AI can respond almost immediately to anydetectedthreat,forexampleblockingmalicioususers, isolating compromised computers and applying patch for the vulnerabilities. These capabilities are not just more efficient when it comes to what is required of security operations, but they also reduce the amount of human involvement that would have a chance of human error. With AI and ML advancing, the integration of these technologies into the database security frameworks will also become more complex, ensuring that threats will be moresafeguarded.

5.2.Quantum Computing and Its Impact on Database Security

Althoughquantumcomputingis,certainly,initsinfancy,it presents as one opportunity, as well as one challenge for database security. Quantum computers have the potential tosolvecomplexproblemsataspeedneverknownbefore; this could be applied to enhance the encryption and securityalgorithms.Atthesametime, theyalsorepresent a strong threat to currently existing cryptographic systems. Currently, there is a large number of encryption algorithms, such as RSA and ECC, that need to factor a largenumberorsolveadiscretelogarithmproblem,which are the ones which Quantum Computers can solve in an efficient way using algorithms such as Shor’s algorithm. This enables sensitive data to be exposed to unprecedented risk, potentially making traditional encryption methods obsolete. To overcome this, researchers develop quantum resistant algorithms which are based on lattice based cryptography and hash based signatures that can be resistant to quantum attacks. Database security in the coming years will be a critical focus on the transition to quantum resistant encryption, which will require the active participation of researchers,

industry and policymakers to make a smooth, secure transition.

5.3.Privacy-Preserving Data Sharing

We are at an inflection point in data sharing, where collaboration and innovation are increasingly driven by sharing our insights with others but we also have to be able to offer our valuable information to only those we trust (i.e. ensuring privacy). In this area, there are two important approaches: differential privacy and secure multi party computation. It is a method to protect a dataset by adding noise to your dataset so personal identifyingfacultiesfromyourpeoplearen'tunveiled,and you nonetheless get to get significant info from the dataset.Sinceitenablesindividualprivacytobepreserved insituationswheredatawillbesharedwithotherparties, not only researchers but also business partners, for example,thisisaveryusefultechnique.Securemultiparty computation (SMPC), however, allows multiple parties to jointly compute a function on their inputs without being abletosee theinputs. It allowscollaborative analysisand decision making with the underlying data remaining confidential. Nevertheless, these approaches are catching on in areaslike healthcare, financeand government as its sensitivitytodataisparamount.Itwillbecrucialforthese techniques to play a role in the enabling of privacy for privacyregulationsthatarebecomingmorestringent.

5.4.Integration with Cloud and Edge Computing

Themovetowardscloudandedgecomputingcreatesnew security problems for databases, especially in the distributed environment is the shift. Scalable, flexible and cheap, cloud databases also bring data to risk of wrong access,data breach, and misconfiguration. Compound this by the fact that edge computing means spills of data to multiple places, increasing the attack area. Organizations respond to these challenges by employing solutions such as encryption in data at rest and in transit, the best identity and access management (IAM) systems, and monitoringtools.Inahybridandmulticloudenvironment where data lives across multiple cloud providers, the measures of consistency and security need to reach beyond the boundaries. Recently, emerging techniques that involve data fragmentation (splitting the data and storing it in different locations) as well as federated learning (performing decentralized model training without the need to share raw data) prove to be effective approaches to the protection of distributed databases. Increasingly these cloud and edge computing is gaining momentum and therefore integrating these solutions in databasesecurityframeworkwillbecrucialforupholding dataintegrityandconfidentiality.

International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056

Volume: 12 Issue: 04 | Apr 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072

6.CHALLENGES AND OPEN ISSUES

6.1.Balancing

Security and Performance

A very significant problem in database security is the delicate balance between secure, robust security mechanisms and acceptable system performance. Even though encryption is very much necessary while securing anysensitivedata,itcanresultin extralatencyandlower query processing speed. For instance, encrypting data-atrest and data-in-transit provide confidentiality but the computational overhead for the encryption and decryption process slows down the database operation. Like, either by implementing advanced security mechanismlikeintrusiondetectionsystemorfinegrained access control you can make your database system complexascomplexsystemandmoreresourceconsuming whichinturncandegradetheoverallperformanceofyour database system. These tradeoffs are challenging for organizations to carefully evaluate and must optimize their security configurations to minimally degrade performance in order to provide enough security. This challengewasaddressedwithtechniquessuchasselective encryption where only the most sensitive data is encrypted, or the use of hardware based acceleration for cryptographic operations to minimize the computational overhead. However, reaching such an optimal balance is still a problem, especially in an environment involving highperformanceorrealtimedatabase.

6.2.Scalability of Security Mechanisms

As databases become larger and more complicated, scalability of security mechanisms becomes an important issue. Big data analytics, cloud environments, and such large scale databases handle large amounts of data and serve large number of concurrently accessing users. Such environments tend to put enormous demands on traditional security measures, which were shaped for smaller two tier, centralized systems. Take, for example, accesscontrolsystemsthatneedtodealwithrapidgrowth intermsofpermissionsformillionsofusers,orencryption techniques that have to perform the encryption and decryption of petabytes of data; additionally, we need performance to be as high as possible with as little bottleneck as possible. In addition, monitoring and auditing tools must be responsive to such high volume of logdatainrealtimeinordertodetectandreacttothreats. All this is further exacerbated in distributed databases where the data is distributed over multiple nodes or locations. The solutions to these issues often involve inventing new techniques such as distributed encryption protocols, scalable access control frameworks, and machinelearningbasedmonitoringsystemwhichareable tocatertotheevolvingrequirementsoflargedatabases.

6.3.Human Factors in Database Security

Oneshouldn'tdiscountthehumanfactorswhensecurityis concerned; they play an equally important role as technological solutionsforthedatabasesecurity.Itisalso possible that employees, contractors and other insiders with access to databases inadvertently or worse intentionally, compromise security by following poor or weak password practices, falling prey to phishing attacks, or misconfiguring security settings. One of the hardest risks to mitigate are insider threats, which are defined as whether malicious or accidental, they actually are trusted individuals with legitimate access to sensitive data. These issues can be dealt with by training and awareness programs educating the users about the security best practicesalongwiththedisadvantageofnegligence.Along withthat,organizationsmustenforcestrictaccesscontrol policies, track user activity for any unusual behavior, and promoteasecurityawarenessculture.Preventivesecurity measures include techniques like role-based training, simulated phishing exercises, and performing security audits on a regular basis to prevent errors from humans and by insiders. In the end, getting the databases holistically secure entails employing technological tools andapproachesaswellashumanapproachcenteredones.

7.CONCLUSION

Inthisreviewpaper,thegreenareaofadvanceddatabase security covers its mechanism and techniques of counter threatandaccesscontrol.Forinstance,keyfindingsmake it clear how any encryption methods, such as data-at-rest encryptionanddata-in-transitencryption,are essential to keep sensitive information secure from unauthorized access.Intrusiondetectionandpreventionsystems(IDPS) and database activity monitoring (DAM) have advanced tools that are essential to identifying and responding to threats in real time. Moreover, modern access control methods (role based access control (RBAC), attribute based access control (ABAC), and fine grained access control)canbeusedtoprovideflexibilityandscalabilityin managinguserpermissions.

The dynamic nature of cyber threats necessitates a commitment to continuous improvement in database securitypractices.Organizationsneedtodoso inorderto remainaheadofsuchpotentialrisksasattackerscontinue to develop more sophisticated methods. This involves regular upkeeping of security protocols, adopting leading edgetechnologies,andcultivatingahackableenvironment in the name of innovation, communication and collaboration within the cybersecurity community as a whole. For example the integration of AI and ML to automatethedetectionandresponseofthreats,presentsa fantastic opportunity but also needs to continually evolve to adapt to new vectors of attack. Likewise, continued research and development toward quantum resistant encryption as well as the use of privacy preserving

International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056

Volume: 12 Issue: 04 | Apr 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072

techniques will be necessary. In addition, the scalability andperformanceoptimizationoftheseorganizationsmust also be taken into account so that the security measures donotovershadowthe performanceandthefunctionality oflarge orhigh performancedatabases. Oftentimes,when adversity strikes, organizations fall prey to the ‘taker’ mentality, where crawl, walk, run becomes characterized assurvival.

REFERENCES

1. A. Shostack, Threat Modeling: Designing for Security, Wiley,2014,doi:10.1002/9781118810057.

2. R. Anderson, Security Engineering: A Guide to Building DependableDistributedSystems,2nded.,Wiley,2008,doi: 10.1002/9781118820872.

3.M.Bishop,IntroductiontoComputerSecurity,AddisonWesley,2004,doi:10.5555/1076264.

4. J. Katz and Y. Lindell, Introduction to Modern Cryptography, 2nd ed., CRC Press, 2014, doi: 10.1201/b17668.

5. N. Provos and D. Mazieres, "A Future-Adaptable Password Scheme," in Proceedings of the 1999 USENIX Annual Technical Conference, 1999, doi: 10.5555/1267303.1267305.

6.R.S.SandhuandP.Samarati,"AccessControl:Principles andPractice,"IEEECommunicationsMagazine,vol.32,no. 9,pp.40–48,Sep.1994,doi:10.1109/35.312842.

7. D. F. Ferraiolo, R. Sandhu, S. Gavrila, D. R. Kuhn, and R. Chandramouli, "Proposed NIST Standard for Role-Based Access Control," ACM Transactions on Information and SystemSecurity,vol.4,no.3,pp.224–274,Aug.2001,doi: 10.1145/501978.501980.

8.V.C.Hu,D.Ferraiolo,R.Kuhn,A.Schnitzer,K.Sandlin,R. Miller, and K. Scarfone, "Guide to Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC) Definition and Considerations," NIST Special Publication 800-162, Jan. 2014, doi: 10.6028/NIST.SP.800-162.

9. E. Bertino, R. Sandhu, and B. Thuraisingham, "Database Security Concepts, Approaches, and Challenges," IEEE TransactionsonDependableandSecureComputing,vol.2, no.1,pp.2–19,Jan.-Mar.2005,doi:10.1109/TDSC.2005.4.

10. A. Kamra, E. Bertino, and R. Terzi, "Detecting Anomalous Access Patterns in Relational Databases," The VLDBJournal,vol.17,no.5,pp.1063–1077,Sep.2008,doi: 10.1007/s00778-007-0063-0.

12. O. Goldreich, Foundations of Cryptography: Volume 2, BasicApplications,CambridgeUniversityPress,2004,doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511721656.

13. M. Abadi, A. Chu, I. Goodfellow, H. B. McMahan, I. Mironov, K. Talwar, and L. Zhang, "Deep Learning with Differential Privacy," in Proceedings of the 2016 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security(CCS),2016,doi:10.1145/2976749.2978318.

14. P. Rogaway, "The Moral Character of Cryptographic Work," Cryptology ePrint Archive, Report 2015/1162, 2015,doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.4296.9445.

15. M. A. Khan and K. Salah, "IoT Security: Review, Blockchain Solutions, and Open Challenges," Future Generation Computer Systems, vol. 82, pp. 395–411, May 2018,doi:10.1016/j.future.2017.11.022.

16. S. Nakamoto, "Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System," 2008. [Online]. Available: https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf.

17. J. Bonneau, A. Miller, J. Clark, A. Narayanan, J. A. Kroll, and E. W. Felten, "SoK: Research Perspectives and Challenges for Bitcoin and Cryptocurrencies," in 2015 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP), 2015, doi: 10.1109/SP.2015.14.

18. M. N. Islam, M. S. Hossain, M. F. Hasan, and M. A. Rahman, "A Survey on Database Security: Threats, Countermeasures, and Challenges," International Journal of Computer Applications, vol. 180, no. 6, pp. 1–8, Jan. 2018,doi:10.5120/ijca2018916438.

19.A.K.Jain,A.Ross,andS.Pankanti,"Biometrics:ATool for Information Security," IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 125–143,Jun.2006,doi:10.1109/TIFS.2006.873653.

20. Y. Lindell and B. Pinkas, "Secure Multiparty ComputationforPrivacy-PreservingData Mining," Journal of Privacy and Confidentiality, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 59–98, 2009,doi:10.29012/jpc.v1i1.566.

21. G. McGraw, Software Security: Building Security In, Addison-Wesley,2006,doi:10.5555/1196896.

22. B. Schneier, Applied Cryptography: Protocols, Algorithms, and Source Code in C, 2nd ed., Wiley, 1996, doi:10.5555/519939.

23. M. Bishop, "Computer Security: Art and Science," Addison-WesleyProfessional,2002,doi:10.5555/580876.

11. C. Dwork, "Differential Privacy," in Proceedings of the 33rd International Conference on Automata, Languages and Programming (ICALP), 2006, doi: 10.1007/11787006_1.

International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056

Volume: 12 Issue: 04 | Apr 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072

24. E. Rescorla, "The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.3," RFC 8446, Aug. 2018, doi: 10.17487/RFC8446.

25. A. Juels and R. L. Rivest, "Honeywords: Making Password-Cracking Detectable," in Proceedings of the 2013 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer & Communications Security (CCS), 2013, doi: 10.1145/2508859.2516671.

26. M. Abadi, M. Burrows, M. Wobber, and P. W. Manber, "Moderately Hard, Memory-Bound Functions," ACM Transactions on Internet Technology, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 299–327,May2005,doi:10.1145/1064340.1064341.

27. R. Canetti, "Universally Composable Security: A New Paradigm for Cryptographic Protocols," in Proceedings of the 42nd IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science(FOCS),2001,doi:10.1109/SFCS.2001.959888.

2025, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 8.315 |