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4.1.3 Fruitpulpandjuices100
4.1.4 Candiedfruit100
4.1.5 Friedvegetables101
4.2 Mango101
4.2.1 Mangopowder103
4.2.2 Mangoleatherandflake103
4.3 Ashgourd104
4.4 Papaya105
4.5 Apple106
4.6 Onion107
4.6.1 Onionpowderandrings107
4.6.2 Onionpaste108
4.7 Garlic109
4.8 Jalapeño109
4.9 Capsicumandpaprika110
4.10 Chili110
4.11 Bananaandplantain111
4.11.1 Bananapowderandbar111
4.12 Figs112 4.13 Leafyvegetables113
4.14 Conclusions114 References114
5.Meat-,fish-,andpoultry-basedsnacks117
5.1 Introduction117
5.2 Meat117
5.2.1 Meatminceandballs123
5.2.2 Comminutedmeat123
5.2.3 Restructuredmeat124
5.2.4 Texturedprotein125
5.2.5 Culturedmeat126
5.2.6 Meatreplacers127
5.2.7 Imitationmeat129
5.2.8 Mechanicallydebonedmeat131
5.2.9 Chop,steak,androast132
5.2.10 Kebab132
5.2.11 Bar,roll,andcutlet133
5.2.12 Salami134
5.2.13 Barbeque135
Contents
7.2.1 Almond174
7.2.2 Cashewnut176
7.2.3 Chestnut178
7.2.4 Coconut179
7.2.5 Hazelnut180
7.2.6 Macadamia181
7.2.7 Peanut(groundnut)181
7.2.8 Pecan184
7.2.9 Pistachio184
7.2.10 Walnut185
7.2.11 Othernuts185
7.3 Storageandprocessingofnuts187
7.4 Conclusions190 References191
8.Differentsaltsinsnacks193
8.1 Introduction193
8.2 Differentsalts194
8.2.1 Tablesalt195
8.2.2 Rocksalt196
8.2.3 Koshersalt196
8.2.4 Curingsalt197
8.2.5 Papadkhar197
8.2.6 Blacksalt198
8.2.7 Nonpopularsalts199
8.3 Saltcontentinsnacks199
8.4 Methodsofapplicationofsalt201
8.5 Strategiesforsaltreduction205
8.5.1 Gradualreductionofsalt207
8.5.2 ReplacingNaClwithothersalts207
8.5.3 Formulationchanges208
8.5.4 Useofsaltenhancers208
8.5.5 Naturalflavormaterials208
8.6 Conclusions209 References209
9.Sugars,sweeteners,chocolates,andsweetsnacks211
9.1 Introduction211
9.2 Rawmaterials212
9.7 Aeratedconfectionery246
9.8 Reductionofsugarintake246
9.9 Conclusions247 References248 Furtherreading250
10.Fatsandoils251
10.1 Introduction251
10.2 Rawmaterials252
10.2.1 Extractionoffatsandoils253
10.3 Selectionofoil262
10.4 Stabilityandreuseofoil265
10.5 Changesinoilduetoheating266
10.5.1 Fryingprocess266
10.5.2 Oil/fatinbakedsnacks269
10.5.3 Toxiccompoundsduetoheating270
10.5.4 Trans-fattyacids272
10.6 Fat-andoil-basedproducts272
10.6.1 Margarine273
10.6.2 Mayonnaise273
10.6.3 Saladdressing274
10.6.4 Saladoil275
10.6.5 Mustardpaste276
10.6.6 Specialtyfatsandoils276
10.7 Conclusions278 References279
11.Otheradditivesinsnacks283
11.1 Introduction283
11.2 Differentadditives287
11.2.1 Antibrowningagents288
11.2.2 Anticakingagents289
11.2.3 Antioxidants289
11.2.4 Binders290
11.2.5 Chelatingagents292
11.2.6 Foodcolor292
11.2.7 Flourtreatmentandimprovingagents296
11.2.8 Foodacidsandacidityregulators297
11.2.9 Foodflavor297
12.2.24 Steaming355
12.2.25 Combinationofprocesses355
12.2.26 Otherprocessingmethods356
12.3 Automationandrobotics358
12.3.1 Automation358
12.3.2 Robotics360
12.3.3 Three-dimensionalprinting362
12.4 Processingofselectedsnacks363
12.4.1 Frenchfriesandpotatochips364
12.4.2 Bananachips367
12.4.3 Friedsev(bhujia)367
12.4.4 Boondiandlaadu368
12.4.5 Pretzel369
12.4.6 Otherfriedsnacks372
12.5 Conclusions379 References379 Furtherreading382
13.Qualitycharacteristics383
13.1 Introduction383
13.2 Physicalproperties385
13.2.1 Density,size,andshape385
13.2.2 Moisturesorption386
13.2.3 Wateractivity386
13.2.4 Appearanceandcolor387
13.2.5 Rheology394
13.3 Pastingcharacteristics414
13.4 Thermalproperties416
13.5 Sensoryassessment418
13.5.1 Measurements419
13.5.2 Analysisofsensoryassessmentresults424
13.6 Chemicalanalysisofsnackfoods429
13.6.1 Proximatecomposition430
13.6.2 Minerals,vitaminsandothers431
13.7 Flavorandtaste433
13.8 Microbialstatus434
13.9 Microstructure435
13.10 Machinevision-basedmeasurement443
13.11 Nutritionalcharacterization444
13.12 Shelf-lifeoffood445
14.7.10 Puffedsoybean496
14.7.11 Bakedcarrotchips497
14.7.12 Microwaveprocessedpotatochips498
14.7.13 Fruitleather499
14.7.14 Fruit-andvegetable-basedingredients500
14.7.15 Candiedfruitwithoutaddedsugar501
14.7.16 Mockmeat501
14.7.17 Tissueculturemeat503
14.7.18 Okara503
14.7.19 Bori504
14.7.20 Functionalfoodsforappetitecontrol504
14.7.21 Snackswithachangeinformulation505
14.8 Snacksforspecialpurposes507
14.8.1 Snacksforemergencypurposes507
14.8.2 Snacksfornutritionalinterventionprograms508
14.8.3 Gluten-freesnacks508
14.8.4 Dairy-freesnacks511
14.8.5 LowGIsnacks511
14.9 Artisticsnacks512
14.9.1 Churros513
14.9.2 Gohonabori513
14.9.3 Amriti516
14.9.4 Jilebiwithmultiplestrands516
14.9.5 Sarawaklayercake517
14.9.6 Otheruniqueshapes517
14.10 Conclusions518 References519
15.Troubleshooting525
15.1 Introduction525
15.2 Problemsandsuggestedsolutions525 15.3 Conclusions541 References541 Index 543
appropriatemethods.Chapter9showstheuseofsugars,sweeteners,and chocolatesinsweetsnacks.Theadditionofnonnutritiveorartificialsweeteners,bulksweeteners,andhigh-intensitysweetenersisdiscussed.Fatsand oilsaretheindispensablecomponentsofsnackfoods,andfat/oilperforms severalfunctions(Chapter10).Chapter11mentionstheuseofotheradditivesinsnackfoods.Apartfromtheconventionalingredientslikesaltand sugar,severaladditiveslikeemulsifiers,colors,flavors,antioxidants,spices,and preservativesareusedinasmallquantitytoobtainthedesiredfunctions.
Machineryandprocessingtechniquesaretheintegralcomponentsof snackfoodpreparationsindomestickitchens,establishmentscatering ready-to-eatsnacks,cottageandsmall-scaleindustries,andlargeproductionunits(Chapter12).Thelevelofsophisticationvarieswidelyfrom simplemanualmodetoautomatedplantsproducingafewkilogramsof snackstoseveraltonsofproductsperday.
Chapter13discussesthequalitycharacteristicsofrawmaterialsand developedsnacks.Thesearecategorizedintonutritional,microbialstatus, subjective,physical,physicochemical,andotherattributes.Healthbenefittingsnackscanserveassubstitutesforconventionalsnacks (Chapter14).Theapproachesformakinghealthysnacksincludetheuse ofappropriatetechnologiesandhealthyingredientsandreductionin unhealthyitemsbyemployingsuitabletechnologicalinterventions.The specialsnacksarementionedthatincludetheconceptofartisticsnacks. Chapter15isconcernedwithtroubleshooting.Snackfoodsfaceseveral technologicalproblemsthatarepossibletosolve.
Thisbookwillbeofusetoentrepreneurs,academicandresearchinstitutes,professionalsinthefield,andpersonnelfromindustries.
IacknowledgethehelpofseveralcolleagueslikeMr.K.K.Bhat,Dr.R. Chetana,Dr.K.UdayaSankar,andDr.SilaBhattacharyaforhelpinginthe planning,preparing,andeditingthe manuscripts.Mrs.PronotiRoy,Mrs. Sanjeevani,andMrs.Sonalikacollected severalsnacks,tookphotographs,and editedseveralfiguresandtablestomakethemsuitableforthebook. AppreciationgoestomyteacherProfessorH.DasandretiredscientistMr.K. M.DasturfromwhomIhadlearnedmanythingsincludingtechnicalwriting.IamindebtedtoCSIR-CFTRI,Mysore,India,whereIhadworkedfor nearlythreedecades.Thepilotplants,laboratories,centralinstrumentssection,andlibraryhelpedmetolearnmanythings.Iamparticularlythankful tomanyofmycolleaguesthereincludingMr.A.Chakkaravarthi,Mr.S.G. Jayaprakashan,Mr.K.G.Girish,Dr.R.Babylatha,andMr.T.Ramesh.
includingvacuumandinertgaspackagingisamandatorystepthatoffers anappealingappearanceofthesampleinadditiontoaidinginextending theshelf-lifeandeaseinhandling/transportation.
Snackfoodshaveseveralaspectsthatarerelatedtosocial,cultural, nutritional,andhealthissues.Snackfoodsarecommoditiesthatprovide valueadditiontorawingredients,enjoymenttopeopleofallagegroups duringconsumption,andanitemoftrade,business,andexport.Lastly, snacksprovidenutritionandarelinkedtohealthissues,thoughpersons consumingdonotconsidersnacksasacommodityofnutrition.Asmany otherfoods,overeatingsnacksmayleadtohealthproblemsduetothe additionofextrafoodenergy(calorie)andoil/fat,particularlyfromfried andbakedproducts,whicharetheundesirablefeaturesofsnackconsumption.Theproblemisexpectedtobesolvedbydevelopinghealthyproductsandrestrictingtheconsumptionofsnackfoodsbyindividuals.
18 21h);allothereatingoccasionswereconsideredsnackingtime. Thusthetimeofsnackconsumptionmaynotbeanaccuratewayto definesnackingtime.
Itisthusbettertodefinesnackfoodsasitemsthatareconsumedin additiontomajormealsparticularlybetweenthemiddaylunchandbefore thelateevening/nightdinner.Furthermore,thesnacksarepredominantly solidfooditemsthatusuallyexhibitacrisptexture.
1.2Frequencyofsnackconsumption
Snackingisacommonpracticeandthetrendisincreasingworldwide. Zizza,Siega-Riz,andPopkin(2001) haveobservedthat84%ofyoungUS adults(19 29yearsofage)whoparticipatedinasurveyoffoodintakeby individualsreportedconsumingatleastonesnackduringatwo-dayperiod. AnAustraliansurveyhasindicatedthevaluetobebetween2.4and4.6 times/week(Savige,MacFarlane,Ball,Worsley,&Crawford,2007).
Matthys,DeHenauw,Devos,andDeBacker(2003) haveobservedthat snacksbetweenmealssupplyabout20%oftotalenergyintakeforadolescentsbetween13and18years.Combinedwiththeintrinsicneedfor energy,snacksfulfillthesensesofvision,touch,smell,texture,andtaste. Snackfoodsareaconvenientmannerofmeetingthedailynutritional requirements.Peoplearenowspendingmoreoftheirtime,presenceand moneyinthearenaoffastfoods,snackcounters,andrestaurants.The increasingdemandforsnackfoodhasintroducedseveralmarketingniches.
Theprocessofsnackingalsoaffectshealth,whichismostlyattributedto theconsumptionofexcesscalories,salt,andoil/fat.Thustheterm “junk food” hasarrived,whichultimatelyshiftstheattentiontowardthedamagingroleinhumanhealth.However,theconceptofhealthysnackscan improvethesituationwhereintherequirementisfordevelopingnewer technologiesbasedoninnovativethoughts.Thereexistsasubstantialinconsistencybetweenhealthysnackchoiceintentionsandtheactualbehavior (consumingsnacks)whensnacksareavailableorarriveatthem.Snacksmay changethedietaryconsumptionastheyareusuallyenergy-densefoods.
Keast,Nicklas,andO’Neil(2010) haveindicatedthatsnackingmaybe animportantstrategyformeetingtheenergyneedsforincreasedphysical activity.Snackscanalsomeettherecommendedintakesofshortfallnutrients thatareotherwisecannotbemetwiththeconsumptionofonlythreemeals perday,particularlyforpeoplewithnutritionaldeficiency.Snackingislikely toplayanimportantroleinthecontrolofoverweightandobesity.However,
thecontextofsnackinginadolescentsisnotclearlyunderstood.Furthermore, snackingmayinfluenceotherdietaryhabits,suchasmealskipping;thisphenomenonisyettobefollowedinadditiontofindingapragmaticmethodologytochangetheconsumptionof “unhealthy” to “healthy” snackfoods.
Inthelasttwodecades,apartfromconventionalrestaurantsandstreet foodsellingshops,anewgroupofshopstermedsnackcorners,snackcounters,snackbars,chipcenters,fastfoodshops,andmini-shopshasstarted functioninginmarketplaces,busstands,airports,railwaystations,plazas, commercialcenters,marts,mini-marts,vendingmachines,malls, departmentalstores,andsupermarkets.Theymainlysupplyready-to-eat (RTE)attractivesnacksorpreparethemquicklyforthecustomerswho comethereforsomeotherwork,suchasbuyinghouseholdthingsandthe alike,orwaitingforthetrain/bus/planetoarrivepossiblytokeepthemselvesbusyandavoidingamonotonoussituation.Watchingasportscompetitionisalsoaccompaniedby “munching” ofsnacks,thoughtheconsumer maynotbehungryatthattime.However,theadvantagesofsuchestablishmentsincludethelowcostofinvestment,professionalmanagement,and maintenanceofgoodhygienicconditionsinmostcases.Inanextendedlist, places,suchasshopssellingsnacks,arealsoavailableduringfestivals,sports, andculturalmeets.Thefastfoodshopssellingsnacksarealsoconsideredthe recreationalfoodstobeconsumedattheout-of-the-homeplaces.Theterminology “munching” hasbeenpopularnow,whichmeanstoeatsomethinglikeacrispysnackproductsteadilyandoftenaudibly.
1.3Classificationofsnackfoods
Thebasisofclassificationofsnackfoodsmaybetheingredientsused,type ofprocessing/technologytheproductundergoes,typeoffoodbasedon consumption[likeRTE/readytoprepare(RTP)],oreventheplaceof origin(ortheregionofpopularity).Furthermore,manytraditionalfoods areavailableindifferentpartsoftheworld.Theclassificationofsnack foodsbasedonmajoringredientsused,processingtechnologyemployed, finishedproducttypesuchasRTE,orRTPoruse,traditionalsnack foods,andtheplaceoforigin/popularityisshownin Table1.1
1.4Consumptionofsnackfoods
Itisadifficulttasktostayaheadofsalestrendsinfast-movingconsumer goods(FMCG).However,consideringthemacroeconomictrends,itis
Table1.1 Classificationofsnackfoods.
BasisofclassificationExamplesofproductComments/characteristicsofproduct
Baseingredient(s)usedPoppedandpuffedcereals,friedcereal/pulsedough/batterbasedsnacks,saltednuts,baked/friedjalapeñostuffed snacks,potatochips,biscuits, cookies,roasted/friedfish/ meat/eggproducts
Processingtechnology employed
Finishedproduct types,suchasRTE orreadytoprepare
Spicednuts,ready-to-eat(RTE)extrudedlow-density snacks,batter-coatedbaked/friedvegetables,meat,and fish,extrusionformedready-to-preparesnacksfor frying/bakingattheconsumers’ end
Expandedsnacksofuniqueshapeslikearod,ring,and wheel,and3DsnacksasRTEorready-to-prepare products,extrusion-cookedsnacks,suchascornballsand cheeseballs,asRTEsnacks,saltedpopcorn,fried-salted nuts,fried/bakedpotatochips,coated/stuffedvegetables, meat/fishandeggsnacks,vegetable/chickenpatties, multilayeredsnacks,burgers,potatofingers,cornchips, etc.
Ingredientsincludecereals,pulses,oilseeds,nuts,roots andtubers,vegetables,fruits,chocolates,dairy,meat, fishandpoultry-basedproducts,andmixtureof ingredients
Technologiesemployedarebaking,frying,coating, flavoring,roasting/toasting,extrusionandextrusion cooking,puffing,useofinfra-red/microwaves/ radiowaves,steaming
Productsformtheconveniencefoodgroupandare usuallypricedinthelow-to-moderaterange.Readyto-prepareproductsaregenerallycheaperthanRTE snacksinadditiontohavingahighershelf-life
Traditionalsnack foodsorplaceof originorpopularity
SeveraltraditionalfoodsofEuropehavealreadyformed theworldwidepopularindustrialsnackproducts,such aspotatochipsandfilledbun,tortillafromcentral/ southAmerica,potatochips/crispsfromEngland,and pretzelsfromFrancebecamepopularthroughoutthe world. Paratha andpuffedriceintheIndian subcontinentarepopularinsouth-eastAsiancountries
Thoughstartedathomeorcottage-scalelevels,several traditionalsnackshaveacquiredworldwideacceptance andcommercialimportance
Theseproductsmayalsobeclassifiedbasedontheplace oforiginortheregionofpopularity
possibletoidentifythecategoriesthatmayshowasurgeinsales. Furthermore,anticipatingconsumerneeds,theoverallpicturemaybeclear. OneFMCGcategorythatshowspromiseissnackfoods.Examplesofsnack foods,knowninternationallyorpopularinmorethanonecontinent,are potatoandtortillachips,cerealsnacks,pretzels,popcorn,cheesesnacks, snackcrackers,nuts,meatsnacks,porkrinds,snacknuts,partymix,corn snacks,pelletsnacks,fruitsnacks,snackbars,granola,snackcakes,cookies, andvariousothersnacks.Thesavorysnackscomprisepretzels,tortillachips, cheesecurls/puffs,spiced/flavoredsnacks,andmeatsnacks.Otherfoods, suchascandiesandchocolatesandsweetcereal/pulse-basedsnacks,are popularsweetsnacks.Thechallengeforsnackdevelopersistofindanew productthatwillbesuccessfulinafieldwherenearlythree-quartersofall launchesfail.Atpresentalmosteverythingthattouchesourlivesisgoing global,anditisnowonderthatconsumers’ tastebudsalsowanttoexpand theirglobaltravelswithsnackfoods.Yet,withalloftheeffortsonanew concept,innovation,productdevelopment,globalization,andmarketing, theidentificationofasuccessful,good-for-yousnackwiththepotentialto becomepopular(i.e.,purchasedandrepeatedlypurchased)inacompetitive andcrowdedmarketcontinuestoremainelusive.
Intheinternationalmarket,severalsnackfoodsaresold.Apartfromthese internationalbrands,many traditionalfoodsaresoldinlocalmarkets,which arerarelyproducedbylargeindustryhouses.Theproductsoftheunorganizedsectorthatconstitutesmedium-, small-,andcottage-scaleindustries usevariousingredientsandaboriginalmanufacturingtechnologies.
Snackfoodproductsofcommercialimportancearemanufactured throughouttheworldbyalimitednumberofmanufacturers.Thecontinuousresearchanddevelopmentactivitiesbythesemanufacturershave improvedourunderstandingoftheirstructures,preparationmethods, developmentofhealthysnacks,andqualityimprovementsinextending theirconsumeracceptanceandshelf-life.
1.5Surveysonsnackconsumption
Theconsumptionofsnackfoodshasbeenthesubjectofseveralstudies andsurveysindifferentcountries.Thebasicconceptbehindthesesurveys istogatherreliableinformationonthetype,frequency,andquantityof snackfoodspreferred/consumedbythepeopleofselectedorallage groupsduringthelastfivedecades(Table1.2).Afewofthesestudies havelinkedsnackconsumptionwiththeproblemsofoverweight,obesity,
TheNetherlands601School children of12 14 years
UnitedStates16,81012 29years1989 91and 1994 96
Abundantfoodavailabilityandaccessibilitywere associatedwiththeconsumptionofhigh-fat snacks
Interventionstopopularizehealthydietpatterns foradolescentsshouldconsidercreative strategies
Adolescentsandyoungadultswereobtaining moreenergyattheout-of-homeplaces (restaurants,snackbars,andfastfoodshops) thanintheirhomes
Increasedconsumptionofsaltysnacks,pizzas,and cheeseburgers,anddecreasedintakeofcertain milkandmeatproducts,anddesserts
Healthyfoodsshouldbereadilyavailableoutside thehometoimprovethediets
Martens,Van Assema,and Brug(2005)
Nielsen,SiegaRiz,and Popkin(2002)
Belgium341Adolescents between 13and18 years
1997Anincreaseintotalenergyintakeinadolescent boysbutnotforgirlswasnoticedastheirage increased
About36%ofenergycamefromtotalfatand 15%fromsaturatedfattyacids;49.0%was obtainedfromtotalcarbohydratesofwhich complexcarbohydratesandfreesugarswerein equalproportions
Snacks(betweenmeals)suppliedabout20%of totalenergyintake
Matthysetal. (2003)
(Continued )
Table1.2 (Continued)
Countrywherethesurvey wasconducted Numberof participants Agegroup of respondents
11Europeancountries23,766Adults
Individualsconsumedmorethan50%oftheir dailyenergyout-of-home
Menconsumed29%oftheirenergyasfat,15% asprotein,45%ascarbohydrates,and11%as alcoholatrestaurants
Fatcontributed33%ofenergyintake,protein 16%,carbohydrates45%,andalcohol6%at restaurants
Menandwomenprocured30%ofenergyfrom fatand55%fromcarbohydratesinworkplaces
Finland200725 64years2002Asnack-dominatingmealwascommonin19% ofmenand24%ofwomen.
Highlevelofsucrosebutlowintakeof micronutrientsinsnack-dominatingmeal
Asnack-dominatingmealpatternisinadvisable
Brazil34,003Morethan 10years 2008 09Snackingratewas74%atanaverageof1.6 snacks/daywhile23%ofthemtookmorethan 3snacks/day
Orfanosetal. (2017)
Ovaskainenetal. (2006)
Duffeyetal. (2013) 21%ofdailyenergyintakecamefromsnacks
Highsnackconsumptionoccurredduringthe afternoonorearlyeveningtime(3 6p.m.)
Manysnackswerehighinfatcontentandadded sugars
UnitedStates594school children 9 11years1998
UnitedStates15,97820yearsor older
2000Middleschoolstudentsconsumedfewerhealthy foodscomparedtothepreviousschoolyear
Mealpatternswerecategorizedintofivemeal andsnackcombinations
Breakfastskippershadthelowestintakesofall micronutrientsexaminedexceptsodium
Mealandsnackpatternswerethepossible markersfornutrientintakeanddietquality
UnitedStates14,292Allages1994 96Consumptionofsweetsnackswashigherthan fruitandvegetableconsumption
UnitedKingdom605 16years
ChildrenfromsocialgroupsI,II,andIIIhad lowerdecayed,missing,orfilled(DMF)teeth scores
DMFwasrelatedtoconsumptionofsugar, confectionery,crispsnack,anduseofthe vendingmachinebutanegativecorrelation withvegetableconsumption
Socio-economicstatusandaccesstovending machinesaffectedsugarintake,foodschoices, anddentalhealth
CullenandZakeri (2004)
Kerver,Yang, Obayashi, Bianchi,and Song(2006)
Wansink,Bascoul, andChen (2006)
Maliderou, Reeves,and Noble(2006)
Vendingmachinesinschoolswerehazardousto dentalhealthandcouldberemoved/replaced withvendingmachinesofferinghealthy products (Continued )
Australia325012 15years2004
05Snackingwasdoneafterschool(4.6times/week) whilehangingoutwithfriends(2.4times/ week)andwatchingTV(3.5times/week)
Riseofobesityindicatedthatmanyyouthswere consumingmoreenergythanneeded Limitingsnacksmightbeeffectivetoreducethe totalenergyintake.Thepromotionof nutritioussnackswassuggested
China15526 18years2004RespondentspayingattentiontoTV commercialsweremoreaskingforsnacks, buyingsnacksseenonTV,andconsuming snackswhilewatchingTV
Snackingwasnotsignificantlyrelatedtothe frequencyofwatchingTV
Savigeetal. (2007)
SouthAfrica3287 $ 16years2006
09Purchaseofstreetfoodsandfastfoodswas commonandwasinfluencedbysociodemographicaspectslikepossessionofmajor homeappliances
Morethan2times/weekwasthefrequencyof streetfoodandfastfoodconsumption
Parvantaetal. (2010)
Steyn,Labadarios, andNel(2011)