Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum Year 10 – uncorrected 3rd sample pages

INVESTIGATING HUMANITIES

FOR THE VICTORIAN CURRICULUM UNCORRECTED

10

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What do we need to know about and do when learning about

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Part 1: History

Chapter 1:

The modern world to today: How has the world changed since

1.1

1.2

1.3

were

1.4 What were the significant events, individuals and groups in the women’s movement in Australia, and how did they change the

2.1

2.8

2.13 How does the fight for civil rights and recognition continue today?

2.14 What were the differences between the 1967 and 2023 Referenda, and how did this contribute to the outcomes?

2.15 End of investigation review: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations peoples evolved since 1938?

INVESTIGATION 2: Australians at war (1914–1945))

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Chapter 3: What was the significance of World War I (1914–1918)?

3.1 Setting the scene: What was World War I like?

3.2 What were the key events in World War I?

3.3 What were the long-term causes of World War I?

3.4 What were the short-term causes of World War I?

3.5 Why did Australians fight in World War I?

3.6 Where did Australians fight in World War I?

3.7 What was the significance of Gallipoli from both an Australian and a global perspective?

3.8 What was World War I like for First Nations servicemen and for Australian women?

3.9 What was the nature of trench warfare in World War I?

3.10 How did technological developments change the nature of warfare in World War I?

3.11 How did World War I end and what was the significance of the Treaty of Versailles?

3.12 What do historians say about the legacy of World War I?

3.13 End of investigation review: What was the significance of World War I (1914–1918)?

Chapter 4: What was the significance of World War II (1939–1945)?

4.1 Setting the scene: When did war come to Australia?

4.2 What were the

Chapter 5: How did the Holocaust happen?

5.1 Setting the scene: How is the Holocaust remembered today?

5.2 What were the key events of the Holocaust?

5.3 What were the origins of the Holocaust?

5.4 How did antisemitism rise in Germany after WWI?

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5.5 How did the Holocaust develop after 1933?

5.6 What was the significance of Australian concerns about attacks on European Jews?

5.7 How did World War II escalate the Holocaust?

5.8 What was it like in the Nazi concentration and death camps?

5.9 How did the Holocaust come to an end?

5.10 How did people rebuild their lives after the Holocaust?

5.11 End of investigation review: How did the Holocaust happen?

INVESTIGATION 3: The globalising world (1945 – present))

Chapter 6: What is the globalising world?

6.1 Setting the scene: what were the Four Freedoms?

6.2 What are the key events of this topic?

6.3 How did living standards develop throughout the twentieth century?

6.4 What were the origins and significance of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

6.5 What was Australia’s role in the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

6.6 End of investigation review: what is the globalising world?

Chapter 7: How do we define popular culture?

7.1 Setting the scene: ‘Satisfaction’ and the Rolling Stones

7.2 What were the key events in this topic?

7.3 How did popular culture emerge in Australia during the 1950s?

7.4 How did popular culture evolve in the 1960s?

7.5 How did an Australian identity emerge in the 1970s?

7.6 How did Australian popular culture explode in the 1980s?

7.7 How did Australian culture grow after the end of the Cold War?

7.8 How did Australian culture develop in the twenty-first century?

7.9 How did technology alter the course of popular culture?

7.10 Who are the popular culture leaders of today?

7.11 End of investigation review: how do we define popular culture?

Chapter 8: How and why did our relationship with the environment change after 1945?

8.1 Setting the scene: how did we get to this point?

8.2 What were the key events in our changing relationship with our environment?

8.3 How and why did our perspective of the natural word begin to change in the twentieth century?

8.4 How did the development of new chemical agents affect the environment and our understanding of it?

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8.5 How did the advent of the nuclear age threaten the health and survival of the planet?

8.6 What effects have nuclear testing had on Australia and its Indigenous communities?

8.7 How did environmental protest groups emerge to challenge governments’ treatment of the environment?

8.8 How have localised environmental disasters changed the way people live and view the natural world?

8.9 How have global environmental crises changed the way people live and view the natural world?

8.10 How and why did the concept of climate change become so controversial?

8.11 How has a new generation of environmental protestors attempted to challenge the political inaction on climate change?

8.12 How have protest movements changed to meet the evolving environmental and political situation of the twenty-first century?

8.13 End of investigation review: how and why did our relationship with the environment change after 1945?

Chapter

9: How has migration shaped modern Australia?

9.1 Setting the scene: how did Ahn Do come to Australia?

9.2 What were the key events in Australia’s migration history?

9.3 What were Australia’s attitudes towards migration before 1945?

9.4 How did migration to Australia change after World War II?

9.5 What led to changes in migration to Australia?

9.6 How did Australia’s attitudes to migration change over time?

9.7 What are the different perspectives and interpretations of Australia’s immigration history?

9.8 End of investigation review: how has migration shaped modern Australia?

Chapter 10: How did political crises affect postwar Australia?

10.1 Setting the scene: spies in Australia!

10.2 What happened during Australian political crises?

10.3 How did the Petrov Affair start?

10.4 What were the consequences of the Petrov Affair?

10.5 What perspectives emerged about the Petrov Affair?

10.6 What was the origin of the Whitlam Dismissal?

10.7 What were the consequences of the Whitlam Dismissal?

10.8 What perspectives emerged about the Whitlam Dismissal?

10.9 How did the ALP develop leadership crises?

10.10 How did the Coalition develop leadership crises?

10.11 End of investigation review: how did political crises affect postwar Australia?

Chapter 11: How did regional and global conflict related to the Cold War affect the world after 1945?

11.1 Setting the scene: tension under water in 1962

11.2 What happened during the Cold War?

11.3 How did the Cold War start?

11.4 How did the Cold War divide people?

11.5 How close did the Cold War come to becoming a nuclear war?

11.6 Which other conflicts occurred during the Cold War and how was Australia involved?

11.7 What are the ethics of reporting on conflict?

11.8 What did the Cold War have to do with space?

11.9 What problems did the Soviet Union face?

11.10 How did the Cold War end?

11.11 What perspectives emerged about the end of the Cold War?

11.12 End of investigation review: How did regional and global conflict related to the Cold War affect the world after 1945?

Part 2: Geography

INVESTIGATION 1: Environmental change and management

Chapter 12: How do environments

and what

the associated impacts?

12.1

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12.5 What

12.6 Is the

12.7 Why is

Chapter 13: How are the impacts of environmental change managed?

13.1 Setting the scene: lamenting the loss of the night sky

13.2 How is environmental change managed?

13.3 Case study: restoring penguin habitat on the Summerland Peninsula

13.4 Case study: using the knowledge of First Nations people to manage Kakadu

13.5 Case study: monitoring and insuring the health of the Mesoamerican Reef

13.6

13.7

13.8

INVESTIGATION 2: Geographies of human wellbeing

Chapter 14: What is human wellbeing? 14.1

14.4

Chapter 15: How can human wellbeing be improved?

15.1

15.3

15.6

15.7

Part 3: Economics & Business

INVESTIGATION: Why is there so much inequality in income and wealth?

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Chapter 16: How does the Australian economy operate?

16.1 Setting the scene: how could the least advantaged be supported? 511

16.2 What is economic growth performance? 514

16.3 What is income distribution performance? 519

16.4 What is the circular flow model? 524

16.5 What is the business cycle model? 528

16.6 What is the importance of fiscal policy? 533

16.7 What is the importance of monetary policy? 537

16.8 What is the importance of supply-side policy? 542

16.9 What is the importance of redistribution policy?

16.10 Research task: Who are the least advantaged in Australia? 550

16.11 End of topic task: how does the Australian economy operate? 552

Chapter 17: What is Australia’s place in the global economy?

17.1 Setting the scene: should Australia provide trade or aid to help other nations’ development?

17.2 What are exports?

17.3 What are imports?

17.4 What are Australia’s current payments internationally?

17.5 What are foreign investment flows?

17.6 What is the FOREX market?

17.7 What are the benefits of globalisation?

17.8 What are the costs of globalisation?

17.9 What is global material wellbeing?

17.10 Research task: What impact does Australia’s foreign aid have on recipient nations?

17.11 End of investigation review: what is Australia’s place in the global economy?

Part 4: Civics & Citizenship

INVESTIGATION: What is Australia’s role on the global stage?

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Chapter 18: What are the political and legal systems of Australia and India?

18.1 Setting the scene: which nations belong to the Asia–Pacific region? 562

18.2 What are Australia’s roles in the region? 565

18.3 How is Australia governed? 569

18.4 How is India governed? 573

18.5 How do international agreements influence Australian laws? 577

18.6 Should Australia ratify international agreements? 581

18.7 What is the legal system in Australia? 585

18.8 What is the legal system in India? 589

18.9 Research task: What are the implications of the AUKUS agreement for Australia? 593

18.10 End of investigation review: what are the political and legal systems of Australia and India? 595

Chapter 19: What does it mean to be a citizen in a liberal democracy?

19.1 Setting the scene: what is the role of a global citizen?

19.2 How do individuals contribute to civic life in Australia?

19.3 What do groups contribute to civic life in Australia?

19.4 What are some challenges to a resilient democracy?

19.5 How is a liberal democracy sustained?

19.6 What keeps a society cohesive?

19.7 How does the media influence individual identity?

19.8 How does the media influence attitudes to diversity?

19.9 Research task: Was National Service a fair and effective measure for addressing Australia's defence needs during the Vietnam War?

19.10 End of investigation review: what does it mean to be a citizen in a liberal democracy?

About the authors

Juliette Bover (she/her) (co-author: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and Cultures) is a teacher and the co-founder of Goorlil Consulting. Julie has taught in early childhood and primary schools for over 10 years and has two degrees in education from the University of Canberra. She works hard to make schools and workplaces welcoming for everyone, especially First Nations students and LGBTIQA+ people. Julie also helps guide organisations that support gender diversity and fairness in schools. Together, Julie and Sharon Davis use their knowledge and experiences to Julie Bover help make education better for all students.

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Alan Cizzio (he/him) (contributing author: Geography skills videos) is a senior Geography and Humanities teacher with 15 years of experience teaching at various high schools in the Hunter Valley. He has been at his current school for a decade. Alan is the co-creator of the Geography Explained Online Youtube channel and has made over 50 instructional videos about geography skills for the Stages 4, 5, and 6 syllabuses. He is currently on the council of the Geography Teachers Association of NSW/ACT. Alan has been recognised in NSW State Parliament for his services to public education in NSW.

Sammy Coburn (she/her) (contributing author: Geography skills videos) is a classroom teacher at a public school in the Hunter Valley. She has worked in New South Wales public schools for 10 years including in remote communities. Sammy is the co-creator of the YouTube channel Geography Explained Online and the Geography Revised Online Workspace. She is a council member of the Geography Teachers Association of NSW/ACT as well as the Brock Rowe recipient for excellence in Geography teaching (2020). Sammy has been recognised in NSW State Parliament for her contributions to public education.

Sharon Davis (they/them) (co-author: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and Cultures) is from the Bardi and Kija Peoples in the Kimberley, Western Australia. Sharon is the co-founder of Goorlil Consulting and is passionate about making education better for everyone. Sharon has degrees in Education, including one from Oxford University in the UK, and has worked in important roles like helping schools support Aboriginal students. They also work with national boards and groups to make schools safer and more inclusive for First Nations people. Together, Sharon and Julie use their knowledge and experiences to help make education better for all students.

Adrian De Fanti (he/him) (lead author: Geography) has taught Geography and Mathematics at secondary schools for over 15 years. In addition to his senior teaching lead, Adrian is his school's Timetabler and Digital Learning Coach. Adrian has a particular interest in integrating technology into the Geography curriculum, including using Geographic Information Systems to analyse spatial data, tracking change over time using satellite imagery and collecting data in the field using geospatial technology. Adrian is also an active member of the Geography Teachers Association of Victoria, where he regularly presents professional development sessions and revision lectures and writes a range of classroom resources.

Brady Driscoll (she/her) (contributing author: History) is the Co-Head of Humanities at her current school. She has worked in Victorian schools for seven years and has experience teaching History, English and English language Years 7–12. She has worked in curriculum development across multiple domains, and is passionate about history education for Years 7 and 8. Brady won a scholarship for the Gandel Holocaust Studies Program for Australian Educators.

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Tisha Eggleston (she/her) (contributing author: History) is Head of History at her current school. She has been teaching for over 20 years in secondary schools in Australia and the United Kingdom. Tisha is an experienced teacher of History, English, Literature, English Language and Philosophy, working with curriculums including the General Certificate of Secondary Education in the UK, the Victorian and Australian curriculums and the International Baccalaureate. She is dedicated to promoting the value of History for all students to foster critical thinking and empathy in our society.

Kevin Gould (he/him) (lead author: Economics & Business and Civics & Citizenship) is an education management consultant, specialising in strategic planning and curriculum design. He is an advocate for a MAPLE Business Program in schools, whereby Business and Society studies are presented as an integrated alternative to STEM. Previously, Dr Gould was Foundation Principal of a senior secondary business college in Melbourne and Sydney. Prior to that, he was Head of the Business Department at the VCE top-ranked Taylors College at the time. His writings benefit from over 30 years school teaching and university lecturing in Economics, Management, Business, Politics and Mathematics.

Ben Hoban (he/him) (contributing author: History) has been teaching history in government and independent secondary schools since 2009. He is passionate about History as a discipline, and is also an advocate for innovative learning and digital literacy as his current school's Leader of Digital Pedagogies. Ben is the co-author of Modern History Transformed Year 12 and Media Reframed 1st and 2nd edition. Ben has been widely published in areas outside education including skateboarding and popular culture.

Stephen Powell (he/him) (lead author: History) has taught year 7–12 History/ Humanities under the Australian Curriculum and the International Baccalaureate in Canberra for over a decade. Stephen holds a PhD in Modern History, and before entering teaching had a career in the public service, specialising in international negotiations. He has lived and worked in Victoria, Tasmania, the ACT, Samoa and the United States. Stephen won a scholarship for the Gandel Holocaust Studies Program for Australian Educators. His research and writing interests lie primarily in twentiethcentury history.

Lyndon Pratt (he/him) (contributing author: History) is an experienced teacher, specialising in Humanities and Literature. He has worked for several years at his current school, inspiring a love of the Humanities in students. Lyndon has written for the HTAV journal Agora on Australian history, and has experience teaching Humanities from Years 7 to 12. This includes Units 1 & 2 Modern History and Units 3 & 4 Australian History.

Kara Taylor (she/her) (contributing author: History) is a passionate History/Humanities teacher and has been teaching for the past 15 years. Kara teaches in rural Victoria and is an active member of the History Teachers Association of Victoria. Kara has presented for the HTAV over a number of years on many topics, including teaching Indigenous History, and has written for the HTAV journal, Agora. Kara has tutored for the La Trobe University Education department and was awarded the HTAV Award for Excellence in History Teaching by a Secondary Teacher in 2019.

Adrienne Shelford (she/her) (cover illustrator) is a Maori-British illustrator & designer who strives to ensure all feel represented in her world of illustration. Graduating from Manchester School of Art, she began her career in Textile Design, and soon after set up her own small business. Since then, she has worked with clients globally, helping turn their ideas into reality and bringing diversity and inclusivity to their brands.

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Each part of the book begins with an overview including curriculum information.

How to use this resource

Investigation openers include key information from the Victorian Curriculum v2.0 for the Humanities.

Chapters open with a Setting the scene story to get you thinking about the topic.

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History chapters include a second lesson per chapter featuring a timeline charting key events in the topic.

The QR code gives you instant access, via your phone, to videos addressing the overview content in more detail.

Chapter titles are inquiry questions to drive your investigations. Each numbered chapter section is presented as a lesson, intended to cover a period of class time.

Each chapter section ends with a set of review questions, to check your recall of the material. An online auto-marked quiz is also available, as is a downloadable research task which can be used as extension material.

Lessons start with student-friendly Learning intentions to guide you through your inquiry.

Most lessons begin with a lesson starter activity which can be used to break the ice in a new Humanities class.

Concepts and skills builder activities employ key Humanities concepts from the Victorian Curriculum v2.0, and enable you to develop a range of skills while engaging with the topic.

The end of chapter activities contain a variety of concluding tasks to consolidate and extend your learning.

Glossary terms are bolded in the text, defined on the page and collated at the end of the textbook for easy reference.

Amazing but true fact boxes provide additional engaging information to bring each topic to life.

Additional sourcebased analysis questions provide extra opportunities to think more deeply about the information presented in the textbook.

Additional online activities to test your knowledge of the topic are available in the Interactive Textbook.

The Interactive Textbook is an online version of the print text, with many additional features:

Audio and video

Scorcher challenge at the end of each chapter

Research tasks

Quiz at the end of each section/lesson

Review questions can be answered in the Interactive Textbook platform, and tracked using reporting tools.

Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

Sharon Davis and Julie Bover

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Starting your learning journey

Humanities is about exploring the connections between people, places, cultures and histories. For Australians, it’s a chance to engage with the stories and cultures that shape our nation’s identity. By learning from various perspectives, we expand our understanding of the humanities, think critically, appreciate diverse experiences and work towards a more inclusive future.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have cared for and maintained deep relationships with the lands and waters across this continent for over 65 000 years. Wherever we are in Australia, we are on Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander land. Learning about First Nations histories and cultures helps all students understand who we are as a nation, and why truth-telling and respect matter in classrooms and beyond.

What is cultural safety?

Cultural safety ensures that people feel respected, valued and supported in their identity, culture and history. It creates environments where individuals can confidently engage without fear of judgement, exclusion or discrimination. This is especially important when engaging with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, whose cultures are the the longest continuing cultures on Earth.

Cultural safety involves addressing power imbalances, systemic injustices and racism to create inclusive spaces where everyone belongs. It goes beyond recognising diversity by reflecting on and

challenging behaviours, practices and biases that may contribute to inequality. Cultural safety can only be decided by the people experiencing it. It is not something that schools or teachers can label on their own. It comes from listening, showing respect and taking responsibility.

As June Oscar AO, former Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner, explains: ‘Cultural safety is about creating environments where Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples feel safe and secure in their identity, culture and community.’

Why do we need cultural safety?

Since 1788, the arrival of the British, under the the legal fiction of terra nullius, has led to the violent dispossession of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Policies that removed children, restricted access to lands, denied language and culture, and silenced truth have caused long-lasting

harm. Racism, whether interpersonal, institutional or systemic, continues to affect many areas of life today. Cultural safety responds to these ongoing harms and offers a way forward by helping to create inclusive, just and respectful spaces.

cultural safety ensuring people feel secure, respected and supported in their cultural identity. This concept can only be validated by individuals from the culture experiencing it

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What does cultural safety look like in the classroom?

Creating cultural safety in the classroom means making it a place where all students, especially those from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, feel respected, valued and able to express their identity without fear of judgement or discrimination. Here are some actions you, as students, can take to help foster cultural safety in your learning environment:

1 Be an active listener

• Listen without interrupting: When Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people share their stories and perspectives, listen deeply and respectfully.

• Ask questions thoughtfully: If you are curious, ask in a way that respects boundaries. For example, 'Would you feel comfortable sharing more about that?' Some things may not be yours to know or ask.

2 Challenge racism and stereotypes

• Speak up: If you hear a harmful comment about someone’s culture or background, say something. For example, 'That comment might be hurtful. Can we talk about why?'

• Think critically about language: Use respectful and accurate terms when discussing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures. Avoid stereotypes or deficit-focused language.

3 Reflect on your actions and privilege

• Practise critical self-reflection: Consider how your beliefs and actions might affect others. For example, ask:

• Do I create space for everyone to contribute?

• Have I ignored or dismissed another view because it was different from mine?

• Understand systems: Racism is not just personal – it can be embedded in policies and institutions. Notice when rules or systems treat people unfairly and think about your role in changing them.

4 Respect and learn about cultures

• Acknowledge Country: Begin your day or class by showing respect for the Traditional Owners of the land you are on. This can be an Acknowledgement of Country or another respectful practice.

• Participate respectfully: Explore the significance of important dates like NAIDOC Week with an open mind and willingness to learn and reflect.

• Uplift First Nations voices: Celebrate the excellence and knowledge of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in all areas of life including art, science, sport, activism, and education.

Activity: Reflect and respond

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1 What does the phrase 'Wherever you are in Australia, you’re on Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander land' mean to you? Think about what this tells us about the history of this place, and how we can show respect to First Nations Peoples today.

2 Why is cultural safety important in schools and communities? How does it help make spaces more respectful, fair, and welcoming for everyone?

3 Can you think of a time when you saw cultural safety being practised? What made it work well? Is there anything that could have made the experience even more respectful or inclusive?

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Image: Part of the focus in History in Year 10 is on significant developments in human history since 1945. Pictured is NASA astronaut

with fellow astronaut

reflection visible in his visor, 20 July 1969. The Apollo 11 moon landing in 1969 was a key technological achievement, which was also a ‘space race’ victory in the Cold War for the United States over the Soviet Union.

Part 1 History

Watch the video for an introduction to History in Year 10 and the historical skills and concepts you will be working with

CHAPTER 1

Overview: the modern world to today: how has the world changed since 1945?

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LESSONTITLE

1.1 Setting the scene: an introduction to the modern world

1.2 How did significant developments and events since 1945 contribute to global change?

1.3 What were the contributions of significant movements for social and political change since 1945?

1.4 What were the significant events, individuals and groups in the women’s movement in Australia, and how did they change the role and status of women?

1.5 What are some of the continuing efforts to create change in civil rights and freedoms in Australia?

1.6 End of topic assessment: how has the world changed since 1945?

Setting the scene: an introduction to the modern world

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Learning intention

In this lesson, we will look at some key world events post-World War II.

The Cold War: a global power struggle

The Cold War was a prolonged ideological, political and economic struggle between capitalist superpower the United States and its allies, and communist superpower the Soviet Union and its satellite states. Emerging from the ashes of World War II, this conflict shaped global affairs for nearly half a century, fundamentally altering political and social dynamics.

At its core, the Cold War was a clash of ideologies. On one side, there was capitalism, which emphasised free markets and democracy. On the other, there was communism, which advocated for state control and a classless society. This divide became clear in various ways. For instance, nations formed military alliances that opposed one another ideologically. Western European countries, the United States and Canada formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). The Soviet Union and Eastern European countries formed the Warsaw Pact. The United States and the Soviet Union fought proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan, where both superpowers aimed to grow their influence without direct confrontation.

ideology a system of political, social, or economic beliefs and ideas

proxy war a conflict where larger nations support opposing sides indirectly

Efforts to achieve peace and security

The global community has relied on the United Nations as the body responsible for maintaining or restoring peace and security and promoting human rights across the world since 1945.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights consists of 30 articles outlining the rights of individuals. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, and has formed the basis of numerous international treaties, human rights instruments, economic agreements and other laws.

UN peacekeeping

One of the main activities carried out by the UN is peacekeeping – sending troops or police into an area experiencing conflict in an effort to maintain or restore peace.

Overview: the modern world and Australia UNCORRECTEDSAMPLEPAGES

Australia’s contribution

Australia’s contribution to UN peacekeeping has seen military personnel sent to places such as Cambodia, Somalia, Bougainville, Rwanda and East Timor. The UN has also led military action in different parts of the world, including Korea in the 1950s and Libya in 2011.

Rights and freedoms

The modern world has increasingly focused on the rights and freedoms of different groups since the 1960s.

Civil rights movements

The push for civil rights for ethnic groups, including African Americans and Native Americans in the United States and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders in Australia, resulted in major campaigns in both countries. Among other issues, land rights became a particular focus for many indigenous peoples.

Feminism

‘Second wave’ feminism in the 1960s and 1970s focused on ending discrimination against women in areas such as employment, pay, family law and sport.

LGBTIQA+

Decriminalising homosexuality has improved the rights and freedoms of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning, intersex, asexual (and many other terms such as nonbinary and pansexual) people in many parts of the world.

National independence

The end of World War II and founding of the United Nations saw the independence of former European colonies, which has become a key part of the modern world. From India to Kenya, Indochina to Algeria and Indonesia to Malaysia, former European colonies have either campaigned or fought for national self-determination.

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The Cold War

Nuclear arms race

The development of the nuclear bomb at the end of World War II saw many countries focus on developing and stockpiling nuclear weapons. The conflict of political ideology, underpinned by fear, was a key element of the Cold War.

Between 1945 and 1991 the world was unofficially divided into two ‘camps’ during the Cold War between the United States and the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Although the two countries were allies during World War II, the ending of the war saw increasing mistrust and hostility. 1945

Signing of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

End of World War II and founding of the United Nations

Korean War

Cuban Missile Crisis

When the United States discovered the USSR had established ballistic missiles in Cuba, it set up a naval blockade and demanded the missiles be removed. After several days of negotiations, during which many people believed nuclear war was imminent, an agreement was reached.

Source 1.1.4 Korean civilians during the Korean War, 1951 …

federal referendum on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

XI makes the first manned landing on the moon

The passing of the Australian Racial Discrimination Act

Soviet war in Afghanistan

The Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act passed by the Australian government

War by proxy

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Although there was little direct conflict between the United States and the USSR, they instigated and supported opposite sides in several other wars, in places such as Korea, Angola and Vietnam.

The end of the Cold War

The fall of the Berlin Wall and collapse of the USSR by 1992 saw the end of the Cold War.

Technology, health and the environment

The post-Cold War world is characterised by rapid urbanisation and global population growth, as well as increasingly fast-paced technological change.

Source 1.1.5 Nintendo Switch 2, released June 2025

Technology

Key technological innovations since World War II, such as televisions and fridges, have become a part of modern life, in addition to computers, satellites, gaming devices and 3D printing.

Environment and sustainability

In the twenty-first century, scientific research has focused on developing alternative ways to generate energy to limit the effects of humaninduced climate change. Globally, climate change activism is growing as young people and their supporters demand action from governments across the world.

• The fall of the Berlin Wall and the beginning of the end of the Cold War

• Tiananmen Square massacre of student protesters, China

The High Court releases its judgment on the Mabo case

on the World Trade Center, New York, USA

1 Identify two former European colonies which gained their independence after World War II.

2 Outline three key groups which gained greater rights and freedoms post-1945, and how they gained these rights and freedoms.

3 Why might the United States and the USSR have avoided directly fighting one another during the Cold War?

4 In what ways has the development of social media influenced the modern world?

#MeToo goes viral, including demonstrations around the world

COVID-19 virus causes 7 million deaths, and trade and travel restrictions worldwide

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Public health and longevity

Widespread vaccination against childhood diseases, such as measles and polio, since World War II has lowered infant mortality rates and increased life expectancy across much of the world. Other medical breakthroughs include the HPV and influenza vaccines.

Black Lives Matter (BLM) demonstrations in the USA and elsewhere

mutual assured destruction (MAD) a military strategy that assumes that a nuclear attack on a nuclear-armed country will result in the destruction of both countries imperialism extending control over other countries for political or economic purposes

Mutual assured destruction

The Cold War profoundly impacted global change. The superpowers competed in an ‘arms race’, which led to the development of nuclear weapons, creating an era of mutually assured destruction (MAD). The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 underscored how dangerous this competition was, as the world came perilously close to nuclear war. At the same time, the ‘space race’ symbolised the technological rivalry between the superpowers, leading to milestones like the Soviet Union’s Sputnik satellite and the US Apollo moon landing.

The United States and the Soviet Union also tried to spread their economic systems to other countries. In a push for global capitalism, the United States

supported market-based systems in Europe, Asia and Latin America. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union attempted to export its communist model. It mainly targeted decolonised nations seeking an alternative to Western imperialism

The Cold War ended in 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union. This event seemed to indicate a shift to a world dominated by the United States. However, Russia and China later re-emerged as rivals. The Cold War’s legacy persists in contemporary geopolitics. Many regions and nations still grapple with the Cold War’s ideological and structural consequences, from lingering proxy war tensions to the ongoing influence of its superpower-driven alliances.

Source 1.1.6

A map from an American newspaper from 1962 showing the distances between Cuba and major US cities. At the time, Cuba was armed with nuclear missiles by its ally the Soviet Union, which threatened nuclear war to break out between Cold War enemies the US and USSR. How close was Cuba to the capitol city of the USA?

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… systemic referring to issues embedded in institutions affecting entire groups negatively

The civil rights and human rights movements

The civil rights and human rights movements from 1945 marked a transformative era in global history. Individuals and communities began to demand equality, justice and dignity in the face of systemic discrimination and oppression. These movements reshaped societies and laid the groundwork for the human rights standards we enjoy today.

In 1948, the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). This was a pivotal moment in human history. The Declaration was drafted in response to the horrors of World War II. It detailed universal principles of equality, freedom and justice. This document inspired movements across the globe that challenged colonial, racial and genderbased inequalities. Nations emerging from colonial rule, particularly in Africa and Asia, quoted the UDHR in their struggles for independence and sovereignty.

Brown v Board of Education Supreme Court decision in 1954, which ended school segregation. Another was the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed racial discrimination. Leaders like Martin Luther King Jr and organisations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) used nonviolent resistance and legal challenges to confront injustice. Their actions inspired other campaigns for social change globally.

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Article 1

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Source 1.1.7 Article 1 of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (in English), from November 1949. Why do you think the world agreed to this declaration after World War II?

In the United States, the civil rights movement fought to end racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans. One key milestone was the

At this time, other movements emerged worldwide. Anti-apartheid efforts in South Africa, led by figures like Nelson Mandela, aimed to end racial segregation policies. Women’s liberation movements advocated for gender equality, resulting in landmark achievements like the Equal Pay Act in the United States of America and the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) at the United Nations.

These movements emphasised the connection between civil and human rights. By the end of the Cold War, they had greatly influenced global policies and attitudes. Their legacy endures to this day. Struggles for racial, gender and social justice continue to shape modern activism and international law.

Non-Western examples of change in the world post-1945

After 1945, non-Western regions experienced profound transformations. They were driven by decolonisation, economic development, political movements and cultural shifts. These changes reshaped the ways nations interacted with one another. They challenged Western dominance and highlighted the growing importance of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

Vietnam is an example of an Asian nation which underwent profound change in the twentieth century. Between 1887 and 1954, France ruled Vietnam as part

Mandela

decolonisation the process of colonies gaining independence from imperial or colonial powers

was a longtime political prisoner, held by the Apartheid based South African government from 19641990. Mandela was released from his life sentence in 1990 and went on to lead the African National Congress in negotiations with President F.W. de Klerk, that resulted in the end of Apartheid and full citizenship for all South Africans. He and de Klerk received a joint Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 for their efforts. Mandela, pictured here in 1993, was elected president in 1994.

of the colony of French Indochina (also comprising Cambodia, Laos and parts of China). After World War II, the coalition of communists and nationalists known as Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, fought a bitter fight for independence from the French. The First Indochina War lasted from 1947–1954 and ended with the victory of the Viet Minh at the gruelling battle of Dien Bien Phu. Sadly for Vietnam, peace wouldn’t last, with the Second Indochina War (1955–1975; also known as the Vietnam War) starting soon after

was won.

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1.1 Review questions

1 Identify the ideological differences between the United States and the Soviet Union.

2 Explain how these differences contributed to the start of the Cold War.

3 Explain how the Cold War led to the development of nuclear weapons and the concept of mutually assured destruction.

4 Explain the significance of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in inspiring global movements.

5 Describe an example of decolonisation movements after World War II.

1.2

How did significant developments and events since 1945 contribute to global change?

Learning intention

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

Last lesson, we looked at key world events post-World War II. In this lesson, we will look at some global changes that occurred in that time. Source 1.2.1 A 1970s family having a

Work through these questions in pairs and share your responses with the class.

• What are three ways the world has changed since 1945?

• How might these changes have led to change in people’s everyday lives?

Key technological developments since 1945

Between 1945 and 2000, technology progressed significantly. New products dramatically changed daily life and how people communicated with one another. They also transformed economies around the world.

The household: from postwar appliances to entertainment technology

In the aftermath of World War II, technology companies began to produce many new goods for the home. In the 1950s and 1960s, many households started to buy appliances that greatly reduced the time and effort required for chores. By the 1960s, refrigerators were common in Australian households, with an estimated 94 per cent of homes owning one in 1964. Because these appliances were mass-produced, they were affordable and accessible to the growing middle class, particularly in the West. This made them extremely popular.

Source 1.2.2 RCA 630-TS, the first mass-produced electronic television set, which sold in 1946–1947. How has this piece of technology changed in the last 80 years?

Communication: from landlines to the digital revolution

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The arrival of television in the 1950s marked a cultural shift in home entertainment. By the end of the decade, television sets were common in many households. They became many people’s primary source of information and entertainment. Families gathered around televisions to watch news broadcasts, variety shows and iconic series, creating shared cultural experiences. By the 1970s, a significant majority of Australian households owned a television, with estimates suggesting that over 60 per cent of homes had a TV set, with the rate rapidly increasing throughout the decade as colour television became more accessible. By the 1980s, cable and satellite services expanded programming options, bringing diverse content into homes worldwide. By 2000, television had become a dominant force in shaping societal norms and spreading information.

Communication technology experienced dramatic changes between 1945 and 2000. After World War II, telephone networks expanded, with landlines becoming increasingly common in households. The first transatlantic telephone cable (TAT-1) was introduced in 1956. It allowed direct voice communication between North America and Europe. This brought the world closer together.

In the 1980s, the world’s first commercially available mobile phones were released. Although initially bulky and expensive, they represented a significant leap in communication technology. By the late 1990s, smaller, more affordable models were widely available, signalling the beginning of a mobile revolution.

Perhaps the most transformative development was the arrival of the internet. It was originally developed as a government and academic project in the 1960s and 1970s. However, it became accessible to the public in the 1990s. Email quickly became a popular communication tool, revolutionising personal and professional correspondence. By the end of the century, the World Wide Web had

Source 1.2.3 Routes under study in early 1956 for TAT-1 …

emerged. It provided a platform for information exchange and connectivity that laid the foundation for the digital age.

Mass consumption: From department stores to e-commerce beginnings

Technological innovations also reshaped patterns of mass consumption. In the postwar era, the rise of supermarkets transformed the way people shopped. These large, self-service stores were made possible by advances in logistics and refrigeration technology. Supermarkets became the standard for food shopping

in many countries. By the 1960s, they had spread globally, offering convenience and variety to consumers.

By the late twentieth century, personal computers and early internet technologies began to transform the retail industry. While full-scale e-commerce did not take off until the 2000s, the 1990s saw the establishment of online platforms like Amazon (founded in 1994) and eBay (1995). These platforms introduced the concept of shopping from home, setting the stage for a global shift in retail practices.

connectivity the ability to link people and systems through digital networks e-commerce buying and selling goods or services online via the internet

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Concepts and skills builder 1.2

Create a timeline

Using the information provided, plot key technological advancements along a timeline. Divide the timeline into five equal sections labelled with the decades: 1940s, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s and 1990s.

Each entry should include:

• The year/decade (e.g., 1950s).

• The innovation (e.g., introduction of television).

• Its impact (e.g. revolutionised home entertainment and created shared cultural experiences).

Reflection questions

1 Which technological advancement do you think had the biggest impact? Why?

2 How did technological changes across decades build upon each other?

Historical concepts and skills: chronology, causes and consequences

sustainability using resources responsibly to meet present and future needs

The rise of the environmental movement and its impact on perspectives

The environmental movement began in the mid-twentieth century and has profoundly influenced global perspectives on renewable energy and sustainability. Sparked by a growing awareness of human impact on the environment, this movement has encouraged innovation in clean energy and sustainability practices.

Source

became more accessible. Public attitudes began to shift in favour of clean energy solutions. These technologies are now viewed as essential tools in combating global warming and achieving energy independence.

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The environmental movement focused on advocating for renewable energy technologies. Early developments in solar and wind power were initially seen as niche alternatives to fossil fuels. However, concerns over climate change and the environmental costs of nonrenewable energy sources, such as coal, gas and oil, began to rise. This spurred investment and innovation in renewable energy technologies. By the late twentieth century, solar panels and wind turbines

Today, the environmental movement continues to shape public and political conversation. It has transformed how people think about energy and consumption. The public are more aware than ever that development must be balanced with preserving the environment. They recognise the responsibility of all humans to protect the planet for future generations. These shifts in perspective have paved the way for global sustainability efforts.

Case study: the Montreal Protocol and the ozone layer

In the late twentieth century, scientists discovered that the ozone layer was getting thinner. The ozone layer is a protective shield in the Earth’s stratosphere. It absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation, preventing it from reaching Earth’s surface. Therefore, the loss of this shield posed severe risks. These included a severe increase in the risk of skin cancer, harm to the environment and climate impacts. The ozone layer’s depletion was driven by widespread use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)s in everyday goods, including aerosols and refrigerators. These chemicals were also used widely in industrial processes.

In 1985, scientists identified a significant hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica. This discovery and the risk it posed to humanity spurred international collaboration to solve the problem. The result of this collaboration was the Montreal Protocol on Substances that

Deplete the Ozone Layer, adopted in 1987. The treaty aimed to phase out the production and consumption of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances.

The Montreal Protocol became a landmark success in global collaboration on the environment. Nearly every nation signed the agreement, making it the first universally ratified treaty. Nations acted in line with its terms, and soon CFC usage plummeted. Safer alternatives were then developed.

By 2000, evidence showed that the ozone layer was recovering. The Montreal Protocol not only demonstrated the effectiveness of collective action in addressing global environmental challenges. It also highlighted the importance of integrating scientific research into policy decisions. It remains a model for tackling current issues like climate change and biodiversity loss.

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1.2 Review questions

1 How did labour-saving appliances like refrigerators and washing machines change everyday life for families in the 1950s and 1960s?

2 What was the significance of the internet becoming publicly accessible in the 1990s?

3 Why is the Montreal Protocol considered a landmark success in addressing environmental issues?

What were the contributions of significant movements for social and political change since 1945?

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Learning intention

Last lesson, we looked at some global changes that have occurred since World War II. In this lesson, we will look at some significant movements for social and political change.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

Write a response to the question below.

• What are some changes that social and political movements have made in the world since 1945?

Share your ideas with a partner.

• Did you think of any of the same changes? What is one big change you both agree is important?

The significance of key activists for social

and political change globally since 1945

Since 1945, there have been many transformative social and political changes. Many of these changes were driven by the leadership and vision of key activists. Figures such as Mikhail Gorbachev, Martin Luther King Jr, Nelson Mandela and Mao Zedong profoundly influenced their nations and the global stage. Their work shaped movements for equality, justice and systemic reform.

Martin Luther King Jr: champion of civil rights

in the United States

Martin Luther King Jr, a Baptist minister and activist, was the face of the American civil rights movement during the 1950s and 1960s. King advocated for racial equality and justice through non-violent resistance, inspired by the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi.

King’s leadership in pivotal events such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956) and the March on Washington (1963) brought national attention to systemic racism and segregation in the USA. His iconic ‘I Have a Dream’ speech expressed a vision of racial harmony and equality that resonated with nations worldwide. King’s efforts resulted in multiple laws being passed, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.

to this day. King is a symbol of the power of peaceful protest and moral leadership in achieving social justice. His work influenced global movements for equality and civil rights, inspiring activists beyond the USA.

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King’s assassination in 1968 was a profound loss to the American civil rights movement. However, his legacy endures

… Mikhail Gorbachev: reforming the Soviet Union and ending the Cold War

Mikhail Gorbachev, the last leader of the Soviet Union (1985–1991), played a pivotal role in reshaping the political landscape of the twentieth century. His policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) sought to modernise the Soviet economy and political system. Gorbachev reduced censorship, introduced limited market reforms, and sought to improve relations with the West.

Significantly, Gorbachev’s efforts helped end the Cold War. He negotiated with US leaders, including Ronald Reagan, to reduce the number of nuclear weapons in the Soviet Union and the United States. This helped to reduce tensions between the two nations. Gorbachev also refrained from using force to suppress some democratic movements in Eastern Europe. This led to the fall of communist regimes

and the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. His leadership presented the possibility of peaceful political transition and the end of an era of global ideological war.

Mao Zedong: revolutionary leader in China

Mao Zedong was the leader of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the founding father of the People’s Republic of China (1949). Mao’s leadership brought dramatic social, political and economic changes to China, aiming to transform it into a socialist state.

Mao’s policies sought to end feudalism and promote social equality. Examples of such policies included land

redistribution and the nationalisation of industry. However, his initiatives like the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) and the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) had devastating consequences, including famine and social upheaval. Despite these failures, Mao’s leadership fundamentally reshaped China’s identity. He unified the nation under a single-party communist system and ended centuries of imperial and feudal rule.

Globally, Mao’s significance lies in his influence on communist and revolutionary movements. His ideas inspired socialist uprisings in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Through these, he cemented China’s role as a leader in the non-Western world during the Cold War.

Source 1.3.5 A group of Chinese children known as ‘Red Guards’ in front of a picture of Chairman Mao Zedong (1893–1976) holding Mao’s ‘Little Red Book’ of communist propaganda during China’s Cultural Revolution, c. 1968.

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Concepts and skills builder 1.3

Comparative questions

• Compare the impact of Martin Luther King Jr’s nonviolent activism with Mao Zedong’s revolutionary approach. How did their methods reflect the contexts in which they operated?

• How did the leadership of Martin Luther King Jr demonstrate the potential for peaceful resolution of systemic oppression?

• Compare King and Mao. Which type of leadership had a more enduring global significance?

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Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences

Social movements and global connectivity in the twenty-first century

In the twenty-first century, social and political movements operate dramatically differently to those in the twentieth century. They are largely driven by advancements in technology and global connectivity. Movements such as #MeToo, the Arab Spring, Black Lives Matter (BLM), Extinction Rebellion, and Occupy have used digital platforms and technologies to amplify their messages, coordinate actions, and build solidarity across borders. This connection between movements and technology underscores the profound impact of global connectivity on activism.

Arab Spring: revolution through social media

The Arab Spring (2010–2012) was a series of anti-government protests, uprisings and armed rebellions that spread across much of the Arab world. This event demonstrates the role of technology in kick-starting mass movements. Protesters across the Middle East and North Africa used platforms like Facebook, Twitter and YouTube to organise demonstrations, share footage of government crackdowns, and gain international support. In Tunisia, Egypt and beyond, social media let activists bypass state-controlled

media. This allowed them to coordinate decentralised uprisings. The outcomes of the Arab Spring varied. Still, its reliance on technology showed how global connectivity can mobilise people in real time and amplify calls for political change.

Black Lives Matter: a movement for racial justice

Black Lives Matter was a movement founded in 2013 after a white man in Florida, USA, George Zimmerman, was found not guilty of murder after he shot dead an unarmed black teenager on the street, named Trayvon Martin. Its work shows how powerful digital activism can be. Social media platforms like Twitter (now X) and Instagram were central to BLM’s growth. Activists used them to spread awareness of police brutality and systemic racism. Hashtags such as #BlackLivesMatter and viral videos of police violence mobilised millions, drawing attention to racial injustice on a global scale. The movement went beyond US borders, inspiring solidarity protests in countries like the UK, Australia and South Africa. Technology enabled BLM to highlight systemic inequalities, demand policy changes, and create a global community committed to racial justice.

decentralised a system where control is distributed, not concentrated in one place grassroots a movement driven by ordinary people rather than powerful leaders

solidarity unity and support among people working toward a shared goal

#MeToo: global solidarity in the fight against sexual harassment

The #MeToo movement is a powerful example of how technology connects people around shared experiences. It began as a hashtag on social media in 2017. Soon, however, #MeToo created a digital platform where survivors of sexual harassment and assault could share their stories. Platforms like Twitter (X) and Instagram allowed voices from around the world to come together and have a conversation on gender-based violence. In response to the movement, laws, such as workplace harassment laws, were changed. It also sparked cultural shifts around accountability and consent. Its viral nature shows how social media can unite individuals and amplify grassroots advocacy.

Global connectivity and the future of movements

When movements spread their message using technology, they can reach many more people than they would otherwise. Digital platforms allow marginalised voices to be heard and ideas to spread rapidly. They also help activists to coordinate protests across borders. However, reliance on technology also presents challenges. These include government

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1.3 Review questions

censorship, misinformation and digital surveillance. Despite these obstacles, technology is valuable to modern activists because it enables them to reach people from different countries and cultural backgrounds.

1 Explain how Martin Luther King Jr’s leadership approach differed from others in achieving change.

2 Discuss the leadership style of Mikhail Gorbachev, and how it had the potential for peaceful resolution of conflict.

3 How did technology enable modern movements like #MeToo and Black Lives Matter to spread their messages and gain global support? Provide specific examples.

What were the significant events, individuals and groups in the women’s movement in Australia, and how did they change the role and status of women?

Learning intention

Last lesson, we looked at some significant movements for social and political change that have occurred since-World War II. In this lesson, we will look more closely at the women’s movement in Australia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see? What is happening in this image? Make sure you read the caption!

What do you think? Why do you think Rosalie Bognor and Merle Thornton have done this?

What do you wonder? How does this represent the way the world is changing?

Changing roles and rights of women in the Australian workforce since 1945

Since 1945, the roles and rights of women in the Australian workforce have undergone significant transformations, driven by social, legal and economic changes.

Repeal of the‘marriage bar’

During the postwar period, one major step towards gender equality was the gradual repeal of the‘marriage bar’. Until the 1960s, many women in public service and certain private sector jobs were required to resign upon marriage. This limited their career opportunities. The marriage bar was based on traditional gender roles. These held that women would maintain the home, and men would work and earn an income. The marriage bar’s repeal was finalised in 1966 for the Australian Public Service. This change marked a major step toward workplace equality, allowing married women to pursue long-term careers. It also reflected shifts in societal attitudes toward women’s independence and contributions to the workforce.

The Sex Discrimination Act 1984

Changing participation in employment

Since 1945, the number of women in the workforce has steadily increased. Such a change was made possible by women’s access to education and changes in society’s attitudes. The 1970s and 1980s saw a significant rise in women entering professions previously dominated by men. These included law, medicine and engineering. By 2000, nearly half of Australia’s workforce was women. However, they are still overrepresented in part-time and casual roles. This reflects challenges in balancing work and family responsibilities.

The gender pay gap

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The introduction of the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 was a landmark moment in Australian history. It made discrimination based on sex, marital status, or pregnancy illegal. The law applied to many areas, including employment, education and access to services. Women were protected under the law and had fair access to job opportunities and workplace rights. The law also empowered women to challenge discriminatory practices. This created a more inclusive workforce. The Act remains a cornerstone of gender equality efforts in Australia.

Since 1972, it has been illegal for Australian employers to pay women less than men for doing work of the same value. However, despite progress, the gender pays gap remains a persistent issue in Australia. In 2024, average gender pay gap was 21.8 per cent. For every $1 on average a man makes, women earn 78c. This difference is due to multiple factors. Men are more likely to work high-paying fields such as law, engineering and construction. On the other hand, women are more likely to work in lower-paying fields such as teaching and childcare. These female-dominated jobs tend to not receive the same level of respect as male-dominated jobs. Women also still experience difficulties in advancing their careers. Governments have made efforts to address the pay gap. These include workplace policies on pay transparency and gender equity initiatives. However, achieving full pay equality remains an ongoing challenge.

Concepts and skills builder 1.4

Using historical sources

Source 1.4.2 Women’s Electoral Lobby Rally at Forrest Place, 29 January 1976. Photo by B Hall, West Australian Newspapers. (Supplied: Brazen Hussies documentary)

1 Consider the issues of women’s rights and social policies in Australia during the time this image was taken.

2 What do the signs and slogans in the image (e.g. ‘Don’t cut funds for projects that help women’ and‘ Fraser: Honour commitments to women’) suggest about the concerns and priorities of the protestors?

3 How might this image reflec t both changes and continuities in the fight for gender equality and women’s rights in Australia? Compare it to other feminist movements or campaigns during the same era. Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change, using historical sources

Contributions of significant female leaders in Australian public life

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Australian female leaders have made diverse and significant contributions to society. Whether in politics, activism, sports, arts, or social reform, these women have broken barriers, challenged societal norms and inspired change. Figures like

Julia Gillard, Cathy Freeman and Faith Bandler highlight the immense impact of women in shaping Australia’s identity and advancing equality. Their legacies continue to pave the way for future generations of women to lead, innovate and inspire.

glass ceiling a metaphor for the invisible barriers that prevent people from advancing in their careers

Political leaders

One of the most significant political figures in Australian history is Julia Gillard, the country’s first female Prime Minister (2010–2013). Gillard’s leadership broke a major glass ceiling in Australian politics. She advocated for policies in education reform, health care and gender equality. Her famous 2012 parliamentary speech against misogyny struck a chord with people globally, highlighting the challenges women face in leadership positions. It also sparked international conversations about sexism in politics.

And in so doing I say to the Leader of the Opposition, I will not be lectured about sexism and misogyny by this man. I will not. And the Government will not be lectured about sexism and misogyny by this man. Not now, not ever.

Source 1.4.3 Julia Gillard (then Prime Minister), Federal Parliament Question Time, 9 October 2012

to create laws for their benefit. Her work significantly advanced civil rights in Australia, particularly for Indigenous Australians.

Source 1.4.6 Aboriginal activist Faith Bandler, a driving force behind the 1967 referendum that made Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders citizens in their own country, reflects on the period 40 years on, at her Turrumurra home in Sydney, 30 April 2007.

Source 1.4.4 Gillard’s ‘misogyny’ speech

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Source 1.4.5 Julia Gillard speaking at the National Flag Raising and Citizenship ceremony in Canberra, on 26 January 2013

Activists

Another notable activist is Faith Bandler, a tireless campaigner for Indigenous rights and equality. Bandler played a key role in the 1967 referendum, which amended the Australian Constitution to include Aboriginal people in the census. It also allowed the federal government

Rosie Batty has advocated for action against domestic violence after the tragic murder of her son in 2014. Her activism has brought national attention to the issue of family violence. It has also led to important policy discussions and funding increases for prevention programs. Batty was named Australian of the Year in 2015. The award recognised her tireless work to protect vulnerable families.

Sporting identities

Australia boasts many trailblazing female athletes who have redefined gender norms in sports. One such athlete is Cathy Freeman, an Aboriginal sprinter. She achieved national and international fame when she won gold in the 400 metres at the Sydney 2000 Olympics. During her victory lap, Freeman carried both the Australian and Aboriginal flags. This act symbolised reconciliation and unity, inspiring pride and hope for Indigenous Australians.

Another iconic figure is Dawn Fraser. Fraser was a swimmer who dominated the sport in the 1950s and 1960s, winning

multiple Olympic gold medals. She not only excelled in her sport but also challenged conventions. Fraser advocated for fair treatment of athletes and greater recognition of women in sports.

Artists and entertainers

Australia’s arts and culture landscape has been greatly enriched by female creators and performers. Judy Davis, a celebrated actress, has brought Australian talent to the global stage. Her performances in films such as My Brilliant Career and A Passage to India were critically acclaimed around the world. Davis’s work has helped to make Australian cinema more well known in international cinema and inspired countless women in the arts.

In music, Helen Reddy became an international sensation with her feminist anthem ‘I Am Woman’ in the 1970s. The song became a rallying cry for women’s liberation movements around the world. After the release of ‘I am Woman’, Reddy became an icon of empowerment. Her success was an example of the global influence of Australian artists and their capacity to inspire social change.

Educators and advocates

Women have also made significant contributions to education and advocacy. One such woman is Evonne Goolagong Cawley. Goolagong Cawley is a former tennis champion and an advocate for Indigenous youth. She mentored and empowered young Indigenous Australians through sport and education initiatives. Her work made lasting impacts on their lives and reflects her commitment to empowering future generations. Lesson 1.4 review

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1.4 Review questions

1 What was the ‘marriage bar’, and why was its repeal in 1966 significant for women’s participation in the Australian workforce?

2 How did the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 help ensure greater fairness?

3 Why did Rosalie Bognor and Merle Thornton chain themselves to the bar at the Regatta Hotel in 1965? What did this protest symbolise in the fight for women’s rights?

What are some of the continuing efforts to create change in civil rights and freedoms in Australia? 1.5

Learning intention

Last lesson, we looked at the women’s movement in Australia. In this lesson, we will look at efforts to create change relating to civil rights and freedoms in Australia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

‘Australia, the white man’s land, Defended by the white man’s guns … For AngloSaxon race and Southern Cross.’

What do you see? What is the message of the song?

What do you think? How has Australian changed since this image was created in 1910?

What do you wonder?

Source 1.5.1 Sheet music for the 1910 song ‘White Australia’ by WE Naunton & HJW Gyles. The famously racist song includes the lyrics at the left.

Changes in government policy on migrants and Australia’s changing role in the world

Since 1945, Australian government policy on migration has undergone significant shifts. These changes both reflected and shaped the nation’s place in the global community. Policies such as the end of the White Australia Policy and the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 have transformed Australia’s international image. They have also redefined its social, economic and cultural identity.

The White Australia Policy (pre-1945 to 1973)

For much of the early twentieth century, Australia’s immigration policy was driven by the White Australia Policy, which sought to exclude non-European migrants. This policy reflected a vision of Australia as a homogeneously white, British-oriented nation, positioning it within the Western sphere of influence. However, after World War II, Australia sought to increase its population to strengthen national security and promote the development of the economy. Initially, the ‘populate or perish’ policy welcomed European immigrants, particularly from southern and eastern Europe. However, it still excluded non-Europeans.

The Racial Discrimination Act 1975

A key milestone in Australian migration policy was the Racial Discrimination Act 1975. This law made racial discrimination in areas such as employment, housing and access to services illegal. Passed under the Whitlam government, this Act symbolised Australia’s commitment to human rights and equality. It signalled a shift from exclusionary policies to a multicultural approach, emphasising that all people, regardless of race or ethnicity, should be treated with dignity and fairness. The Act had a profound impact on Australian society, as it enabled the government to support a multicultural model of migration. By enshrining anti-discrimination principles in law, Australia was increasingly seen as as a progressive, inclusive society committed to international human rights norms.

Multiculturalism and domestic change (1970s–2000s)

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In the 1960s, global attitudes towards racial equality began to shift. This shift led to the gradual end of the White Australia Policy. During this time, the international community began to pressure Australia to change its exclusionary policy. Newly decolonised nations in Asia and Africa were especially vocal. The policy was formally abolished in 1973 under the leadership of Prime Minister Gough Whitlam. This marked a significant turning point in Australia’s engagement with the Asia–Pacific region.

The shift from the White Australia Policy to multiculturalism marked a significant transformation in Australia’s social and cultural identity. As trade and diplomatic ties with Asia grew during the 1980s, changes in migration policies brought profound domestic impacts. Programs such as family reunification and skilled migration attracted diverse groups, particularly from Southeast Asia, fundamentally reshaping the demographic fabric of Australian society. Following the Vietnam War, thousands of Vietnamese refugees resettled in Australia, contributing to the rise of vibrant multicultural communities across the country.

populate or perish a slogan used by the Australian government after World War II to encourage a largescale migration of people into the country exclusionary a policy or practice that deliberately prevents certain groups from participating multiculturalism a policy promoting the coexistence of diverse cultural groups in society

humanitarian concerned with promoting human welfare, rights and wellbeing

Australia’s acceptance of refugees from conflict zones in Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Africa further enriched its multicultural character.

Policies like the Humanitarian Refugee Program highlighted a growing national commitment to cultural diversity and

social inclusivity. Modern Australia was becoming a more welcoming, compassionate and diverse nation, although families who fled conflict zones and discrimination had to work hard and overcome obstacles to build new lives in Australia.

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Impact on Australia’s global role

Changes in Australian migration policy have had lasting impacts on the nation’s role in the world. When Australia ended the White Australia Policy and introduced multiculturalism, it was able to make stronger diplomatic and trade links with Asia. This meant that Australia did not have rely on the UK and the USA for trade. The Racial Discrimination Act 1975 showed that Australia was committed to international human rights. This improved its reputation globally.

Between 1970 and 1980, Australia’s overseas-born population diversified, with European-born residents declining from

85.7 per cent to 75 per cent. Immigration from Southeast Asia grew, reflecting the shift to multiculturalism and reshaping Australia’s demographic and cultural landscape.

Today, migration remains a key part of Australia’s identity. Around half of all Australians have at least one parent who was born overseas, making Australia one of the world’s most multicultural societies. Australia’s changing approach to migration reflects broader shifts in its place within the Asia–Pacific region, as well as its efforts to balance humanitarian obligations with national security and economic development.

Concepts and skills builder 1.5

Change and continuity in Australian migration policy

Question 1: Identifying change

Explain two key changes in Australian migration policy since 1945.

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Question 2: Analysing change and continuity

How did the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 mark a change in Australia’s approach to immigrants?

Question 3: Evaluating the significance of change

Which change in Australian migration policy do you think had the most significant impact on Australia’s place in the world? Was it the end of the White Australia Policy, the Racial Discrimination Act 1975, or the shift to multiculturalism? Explain your choice.

Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change

Civil rights action for First Nations Peoples

Aboriginal Australian campaigns and the contributions of key individuals have had a transformative impact on the nation. The Freedom Ride of 1965, led by Charles Perkins, exposed racial segregation and poor living conditions in rural areas, sparking national conversations about equality. The 1967 Referendum was a watershed moment, with over 90 per cent of Australians voting to include Aboriginal people in the census and empower the Federal government to legislate on their behalf. The Tent Embassy, established in 1972, became a powerful symbol of resistance, bringing international attention to land rights and self-determination. These efforts have led to significant progress, including land rights victories, cultural pride and national reconciliation, while inspiring future generations to continue the fight for equality.

Despite this progress, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in Australia continue to face significant inequalities in key areas. These include education, health care, housing and employment. These issues reflect the ongoing impact of

colonisation, systemic discrimination and intergenerational trauma.

Education

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students face significant challenges in this area. They have lower school attendance, higher dropout rates and lower literacy and numeracy outcomes than non-Indigenous students. In 2022, 68 per cent of Indigenous Year 5 students met the national minimum standard for reading, compared to 95 per cent of nonIndigenous students. The reasons for this are complex. Contributing factors include cultural disconnection, socio-economic disadvantage, and systemic racism within schools. Civil rights action aims to develop culturally inclusive education policies to help meet the needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. It seeks to support Indigenous teachers and develop programs like Closing the Gap to improve educational outcomes. Another key focus is ensuring that Indigenous histories, perspectives and languages are included in the curriculum.

Health care

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have shorter life expectancies and higher rates of chronic disease than non-Indigenous people. They also have limited access to culturally appropriate health services. These issues are made worse by geographic isolation in some communities, racism in health care, and poor funding. Since 2008, the Federal government has been implementing the Closing the Gap strategy aimed at addressing these disparities; this also involves a yearly report given to Parliament. For instance, it seeks to improve access to health care and reduce deaths in childhood. However, progress has been slow. There is an ongoing need for community-led health initiatives, culturally safe medical services, and increased government investment.

Housing

Stable and secure housing is crucial for wellbeing. However, many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People experience housing insecurity and overcrowding. Remote Indigenous communities face long-term shortages of safe, affordable housing. This issue contributes to poor health outcomes and social dislocation. Activists in this area call for more funding for public housing. They advocate for better maintenance of existing homes, and community-driven housing solutions. Housing reform is essential for physical wellbeing and for maintaining cultural connection to land and family.

Employment

18.2 per cent, compared to 4.6 per cent for non-Indigenous Australians. There are several reasons for this. Communities may have limited access to education or are geographically isolated. Also, employers may have discriminatory hiring practices. Civil rights action in this area calls for strategies to increase employment rates. These include Indigenous employment quotas in government and corporate sectors, and job training and upskilling programs. With more employment opportunities, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People can be more financially independent. This will contribute to better community wellbeing.

Why First Nations civil rights activism continues

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Unemployment and underemployment are ongoing issues for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. In 2021, the unemployment rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples was

Significant gaps in equality remain despite the efforts of governments to address them. Into the twenty-first century, First Nations activists continued to call for more action to improve the lives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. They raised concerns that access to education, health, housing and employment was still poor. Government strategies like Closing the Gap aim to address these issues. However, progress has been slow and uneven. One reason for this is that governments of the past have not consulted Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities enough when making policy decisions. For this reason, activists stress that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities should be involved in decision-making in matters that affect them. The 2023 Australian Indigenous Voice referendum proposed amending the Constitution to establish a Voice to Parliament for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. It was rejected, with 60.79 per cent voting ‘No’ and 39.21 per cent voting ‘Yes’, failing in all states.

1.5.3 A crowd of protesters gather outside Flinders Street Station, Melbourne during the annual Invasion Day protest on 26 January 2025. Indigenous Australians and their allies marched from Parliament House to Federation Square to call for the abolition or change of Australia Day. This protest marks the day in 1788 when Arthur Phillip raised the British flag at Sydney Cove. The date is known as Invasion Day or Survival Day for Indigenous communities. It symbolises the beginning of British colonisation.

Lesson 1.5 review

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1.5 Review questions

1 What was the White Australia Policy? Why was its dismantling in the 1960s and 1970s a significant change in Australia’s approach to migration?

2 How did the shift to multiculturalism in the 1970s and 1980s reflect Australia’s changing economic and diplomatic relationships with Asia?

3 What are some of the key challenges in education and health care that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples face, and how are civil rights activists addressing them?

End of investigation review: how has the world changed since 1945?

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Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable chapter summary

• Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

Copy and complete the following diagram to reflect on your understanding of the modern world post-1945. Aim to provide at least two points for each topic.

Topic

What key events signal the start of this era?

What are some of the key events that changed the modern world?

What are the key features of modern societies?

What I have learned

Practice questions

1 Identify two major developments in Australian migration policy since 1945 and explain their significance.

2 How did technological innovations in communication (e.g., the internet) transform global society by the late twentieth century?

3 Extended response: in a paragraph response, answer the following question: How did changes between 1945 and 2000 reshape societal norms in Australia? Include examples from at least two regions.

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4 Create a simple timeline that includes the following events:

• abolition of the White Australia Policy (1973)

• Civil Rights Act in the United States (1964)

• creation of the Racial Discrimination Act in Australia (1975)

• signing of the Montreal Protocol (1987).

For each event, write a short description of its historical significance.

Response to chapter inquiry question: how has the world changed since 1945?

Write a paragraph in response to the question using all the key terms listed.

• Cold War

• multiculturalism

• civil rights

• technology

• environmental sustainability.

CHAPTER 2 COMING SOON

INVESTIGATION 2 Australians at war (1914–1945)

OVERVIEW

During this period, a globalised world took shape, as societies connected through ideas, trade, migration, technological advancements, colonisation, war and peace to bring us to the present day.

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description –Levels 9 and 10’

TOPIC OPTIONS

This investigation is presented across three separate chapters so students can learn about Australians at war in chronological (the World Wars) and thematic order (the Holocaust).

Chapter 3 – World War I

Chapter 4 – World War II

Chapter 5 – The Holocaust

CURRICULUM GOALS

• What shapes the modern world?

• How have global developments shaped Australia?

• What are the causes and consequences of war?

• How do individuals contribute to change?

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

CHAPTER 3

Australians

at war: What was the significance of World War I (1914–1918)?

LESSONTITLE

3.1Setting the scene: what was World War I like?

3.2What were the key events in World War I?

3.3What were the long-term causes of World War I?

3.4What were the short-term causes of World War I?

3.5Why did Australians fight in World War I?

3.6Where did Australians fight in World War I?

3.7What was the significance of Gallipoli from both an Australian and a global perspective?

3.8What was World War I like for First Nations servicemen and for Australian women?

3.9What was the nature of trench warfare in World War I?

3.10How did technological developments change the nature of warfare in World War I?

3.11How did World War I end and what was the significance of the Treaty of Versailles?

3.12What do historians say about the legacy of World War I?

3.13End of investigation review: what was the significance of World War I (1914–1918)?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

PLEASE NOTE

The Investigation: Australians at war (1914–1945) and chapters:

• What was the significance of World War I (1914–1918)?

• What was the significance of World War II (1939–1945)?

• How did the Holocaust happen?

are common to the Year 9 and 10 books, with alternating chapters in print, to offer schools maximum flexibility to teach WWI and WWII in the way that suits their class.

You will find Chapter 3: What was the significance of World War I (1914-1918)? in the sample pages of the Year 9 textbook.

CHAPTER 4 COMING SOON

CHAPTER 5 COMING SOON

INVESTIGATION 3 The globalising world (1945 – present)

OVERVIEW

During this period, a globalised world took shape, as societies connected through ideas, trade, migration, technological advancements, colonisation, war and peace to bring us to the present day.

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description –Levels 9 and 10’

TOPIC OPTIONS

This investigation is presented over five separate chapters so students can learn about the globalising world.

Chapter 7 Popular culture

Chapter 8 Environment movement

Chapter 9 Migration experiences

Chapter 10 Political crisis

Chapter 11 Regional and global conflict

CURRICULUM GOALS

• What changes occur in relation to developments in technology, public health, longevity and standards of living in the twentieth century?

• What are the origins and significance of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

• How was Australia involved in the development of the UDHR?

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

CHAPTER 6

What is the globalising world?

LESSONTITLE

6.1Setting the scene: What were the Four Freedoms?

6.2What are the key events of this topic?

6.3How did living standards develop throughout the twentieth century?

6.4What were the origins and significance of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

6.5What was Australia’s role in the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

6.6End of investigation review: What is the globalising world?

Setting the scene: What were the Four Freedoms?

Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore the speech given by Franklin D Roosevelt that delved into human rights and led to the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

On 6 January 1941, President Franklin Roosevelt delivered the 1941 State of the Union speech to the 77th Congress in the United States of America (USA). This speech is now also widely known as the ‘Four Freedoms’ speech. In this speech, Roosevelt spoke of what he thought the Four Freedoms for all humans were:

In the future days, which we seek to make secure, we look forward to a world founded upon four essential human freedoms.

The first is freedom of speech and expression – everywhere in the world.

The second is freedom of every person to worship God in his own way – everywhere in the world.

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The third is freedom from want – which, translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy peacetime life for its inhabitants – everywhere in the world.

The fourth is freedom from fear – which, translated into world terms, means a world-wide reduction of armaments to such a point and in such a thorough fashion that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor – anywhere in the world.

That is no vision of a distant millennium. It is a definite basis for a kind of world attainable in our own time and generation. That kind of world is the very antithesis of the so-called new order of tyranny which the dictators seek to create with the crash of a bomb.

Source 6.1.4 Excerpt from State of the Union address to 77th Congress, or Four Freedoms speech, Franklin D Roosevelt, 6 January 1941

In this same speech, President Roosevelt also spoke of healthy and strong democracies and set out what he believed were the basics needed by all:

Equality of opportunity for youth and for others.

Jobs for those who can work.

Security for those who need it.

The ending of special privilege for the few.

The preservation of civil liberties for all.

The enjoyment of the fruits of scientific progress in a wider and constantly rising standard of living.

These are the simple, basic things that must never be lost sight of in the turmoil and unbelievable complexity of our modern world. The inner and abiding strength of our economic and political systems is dependent upon the degree to which they fulfill these expectations.

Many subjects connected with our social economy call for immediate improvement.

As examples:

We should bring more citizens under the coverage of old-age pensions and unemployment insurance.

We should widen the opportunities for adequate medical care.

We should plan a better system by which persons deserving or needing gainful employment may obtain it.

Source 6.1.5 Excerpt from State of the Union address to 77th Congress, or Four Freedoms speech, Franklin D Roosevelt, 6 January 1941

charter a written grant by the sovereign or legislative power of a group, by which a body is founded or its rights and privileges defined

Only 11 months after delivering this speech, the USA joined World War II officially after the US naval base Pearl Harbor was bombed by Japan. In response to this military attack, the USA declared war on Japan. In August 1945, the USA dropped two atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan, killing thousands and injuring more. Although by this time Roosevelt had died, this ironically echoed his own words in the Four Freedoms speech, ending World War II with ‘the crash of a bomb’.

In 1945, while World War II was still ongoing, representatives of 46 countries came together in San Francisco, California. Between 25 April and 26 June, the group met to form an agreement on how to stop another world war like the one they were still witnessing. Roosevelt, a supporter of peace and human rights, had passed away just before this conference

…

could be held, but the Four Freedoms were front of mind for the representatives. These representatives drafted and then signed the United Nations Charter. This Charter formally created an international organisation where grievances and issues would be heard and discussed to overcome differences between nations in a peaceful manner. In the end, there were 51 original members for the UN Charter; today, there are 196 member states.

This was not the end of the Roosevelt family’s involvement with the United Nations, with Mrs Eleanor Roosevelt being appointed as the USA’s delegate in the General Assembly of the newly formed United Nations (UN). She was later appointed as the chair of the Commission of Human Rights and played an instrumental role in the drafting of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Source 6.1.6: At the headquarters of the United Nations in New York, a man looks at one of the first documents published by the United Nations, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was ratified in 1948.

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Fast facts – League of Nations

Before the United Nations was formed as an international group, there was the League of Nations:

• It was created in 1920 at the Paris Peace Conference at the end of World War I.

• Its main goal was to prevent wars, though collective security and disarmament.

• It was set up to settle disputes with nations though negotiation and arbitration.

• Originally, there were 42 founding members. There were 55 members by 1924.

• By 1932, there were 58 member states.

• Germany and Japan withdrew in 1933.

• The League of Nations was concluded in 1946, as the League had not been in operation since World War II began in 1939.

• The principal ideas of the Leage of Nations were the building blocks for the United Nations being formed.

Lesson 6.1 review

the act of reducing, limiting, or abolishing weapons arbitration the use of a third party to help settle a dispute between two groups, nations, or people

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6.1 Review questions

1 Carefully examine the two excerpts from the Four Freedoms speech. What parts speak about human rights?

2 What do you think Roosevelt was trying to convey to his counterparts in this speech?

3 Why do you think that Roosevelt was seen as a progressive leader?

4 Why do you think the League of Nations failed? Why has the United Nations continued to exist?

What are the key events of this topic?

Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore the key events in understanding the development of human rights and the change those events had in our globalising world.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

KWL – know, want to know, learn

1 What do you already know about: a human rights b the civil rights of First Nations peoples c technological developments d the fight for women’s rights.

2 What would you like to find out about these topics?

3 After working though this investigation, return to these questions and identify one new thing you learnt about each of these sub-topics.

c. 528–486 bce

In India, Gautama Buddha advocates morality, reverence for life, non-violence and right conduct

27 bce – 476 ce The Roman Empire develops the concepts of natural law and the rights of citizens

613–632

In Arabia, Prophet Mohammed teaches the principles of equality, justice and compassion revealed in the Qur’ān

1583–1645

Hugo Grotius, Dutch jurist credited with the birth of international law, speaks of brotherhood of humankind and the need to treat all people fairly

1791

The United States Congress adopts their Bill of Rights, amending the US Constitution to include rights to trial by jury, freedom of expression, speech, belief and assembly 1776

US Declaration of Independence proclaims that ’all men are created equal’ and endowed with certain inalienable rights

1760 bce

In Babylon, King Hammurabi draws up the ‘Code of Hammurabi’, an early legal document that promises to ‘make justice reign in the Kingdom and promote the good of the people’

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500 bce Confucian teaching develops based on ’jen’ or benevolence and respect for other people

c. 26–33 ce

In Palestine, Jesus Christ preaches morality, tolerance, justice, forgiveness and love. The Christian New Testament teaches equality before God: ’In Christ there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female’ 1215 Britain’s King John is forced by his lords to sign the Magna Carta, acknowledging that free men are entitled to judgment by their peers and that even a king is not above the law

1689

In England, Parliament adopts the Bill of Rights, which curtails the power of the monarch and includes freedom from torture and from punishment without trial. The Bill sets out that it is the job of government to represent the people and their rights

1833

The British Parliament abolishes slavery through the Slavery Abolition Act 1789

In France, the National Assembly adopts the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which guarantees the rights to liberty, equality, property, security and resistance to oppression

Timeline key: colour-coding of dots on the timeline

Blue – human rights

Brown – Australian Indigenous rights

Green – technological improvements

Purple – women’s rights

Source 6.2.2 An example of an early telegraph

1884

Victorian Women’s Suffrage society forms

1901

Long distance radio-telegraph

1903

Suffragette Vida

1951

The Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (’The Refugee Convention’) is adopted and opened for signature. It defines who a refugee is and what the rights and legal obligations of states are in relation to them. Genocide becomes criminal under international law

1950

Global child mortality exceeds 20%.

Medical proof documented that smoking causes lung cancer

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1891

Age of Consent raised from 13 to 16 in the British Empire

30 000 signatures collected calling for the right for women to vote in Victoria

Goldstein stands for election in the Federal Parliament. She is the first women in the British Empire to stand 1914–1918 World War I

1939–1945

World War II

Germany’s Nazis murder 6 million Jews plus other minorities in Europe. Known as the Holocaust or Shoah

1924

Women win the right to stand for election in the State of Victoria

1948

The United Nations adopts The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

1945

The United Nations is created ‘to affirm the dignity and worth of every human person’

1937

The Day of Mourning Protest signals the start of the Indigenous civil rights movement

1928

Antibiotics (Penicillin) invented

1927

Television invented

1908

1903

Commonwealth Franchise Act enacted on 12 June 1903. All women (other than Indigenous women) could now vote from the age of 21 in Federal elections and stand for Australian Parliament

Source 6.2.3

Women given the right to vote in Victoria; though they still cannot stand for election in Victoria

1918–1920

Spanish Flu – infects global population and kills 50–100 million people

Source 6.2.4 Warehouses converted to keep infected people quarantined during the Spanish Influenza pandemic, which killed more people than World War I

Holocaust from a Greek term meaning ‘complete burning’, name given to the murder of millions of Jewish and other minority groups during World War II

Shoah Hebrew word for ‘calamity’ or ‘catastrophe’

1953

Discovery of DNA structure

December 1955

African American activist Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus seat to a White passenger, sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the American civil rights movement

1964

Source 6.2.5 Rosa Parks’ mugshot after being arrested in 1955 …

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The Civil Rights Act is signed in Washington DC, outlawing discrimination on the basis of race

1966

Protesting over poor wages, a group of Indigenous station hands stage the Wave Hill Walk-off

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) are adopted and opened for signature

1972

Equal pay for men and women was first granted, lifting women’s wages by around 30% at the time

Recognition by governments worldwide that fossil-fuel combustion threatens Earth’s atmosphere

1974

Personal computer and the internet invented

1979

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is adopted and opened for signature. It is introduced to prevent discrimination against, and to promote the rights of, women

1982

Eddie Mabo launches legal proceedings to win back ownership of traditional lands on Mer, for the people of Mer, in the Torres Strait

1965

1956

The ‘Marriage Bar ’ was lifted, meaning that married women could now continue to work in education after marriage

Freedom Rides – Charlie Perkins leads Australian activists on a tour of the NSW outback

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) is adopted and opened for signature. It is introduced to eliminate racial discrimination and promote understanding among all races

1967

Referendum held – 90.7% of Australians vote YES to count Indigenous Australians in the census and to give the Commonwealth government the power to make laws regarding Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people

1973

Global life expectancy exceeds 60 years

1978 First human born using in vitro fertilisation

1980

Eradication of smallpox

Source 6.2.6 Kids play with a Commodore 64 – an early personal computer – in 1983 …

1985

First discovery of a hole in the ozone layer – created by human activity

1989

The Convention on the Rights of the Child is adopted and opened for signature

World Wide Web invented

1997

Bringing Them Home report handed down in Australian Parliament, a national inquiry into the forced separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families

2006–2007

The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is adopted (2006) and opened for signature (2007)

Global child mortality is less than 4% – this has been achieved though vaccines, education and ongoing public health measures

2008

Global life expectancy rises to 70 years

2008

Prime Minister Kevin Rudd issues a formal apology to the Stolen Generations

2004

1986

1984

In Australia, the Sex Discrimination Act comes into force

The Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment is adopted and opened for signature

In Australia, the Human Rights Commission Act is enacted, which establishes a national human rights commission, today known as the Australian Human Rights Commission Human population passes 5 billion people

1992

In Australia, the Age Discrimination Act comes into force

Australian Prime Minister Paul Keating makes the‘Redfern Speech’ acknowledging the suffering experienced by Indigenous Australians through government policies and colonialism

In Australia, the Disability Discrimination Act comes into force.

2007

The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples is adopted by the United Nations in 2007, and the Australian government announced its support for the Declaration in 2009.

6.2 Review questions

The first National Children’s Commissioner is appointed in Australia 2024

2011

The UN adopts the United Nations Declaration on Human Rights Education and Training

2013

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1 Between 1760 BCE and 1833 CE, many types of human rights were being proposed around the world. What are most of these rights based on or who are they trying to help?

2 What do you notice about the ‘improving human rights declarations’ in relation to women’s and Australian First Nations peoples’ rights?

3 Infer the difference in health outcomes using the timeline.

4 Explain how health outcomes, like life expectancy and child mortality, have changed over time.

How did living standards develop throughout the twentieth century?

Learning intention

In this lesson, we will investigate the change in living standards for people in Australia and around the world, using advertising from the time and statistical data. We will also investigate the change in technology and health outcomes.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

KWL – know, want to know, learn

1 What do you already know about the change of living standards bet ween 1901 and today?

2 What would you like to find out about health outcomes for Australians between 1901 and today?

3 After working though this unit, return to these questions and identify one new thing you learnt about Australia’s change in regards to technology and health.

Source 6.3.1 Monty King, Mizpah King and Polly King, family of photographer Matt King, are seen talking to other family members online while they their eat dinner in their home on April 17, 2020 in Sydney, Australia. At the time Australian children of all ages spent more time at home with parents and carers as society attempted to slow the spread of the Coronavirus (COVID-19), before a vaccine had been developed.

During the twentieth century, Australia went through lots of changes. Australia had become a Federation, went to war, lived through the Depression, went to war again, and enforced the White Australia Policy, assimilation policy and migration policies. Though it all, advertisements captured these changes.

Here are some questions to consider as you look at the images:

1 What does the image definitely tell me?

2 What can I infer from the image? What guesses can I make?

3 What does the photography definitely not tell me?

4 What else would I like to find out? What other questions do I need to ask?

Source 6.3.6 Simpson ad, The Australian Women’s Weekly, April 1957 …

Source 6.3.7 Email limited, Time magazine, February 1980 …

Source 6.3.8 Hotpoint, c. 1960 …

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Source 6.3.9 A stock image which is very similar to big-brand advertisments for air fryers c.2025.

Concepts and skills builder 6.3

Using historical sources

1 What was the purpose of these advertisements?

2 How can we use these sources (images) to show change over time in Australia?

3 What can these images tell us about changing technology in the home?

4 What can these images tell us about society’s view of a female’s role in the home? Has this changed?

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

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Alongside the changes to the home, and to cooking and gender roles, there were also changes in the medical field and therefore in health outcomes for Australians.

Using data from Our World in Data we can investigate the change in health

outcomes just by looking at data. The following three graphs look at; child mortality, the proportion of children who die before age five, life expectancy, how long a person is expected to live and causes of death.

Source 6.3.10 Child mortality rate 1870–2023, from Our World in Data. Explain what is meant by child mortality. How would you explain the graph to a friend? Investigate online why there is a sudden drop around 1905.

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Source 6.3.11 Life expectancy at birth 1885–2023, from Our World in Data. Define life expectancy. How would you explain the graph to a friend? Can you investigate why life expectancy in 1900 is different to 2000? What factors might be considered?

Source 6.3.12 Causes of death, Australia 2021, from Our World in Data. Define neonatal disorders. What is the difference between homicide and conflict and terrorism? Why are these defined this way? Why is conflict and terrorism on this list even though the count sits at 0?

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6.3 Review questions

1 Discuss why the child mortality rates have dropped in Australia since the 1870s.

2 Infer why the life expectancy rate risen since the 1800s?

3 Why is malaria on the list for causes of death if Australia has none?

4 What other data could we use to understandchanges in health outcomes overtime?

5 Thinking about the above data, how might it have looked different during the following years?

1917

1927

1937

1947

What were the origins and significance of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and compare the fundamental ideas of this document with the experience of oppressed people in Australia and around the world.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) an internationally recognised document that outlines the fundamental rights and freedoms of all people

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, puzzle, explore

1 Think: What do you think you know already about the The Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

2 Puzzle: What questions or puzzles do you have about why it was created and who it aims to protect?

3 Explore: How can you explore these questions or puzzles further? What can you do to find out more?

At the United Nations’ first meeting of the General Assembly in 1946, it was decided that a document needed to be created to safeguard and guarantee the human rights of every individual everywhere. This draft was known as the ‘Declaration of Fundamental Human

Main bodies of the United Nations

Rights and Freedoms’. It was then moved to the Economic and Social Council, within the UN, to consider and create a formal international bill of human rights. A committee was created from this council to formalise the drafting process.

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To understand the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and how it was created, we need to understand the groups that function within the UN.

Today, the United Nations is made up of 193 member states. The UN has six main bodies for it to continue its work.

The General Assembly

The main body for discussions, policymaking and representations. All 193 members are part of the General Assembly. Each year a new president is elected to serve a 1-year term of office.

The Security Council

The main role of the security council is to maintain international peace and security. It does this though its 15 members, who all have a vote to ensure that any threats to peace or acts of aggression are dealt with. Member states are supposed to comply with the Security Council rulings.

The Economic and Social Council

The body for coordination of economic, social and environmental issues. It creates and coordinate internationally agreed goals looking at sustainable development.

The Trusteeship Council

The trustee council was established in 1945. This council provided international supervision for 11 trust territories, which were working towards self-government. The Trusteeship Council was suspended in 1994 after the last trustee state gained independence.

International Court of Justice

It is the judicial arm of the United Nations. It sits away from the main UN buildings in the Netherlands, in what is known as the Place of Peace in The Hague. Its role is to settle international law and legal disputes that are referred.

The Secretariat

This consists of the secretary-general and their many UN staff members who carry out the day-to-day work for the UN as mandated by the General Assembly. UN staff members are recruited internationally and locally and work to maintain peace though peacekeeping missions all over the world.

The Commission of Human Rights was made up of 18 members from all over the world. Eleanor Roosevelt chaired the drafting committee, while other members of the group included René Cassin of France, Charles Malik of Lebanon, Peng Chung Chang of China, Hansa Mehta of India and John Humphrey of Cananda.

Hansa Mehta, a woman sitting on the Human Rights Commission, was a women’s rights advocate. She is credited with changing the phrase ‘All men are born free and equal’ to ‘All human beings are born free and equal’. This was an important change for the future of women’s rights around the world.

Source 6.4.2

TED Talk:

what are the universal human rights?

Access this video via https://www. youtube.com/ watch?v= nDgIVseTkuE

The United Nations grew from the ashes of World War II. It sought to resolve conflict and create an enduring peace for the whole world. By adopting the UDHR, the UN promoted ideas of civil and legal rights, freedom of speech, religion and political association. It claimed that all humans had the right to life, freedom and privacy.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

The UDHR’s main declaration is that human rights are universal, which means all people – no matter who they are or where they live – should be covered by it. The UDHR covers ideas such as: the right to life, liberty, free speech and privacy, as well as other matters like health, education, and the right to move to keep oneself safe.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is not a treaty, which means that it is a declaration of what countries that sign on will maintain for their people. The UDHR has inspired some countries to

create their own human rights laws inside their borders that protect their people, while others have chosen to not follow its lead.

When there are human rights abuses internationally, member states can be called out on their actions by other member states. Evidence can be brought forward to the International Criminal Court by the UN, but it cannot punish countries for their abuses. They can sanction nations and expel them from groups and committees. Other member states can support or denounce the actions of others.

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Concepts and skills builder 6.4

Causes and consequences

1 Why did the UN feel the need to create a Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

2 Were there any other formal documents in existence before the UDHR was created to pave the way for human rights?

3 Explain in what ways the UDHR has promoted and supported human rights since its inception.

4 Explain in what way the UDHR has not promoted and supported human rights since its inception.

5 Infer why human rights are still being violated today.

Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences

In the years after the creation of the UDHR, we can look at the way in which the principles written in to the UDHR has helped create a code for humans all over the world.

• Australian civil rights movement: 1938 – continues

• South African apartheid: 1948–1994

• American civil rights movement: 1954–1968

• treatment of Palestinians 1947 (UN) –continues; the UN originally proposed the plan for the partition of Palestine and have since supported Palestinian peoples’ rights to self-determination, national independence and sovereignty

• Vietnam War: November 1955 –April 1975

• feminist movements: 1960s – continues

• Cambodian genocide: April 1975 –January 1979

• Philippines People Power movement: February 1986

• China, Tiananmen Square: April–June 1989

• fall of the Berlin wall: November 1989

• Rwanda genocide: April–July 1994

While some of these events are ongoing, many people affected by these events have been able to use the UDHR

and human rights laws to overcome, punish and fight against the oppressors in these events. Some of these events have caused huge losses of life and liberty for the people who fought for their human rights in these times. But due to their ongoing struggles against human rights abuses and the ongoing pressure of the UDHR and its supporting laws, there have been many human rights abuses overcome and many human rights won.

But there is still a long way to go.

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6.4 Review questions

1 Define human rights.

2 Using the list of events above, research an event and report back to the class using the history inquiry questions of Who, What, Where, When, Why and How.

3 What consequences did the event you chose have on us today?

4 Explain why it is important for all countries to be included in the United Nations.

5 Outline the ways the United Nations can investigate human rights violations.

What was Australia’s role in the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

Learning intention

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 What do you see in the image?

2 What do you think are some of the issues being discussed here?

3 What do you wonder about the people who marched? How could you find out more about this protest or others at the same time?

In this lesson, we will investigate Australia’s role in creating a universal declaration of human rights and how human rights has developed in Australia over time to create human rights legislation for all Australians. Source 6.5.1 International Women’s Day March 1975 …

Declaration of St James Palace (London Declaration) a joint statement of goal and principles for lasting peace, set out by the Allied powers during World War II

Australia not only had a role to play in the creation of the UDHR, but also the United Nations as an international body. During World War II, a declaration was signed at St James Palace, London, on 12 June 1941. The Allies who signed this document in the hope of creating lasting peace were Australia, the UK, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa, as well as representatives from governments shut down during the war, such as Belgium, Greece, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, France, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and Norway. Three major resolutions were made in the

Herbert Vere (Doc) Evatt

Herbert Vere (Doc) Evatt was a minister in John Curtin’s Labor government and was later appointed as the Minister of External Affairs. He was in consultation with Allies during World War II. However, he was not happy that the USA and the UK had agreed to peace terms with China without first talking to Australia. This speed bump led to Evatt developing ideas to

Declaration of St James Palace (or London Declaration):

• to assist each other in the war against Germany

• that there would only be peace once the Axis threat was past

• to move towards the principle of peace based on ‘willing cooperation of free peoples’ in which ‘all may enjoy economic and social security’.

After this initial declaration, the UN was built around consultation with most of the main players.

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look after Australia and smaller countries like Australia when he worked with other nations to form the UN. He wanted to make sure that smaller counties like Australia would have a say in the international space and ensure collective security.

Evatt ensured that the General Assembly gave power to smaller nations to enable them have a say. He pushed for greater economic and social roles for smaller countries within the organisation, leading to the UN working towards freedom for all, not just the major countries. Evatt wanted Australia not to be aligned with any particular nation, but instead to be able to look at every issue and make its own call on the merits of the issue. Thus, Australia would not just blindly follow other nations, but make its own decisions on what was best.

For his work in helping shape the UN, Evatt became the President of the UN General Assembly in 1948–1949 and worked on enacting the draft of the UDHR.

Concepts and skills builder 6.5

Historical significance

1 How does this image suggest Evatt’s significance as a politician of global standing?

2 Using the tex t and referring to Source 6.5.2, explain why Evatt was a significant figure in Australian history.

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

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Australia’s changing ways

The

Immigration Act

Australia, at the same time as the UN was being established, was undergoing its own human rights issues. One of the first acts of the Australian Parliament in 1901 was to create The Immigration Act, also known as the White Australia Policy. This Act of Parliament meant that Parliament could limit the amount of nonwhite or non-British people immigrating to Australia. This desire for a White Australia was hugely racist towards ethnicities from outside Britain. It was only after World War II that Continental Europeans were included in immigration plans, allowing immigration from places like Greece, Italy and Yugoslavia. It was not until the 1970s that a new policy overrode this old policy. The Racial Discrimination Act was enacted in 1975, which paved the way for a multicultural Australia.

1967 Referendum

At the same time as the White Australia Policy was being tested and then replaced, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people were fighting to be included in society and government policy. In 1967, a referendum was held in Australia which called for two changes in the Constitution. One was to remove or strike out the words which excluded the Commonwealth government from making policy specifically for Aboriginal and Torres

Strait Islander people; the second was to count Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in census counts. Source 6.5.3 shows what parts of the Constitution would be removed or amended if the referendum was successful.

This referendum saw a 90.77 per cent ‘yes’ vote, which is still the highest yes vote on a any referendum in Australian history. This showed that Australia was ready and willing to embrace human rights for all.

51. The Parliament shall, subject to this Constitution, have power to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of the Commonwealth with respect to:-

…(xxvi) The people of any race, other than the aboriginal people in any State, for whom it is necessary to make special laws.

127. In reckoning the numbers of the people of the Commonwealth, or of a State or other part of the Commonwealth, aboriginal natives should not be counted.

…

Source 6.5.3 From the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia and the lines removed due to the 1967 Referendum

Vietnam War

As the war in Vietnam was near its end, massive numbers of South Vietnamese people were displaced or at risk from the North Vietnamese forces. Australia was one of many nations to come to the aid of the South Vietnamese people, opening up its borders to a large number of refugees.

cultural rights the ability to participate in one’s culture, including language and religion obligation an act or course of action to which a person is morally or legally bound; a duty or commitment

The first group from Vietnamese were orphan infants in a program known by Operation Babylift. Almost 3000 orphans were flown out of Vietnam to places like the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom and Australia. Many others travelled out of Vietnam by boat with little to guide them. Some were caught by the North Vietnamese forces; others struggled with attacks from pirates; while others made it to places like Hong Kong and Australia. Over 2000 people came by boat. Another 100 000 were resettled in Australia over the next 20 years, most coming legally via other Asian nations.

Contraceptive pill

In Australia, the contraceptive pill was available from 1961. At first it was only available to married women, sometimes

Human rights in action today

In 2006, the Victorian Parliament enacted the Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act of 2006. This act has been amended several times since its inception; the current version 015 was published in 2023.

This Charter covers the following: purpose of the charter, defining human rights including right to life, freedom

only with permission from their husbands. With it came a luxury tax of 27.5 per cent, making it expensive for families to use to help with planned parenthood. The contraceptive pill was seen as a way for women to take control of their lives, planning for children and work. It was released around the same time that they were calls for equal pay and equal treatment for women, and to end discrimination based on a person’s gender. In 1972, the new government under Gough Whitlam added the pill to the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) and removed the luxury tax, making it more affordable. At the time, this reduced the cost of the pill to $1 a month. This gave women more choice and freedom, but upset the religious and social norms of the time.

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of movement, privacy, cultural rights, property rights and right to a fair trial, to name a few. It also covers how human rights are applied in Victoria, how laws are interpreted and the obligations of public authorities and workers. It also gives power to the commission and how the charter is to be reviewed.

1 List the way that a referendum can be won; for example, the 1967 Referendum.

2 Create a timeline using the ‘Australia’s changing ways’ section to show change in Australia over the course of the four events listed.

3 Why it is important that how we view human rights continues to develop over time?

4 What lasting impact do ongoing human rights changes have?

5 Why do you think the State of Victoria has its own Human Rights Charter? What other organisations might have their own document on human rights?

End of investigation review: What is the globalising world?

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable chapter summary

• Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about the globalising world since 1945? For this activity, copy the diagram and fill out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic

Significant developments and events since 1945

Significant movements for social and political change since 1945

Significant events, individuals and groups in the women’s movement in Australia, and how they changed the role and status of women

Some of the continuing efforts to create change in civil rights and freedoms in Australia

Practice questions

Employing historical skills

Chronology

Using the timeline from Lesson 6.2:

What I have learned

1 Why are different types of human rights being fought for at the same time?

2 What recent or current human rights should be included on this list?

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3 What has changed over time for these changes to take place?

Source 6.6.1

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in monumental form at the Anne Frank Human Rights Memorial in Boise, Idaho, USA, is one of the few places on the planet where the complete text is on permanent public display.

Historical significance

1 What is the legacy of the UDHR?

2 Who were some people that you know who fought for change over the past 100 years in regards to human rights?

3 If you had to add a human right to the UDHR, what would it be and why?

Historical questions

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1 What questions do you still have about human rights, the United Nations, or The Universal Declaration of Human rights?

2 How would you formulate these questions for your peers to use?

3 Where would you go or where would you direct your peers to answer these questions?

Research task

Using the United Nations website, research the women who shaped The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Pick one of the eight women shown on the following link and answer the following questions.

https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11429

1 What is her name, nationality and position?

2 What impact did she have on the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

3 Was this impact just for women or did it impact other minority groups at the time?

4 What lasting impact does this change have on future women and men?

5 Thinking of a human rights issue today: does this women’s legacy help this current issue?

Response

to the chapter inquiry question: what is the globalising world?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. In this paragraph, use the learning from this chapter to support your understanding of how the world has changed and become more global. Think about the ways that the world, as a group, protects rights, freedoms and peace.

Source 6.6.2 December 2008: Astronauts Sandra Magnus, Mike Fincke and Yury Lonchakov display the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The documents were carried into space with Space Shuttle Endeavour on 15 November 2008. The launch of the Declaration on board Endeavour was part of a year long calendar of celebrations to mark 60 years since the it was first adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, France.

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CHAPTER 7

How do we de ne popular culture?

LESSONTITLE

7.1Setting the scene: ‘Satisfaction’ and the Rolling Stones

7.2What were the key events in this topic?

7.3How did popular culture emerge in Australia during the 1950s?

7.4How did popular culture evolve in the 1960s?

7.5How did an Australian identity emerge in the 1970s?

7.6How did Australian popular culture explode in the 1980s?

7.7How did Australian culture grow after the end of the Cold War?

7.8How did Australian culture develop in the twenty-first century?

7.9How did technology alter the course of popular culture?

7.10Who are the popular culture leaders of today?

7.11End of investigation review: how do we define popular culture?

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This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

CHAPTER 8

How and why did our relationship with the environment change after 1945?

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LESSONTITLE

8.1Setting the scene: how did we get to this point?

8.2What were the key events in our changing relationship with our environment?

8.3How and why did our perspective of the natural word begin to change in the twentieth century?

8.4How did the development of new chemical agents affect the environment and our understanding of it?

8.5How did the advent of the nuclear age threaten the health and survival of the planet?

8.6What effects have nuclear testing had on Australia and its Indigenous communities?

8.7How did environmental protest groups emerge to challenge governments’ treatment of the environment?

8.8How have localised environmental disasters changed the way people live and view the natural world?

8.9How have global environmental crises changed the way people live and view the natural world?

8.10How and why did the concept of climate change become so controversial?

8.11How has a new generation of environmental protestors attempted to challenge the political inaction on climate change?

8.12How have protest movements changed to meet the evolving environmental and political situation of the twenty-first century?

8.13End of investigation review: how and why did our relationship with the environment change after 1945?

Warning: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples should be aware that this chapter contains images and names of people who have passed away.

CHAPTER 9

How has migration shaped modern Australia?

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LESSONTITLE

9.1Setting the scene: how did Ahn Do come to Australia?

9.2What were the key events in Australia’s migration history?

9.3What were Australia’s attitudes towards migration before 1945?

9.4How did migration to Australia change after World War II?

9.5What led to changes in migration to Australia?

9.6How did Australia’s attitudes to migration change over time?

9.7What are the different perspectives and interpretations of Australia’s immigration history?

9.8End of investigation review: how has migration shaped modern Australia?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

CHAPTER 10

How did political crises a ect postwar Australia?

LESSONTITLE

10.1Setting the scene: Spies in Australia!

10.2What happened during Australian political crises?

10.3How did the Petrov Affair start?

10.4What were the consequences of the Petrov Affair?

10.5What perspectives emerged about the Petrov Affair?

10.6What was the origin of the Whitlam Dismissal?

10.7What were the consequences of the Whitlam Dismissal?

10.8What perspectives emerged about the Whitlam Dismissal?

10.9How did the ALP develop leadership crises?

10.10How did the Coalition develop leadership crises?

10.10 How 10.11 End

10.11End of investigation review: How did political crises affect postwar Australia?

espionage the practice of secretly collecting and reporting information about other governments or organisations (spying)

embassy the office that represents a country in a foreign country

Setting the scene: Spies in Australia!

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Learning intention

In this investigation, we will look at three political crises in Australian history. In this lesson, we will examine the 1950s’ Cold War drama of the Petrov Affair.

The strange case of Vladimir and Evdokia Petrov began 15 000 km from Sydney, in the Soviet Union. They were both born before the Russian Revolution, and were teenagers when they joined organisations set up by the Communist Party, which came to rule Russia and its neighbouring republics. In the 1930s, each of them started to work for the Soviet secret service, developing expert

skills in espionage and code breaking. They had all the attributes of Cold War spies: they worked and travelled under multiple names (Vladimir was also known as Mr Proletarskii, Mr Shorokhov and Mr Allyson), they spoke multiple languages (Evdokia spoke Russian, English, Swedish and Japanese), and they knew how to keep a secret.

Vladimir and Evdokia fell in love and were married in 1940, and adopted the surname ‘Petrov’, which was chosen for Vladimir by the Soviet secret police. When the Cold War began, authorities in Moscow wanted to develop a global network of agents to collect and report information about Western nations. As part of this, the couple was given a new mission, to a remote part of the world: Australia.

The Petrovs arrived in Canberra in February 1951 and were given cover jobs in the Soviet Embassy. She was officially the embassy’s accountant, photographer and secretary, but unofficially she was the cypher clerk, which meant that she was in charge of classified cable messages with the secret service (KGB) in Moscow, and files about the undercover work of Soviet agents in Australia. He was supposedly a diplomat supporting relations between the Soviet and Australian governments, but his secret mission was to build a spy network

contacts who might be willing to hand over information about Australia’s government, military and businesses.

Vladimir and Evdokia’s superiors in the Soviet Union began to get very frustrated with the lack of progress they were making in Australia. They did not realise that Australia’s own spies, from the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO, which had been established in 1949), had discovered their true identities and were working to counter their infiltration attempts. Vladimir began to worry. If he and Evdokia were not soon successful, he feared the worst. His superiors did not tolerate failure –execution was a common punishment.

In February 1954, a part-time ASIO spy, a Polish doctor called Michael Bialoguski, secretly approached Vladimir and offered him a deal. If he would defect to Australia and share information about Soviet spying, then the Australian government would keep him safe from his Soviet masters. For six weeks they negotiated the details of the deal, but Vladimir was so good at keeping secrets that he did not mention it to his wife! On 3 April 1954, he met ASIO agents in a warehouse in Sydney and officially defected.

When Soviet officials became aware of Vladimir’s defection, they took Evdokia from her Canberra home and imprisoned her within the Soviet Embassy. Armed guards were quickly arranged to transport her back to the Soviet Union. On 19 April, Evdokia was escorted to Sydney Airport. By this time, Vladimir’s defection had become public knowledge. A large anti-communist crowd descended on the airport to attempt to stop the guards and ‘save’ Evdokia. She was jostled as she crossed the tarmac with her escorts, and lost a shoe in the process. Eventually the plane managed to depart. Protesters contacted the Prime Minister to ask him to intervene.

Would Mrs Petrov be saved? What would her husband’s papers reveal about spying in Australia?

A very public inquiry and fierce debates in Parliament occurred about what became known as ‘The Petrov Affair’. One woman’s struggle at an airport triggered the first major political crisis in Australia after World War II. Other crises were to follow, as you will learn, including the sacking of an elected government in the 1970s and internal political party wars that brought down prime minister after prime minister in the twenty-first century.

defect to abandon allegiance to one country and pledge allegiance to another

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1 Identify who the Petrovs were, and why they came to Australia.

2 Explain what spies did and what skills they needed.

3 Develop three factual questions that you want to ask, to know more about the situation.

4 Describe what you know about so far about Australian political crises.

What happened during Australian political crises?

Learning intention

In this lesson, we will look at three thematic timelines covering the three main events of the investigation: the Petrov Affair, the Whitlam Dismissal and modern political turmoil in the major political parties.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see? Describe the body language of each leader. What does it make you think? What do you wonder?

Source 10.2.1 Australia’s first female Prime Minister Julia Gillard (Labor) and Opposition leader Tony Abbott (Coalition) during House of Representatives question time at Parliament House, Canberra, February 2013

Timeline of elections and key events

Australians sent to the Vietnam War

Apollo 11 lands on the Moon

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Petrov A air: communist defectors

Whitlam ALP government dismissed

Source 10.2.2 Government majorities in the House of Representatives, 1946–1984. To form government, a party or coalition needs to win a majority of seats in the House at a federal election (held every 3 years, or more often in some situations). The further the line is above or below the horizontal axis (zero), the greater the government’s majority.

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1951

1954

The Petrov Affair: communist defectors

1991

Soviet Union collapses; end of the Cold War

Failed referendum to ban the Communist Party

1962

First Australians sent to the Vietnam War

1969

Apollo 11 lands on the Moon

1975

Whitlam ALP government dismissed by the GovernorGeneral, creating a constitutional crisis

Timeline of significant events in Australia’s political history

Four prime ministers in a row are replaced by a challenger from their own party: Kevin Rudd, Julia Gillard, Tony Abbott, Malcolm Turnbull

Failed referendum for Australia to become a republic

11 terrorist attacks; ‘War on Terror’ begins

Julia Gillard becomes Australia’s first female

2023

Failed referendum for an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Voice to parliament

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1 Identify which political party had more success in winning majorities in Federal Parliament for the first four decades after World War II.

2 Identify when changes of government occurred between 1949 and 1983. Why might voters choose a different party?

Which of the key events have you heard about before?

and

How did the Petrov Affair start?

Learning intention

Having learned about Evdokia Petrov’s crisis when boarding an aeroplane to leave Australia, in this lesson you will explore where the spying affair started.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see?

What does it make you think?

What do you wonder?

Source 10.3.1 Vladimir and Evdokia Petrov after their defection, in a safe house provided by ASIO in Sydney in 1954

Origins of the crisis

Remember Evdokia Petrov, the Russian spy who was jostled through crowds of anticommunist protesters at Sydney Airport in April 1954? She and her husband Vladimir had arrived in Australia one month before a significant political event: A referendum to decide whether to ban the Communist Party of Australia. The party was small, with at most 20 000 members and no seats in Federal Parliament, but it had some influence over workers’ organisations, including several trade unions. With the Cold War under way between Western democracies and Eastern communist states, Prime Minister Robert Menzies wanted to make it illegal for communists to win seats in Australian parliaments.

Menzies was Australia’s Prime Minister for 18 years, 1939–1941 and 1949–1966. He represented the seat of Kooyong, Melbourne, and was a founding member of the Liberal Party of Australia in 1944, which he led to victory in the 1949 election and in the next six elections in a row. Menzies saw himself as British Australian. He was very loyal to the British monarchy and its traditions, and he saw communism as a grave threat to Western civilisation.

Menzies had originally passed a law to ban the Communist Party, abolish any trade unions that were considered to be communist-related, and blacklist any person who might damage Australia’s security and defence. However, the High Court had agreed with the Labor Party opposition that no government had the constitutional power to do this. So Menzies tried again, by asking voters to change the Constitution and permanently ban the communist party.

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The Liberal Party failed to convince enough voters to change the constitution. A referendum requires both an overall national majority and a majority of states (four) to vote ‘Yes’. The Communist Party ban won neither, but it did come close. The ‘Yes’ vote secured 49.44 per cent of the national vote and a majority in three states: Queensland, Tasmania and Western Australia. Therefore, the party would not be banned, but the fiercely anticommunist Menzies would continue to lead the country until 1966.

Concepts and skills builder 10.3

Analysing historical perspectives

Examine the following source and then answer the questions about its perspective that follow.

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1 Describe the symbols that are used to show that this is a communist office.

2 Identify what news the man is carr ying.

3 Explain what ‘unfinished business’ the cartoonist has placed on the desk. What sort of people might be able to do these things?

4 Discuss the motive of the cartoonist: What is their message?

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

Intriguing developments

Six days before Mrs Petrov was escorted to the airport, on 13 April 1954, Prime Minister Robert Menzies had announced Mr Petrov’s defection. He said that ‘The Petrov Papers’ included evidence of communist espionage across Australia, and called for a Royal Commission to investigate the scandal. Hearings would be held in Canberra, Melbourne and Sydney.

After Evdokia’s plane departed Sydney, protesters begged Prime Minister Menzies to intervene, through phone calls and urgent telegrams. The last opportunity to intervene would be at the plane’s next stop, in Darwin, where it would pause to refuel, before continuing north towards the Soviet Union.

ASIO agents were sent to intercept the plane as it refuelled in Darwin. They boarded the plane, separated Evdokia

10.3 review

HAVE JUST SEEN SHOCKING SCENE HOW SOVIET POLICE IN PRESENCE INDIFFERENT AUSTRALIAN POLICE AND OTHER OFFICIALS HAVE FORCED MRS PETROV ON FREE AUSTRALIAN SOIL TO BOARD PLANE TAKING HER TO CERTAIN TORTURE AND DEATH.

MOST RESPECTFULLY IMPLORE YOUR PERSONAL INTERVENTION TO FREE HER WHILE STILL ON AUSTRALIAN TERRITORY THUS MAINTAINING AUSTRALIA’S DEMOCRATIC RECORD IN FACE FREE WORLD AND SAVING ONE HUMAN LIFE.

Source 10.3.4 HR Krygier, Australian representative, Congress for Cultural Freedom (an American CIA funded anti-communist group), telegram to Prime Minister Menzies, 20 April 1954

from the Soviet agents, and officially offered her asylum in Australia. After a brief phone conversation with her husband, she accepted. The Petrovs were moved to a safe house, to prepare to hand over their evidence.

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10.3 Review questions

1 Identify what the Menzies Liberal Party tried to do in relation to communism in 1951.

2 Explain the results of the 1951 referendum: what did they show?

3 Discuss the significance of Vladimir Petrov’s defection.

4 Explain why some people who saw or heard about Evdokia Petrov at the airport wanted the government to intervene.

Royal Commission the highest form of public inquiry a parliament can set up, with powers to summon witnesses to give evidence asylum the protection given to a person who has become a refugee from their home country

What were the consequences of the Petrov Affair? 10.4

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Learning intention

We have seen how Australian agents kept the Petrovs safe in Australia. Now, we turn to how the Petrov Affair affected Australia’s political system.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see? How does her appearance compare with the photograph of her at the airport (source 10.1.1)?

What does it make you think? What do you wonder, now?

Source 10.4.1 Evdokia Petrov arriving at the High Court building in Melbourne to testify before the Royal Commission on Espionage, July 1954

Consequences of the crisis

Menzies announced the Royal Commission on Espionage on the last day of Parliament before the 1954 federal election campaign began. The hearings of the Royal Commission began two weeks before Australians had to vote, either to give Menzies a third term, or to give the leader of the Australian Labor

Party (ALP), Dr HV ‘Doc’ Evatt, the opportunity to form government. This meant that while voters knew that the hearings were under way, the findings would not be known until after the election. Evatt accused the government of an elaborate conspiracy to help reelect the conservatives.

The 1954 election campaign, then, was conducted in the context of a spy scandal and before any proof of the activities of communists across the country had been made public. While people’s votes may have been affected more by their concerns about the costs of living and employment security, both party leaders referred to concerns about communism and socialism in their campaigns.

Concepts and skills builder 10.4

Using historical sources to analyse perspectives

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions about their perspectives that follow.

We believe in the individual, in his freedom, in his ambition, in his dignity. If he becomes submerged in the mass, and loses his personal significance, we have tyranny. And because of this, we believe in free enterprise; not enterprise free of social obligation, but free enterprise in the sense that it embraces free choice, reward for effort and skill, encouragement to grow and be self-reliant, and strong.

… The Socialists say that we all ought to work for a Government Department; that we don’t need to be encouraged to work in any case, because an all-powerful Government will provide. In Australia the Socialists – who call themselves Labor – carry their ideas to the most cynical extremes.

Source 10.4.2 Robert Menzies (Liberal Party), election speech, May 1954 …

socialism the belief that there should be collective control of how workers are treated and how things are produced

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The primary aim of Labor will be to provide a government that will give the people every essential of security. First, there must be a real defence security. … With a firm resolve to achieve social and economic justice, we must take positive action to restore security to those adversely affected by the tremendous increase in living costs.

… On assuming office a Labor Government will act immediately if there is evidence of any offence against national security or of subversion on the part of any person. We shall not delay or hesitate. Don’t forget that anti-Labor parties always use the Communist cry during election time as a smokescreen to conceal their political wrongdoing.

Source 10.4.3 Herbert V Evatt (Labor Party), election speech, May 1954

1 Describe what Menzies claims the Liberal Party stands for.

2 Describe what Menzies claims the Labor Party believes.

3 Describe what Evatt claims the anti-Labor parties were doing.

4 Explain what was happening at the time in relation to communism in Australia.

5 Discuss what these sources show about the 1954 election.

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

Continuities and change

In the 1954 election, Labor won a majority of votes (50.7%), but they failed to win a majority of seats. The Liberal/Country government retained government, but with a reduced majority: 64 seats in the House of Representatives to Labor’s 57. Menzies continued to emphasise the dangers of communism and socialism. The Soviet embassy was closed down and its staff returned to Moscow. The embassy would remain closed for five years.

At the Royal Commission, Vladimir and Evdokia Petrov were the star witnesses. Once the Petrovs completed their public appearances, they were hidden in a series of safe houses across Australia, and eventually assumed new identities and lived out their lives in private.

The Royal Commission heard that people who had worked for the Labor Party – and even for HV Evatt’s own office –had at times had direct contact with communists or Soviet spies. This caused a crisis for the Opposition. Evatt tried to persuade the Royal Commission that some of the documents were forgeries and the accusations against his former staff members were a conspiracy to damage the Labor Party. In late 1954, the Royal Commission found that this allegation was ‘fantastic and wholly

unsupported by any credible evidence’. However, Evatt was so determined to prove this that in 1955, he wrote to the Soviet foreign minister, Vyachslav Molotov, to ask him whether there were Russian spies in Australia. The parliament laughed at Evatt when he announced that Molotov had told him no, there were none. What else would a Soviet minister say?

The Commission issued its report in late 1955. It found that the Petrov Papers were genuine, that the Soviet Embassy had been used for espionage, and that some Australians had helped the espionage by providing documents and information. Although it did not recommend that any of the Australians implicated should be charged with a crime, the fallout from the report and from Evatt’s accusations would leave the ALP in opposition for a generation.

Long-running tensions within the ALP between its anti-communist members and more moderate factions boiled over. A number of ALP members quit the party to form a rival party, called the Democratic Labor Party (DLP). This became known as ‘The Split’. The votes of people who usually supported the ALP were now split between that option and the new option of voting for the anti-communist DLP.

The A.L.P., one the one hand, is drifting rapidly toward the establishment of a bureaucratic dictatorship, under which the country becomes the plaything of officialdom, and the door is left wide open to the infiltration of communism under the guise of socialisation and nationalisation.

On the other hand, we have the Liberal Party, whose policy is dictated by monopolies, big business and vested interests.

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… I am completely convinced that the D.L.P. is the only answer to the political mess this country is in. If the workers of Australia will only put aside their petty differences and stand firmly behind this ‘centre of the road’ party, the prosperity of Australia and its people will be assured.

Source 10.4.4 LC Hale (ex-Mayor of Fairfield and DLP supporter), in The Biz newspaper, 27 November 1957 …

The DLP was particularly strong in Victoria, and among Catholic voters, who were concerned by communism’s opposition to religion. ALP members of the Victorian Parliament who split and joined the DLP brought down the Labor State government in 1955. In the Federal election of December 1955, the ALP vote fell by over 13 per cent across Victoria.

In the election of 1958, the DLP told its supporters to give their second preference votes to Menzies’ Liberal/ Country Party Coalition, which helped the conservative side of politics to retain a strong majority of seats. The DLP also held the balance of power in the Senate, meaning governments had to negotiate with them to pass laws.

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1 Identify what the Royal Commission on Espionage found.

2 Explain what the Labor Party leader claimed about the Royal Commission.

3 Refer to the information about the Democratic Labor Party.

a Describe why the DLP was formed.

b Explain how the DLP affected Australian voting patterns.

4 Explain how political parties changed after ‘The Split’.

What perspectives emerged about the Petrov Affair?

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Learning intention

Having learned about the impacts of the Petrov Affair on political parties, we will now explore perspectives and interpretations that emerged about the crisis.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Claim, support, question

Make a claim: Based on this headline and your learning so far, what do you think was the perspective of Australian newspaper readers at the time about Russia?

Support: What evidence or reasoning can you provide to support your claim?

Question: What questions do you have about your claim? How would you interrogate it to determine how accurate it is?

THE RED SPY INQUIRY …

EMBASSY WAS H.Q. FOR ESPIONAGE

RUSSIA’S top military espionage service, the G.R.U., may still be active in Australia.

The Royal Commission on Espionage said this in its report tabled in Parliament yesterday.

Source 10.5.1 Front-page headlines, The Argus newspaper, Melbourne, 15 September 1955 …

Perspectives at the time

The Petrov Affair fascinated Australians at the time, resulting in numerous front-page newspaper stories, and because of its mysteries and consequences, it continues to provoke discussion and debate.

The first focus of media attention during the affair was the operation to

‘rescue’ Mrs Petrov from the plane to Moscow in April 1954. Newspaper reports at the time described her plight as a kidnapping, and her escorts as ‘two burly Russians’ who ‘pushed’ her to the plane against her will, terrified of what her captors might do, while crowds of

protesters tried to save her. Some said that the one thing she left behind on the tarmac was a red shoe, but this was probably an invention to link to the ‘Reds’.

Sympathetic Australians regarded Evdokia as a victim of the communist state who

deserved to be saved, rather than a secret agent of that state.

Mrs Petrov’s own account was more complicated: she said that she was terrified of the crowd.

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Immediately I left the car with the men the crowd started to shout to me – ‘Don’t go back – if you do you will be killed’ … The crowd were pushing us – I lost one of my shoes – my handbag was broken – two buttons were torn from my suit. I was terrified – I thought the crowd would hurt me – I thought they were against me …

The newspaper stories that I appealed for help are not true. I think if I had been asked to stay, at the time of the shouting and demonstration I would have had to reject it, although I did hope I might be rescued later.

Source 10.5.2 Evdokia Petrov, interview with ASIO, 22 April 1954 …

Mrs Petrov’s version of the event was not made public until after the Royal Commission hearings. Therefore, the

impression that she was a victim, fuelled by one version of the airport runway drama, stayed with the Australian public.

Concepts and skills builder 10.5

Analysing historical perspectives and communicating

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions about communicating that follow.

Vladimir Petrov told the Royal Commission on Espionage today he secretly met an Australian security officer almost opposite the Soviet Embassy in Canberra before he sought political asylum. … He appeared tense and strained, after 17 hours in the witness box, and nervously clasped and unclasped his hands.

Security guards controlled every entrance to the High Court as big crowds, including more than 50 newsreel and Press photographers, also women reporters, crowded round the building.

The women journalists and most of the crowd were watching for the appearance of Mrs. Evdokia Petrov who is expected to start giving her evidence late this afternoon.

Source 10.5.3 ‘Fifth Day in the Witness Box for Vladimir Petrov’, various newspapers including Innisfail Advocate, 6 July 1954

Constantly she used her well-shaped and manicured hands to assist in telling her story … With her Frenchstyle pouting smile and shrug, the quick droop of the eyelids and the laugh that crinkles the corners of her grey-green eyes, she had the packed courtroom smiling.

Source 10.5.4 ‘Meet Evdokia: Woman of the Year’, Front page story, The Argus newspaper, Melbourne, 7 July 1954

Chapter 10: How did political crises affect postwar Australia?

Mrs Petrov, like a normal Melbourne housewife, prepares all the meals for herself and her husband. She does her own shopping for household requirements and is becoming an expert at keeping house the Australian way.

Source 10.5.5 ‘The Petrovs are settling down’, Western Mail newspaper, Perth, 5 August 1954 …

1 Describe what aspects of the Petrovs the newspaper reports focus on.

2 Describe the impact Mrs Petrov is said to have had on the courtroom.

3 Discuss what these sources show about the Australian public’s interest in the case.

4 Select one source and analyse its motive: how might the way the source communicated information and ideas have shaped people’s perceptions of Mrs Petrov?

Historical concepts and skills: communicating, using historical sources

Historical interpretations

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Source 10.5.6 A Tasmanian newspaper headline from April 1954 breaking the news that the Soviet embassy in Canberra was closing and its diplomats would be expelled from Australia.

After their ordeal, the Petrovs became Australian citizens, and eventually settled under assumed names in the Melbourne suburb of East Bentleigh. After writing a series of newspaper articles about the drama, which were later published as a book, they stayed out of the public eye, knowing that they had been placed on a KGB wanted list. Vladimir worked at a photographic business and Evdokia found a job with a tractor company. Sadly, Evdokia suffered from Vladimir’s abuse of alcohol.

At first, historical interpretations of the Petrovs’ sensational defection were shaped by what they said in the Royal Commission hearings and their book, as well as an account published by the double agent who negotiated Petrov’s defection, Dr Michael Bialoguski. Bialoguski downplayed Petrov’s abilities: he was often drunk, and not very competent. Both books presented the Petrovs as relatively low-level operators, who were victims of the Soviet system – which the Petrovs called an ‘Empire of Fear’ – and grateful to have escaped.

The Soviet Embassy in Canberra, whose doors we entered for the first time on 5th February 1951, was, to a unique degree among foreign embassies, a microcosm of its parent. It was a Soviet fortress on alien territory, a little Moscow on Australian soil.

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Later historians who reviewed the material, including declassified secret files, developed new interpretations. Perhaps, they said, everyone had underestimated the Petrovs.

Mr Petrov, Richard Kerbaj concluded in 2022, was ‘a skilled spymaster, capable of operating in the shadows, obtaining and concealing secrets’ [Richard Kerbaj, The Secret History of the Five Eyes: The Untold Story of the International Spy Network (London: Blink Publishing, 2022), pp. 104–05]. Perhaps he and his wife never revealed the full extent of what they knew, to protect their contacts or friends in Russia. Mrs Petrov in particular had been underestimated. As Phillip Deery wrote in 2024, investigators and journalists at first dismissed her as inconsequential or simply a victim, but ASIO soon realised how valuable her work had been, and how much insight she had into the operations of the entire Soviet spying system.

Defectors from the Russian Intelligence Services to the West were of critical importance. They exposed and neutralised hundreds of Soviet agents who had penetrated government departments and democratic institutions. … these Soviet defectors were highly prized for the intelligence they provided to security services. Ranked amongst the most valuable at the time was Vladimir Mikhailovich Petrov, who defected in Sydney in 1954.

Source 10.5.8 Professor Phillip Deery, Victoria University, ‘Vladimir Petrov: A Reappraisal’, The Australian Journal of Politics and History’, 2024, p. 1

One interpretation seems to be agreed by historians of the Affair: the key political consequence of the defection, the Royal Commission and the debates in parliament was ‘The Split’ in the Labor Party. This saw Labor lose many of its anti-communist members and voters for many years.

From the broadest perspective the Petrov Affair might be seen as the last in a series of major Soviet spy dramas which shook the Western democracies during the period of the Cold War (1945–1954) … Of all the great espionage cases it alone was responsible for altering fundamentally the political alignment within a Western nation. As we shall see, it was the Petrov Affair which precipitated a split in the Australian Labor Party, which in turn kept it from government for the best part of a generation.

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Lesson 10.5 review

10.5 Review questions

1 Identify different perspectives about Evdokia’s airport experience.

2 Explain how early interpretations of the Petrovs portrayed them.

3 Explain how later interpretations of the Petrovs changed these portrayals.

4 Analyse the lasting impacts of the Petrov Affair on Australian politics.

What was the origin of the Whitlam Dismissal?

Learning intention

The previous lessons were about the major political crisis of the 1950s in Australia. This lesson is about the major crisis of the 1970s, when a prime minister was dismissed from office.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see?

What does it make you think about Whitlam as a politician?

What do you wonder?

Source 10.6.1 Labor leader Gough Whitlam and pop singer Little Pattie, who sang the Labor Party’s campaign song, ‘It’s Time’, photographed during the federal election campaign of 1972

social democrat a left-wing politician who believes in combining capitalist and socialist principles, especially in a democratic welfare state

Origins of the crisis

By 1972, Australia had experienced 23 consecutive years of conservative government. For 17 of those years, one man – Robert Menzies – was prime minister. However, in the final six years, there were four prime ministers, some of whom became quite unpopular, as did the Vietnam War, to which they had committed troops. There was a mood for change.

In the Federal election, the ALP, under its charismatic new leader, Gough Whitlam, captured the mood in the simple phrase, ‘It’s Time’. Whitlam represented a new kind of Labor politician. While he represented working-class people in Western Sydney, he had grown up middleclass in Melbourne, Sydney and Canberra and become a lawyer. He was keen to involve more younger people and women in politics, and to use new media broadcast technologies to sell his message.

Whitlam was no stranger to Cold War controversy. He was a social democrat who believed that governments should

…

intervene in the economy to change people’s working and living conditions –through initiatives like universal health care and free education – and he called people ‘Comrade’, as socialists and communists did. For these reasons, conservative politicians claimed that he was a dangerously radical left-wing politician. They said this was proven when, as Leader of the Opposition, Whitlam visited China in 1971 and met with Premier Zhou Enlai, at a time when the Liberal/Country government refused to have any diplomatic relations with communist China. However, just days later, the conservative US President Richard Nixon announced his own plans to visit to China with a view to opening diplomatic relations. At a stroke, Whitlam was seen in Australia as a forwardthinking international statesman, and his popularity rose.

Born in Melbourne, Whitlam grew up in Canberra, where his father was a

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from 1972 to 1975

leading government lawyer. He served in the air force during World War II, and then represented the Labor Party for southern Sydney. Whitlam saw Australia’s future as independent from Britain and the United States, and won the Federal election of 1972 with a platform that promised to withdraw Australian troops from the Vietnam War and make widespread reforms to social and economic policy.

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Concepts and skills builder 10.6

Analysing historical perspectives

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions about perspectives that follow.

There are moments in history when the whole fate and future of nations can be decided by a single decision. For Australia, this is such a time. It’s time for a new team, a new program, a new drive for equality of opportunities: it’s time to create new opportunities for Australians, time for a new vision of what we can achieve in this generation for our nation and the region in which we live. It’s time for a new government – a Labor Government.

Our program has three great aims. They are:

• to promote equality

• to involve the people of Australia in the decision-making processes of our land

• and to liberate the talents and uplift the horizons of the Australian people.

We want to give a new life and a new meaning in this new nation to the touchstone of modern democracy – to liberty, equality, fraternity.

… It is also an election about two fundamentally different ways of governing. The Liberal way which seeks to encourage the freedom, the talents, and the dignity of the individual, in a society in which the Government is the servant not the master. The other is the Labor philosophy of socialism and the allpowerful State, in a society where the Government is the master – not the servant. A Government which is dominated by the left wing and the powerful militant trade unions.

Source 10.6.4

14 November 1972 …

1 Identify how many times Whitlam refers to it being ‘time’ for change. What does this show?

2 Describe what Whitlam says are the aims of his ‘program’.

3 Discuss what McMahon’s speech had in common with Menzies’ speech in 1954. What does this show?

4 Analyse how useful these speeches are as evidence of the perspectives about Australia that each party had at the time.

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

Political developments

In December 1972, Whitlam defeated William McMahon, winning 52.7 per cent of the two-party preferred vote. The ALP formed government, with 67 seats in the House of Representatives versus

the conservatives’ 57. However, the ALP did not command a majority in the Senate, which meant that their long list of proposed reforms would only be possible if they managed to win over the hostile upper house.

The Whitlam government raced to introduce its program, passing a record 203 bills in its first year. These began a wide range of reforms that affected Australian society in areas generally regarded as ‘progressive’, including economic and gender equity, health, education and culture. His supporters were delighted to see so many changes take place so quickly, but his opponents and others were concerned about the pace of reform, and the lack of consultation. This was typified by Whitlam’s saying, ‘When you are faced with an impasse you have got to crash through or you’ve got to crash.’

Policy area

Cities

Education

Health

Gender

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Whitlam government reforms

Doubled investment in public housing; urban policy for more liveable suburbs

Introduced needs-based funding for schools; abolished fees for university courses

Started government-financed health insurance (Medibank, later called Medicare)

Equal pay for women; single mother parenting payments; first government in the world to appoint an adviser on women’s policies

Indigenous rightsFirst recognition of Aboriginal land rights (Gurindji)

Immigration

Environment

The Arts

Completed the end of the White Australia Policy and promoted ‘multiculturalism’

Environmental impact statements to be required for development

Established the Arts Council to fund artists

National identityReplaced royal titles (Sir, etc.) with Order of Australia awards; replaced ‘God Save the Queen’ with ‘Advance Australia Fair’

Foreign affairs

Reduced trade barriers; opened relations with China; withdrew final troops from Vietnam; granted Papua New Guinea independence

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The lack of a majority in the Senate made it difficult to pass legislation, including laws that secured the budget for the government’s programs. Whitlam tried to break the deadlock by calling an election in 1974 for both the House and the Senate. However, while the ALP retained a majority in the House, it still failed to get a majority in the Senate. After the election, the Senate again refused to pass the government’s budget bills. A once-off joint sitting of both Houses was organised to break the deadlock –temporarily, it worked.

Meanwhile, the Whitlam government suffered some scandals. One was to do with a relationship: Treasurer and Deputy Prime Minister Jim Cairns appointed Junie Morosi, with whom he had a romantic affair, as his senior adviser, despite her lack of experience in public service. The media argued that this questioned the government’s judgement. The other was more serious: As financial pressures affected governments across the world, and the Senate maintained its pressure on the government’s budget, ALP ministers unwisely tried to borrow huge

sums of money from the oil-rich Middle East through shady bankers, without following due process. The attempts backfired, embarrassing the government in parliament and forcing Whitlam to sack some of his ministers.

The Opposition said that the Morosi and Loans affairs showed that the government could not be trusted. They increased their pressure on the government in two ways: First, when two ALP senators resigned from their seats, the conservative leaders of NSW and Queensland broke the convention of replacing them with a candidate from the same party and replaced them instead with Senators who opposed the government, which reduced the government’s numbers in the Senate. Second, in the Senate, the Opposition used its majority to reject the government’s ‘supply’ bills for the $21 billion it needed to run the annual budget. Opposition leader Malcolm Fraser said the government was at an impasse and should call a new election.

Lesson10.6 Review

We will use the power vested in us by the Constitution and delay the passage of the Government’s money bills through the Senate, until the Parliament goes to the people. In accordance with long established constitutional practice which the Prime Minister has himself acknowledged in the past, the Government must resign.

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Source 10.6.7 Malcolm Fraser, 16 October 1975 …

I state again the basic rule of our parliamentary system; governments are made and unmade in the House of Representatives – in the people’s house. The Senate cannot, does not, and must never determine who the government shall be.

Source 10.6.8 Gough Whitlam, 16 October 1975 …

Australia was in the grips of a constitutional crisis, a war between its two Houses of Parliament.

10.6 Review questions

1 Identify why the Whitlam government faced obstacles in parliament.

2 Explain why the Whitlam government was regarded as achieving many reforms.

3 Explain problems that the Whitlam government created for itself, and problems that the Opposition created for it.

4 Discuss the different views of Whitlam and Fraser on the role of the Senate.

What were the consequences of the Whitlam Dismissal? 10.7

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Learning intention

Having learned how the Whitlam government faced a crisis, we now look at what happened next, and what the consequences were.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Step in, step out, step back

Step in: Imagine you were a person on the steps of Parliament House at the time. What do you think you might feel, believe, know, or experience?

Step out: What would you like or need to learn to understand these people’s perspective better?

Step back: What do you notice about your own perspective and what it takes to take somebody else’s?

Source 10.7.1 11 November 1975: Gough Whitlam surrounded by journalists and supporters after being dismissed by the Governor-General

The political crisis of the Whitlam government, compromised by some rogue ministers, raised questions about how to fix a deadlock in Australia’s political system. Who could resolve the battle between an ambitious government with a majority in the House and a defiant opposition in control of the Senate, who was refusing to

pass ‘supply’ bills that would give the government the funds it needed to operate? Who could settle the dispute between Whitlam and Fraser, two 6-foot-4 giants of Australian politics? Both believed they had a mandate to act as they saw fit. Neither was prepared to back down. For five weeks they were stuck in a constitutional crisis.

The Dismissal

In November 1975, Whitlam proposed a traditional solution: He would ask the Australian Governor-General to call for a half-Senate election, which would allow the voters to re-elect half of the seats in the Senate and potentially end the impasse. What he did not know was that Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after private discussions with opposition leader Malcolm Fraser and the Queen’s advisers at Buckingham Palace, had already decided to use his powers to resolve the situation himself.

The Governor-General represents the Queen or King, and has a mostly ceremonial role. Under the Constitution, the Governor-General has executive powers: to turn a bill passed by the Senate and House of Representatives into law by giving it ‘Royal Assent’; to

set up federal elections; and to act as Commander-in-Chief of the Australian Defence Force. The Governor-General also has unwritten reserve powers, which are not stated in the Constitution, but are linked to conventions about the authority of the Queen or King: to appoint a prime minister if an election has not resulted in a clear outcome, and dismiss a prime minister if they have lost the support of the House of Representatives.

Whitlam had not lost the support of the House, but his government was in crisis when, on 11 November, he arrived at Government House to recommend that Kerr call a half-Senate election. He entered Kerr’s office but, before he could hand over his recommendation, Kerr told him that he had decided to dismiss Whitlam and all of his ministers. The

Source 10.7.2 The Governor-General Sir John Kerr performing ceremonial duties in late 1974. …

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government was sacked. The last time a prime minister under the Westminster system had been dismissed was in 1834, by King William IV! Whitlam later he said he felt shocked and ambushed.

On the steps of Parliament House, with Whitlam looking over his shoulder,

the Governor-General’s secretary formally announced that parliament was dissolved and an election would be held. He ended the announcement with ‘God save the Queen’. Whitlam spoke next, saying, ‘Well may we say, “God Save the Queen”, because nothing will save the Governor-General.’

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Concepts and skills builder 10.7

Analysing historical perspectives and considering causes and consequences

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions that follow.

Because of the principle of responsible government, a Prime Minister who cannot obtain supply must either advise a general election or resign. If he refuses, I have the authority, indeed the duty, under the Constitution to withdraw his commission. No other decision was open to me.

Source 10.7.3 Governor-General Sir John Kerr, statement to media, 11 November 1975 …

Ladies and gentlemen, well may we say, ‘God Save the Queen’, because nothing will save the Governor-General.

The proclamation which you have just heard read by the Governor-General’s official secretary was countersigned ‘Malcolm Fraser’ who will undoubtedly go down in Australian history from Remembrance Day 1975 as Kerr’s cur [a vicious dog].

They won’t silence the outskirts of Parliament House, even if the inside has been silenced for the next few weeks … Maintain your rage and enthusiasm through the campaign for the election now to be held and until polling day.

Source 10.7.4 Gough Whitlam, on the steps of Parliament House, 11 November 1975 …

1 Describe what dut y Kerr claimed he had to do, and why.

2 Explain what Kerr meant by ‘cannot obtain supply’.

3 Describe how Whitlam claimed Fraser would be remembered.

4 Explain how Whitlam’s supporters may have interpreted, ‘Maintain your rage’.

5 Discuss what these sources show about emotions on 11 November 1975.

Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, historical significance, using historical sources

Westminster the parliamentary system Australia inherited from Britain, with the Crown separate from politics and ministers responsible to the parliament for their actions

Continuities and change

The full details of 11 November 1975 were not common knowledge for some time after. Eventually, it emerged that Whitlam had been out-manoeuvred by Fraser and Kerr.

While Whitlam was being told that he was dismissed, Malcolm Fraser was waiting in another room of Government House, which meant that as soon as Whitlam left, he could be called in to Kerr’s office, and sworn in as caretaker prime minister. Afterwards, back in Parliament, Fraser organised for the Senate to approved the government’s budget supply bill, finally. The ALP majority in the House tried to overturn the plan by passing a motion of noconfidence in Fraser as prime minister and sending the Speaker to ask the Governor-

General to reappoint Whitlam, but it was too late, because Fraser had already arranged for Kerr to sign the papers arranging a general election for both houses.

The Dismissal was the first and only time a Governor-General has ever used their reserve powers to end a government. This appeared to threaten to change Westminster practices, which kept the Crown separate from politics. Labor supporters were concerned that conservative forces had found a way to undermine a democratically elected government and stop its progressive agenda, and they arranged protests and rallies, some of which turned violent. Media outlets predicted that more chaos would follow.

In Canberra protesters besieged Parliament House from early afternoon when first news came of the withdrawal of Mr Whitlam’s commission as Prime Minister. They were still there late last night. Other demonstrators were held back by police at Government House, the residence of the Governor-General.

In Melbourne, wild demonstrations broke out when students and unionists stoned the Liberal Party headquarters in South Melbourne. Four youths were arrested as police and demonstrators had running battles using stones, banner poles and fists.

Source 10.7.5 Front page story, Canberra Times, 12 November 1975 …

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Australia, once one of the world’s most politically stable countries, now does not have a Government at all. It will take at least a month to organise an election.… The effect on the economy and the administration generally will be catastrophic.

Source 10.7.6 Front page story, The Guardian newspaper, London, 12 November 1975 …

Whitlam’s supporters may have ‘maintained their rage’, but the Liberal Party’s election campaign convinced many other Australians that the conservative side of politics offered an alternative, more stable future, and

a secure road out of the tumult of the Whitlam years. Fraser won the election in a landslide, enjoying a huge majority in the House: 91 seats to Labor’s 36, and a clear majority in the Senate. Labor’s share of the vote had fallen by over 7 per cent.

This election has been caused by a Prime Minister who refused to face the people, who tried to rule without Parliament, who defied a fundamental principle of our Constitution, and who finally forced the Governor-General to dismiss him; the man who took Australia the first significant step on the road to dictatorship.

This election is about the way Labor has been destroying our way of life.

… Australia needs change.

Australia needs reform.

Australia needs idealism

Australia does not need socialism

Source 10.7.7 Malcolm Fraser, election speech, 27 November 1975

Fraser’s government set out to manage the economy more on principles of individual freedoms than government stimulus, and scaled back government spending, particularly by reducing support for healthcare. However, it did not cancel or reverse all of Whitlam’s initiatives. Indeed, Fraser retained most of the

Lesson 10.7 review

Source 10.7.8 Malcolm Fraser after winning the December 1975 election. Fraser was sometimes described as ‘patrician’, meaning wealthy or aristocratic and aloof. How could this image be used to support that?

reforms that had been introduced from 1972 to 1975, which continued to shape Australian society and its multicultural future. John Kerr, on the other hand, never recovered his reputation, and retired in 1977 to spend most of his time away from Australia, in Europe.

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10.7 Review questions

1 Identify who dismissed the Whitlam government, and why.

2 Explain why the dismissal was controversial.

3 Compare Fraser’s election speech with McMahon’s in 1972 and Menzies’s in 1954 (source 10.4.2). What does this show?

4 Analyse in a paragraph to what extent the dismissal of the Whitlam government was justified. Consider both sides, and reach a conclusion.

What perspectives emerged about the Whitlam Dismissal? 10.8

Learning intention

Having learned about the controversy that developed around the dismissal of the Whitlam government, we now look at different perspectives and interpretations about the actions of the main players.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see?

What does it make you think?

What do you wonder?

Source 10.8.1 ‘This is your majority leader in the House of Representatives speaking …!’ says Whitlam, as Kerr sleeps, with Fraser as the dog at his feet. Jeff Hook, cartoon in Melbourne Sun, 21 November 1975

Consequences of the crisis

The immediate consequence of ‘The Dismissal’ was the sudden end to a term of parliament, followed by a Federal election. Did Kerr do the right thing? Every political journalist in Australia had a viewpoint on the issue. Initial reports focused on the statements of Whitlam and Fraser, and concerns that the protests on the streets might lead to riots or civil unrest or threats to the life of the Governor-General.

Mr Whitlam, by his desperate and unprecedented attempt to defy the GovernorGeneral and retain office without going to the people, has diminished his personal stature as a national leader. Neither will Mr Fraser, should he remain Prime Minister, escape the opprobrium of what he has done.

The Governor-General has not taken sides in a political dispute. He has made it possible for the people, the ultimate masters in a democracy, to make their own choice.

…

Source 10.8.2 Editorial, Canberra Times, 12 November 1975

The Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, yesterday sacked the Prime Minister, Mr. Whitlam, and dissolved Parliament.

Sir John appointed the former Opposition Leader, Mr. Fraser, as Prime Minister.

… Sir John’s unprecedented actions were taken without any warning to the Labor Government or Mr. Whitlam.

Later, debates would turn to concepts of justice, due process and fairness, and Australia’s relationship with the British royal family and their local vice-regal representative. Did the constitutional crisis of 1975 justify the Governor-General’s dismissal of Whitlam’s government? Could a better solution have been found? Lawyers and political analysts argued with each other over whether the action was legal or correct, and whether it set a precedent for future constitutional crises.

People who saw Whitlam’s government as arrogant, unstable and unwilling to compromise saw the Dismissal as justified, because it ended the impasse and the chaos and protected the Constitution by giving people a fresh vote. They pointed to Fraser’s landslide win in the election as proof that Whitlam’s pace of change and scandals had lost him the support of the electorate.

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Source 10.8.3 Front page, The Age, Melbourne, 12 November 1975 …

Source 10.8.4 The results of the 1975 Federal election, which the Liberal-National-Country coalition won

People who praised Whitlam’s reforms for modernising Australia and starting a new era of equity and opportunity saw the Dismissal as the unjustified sacking of an elected government by an undemocratically appointed and unpopular GovernorGeneral, using a power that was not written in the Constitution. There were also theories that America’s CIA, or someone in Buckingham Palace, had conspired to destroy a government whose policies they disliked.

Concepts

and skills builder 10.8

Analysing historical interpretations

A key consequence of the crisis, then, was Australia was split between people who took sides for or against Fraser’s refusal to pass Whitlam’s budget, and for or against Kerr’s decision to dismiss the government. Few remained neutral. One neutral observer, Dr Stanley Bach, a legal expert from the United States, examined the records nearly three decades later and concluded that ‘Fraser and the Coalition acted constitutionally but irresponsibly’ (S Bach, Platypus and Parliament: The Australian Senate in Theory and Practice, 2003, p. 105).

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Examine the following source and then answer the questions about historical contestability that follow.

Excluding only the invasion of the British in 1788, [the Dismissal] remains the most contentious episode in the country’s political history, the moment when Australia’s parliamentary democracy broke down –although even to say as much is debatable, since some argue today, as many did in 1975, that GovernorGeneral Sir John Kerr’s actions were fundamentally democratic because they brought about an election. … the events of 11 November raised the spectre of serious civil violence for the first time since the Depression.

Source 10.8.5 Professor Frank Bongiorno, Dreamers and Schemers: A Political History of Australia, 2022 …

1 Identify how Professor Bongiorno describes the Dismissal’s place in Australian history.

2 Describe the author’s view of whether the Dismissal was democratic.

3 Explain the counter-argument that the author recognises.

4 Explain what the author means by ‘the spectre of serious civil violence’.

5 Analyse whether the source appears to take a side in the debates about the Dismissal.

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

Recent historical interpretations

Gough Whitlam died at the age of 98 in 2014, and his life was celebrated by speeches in his memory in Parliament, and at a grand state funeral. Powerful public figures from all sides of politics paid their respects and assessed his impacts.

Whether you were for him or against him, it was his vision that drove our politics then and which still echoes through our public life four decades on.

Source 10.8.6 Tony Abbott, Liberal Party Prime Minister, October 2014

I’ve often thought it was fitting that Gough Whitlam was Australia’s 21st prime minister, because with Gough Whitlam, Australian came of age. An Australia that once thought small was asked to think big. An Australia one closed and inward looking, open to the world.

… Gough’s reforms for women were landmark. They included the election of the first Labor woman to the House of Representatives, Joan Child in 1974.

An enormous optimism and all of us admire that, whether we voted for him in the 70s or our parents voted for him or whether we approved of what John Kerr did or not, all of that recedes. What people remember of Gough Whitlam is a bigness, a generosity, an enormous optimism and ambition for Australia and that is something we can all subscribe to.

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The Dismissal debate resurfaced after Whitlam’s death, when historians asked for access to the previously unseen 1975 letters between Governor-General Kerr and Buckingham Palace. While confidential government records are normally declassified and made available to researchers after 30 years, the National Archives of Australia refused to release the documents, and spent nearly $2 million on court cases to try to keep what Kerr and the Queen had said to each other, secret. After a four-year legal battle, in 2020, Professor Jenny Hocking (of Monash University and the Whitlam Institute at the University of Western Sydney) finally won her case. The newly released documents became known as ‘The Palace Letters’.

Without this old man the land and human rights of our people would never have seen the light of day.

… My chances in this nation were a result of the Whitlam program. My grandparents and parents could never have imagined the doors that opened to me which were closed to them.

… I don’t know why someone with this old man’s upper middle class background could carry such a burning conviction that the barriers of class and race of the Australia of his upbringing and maturation should be torn down and replaced with the unapologetic principle of equality.

The Palace Letters include over 200 documents, particularly letters between Kerr and Sir Martin Charteris, Private Secretary to the Queen, whose job was to pass the material to the Queen and respond on her behalf. The letters show that Queen Elizabeth, her staff and Prince Charles knew that the GovernorGeneral was considering using his reserve powers to dismiss the prime minister as early as September 1975, all without the prime minister’s knowledge. According to Professor Hocking, they include the ‘bombshell’ that Buckingham Palace told Kerr that he had the power to dismiss a government and effectively encouraged Kerr to dismiss Whitlam.

The reserve powers, or the prerogative, of the Crown, to dissolve Parliament … do exist … But to use them is a heavy responsibility and it is only at the very end when there is demonstrably no other course that they should be used.

… The fact that you have powers is recognized, but it is also clear that you will only use them in the last resort and then only for constitutional and not for political reasons.

Source 10.8.10 Martin Charteris, Buckingham Palace, letter to Governor-General John Kerr, 4 November 1975 …

Hocking’s conclusion was that the letters prove that the Palace, the Opposition and the Governor-General colluded to deceive the Prime Minister.

The Palace letters have dispelled the claim that the Palace was not involved in the dismissal. It was. And it fought for decades to ensure that this involvement was not known.

Source 10.8.11 Professor Jenny Hocking, ‘Royal Secrets and the Whitlam Government Dismissal’, Precedent, 2021 …

Lesson 10.8 review

The letters show that the Queen was not told in advance that Kerr was going to dismiss the government, and that decision was made entirely in Australia. However, the role of the Governor-General as the crown’s representative continues to concern people who point to the Dismissal as a reason for Australia to cut ties with the monarchy and become a republic.

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The Queen’s fingerprints are not on the weapon and she was not involved directly at the decisive moment of the dismissal. However, the letters show that her private secretary knew what Kerr was considering and either tacitly accepted it or at least did nothing to dissuade him.

… The idea that a head of state in another country had any role, however ambiguous, in Australian politics already seemed outdated in 1975 and it is even more so now that our ties with Britain have atrophied.

The political decisions we face in this nation should be taken in Australia by Australians.

10.8.12 Editorial, The Age, 15 July 2020 …

10.8 Review questions

1 Explain the perspectives of people at the time who believed that the Dismissal was justified.

2 Explain the perspectives of people at the time who believed that the Dismissal was unjustified.

3 Discuss the key consequence of the crisis.

4 Refer to what was said about Whitlam when he died.

a Describe some terms that public figures used to describe Whitlam’s impact.

b Identify some social groups that particularly praise Whitlam’s reforms.

5 Explain how the ‘Palace Letters’ revealed new insights into the Dismissal. What did they show?

How did the ALP develop leadership crises?

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Learning intention

We have seen how political crises developed in Australia in the 1950s and 1970s. Now we will learn about leadership conflicts within the Australian Labor Party from the 1980s onwards.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Claim, support, question

Make a claim: Based this image and on your learning so far, what pattern do you think emerged in the Labor Party between the 1980s and 2010s?

Support: What evidence or reasoning can you provide to support your claim?

Question: What questions do you have about your claim? How would you interrogate it to determine how accurate it is?

In 1991 and again in 2010, a prime minister who had led the Labor Party to victory in an election lost their job – not to an opponent on the other side of politics, but to a challenger from their own team. To unseat a leader is controversial, and tends to leave a lasting impact on the party.

Hawke and Keating

After defeating Malcolm Fraser and sweeping the ALP into power in 1983, Bob Hawke and Paul Keating formed a formidable team as prime minister and treasurer of Australia. In their first term in government, they negotiated a ‘Prices and Incomes Accord’ acceptable both to trade unions and business groups, reintroduced universal healthcare in the form of Medicare, and increased the role of the Federal government in environmental protection by saving Tasmania’s Franklin River from being dammed. In the economy, Hawke and Keating made major changes to open

Australia’s financial system and trade to international partners.

Bob Hawke grew up in Western Australia, was a gifted student (a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford University) and moved to Victoria to work for the trade union movement. He had already turned 50 when he was first elected to Parliament to represent the Melbourne electorate of Wills in 1980, after 10 years as the high-profile and charismatic president of the Australian Council of Trade Unions. According to opinion polls, Hawke was Australia’s most popular ever prime minister, reaching an approval rating of 75 per cent in 1984.

Ministers regarded him as a ‘chairman of the board’ who was a good manager of cabinet business and provided strategic direction for the government. He was an effective communicator and often a powerful persuader. He had a strong work ethic, energy and drive. While luck often ran his way – such as the facing a divided opposition – he also showed courage and took policy and political risks.

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Paul Keating, Hawke’s right-hand man, grew up in Sydney, left high school aged 14, worked for the Labor Party and was elected to parliament aged just 25. Unlike Hawke, he was not fond of other

people’s company; he was known as an ideas man. As treasurer, Keating was the key minister responsible for economic reforms, including privatising the Commonwealth Bank and Qantas.

The Hawke-Keating government is often now seen, even by non-Labor people, as the Australian gold standard … It is hard to identify any Australian government, before or since, that did as well in modernising and liberalising the economy; putting in place major health, education and welfare reforms; promoting community reconciliation; and positioning Australia abroad as a good international citizen.

The ALP won three more federal elections in 1984, 1987 and 1990. In 1988, the pair discussed a plan for Hawke to retire and pass the leadership on to Keating. However, while in 1990 Keating was promoted to deputy prime minister,

there were no signs of Hawke retiring. The economy entered a recession and the government was coming under pressure, and in June 1991, Keating took the extraordinary step of publicly challenging the popular prime minister for his position.

caucus a decisionmaking meeting of members of a political party, in Australia meaning every elected member

In the June 1991 leadership vote, Keating secured 44 votes in caucus but Hawke had 66. It was a clear loss for Keating, who resigned from his ministerial roles. However, he continued to build support and talk to colleagues to convince them that he could do a better job than the man with whom he had worked so closely for so long. In December, Keating challenged again, and this time won – by 56 to 51. Hawke was admired by many for being one of the few male politicians to cry publicly, as he did when he was defeated and resigned.

According his biographer, Keating ‘raged about Hawke’ for not allowing Keating to become PM without a vote (Kelly, 2011) [Paul Kelly, The March of Patriots: The Struggle for Modern Australia, Melbourne University Publishing, 2011]. Keating’s leadership style was very different.

Concepts and skills builder 10.9

We have this chance to pull Australia into one of the preferred countries of the nineties and beyond.

… Leadership is not about being popular; it’s about being right and about being strong. It’s about doing what you think the nation requires, making profound judgements about profound issues.

Source 10.9.6 Paul Keating, speech to the National Press Club, December 1990 …

Keating led the ALP to victory their fifth consecutive term in government in 1993, in part due to his attacks on the Liberal Party’s John Hewson’s proposal to introduce a goods-and-services tax (GST). However, Keating never matched Hawke’s popularity: opinion polls put his approval rating at 17 per cent in 1993 and 40 per cent in 1994. In 1996, Keating lost the federal election to John Howard (who would in 2000 introduce a GST), and retired from Parliament.

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Analysing historical perspectives and interpretations

Examine the following source’s interpretations, and then answer the questions that follow.

Keating’s extraordinary mix of intellect, verbal dexterity, passion, anger and ruthlessness made him by the late 1980s the most dominant political personality in the country. These attributes enabled him to claw his way to the office he had desired for so long. But it is also this same dominance which has left the Government's fortunes hostage to Keating’s performance.

For eight years Bob Hawke managed, arguably, the most talented Cabinet Australia has ever seen, with his own brand of consensus and common sense. Keating describes it as a weakness, but Hawke left it to his ministers to come up with the ideas …

Source 10.9.7 Tom Burton, political journalist, in Australian Financial Review, December 1993 …

1 Describe how the source describes Paul Keating’s strengths.

2 Describe what Keating saw as Hawke’s weakness.

3 Explain what perspec tive the journalist appears to take: does he admire Hawke or Keating more?

4 Consider the origin of this source: Keating’s party had recently won an election, but his personal approval rating was low. How might the source be understood as predicting changes in the ALP as a government?

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

Rudd and Gillard

Kevin Rudd grew up in Queensland, earned a degree in Asian studies in Canberra, and then became a diplomat, fluent in Chinese. He ran the Queensland premier’s office in the 1990s, before being elected to Federal Parliament to represent the inner Brisbane seat of Griffith in 1997. He became Labor leader in late 2006, and one year later his ‘Kevin 07’ campaign defeated long-serving Liberal prime minister, John Howard. The ALP won a big majority – even Howard lost, becoming the first prime minister since 1929 to lose their own seat!

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After 11 years Mr Howard has become stuck in the past. He simply doesn’t understand the new challenges that we face in the future. The challenges of climate change and water. The challenges of the digital economy. The challenge of the rise of China and India. The challenge to fix our hospitals, once and for all. And above all, the challenge to transform our education system.

… I am determined to make Australia part of the global climate change solution – not just part of the global climate change problem.

The Rudd ministry made history in gender equality, with Julia Gillard as the nation’s first female deputy prime minister, and Quentin Bryce as the nation’s first female governor-general. Gillard was born in Wales, grew up in Adelaide, and earned a law degree from the University of Melbourne, after which she represented workers in court cases. She entered Federal Parliament in 1998, at the same time as Kevin Rudd. In opposition, she had been responsible for multiple highprofile policy areas.

In his first weeks in office, Rudd did two things that the Liberal-National coalition had refused to do: he signed the Kyoto Protocol to commit Australia to international climate change targets, and he formally apologised to the victims of previous governments’ policies of

forced child removal from Indigenous families, saying, ‘For the pain, suffering and hurt of these Stolen Generations, their descendants and for their families left behind, we say sorry.’

However, in its first year of office, the Rudd government faced the Global Financial Crisis, which was a worldwide collapse of banks and businesses, leading to many people losing their jobs. The government’s response was a huge spending program known as an ‘economic stimulus package’. The package spent $52 billion in rescuing banks, giving cash to families, subsidising home insulation and building new facilities at schools. The program prevented a recession, but it also increased Australia’s debt, and raised questions about the safety and efficiency of government programs.

minority government where a government does not achieve a majority of seats in the lower house, and depends for its survival on the support of minor parties or independents misogyny dislike, hatred, or prejudice against women

According to opinion polls, Rudd was the second most popular ever prime minister, when he reached an approval rating of 74 per cent in 2009. He was a clear communicator, who took an academic approach to issues and generated many ideas, relying on his colleagues and staff to work on the details. He failed to secure enough support for two key policies: A Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme, which planned to address climate change by putting a price on carbon emissions, and a proposed 40 per cent tax of the ‘super’ profits of the richest mining companies.

The ‘carbon tax’ was rejected in the Senate by the coalition (whose new leader Tony Abbott called it ‘a great big tax on everything’), but also the Greens, who said it did not go far enough.

Some Labor members began to question whether Rudd could secure consensus on difficult issues, and whether he could lead the party to election victory. In June 2010, his deputy Julia Gillard challenged him, which he said came as a shock. When he realised he had lost majority support within his caucus, he stepped down before a vote was taken.

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Can I simply say it is my intention to lead a government that is focused each and every day on meeting the needs of working families around the country. I accept that the government has lost track. We will get back on track. I have taken control for precisely that purpose.

I say about the former Prime Minister, the honourable Kevin Rudd, who is in the parliament with us today, that he certainly has the gratitude and respect of the Labor Party.

Source 10.9.10 Julia Gillard, in the House of Representatives, 24 June 2010 …

Julia Gillard became Australia’s first ever female prime minister. In an unusual move, she appointed the man whom she defeated – Kevin Rudd – to the prestigious role of Minister for Foreign Affairs. Within a month of taking office, she announced there would be a Federal election, and that the ALP would not introduce a carbon tax. The mixed outcome of the 2010 election gave Gillard a difficult other first: The first minority government in the Federal Parliament since 1940.

Because the ALP did not have a majority, Gillard had to secure the support of three of the four Independents and the one Green MP to pass any laws. This required a different form of leadership, and Gillard showed a willingness to negotiate and build bridges. The Gillard minority government introduced the National Broadband

Network, a modified carbon emissions pricing scheme, plain packaging for cigarettes, a modified (30 per cent) mining profits tax, set up the National Disability Insurance Scheme, and passed measures to make school funding more equitable.

Gillard’s term as prime minister was marked by sexist attacks. She was criticised for not having children, and some journalists focused on what she wore rather than what she did and said. Interviewers did not treat her with the same respect that had been afforded to male prime ministers. Her scathing response in parliament to Tony Abbott, known as ‘the misogyny speech’, went viral across the world. With the public, her popularity never reached the levels that Rudd had achieved (a high of 56 per cent in 2010, down to 23 per cent approval in 2011).

Source 10.9.11 Opposition leader Tony Abbott and members of his coalition speak to an anti-Gillard / anti-carbon tax rally outside Parliament House, March 2011. How could this be used as evidence that Gillard was subject to sexist attacks?

In February 2012, Kevin Rudd challenged Julia Gillard for the leadership, which revealed divisions within the party, but Gillard won the vote. In June 2013, as criticisms continued, a second ballot was held and the ALP caucus chose Rudd to return as their leader, heading towards an election two months later. The leadership change resulted in Gillard’s retirement from politics. Rudd’s approval rating was much lower than before (32 per cent),

and the ALP was soundly defeated in the September 2013 election by Tony Abbott’s coalition. After this, Rudd too resigned from politics.

After the bitterness of the Rudd-GillardRudd era, the ALP changed its processes, so that any leadership contests would be decided not only within the federal parliamentary caucus, but with a vote of all members of the party around Australia.

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1 Identify differences in the leadership styles of Bob Hawke and Paul Keating.

2 Discuss why the ALP caucus was so important to leadership crises.

3 Refer to the information about the challenges that Kevin Rudd’s government faced.

a Describe why the government went into debt.

b Explain key policies that Rudd could not achieve.

4 Explain how Julia Gillard’s government had to negotiate to pass its laws.

How did the Coalition develop leadership crises?

Learning intention

Having learned about leadership crises that affected the Australian Labor Party, we will now explore leadership crises in the Liberal-National Party coalition.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see?

What does it make you think?

What do you wonder, now?

Source 10.10.1 Communications Minister Malcolm Turnbull (L) and Prime Minister Tony Abbott (R) leave the House of Representatives on the day that a challenge to Abbott’s leadership failed, in February 2015. Turnbull was expected to stand for leader if the challenge had succeeded.

How can prime ministers work with their senior colleagues when they know that some of them want to take their job

Abbott and Turnbull

Tony Abbott was born in England and grew up in Sydney. He was a gifted student and athlete, earning a Rhodes Scholarship to study in Oxford, and excelling in boxing. Abbott, a conservative Catholic, initially studied to become a priest, but later entered politics, and was associated with Australians for Constitutional Monarchy, opposing any moves to make Australia a republic. He was elected to represent the seaside electorate of Warringah in 1994, where he was a keen surf lifesaver, and became an experienced minister under John Howard, from 1998 to 2007.

In 2009, Abbott successfully challenged Malcolm Turnbull and became Leader of the Opposition. In this role, he led the coalition

from them? This was the dilemma that rose in Liberal-National Party coalition governments between 2015 and 2017.

to win one more seat than Julia Gillard’s ALP in the 2010 election, but the ALP stayed in power as a minority government. Abbott consistently accused the government for wasting resources, committing too much to addressing climate change, and being soft on illegal immigration.

In the 2013 election, Abbott faced an ALP that had declined in popularity and had just replaced its leader. Abbott’s campaign capitalised on public concerns that returning to Kevin Rudd as leader was returning to the past, and he promised three things: To scrap the carbon tax, stop asylum seeker boats from reaching Australia, and build more roads. The coalition regained power with a commanding majority.

This election is about making a great country even better; and that starts with changing the worst government in our history.

… It pits the Liberal and National parties’ positive plans for the future against more of the same from a confused and chaotic Labor Party.

… We’ll scrap the carbon tax so your family will be $550 a year better off.

We’ll get the budget back under control by ending Labor’s waste.

We’ll stop the boats.

And we’ll build the roads of the 21st century because I hope to be an infrastructure prime minister who puts bulldozers on the ground and cranes into our skies.

Source 10.10.2 Tony Abbott, election speech, 25 August 2013 …

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Like Abbott, Malcolm Turnbull had great success as a student and was a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford, but he became famous in Australia as a wealthy lawyer and investor, working

for high-profile media billionaire Kerry Packer. In the 1990s, Turnbull led the Australian Republic Movement, which failed in its attempt to change the Constitution by referendum to replace

the royal head of state. In this campaign, Turnbull faced Prime Minister John Howard, who defended the constitutional monarchy, with another key opponent being Tony Abbott.

Turnbull was elected to parliament in 2004 and became Leader of the Opposition in 2007. In 2009, due to Turnbull’s support for the ALP’s proposal to address climate change with a carbon tax, Tony Abbott challenged him and won the leadership, by just one vote. The two men remained in Parliament, despite tensions between them.

Tony Abbott reached his highest public approval rating of 47 per cent in

Concepts and skills builder 10.10

Analysing historical perspectives

late 2013, while he made steps to get rid of the carbon tax and strengthen immigration rules. However, over the next year a series of opinion polls showed that the coalition was consistently less popular than the ALP, and in February 2015, Malcolm Turnbull’s supporters called for a leadership vote. This failed, but Abbott’s opponents continued to assess their chances, and in September 2015, a leadership ballot was held, which saw Malcolm Turnbull replace Abbott as prime minister. Turnbull enjoyed more positive public opinion polling (60 per cent approval rating in late 2015), but Abbott remained in Parliament and continued to speak his mind about issues.

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Examine the following source and then answer the questions about perspectives that follow.

Leadership changes are never easy for our country. My pledge today is to make this change as easy as I can.

There will be no wrecking, no undermining, and no sniping. I’ve never leaked or backgrounded against anyone. And I certainly won’t start now.

… I am proud of what the Abbott government has achieved. We stayed focused despite the white-anting.

… The nature of politics has changed in the past decade. A febrile media culture has developed that rewards treachery.

Source 10.10.3 Tony Abbott’s remarks to the media on the day Malcolm Turnbull replaced him as prime minister, 16 September 2015 …

1 Describe what Abbott is pledging to do, after having lost the leadership.

2 Define some key terms: undermining, sniping, white-anting.

3 Discuss what Abbott’s use of these terms shows about what he claims happened to him when he was leader.

4 Analyse why Abbott accuses the media of rewarding treachery. What does this mean?

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

Turnbull and Morrison

Ten months after winning the party room vote to become prime minister, Malcolm Turnbull led the coalition to a narrow federal election victory. He was an extremely confident debater in parliament, and made some progress in middleground issues, moving away from Abbott’s more conservative policies.

The Turnbull government promoted innovation and technology and responsible economic management. He was known for two future-focused policies: Snowy Hydro 2.0, an enormous project in renewable energy in the Australian Alps, and the decision to hold a plebiscite on same-sex marriage, which surveyed voters’ opinions in 2017. This issue saw Turnbull confront internal opposition. Tony Abbott was a key voice against changing the definition of marriage, and Scott Morrison and Peter Dutton spoke against the reform. However, the plebiscite showed over 61 per cent public support, and in the end most coalition opponents of the idea made themselves absent from parliament rather than vote against the bill, which made same-sex marriage legal in December 2017.

Source 10.10.4 Treasurer Scott Morrison brings a lump of coal into Question Time, February 2017. ‘This is coal. Don’t be afraid. Don’t be scared. It won’t hurt you.’ What is the purpose of a stunt like that?

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In 2017 and 2018, Turnbull also faced divisions in his government over climate change policy. In the previous decade, from Opposition, he had offered bipartisan support to Labor commitments to reduce carbon emissions, and he was enthusiastic about renewable energy. However, members of his party were concerned not to introduce policies that hurt the mining sector, and seemed not to be in line with their leader. In February 2017, his Treasurer, Scott Morrison, brought a lump of coal into parliament to show his support for the continued use of coal-fired power stations.

Through 2018, Turnbull’s popularity declined in opinion polls, and more conservative members of his party, led by Tony Abbott and Peter Dutton, Minister for Home Affairs, were concerned that Turnbull was taking the government too far to the ‘moderate’ centre of politics. Some also regarded his leadership style as arrogant. In August 2018, Dutton challenged Turnbull for the leadership, saying that Australians were paying too much for fuel and electricity. Turnbull won, but three days later Dutton challenged him again, and unexpectedly, a third candidate emerged: Scott Morrison.

We need to be very clear and succinct about our message, about our policy ideas, about our vision for the country. At the moment I think people are struggling to understand what it is that the government stands for and we need to be very clear about the sorts of things I have spoken about.

Source 10.10.5 Peter Dutton, 22 August 2017

plebiscite a direct vote by all voters on an important public question (technically the 2017 ‘plebiscite’ was only a postal survey, as it did not propose any change to the Constitution)

Morrison had grown up in Sydney, and was known as a devout Pentecostal Christian. He worked as a director of national tourism agencies in New Zealand and Australia before being elected to represent a suburban Sydney electorate in 2007. Under Tony Abbott, he had run ‘Operation Sovereign Borders’, to stop unauthorised boat arrivals into Australia, and as Treasurer, Morrison had focused on reducing national debt, tax rates and unemployment. Malcolm Turnbull would later criticise Morrison for leaking information about government policy thinking to the media while he was treasurer.

In the second leadership vote, Turnbull stepped aside and Morrison won the vote by 45 votes to Peter Dutton’s 40, making him party leader and the new prime minister. Morrison led the coalition to victory in the 2019 election, and was

prime minister when the nation faced the challenges of the Covid-19 pandemic. His peak approval rating was 68 per cent in April 2020, but his popularity declined towards the 2022 election, which he lost to Anthony Albanese’s ALP. Dutton replaced him but failed to improve his party’s position, resulting in an increased majority for the ALP in the 2025 Federal election.

What happened to the former leaders? Malcolm Turnbull resigned from politics a week after Morrison took his place. Tony Abbott continued on, but in the Federal election of 2019, he was defeated in his attempt to win his seat for the 10th election in a row. The successful candidate was the independent Zali Steggall, whose campaign was supported by the GetUp! organisation, and focused on greater responses to climate change.

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10.10 Review questions

1 Identify at least three policies or beliefs on which Tony Abbott and Malcolm Turnbull disagreed.

2 Discuss how long the Abbott–Turnbull rivalry affected the Liberal Party.

3 Refer to the information about the Turnbull and Morrison leadership crisis.

a Explain who initially challenged Turnbull for the leadership, and why.

b Explain how the outcome of the challenge was unexpected.

4 Discuss what the coalition leadership crises showed about political leaders in Australia.

End of investigation review: How did political crises affect postwar Australia?

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Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable chapter summary

• Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learnt about Australian political crises? For this activity, copy the diagram and fill out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic What I have learned

Attitudes to communism in 1950s Australia

The Petrov Affair

Political changes in 1970s Australia

The Whitlam Dismissal

Labor Party leadership crises

Liberal Party leadership crises

Making thinking visible

This exercise in visible thinking asks you to track the difference between what you knew about political crises before, and what new understandings you have acquired since reading this chapter.

Using the stem sentences here, write a paragraph explaining what you previously knew about the topic. Then write another paragraph explaining what you now understand about the topic.

4A I used to think that espionage involved …

4B Now I think that espionage involved …

4C I used to think that the Governor-General …

4D Now I think that the Governor-General …

4E A simple explanation of political leadership issues is …

4F A better explanation of political leadership issues is …

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Practice questions

1 Identify: four Australian political leaders who were forced out of office, and how each of them were ousted.

2 Match each cause on the left with its consequence on the right.

Causes

Soviet spies were discovered in Australia

Evdokia Petrov was escorted to the airport by Russian agents

The Royal Commission into espionage implicated ALP staff members

Gough Whitlam was elected

The Senate blocked Whitlam’s budget

The Governor-General asked the Opposition and Buckingham Palace what he could do

Kevin Rudd’s climate and mining tax proposals were blocked by the Senate

Julia Gillard did not win enough seats to form a majority in the House of Representatives

Tony Abbott had poor results in several opinion polls

Effects

A wide range of reforms began in health, education and equity

A constitutional crisis

Minority government, needing support from independents

The Petrovs were granted asylum as defectors

Malcolm Turnbull became Prime Minister

The ALP split, forming the DLP

The Dismissal

A Royal Commission was held to investigate espionage

Julia Gillard became Prime Minister

3 Select two pairs of causes and effects that you have found the most interesting to learn about, and explain why you chose them, giving details.

4 Analyse: the following artefact as a historical source, using the questions below.

a When was this source created, in the context of political leadership crises?

b What does it show about the experience of Australia’s first female prime minister?

c What aspects of Australian politics does the source reveal?

d Explain how you could use the source to generate further research questions, and as evidence.

I say to the Leader of the Opposition I will not be lectured about sexism and misogyny by this man. I will not. And the Government will not be lectured about sexism and misogyny by this man. Not now, not ever.

The Leader of the Opposition says that people who hold sexist views and who are misogynists are not appropriate for high office. Well I hope the Leader of the Opposition has got a piece of paper and he is writing out his resignation. Because if he wants to know what misogyny looks like in modern Australia, he doesn’t need a motion in the House of Representatives, he needs a mirror. That’s what he needs.

… Good sense, common sense, proper process is what should rule this Parliament. That’s what I believe is the path forward for this Parliament, not the kind of double standards and political gameplaying imposed by the Leader of the Opposition now looking at his watch because apparently a woman’s spoken too long.

I’ve had him yell at me to shut up in the past, but I will take the remaining seconds of my speaking time to say to the Leader of the Opposition I think the best course for him is to reflect on the standards he’s exhibited in public life, on the responsibility he should take for his public statements … and the Leader of the Opposition should think seriously about the role of women in public life and in Australian society because we are entitled to a better standard than this.

Source 10.11.1 Prime Minister Julia Gillard, House of Representatives, 9 October 2012 …

5 Perspectives: Imagine you are either Mrs Evdokia Petrov or Mr Vladimir Petrov. It is 20 April 1954, the day on which Russian agents are taking Evdokia to board a plane back to Moscow, after having been kept under watch at the Soviet embassy. Vladimir has defected to Australia and is waiting in a safe house with ASIO agents.

• Write a one-page diary entry from the perspective of Mr or Mrs Petrov. What do you see? What are people saying? What are you thinking? How significant is your decision?

Response to chapter inquiry question: How did political crises affect postwar Australia?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question, using all the key terms listed.

Use these key terms in your answer:

• espionage

• defect

• socialism

• Westminster

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• Dismissal

• crisis

• political parties

• leadership.

CHAPTER 11

How did regional and global con ict related to the Cold War a ect the world after 1945?

LESSONTITLE

11.1Setting the scene: Tension under water in 1962

11.2What happened during the Cold War?

11.3How did the Cold War start?

11.4How did the Cold War divide people?

11.5How close did the Cold War come to becoming a nuclear war?

11.6Which other con icts occurred during the Cold War and how was Australia involved?

11.7What are the ethics of reporting on con ict?

11.8What did the Cold War have to do with space?

11.9What problems did the Soviet Union face?

11.10How did the Cold War end?

11.11What perspectives emerged about the end of the Cold War?

11.12 End

11.12End of investigation review: How did regional and global con ict related to the Cold War affect the world after 1945?

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Setting the scene: Tension under water in 1962

Learning intention

In this first lesson, we will learn about how close the world came to nuclear destruction early in the Cold War.

On 27 October 1962, clear thinking by one man may have saved the world from catastrophe, but his actions were kept secret until the end of the century.

It was a time of extreme tension between the world’s two greatest military powers – the United States and the Soviet Union. Vasily Arkhipov, a 36-year-old Russian Officer, was aboard the B-59, one of four submarines that had sailed

8500 km to Cuba, within 150 km of the American mainland. The Russian navy was making a show of strength against the United States. Its mission was to support, and if necessary, defend the installation of Russian nuclear missiles on Cuba, governed by the communist Fidel Castro. In response, the US navy was blockading all shipping around Cuba, until the Russians accepted their demand to withdraw the missiles.

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superpower an extremely powerful and influential nation that exercises massive influence around the world – the term was first applied to the USA and the USSR after World War II brinkmanship the practice of pushing a dangerous policy to the brink of safety, in the hope of forcing the other side to back down Cold War a state of hostility between countries, involving threats, propaganda and competition, without direct fighting

For 13 days, the world’s media was engrossed by the stand-off between Russian Premier Nikita Khrushchev and US President John F Kennedy. Khrushchev asserted his right to place weapons wherever he wished. Kennedy accused the Russians of trying to plunge the world into war. Neither superpower wanted to be seen to back down. In the dangerous game of brinkmanship, who would blink first?

On the water around Cuba on 27 October 1962, Captain Vasily Arkhipov’s submarine was in trouble: cut off from radio communication for days, and forced to dive deeply to evade a dozen American destroyers that were imposing the blockade. Then its air-conditioning failed. The crew tried fix the machinery as the temperature reached an unbearable 50°C. They were bathed in sweat. Some fainted or became disoriented.

When the crew brought the B-59 to the surface that night, they found themselves surrounded by American ships and planes. Commander Valentin Savitsky, scaled the stairs to the conning tower –the platform above the water – and was blinded by the searchlights and deafened by explosions caused by depth charges. He wrongly believed they were under attack. He was convinced that war had begun.

What the Americans did not know was that every Russian submarine sent to Cuba was armed with a nuclear torpedo, with the explosive force of over 10 000 tons of TNT. They were also unaware that each submarine commander was authorised to use their torpedo if they were attacked.

under attack, and began to give orders to do the unthinkable: Fire the deadly torpedo. ‘We’re gonna blast them now,’ he reportedly said. ‘We will die, but we will sink them all.’ Savitsky’s second-incommand agreed. The commander was about to press the launch button; however, all three senior officers had to approve the decision. The third officer, Arkhipov, saw things differently. He was not convinced that the Americans were doing anything other than warning and signalling, and despite the panic around him, he calmly refused to approve the launch.

In another version, the Commander was intercepted on the stairway, while Arkhipov stayed on the conning tower to assess what the Americans were doing. Arkhipov saw that the ‘enemy’ was signalling, not attacking. He called the commander back up and calmly showed him what was happening. Accordingly, Savitsky took a breath, and saw the wisdom in not giving the order to fire.

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There are different versions of what Commander Savitsky did next. One says that he raced down the stairs from the conning tower, shouted that they were

Either way, Captain Arkhipov was calm in extremely tense circumstances, and thanks to his clear thinking, the lethal torpedo remained in its tube. Eventually, the Russian missiles were packed up and returned home. The fact that the commander had seriously considered launching a nuclear torpedo remained secret for 40 years, until after the end of the Cold War and the opening of secret Russian archives.

Khrushchev once said, ‘Any fool can start a war’. Arkhipov showed that sometimes, a bit of wisdom can prevent a war.

Source 11.1.3 US navy ships preparing for war off the coast of Cuba in 1962.

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11.1 Review questions

1 Explain what happened off the coast of Cuba in 1962.

2 Develop three factual questions that you want to ask, to know more about the situation.

3 Develop three ‘what if’ questions that could be asked about the situation (what if something happened differently).

4 Describe what you know about the Cold War so far.

1945

What happened during the Cold War?

Learning intention

Last lesson, we learned about the actions of Soviet submarine commander Captain Arkhipov. In this lesson, we will learn about other key historical events in the Cold War.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Question starts

Based on what you have read so far, brainstorm a list of questions about the Cold War. You can use some of these question stems to help you.

1 Who …? 2 Why …? 3 When …? 4 How many …? 5 What if …?

Come back to these questions as you finish each section of the chapter. Which questions can you answer now? Would you update questions based on your new knowledge?

March 1946

British Prime Minister Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech declares that communism is a threat to civilisation

The end of World War II leaves Europe divided between the control of the Soviet Union and the allied Western nations

October 1947

US Congressional House Un-American Activities Committe (HUAC) investigates communist influences in Hollywood

March 1947

US President Truman outlines his plans to contain communism in what becomes known as the Truman Doctrine

October 1949

The Communist Party comes to power in China after two decades of civil war

April 1954

The Petrov Affair sees two Soviet spies defect to Australia

1948

The United States’ Marshall Plan provides economic assistance to Europe; Sovietcontrolled states are barred from participating

Source 11.2.1 Britain, the USA and the USSR were allies in World War II …

1950–1953

The Korean War erupts between communist North Korea and Western-backed South Korea, ending in a stalemate

Source 11.2.2 The Hungarian uprising …

April 1961

Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first person to travel into (and return from) space

November–

December 1956

Melbourne hosts the summer Olympics, which results in the infamous ‘blood in the water’ water polo match between Hungary and the Soviet Union

June–Nov 1956

October 1957

The Soviet Union launches the satellite Sputnik, the first artificial object in space

A nationwide uprising in Hungary against the communist government is brutally suppressed by the Soviet military

Timeline of key events

Source 11.2.3 Washington, DC, 1987: The US and Soviet flags hang during a summit meeting between US President Ronald Reagan and President of the USSR Mikhail Gorbachev. …

Source 11.2.5 Young people celebrating the fall of the Berlin Wall, November 1989.

Source 11.2.4 Anti-war protests spread through the 1960s and 70s

1962

Australia sends ‘advisers’ to South Vietnam to assist with fighting against the communist North Vietnamese army

October 1962

The Cuban Missile Crisis brings the world to the brink of nuclear war

March 1966

Australian forces begin to travel to South Vietnam to fight in the Vietnam War

August 1964

The Gulf of Tonkin incident draws the US into the Vietnam War

May 1970

The Vietnam Moratorium protest against the Vietnam War sees the largest public demonstrations in Australia’s history

December 1972

The election of the Australian Labor Party, led by Gough Whitlam, ends 23 years of conservative government in Australia

December 1991

Dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War

November 1989

The Berlin Wall, symbol of the division of Europe between West and East, comes down

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July 1969

The US lands the first person on the Moon

November 1970

Australia begins withdrawing its troops from Vietnam and the war ends in 1973

June 1989

Students protesting for democratic reform are massacred in Tiananmen Square, Beijing

1985

Mikhail Gorbachev becomes leader of the Soviet Union and starts policies of perestroika and glasnost

1978–1980

Détente ends with Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and election of Ronald Reagan as US President; Reagan Doctrine increases confrontation with communism

1 Identify which armed conflicts occurred during the Cold War.

2 Explain which nations achieved firsts in the ‘space race’. How do you think their

helped them achieve these firsts?

Source 11.3.1 Roy Acuff, ‘Advice to Joe’ [Stalin], song, USA, 1951

How did the Cold War start?

Learning intention

Having learned how close the world came to nuclear war during the Cuban Missile Crisis, in this lesson we look at where the Cold War began.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Hear, think, wonder

Listen to the following hit song from the United States, released in 1951. It is an anti-communist song directed to ‘Joe’, the American slang term for Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union. What do you hear the singer say about what Russia wants to do? What does it make you think about what Americans thought at the time? What do you wonder, now?

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Source 11.3.2 A statue of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in the Soviet-controlled sector of Berlin, Germany, in 1951

From allies to rivals

During World War II, the communist Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR, or Soviet Union) formed an alliance with the democracies Britain and the United States of America (USA), to achieve victory in Europe over Nazi Germany and in the Pacific over imperialist Japan. However, as soon as the allied victors began to negotiate what the postwar world should look like, their cooperation turned to rivalry.

At the Yalta Conference of February 1945, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin met with US President Franklin D Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, confident that they would soon defeat the Nazis. The allied leaders publicly appeared united: They agreed to cooperate to occupy Germany after the war, and to share power in a future United Nations. However, privately they were divided. While Churchill and Roosevelt wanted postwar Europe to rebuild through democracy and free trade, Stalin’s priority was to ensure that the Eastern European nations between Germany and

the Soviet Union would be ‘friendly’ to the Soviet regime, to avoid future invasions like it had suffered in both world wars.

After World War II, Britain struggled to rebuild its economy, and only two great powers remained: The USA and the USSR. They became known as superpowers, with only each other as rivals. Their rivalry would become a competition for territory and influence.

The root of the rivalry between the Eastern and Western blocs was a difference in ideology. The United States was a capitalist and democratic nation, which since its Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776 had prioritised individuals’ rights to ‘Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness’. The Soviet Union was communist and authoritarian, which since the Russian Revolution of 1917 had prioritised the collective good, and described the USSR as a ‘step towards the union of the workers of all countries’.

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Source 11.3.3 The ‘Big Three’ allied leaders –Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin – meet at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, to discuss how to organise the postwar world. How does their meeting show that the allies were confident that their combined forces could win the war?

Stalin quickly ensured that communist governments won power in the countries of Eastern Europe that his Red Army had ‘liberated’ from the Nazis: Albania, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and East Germany (German Democratic Republic). These nations became known as Soviet satellites, on the periphery of the existing family of 15 republics that were officially within the USSR. On the other side, West Germany and neighbouring nations grew closer to the United States, which sent them aid to resist communism. The intense rivalry that emerged between the two superpowers, but stopped short of direct armed conflict, came to be known as the Cold War.

USSR a federation of 15 communist republics, the largest of which was Russia Soviet an elected council in a communist country; also an adjective for the Russian system ideology system of beliefs about the world capitalist/ capitalism a system in which property, business and industry are privately owned, directed towards making profits for successful organisations and people communist/ communism a system without different social classes in which the means of production are owned and controlled by all its members and everyone works as much as they can and receives what they need authoritarian a belief that doing what leaders and authorities want is more important than individual freedom – often enforced with police and military force

Concepts and skills builder 11.3

Using historical sources

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions that follow.

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From Stettin in the Baltic [Poland] to Trieste in the Adriatic [Italy/Yugoslavia] an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest, and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in some cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow.

Source 11.3.4 Winston Churchill, former British prime minister, speech to Westminster College, Fulton Missouri, USA, 5 March 1946 …

The Germans made their invasion of the U.S.S.R. through Finland, Poland, Rumania, Bulgaria and Hungary. The Germans were able to make their invasion through these countries because, at the time, governments hostile to the Soviet Union existed in these countries. … And so what can there be surprising about the fact that the Soviet Union, anxious for its future safety, is trying to see to it that governments loyal in their attitude to the Soviet Union should exist in these countries?

Source 11.3.5 Pravda (official newspaper of the Russian Communist Party), Interview with leader of the USSR Joseph Stalin, March 1946 …

One way of life is based upon the will of the majority, and is distinguished by free institutions, representative government, free elections, guarantees of individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion, and freedom from political oppression. The second way of life is based upon the will of a minority forcibly imposed upon the majority. It relies upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and radio; fixed elections, and the suppression of personal freedoms.

I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples … to work out their own destinies in their own way.

Source 11.3.6 Excerpt from US President Harry S Truman’s ‘Truman Doctrine’ speech, to Congress in March 1947 …

1 Describe what Churchill claimed the Soviet Union was trying to achieve.

2 Describe what Stalin claimed the Soviet Union was trying to achieve.

3 Explain what Truman said the policy of the United States should be.

4 Discuss what these sources show about postwar relations between the former allies.

5 Select one source and analyse its motive: how might the source be understood as communicating both to a local audience and to their international rivals?

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

The arms race and spheres of influence

The superpower rivalry was also an arms race. German physicists were first to discover the incredible energy of splitting the atom through nuclear fission. But during World War II, American scientists led by J Robert Oppenheimer secretly developed a weapon to use that unprecedented power. It was a nuclear, or atomic, bomb. President Harry Truman, who had taken over after Roosevelt’s death, used two bombs to force Japan to surrender in August 1945. One year later, Russian scientists had also achieved fission, and they tested their own nuclear bomb in 1949.

Neither side wanted to fall behind in the race to acquire more and better arms: A decade after World War II, the USA had over 2000 nuclear warheads and the USSR was approaching 100. So long as the other side possessed a similar quantity of ‘nukes’, any attack on them would result in a deadly retaliation, and both sides could be completely destroyed. This became known as the theory of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). By the late 1960s, the US stockpile of ‘nukes’ peaked at 31 000, while Russia would eventually accumulate over 40 000. Some experts calculated that no more than 200 bombs would

be needed to destroy the cities and infrastructure of a large nation.

United States

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Source 11.3.7 The number of nuclear warheads held by the superpowers. In which years did they have the same number of warheads as each other?

The danger of nuclear weapons inspired new approaches to collective security by both Western and Eastern blocs of countries. In 1949, the United States and its allies in Western Europe formed NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation). NATO headquarters were in Brussels, Belgium, and NATO members promised to defend each other, if ever they came under ‘an armed attack’. The US sent military and financial support to anti-communist nations and encouraged them to join NATO.

one of 23

between 1946 and 1958. Why do you think the USA invited Soviet scientists and the international media to watch some of the tests?

In 1955, the Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies established the Warsaw Pact, which established ‘a joint command for their armed forces’, with headquarters in Moscow, Russia.

Through the Warsaw Pact, Russia organised a network of communist governments along the Soviet Union’s border, forming what Churchill had coined as ‘the Iron Curtain’.

Founding menbers of the North Atlantic Alliance (NATO) 1949

Entry: Greece and Turkey 1952. West Germany 1955, Spain 1982

Founding members of the Warsaw Pact 1955

Entry: East Germany 1956

Withdrawal: Albania 1968

Source 11.3.9

Map of NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Where are the likely flashpoints (shared borders that look likely to cause conflict)?

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1 Identify the two superpowers that remained after World War II, and what ideologies they represented.

2 Discuss why the allied victors of World War II became rivals.

3 Refer to the information about the arms race.

a Describe why the superpowers wanted nuclear weapons.

b Explain how the arms race developed over time.

4 Explain how Western and Eastern blocs of nations developed collective security measures.

How did the Cold War divide people?

Learning intention

Having learned how the Cold War began, this lesson introduces you to two ways in which the Cold War divided people: with physical barriers, and with political divisions.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see in the photograph?

What does it make you think about how people lived in Berlin at the time? What does it make you wonder?

Source 11.4.1 American tanks and troops at Checkpoint Charlie, a crossing point between the American and Soviet sectors of Berlin, February 1961.

containment the Truman Doctrine, stating that communist advances were to be stopped wherever they occurred to prevent communism from spreading

Physical barriers: Berlin

The German city of Berlin was a key source of tension during the Cold War. Although Berlin was located deep in the Soviet-controlled region of East Germany, half of the city, known as West Berlin, was managed by the Western powers of Britain, France and the US. West Berlin was supplied by highways that connected the city to the rest of West Germany.

The first conflict was known as the Berlin Blockade. In 1948, Stalin blocked access to West Berlin to try to force the Western powers to leave the city. In response to the blockade, for over 18 months American, British and other pilots carried a total of 2.3 million tons of food, coal, medicines and other essential supplies to the 2 million people of West Berlin, in an operation known as the Berlin Airlift.

Eventually, Stalin recognised that the Western powers could supply West Berlin indefinitely and reopened the highways. The airlift is regarded as the first success of the Truman Doctrine policy of containment. It was a propaganda triumph for the West and had the effect of drawing West Germany closer to the NATO countries.

Throughout the 1950s, residents of Berlin could move between the different sectors of the city, passing through checkpoints run by British, French, American and Russian soldiers. East

Germans were attracted to the shopping and consumer goods available in West Berlin, while at home, they were limited to state-approved housing, jobs and goods. As many as 2.5 million East Germans emigrated to the west for better jobs and a more modern and comfortable lifestyle.

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Source 11.4.2 Children watch as an aircraft brings essential supplies to West Berlin in 1948. What do you notice about where the children were playing? Why do you think that US airmen started the habit of dropping little parachutes with chocolate and candy to the waiting children? …

To stem the tide of emigration, in 1961 the Soviets built a physical barrier. Known as the Berlin Wall, this was a concrete representation of Churchill’s metaphorical iron curtain. The barrier appeared suddenly in August 1961, as a barbed wire fence through the city and around the perimeter of West Berlin. Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev said that the barrier protected his people from Western spies. It split neighbourhoods and in places divided relatives from each other.

Over the next three decades, the Wall became increasingly sophisticated. It became a concrete wall, around 200 km long, up to 5 metres tall, and reinforced with a 100-metre-wide ‘death strip’ of raked sand and electric fences. From watchtowers, East German guards shot to kill anyone who tried to cross from East to West. Some escapees succeeded in tunnelling under the

zone, flying over it, using false passports or ramming through checkpoints, but between 1961 and 1989, only approximately 5000 people escaped to West Berlin, while 5000 were captured trying to do so, and around 200 died in the attempt.

Kennedy was the 35th President of the United States, and came to power during a time of tension and crisis between the superpowers. Coming from a wealthy and influential political family, Kennedy was a glamorous leader, who introduced civil rights reforms for racial equality and set ambitious targets

for the space program. Kennedy was assassinated during his first term in office, leaving unanswered questions about what else he may have achieved.

In June 1963, President John F Kennedy gave a speech at the Wall, in which he said: ‘There are many people in the world who really don’t understand, or say they don’t, what is the great issue between the free world and the Communist world. Let them come to Berlin.’ In solidarity with the divided people of the city, Kennedy famously said, ‘Ich bin ein Berliner’ (I am a Berliner too).

Concepts and skills builder 11.4

Using historical sources

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions that follow.

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1 Describe how the Berlin Wall changed over the 1960s, using details from the images.

2 Explain how the Berlin Wall could divide families and communities, with examples.

3 Explain how the Berlin Wall became a tool for surveillance as well as separation.

4 Discuss what these sources show about the city of Berlin from the 1960s.

5 All of these photographs were taken from the West Berlin side of the Wall. Why might that be? Analyse what that reveals about the limitations of sources about the Cold War.

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

blacklist a list of people to be excluded from certain forms of employment or actions

Social divisions: the Red Scare

The division between communists and capitalists also affected societies within the so-called ‘West’. In the United States, the suspicion that communist believers and spies were spreading their ideology resulted in a damaging period in the 1950s known as the Red Scare. Citizens were encouraged to name anyone whom they suspected of being a ‘Red’, i.e. supporting a communist invasion.

In Washington DC, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) conducted surveillance and sent spies to leftwing meetings, while the House of Representatives used its Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) to question anyone who was suspected of undermining national security in public hearings.

HUAC and the FBI suspected that communists and spies had infiltrated American industries, including the public service, universities and entertainment. In its most famous investigation, in 1947 HUAC became concerned that

communists were active in Hollywood, and using movies to manipulate people. They investigated the so-called Hollywood Ten group of screenwriters. When they refused to cooperate with the committee, the Hollywood Ten were imprisoned, branded as traitors, and placed on a blacklist, which prevented them from working in the film industry. It is notable that six of the Hollywood Ten were Jewish, which suggests that other prejudices were at work.

Merely being accused by HUAC could lead to people’s livelihoods being ruined. In 1950, 151 broadcasting professionals – musicians, poets, actors and writers – were publicly named, and most of them were banned from working in the entertainment field.

Joseph McCarthy, a Republican Senator from the state of Wisconsin, was convinced that government agencies were overrun with communists and communist sympathisers. His ruthless campaign through Senate committee hearings made

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him one of the most powerful men in the United States.

When McCarthy overreached his authority in 1953–1954 and began accusing army officers of communist sympathies, it was discredited as a ‘witch hunt’ and he rapidly fell from power. McCarthy died in 1957 at the age of 48, probably of alcohol abuse. Long after his

death, however, McCarthyism remained in American political culture.

Popular movies also contributed to the fear of being invaded by an alien power. In some cases, the invaders were depicted not as communists, but as aliens, who like alleged communist spies, were disguised as average Americans.

McCarthyism practice of accusing someone of wrongdoing without any evidence, simply to damage their reputation

11.4 Review questions

1 Identify the first point of conflict over Berlin, and describe its outcome.

2 Explain why the Berlin Wall was built, and its effects.

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3 Discuss why governments in Washington and Moscow were determined to have a say over Berlin, so far from their own homelands.

4 Explain how the Red Scare divided people in the United States.

5 Discuss how Hollywood’s movies industry was involved in the Red Scare.

How close did the Cold War come to becoming a nuclear war?

Learning

intention

Last lesson looked at Berlin and the Red Scare as Cold War divisions. Now, we return in more detail to the major crisis in Cuba.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see in the map?

How do you think people living in American cities felt when they saw the map? What does it make you wonder?

Source 11.5.1 A 1962 map published in American newspapers, illustrating where Russian nuclear missiles could reach if they were to be launched from Cuba

The Cuban Missile Crisis

Remember how Vasily Arkhipov, onboard a Russian submarine, kept a cool head and may have prevented the outbreak of nuclear war? That was during the Cuban Missile Crisis, one of the most significant flashpoints of the Cold War.

How did the superpowers come so close to nuclear war?

In 1959, the Central American nation of Cuba had joined the communist bloc of nations when Fidel Castro, Che Guevara and other rebels led a popular revolution to overthrow the military dictator Fulgencio Batista, who had been supported by the United States. This meant that less than 150 km from the coast of the USA, a communist party was in control.

Castro would rule Cuba for nearly five decades, confiscating companies, factories and land owned by the wealthy and bringing the nation’s economy under state control. When the US tried to undermine Castro’s program, by banning trade with Cuba, the USSR agreed to buy Cuban sugar and other goods. In September 1960, Castro publicly embraced Nikita Khrushchev at the United Nations in New York, and delivered the longest ever speech to the UN (over four hours!) in which he described the United States as an ‘imperialist’ neighbour with an ‘aggressive and war-mongering international policy’.

across Cuba. The plan was a total failure – Cuban citizens did not support the returning exiles, and they were quickly defeated.

To deter future United States intervention in Cuba, in July 1962, Castro secretly agreed to allow the Soviet Union to install nuclear missiles on his island. In October, US spy planes discovered evidence of the construction of launch sites for medium-range ballistic nuclear missiles, and President John F Kennedy organised an emergency meeting of his advisers. His military advisers urged him to bomb the sites and invade Cuba. Others cautioned him only to issue a warning to Castro and Khrushchev. Ultimately, Kennedy decided to cut off Cuba with a naval blockade or ‘quarantine’. It was a risk. Would the Soviet supply ships turn back, or provoke a nuclear war by trying to barge through?

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In 1961, the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) attempted to overthrow Castro in a covert operation, by training and arming over 1400 anti-communist Cuban defectors. The plan was for them to invade Cuba, landing at the Bay of Pigs. The CIA believed that this invasion would spark a general uprising

Source 11.5.2 Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (1894–1971) was leader of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964. He led the USSR away from its history of repression under Joseph Stalin, and was popular for his achievements in the space race and regional conflicts. Khrushchev was a fiery speaker, whose unpredictable negotiating style – sometimes intimidating threats and sometimes warmth and charm – often gave him the upper hand.

defector a person who abandons their country or cause to join an opposing group

pre-emptive strike a surprise attack on an enemy, to stop them from attacking you

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Thirteen days of tense negotiations ensued. As neither side wanted to be seen to back down, conditions worsened: The construction of the nuclear launch sites neared completion, Castro urged Khrushchev to make a pre-emptive strike on American cities, a US spy plane was shot down over Cuba, and there were near misses between ships and submarines. Kennedy increasingly believed he had no choice but to order a military strike, and US forces were put on Defense Condition (DEFCON) 2. This meant just one step from launching nuclear weapons – the highest level of alert on which US forces have ever been placed.

Ultimately, messages that were sent via secret ‘back channels’ managed

to negotiate a deal: On 28 October it was agreed that the missiles would be deconstructed and returned to the Soviet Union, and in return the US would stay out of Cuba. Kennedy’s Secretary of State (foreign minister) Dean Rusk said, ‘We’re eyeball to eyeball, and I think the other fellow just blinked.’ Kennedy also secretly agreed to remove missiles from Turkey to reduce Russian concerns about threats on the borders of the Warsaw Pact. When the agreement was announced, reporters around the globe welcomed the breakthrough with headlines like, ‘World Hails Easing of Tension in Cuban Crisis’ ( The Canberra Times, 30 October 1962).

Analysing perspectives

Examine the following source and then answer the questions that follow.

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1 Identify who is pictured in the cartoon and what they are sitting on.

2 Describe their facial expressions and apparent moods.

3 Explain the metaphor that the car toonist is using about the relationship between the leaders.

4 Discuss the origin of the cartoon: What does this show about attitudes to the Cuban crisis at the time?

5 Analyse how useful this source is as evidence of perspectives about the Cuban crisis.

concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

What was learned from the Cuban crisis?

The Cuban crisis showed the risks of miscommunication between the nuclear superpowers. In response, the White House and the Kremlin both agreed to install a ‘Hotline’ so that in future, leaders in Washington and Moscow could communicate instantly and prevent a dispute or misunderstanding

from escalating to nuclear catastrophe. Its nickname was the red phone, although they were actually teletype machines connected by underwater cable. There also emerged more willingness for the superpowers to hold talks to limit the types or numbers of nuclear weapons.

Historians initially praised Kennedy, both for staring down the Soviet threat without blinking, and for avoiding war. Later, when historians gained access to previously secret documents, they gave more credit to other players – including back-channel negotiators, other nations, and individuals in control of weapons – for avoiding an escalation of the conflict.

Neither leader remained in office for long after the crisis. President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas in November 1963 by Lee Harvey Oswald, a former US

soldier with communist beliefs, who had defected to live briefly in the Soviet Union and set up an organisation to support Castro’s rule in Cuba. In Moscow, Premier Khrushchev began to lose support from his communist party and became the first Soviet leader to resign rather than die in office, in late 1964.

What has remained consistent across historical interpretations is the conclusion that the Cuban Missile Crisis was very nearly the start of World War Three, and had widespread impacts.

We can say authoritatively that the world came closest to blowing itself up during thirteen days in October 1962 … the most dangerous moment in human history.

Source 11.5.5 Historian Arthur Schlesinger, who had worked as a presidential assistant in Kennedy’s White House, 1999 …

The Cuban Missile Crisis [created] the myth of calibrated brinkmanship – the belief that if you stand tough you win, and that nuclear superiority makes the difference in moments of crisis. This myth … had untold consequences for the planning of the Vietnam War and the nuclear arms race.

Source 11.5.6 Thomas Blanton, director of the National Security Archive at George Washington University, 1997 …

The Cold War could have produced a hot war that might have ended human life on the planet. But because the fear of such a war turned out to be greater than all of the differences that separated the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies, there was now reason for hope that it would never take place.

Source 11.5.7 Historian John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History, 2005 …

The Cuban Missile Crisis provides clear evidence that nuclear war is all too possible, especially during an emergency situation in which critical decisions must be made quickly, accurate information is unavailable, and events on the ground cannot be controlled. Moreover, it demonstrates that nuclear war is unlikely to be premeditated, but rather the result of misperception, miscalculation, and risk-taking.

Source 11.5.8 Kingston Reif, Arms Control Association, Washington DC, 2012 …

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The role that nuclear weapons had played in the first seventeen years of the Cold War was transformed by the Crisis. … the frightening realization that nuclear war could be only a stumble away, introduced a more cautious approach to nuclear diplomacy. … That realization led Khrushchev to finally accept the existence of a separate West Berlin, with a Western military presence there.

Source 11.5.9 Historian Martin Sherwin, Wilson Center Cold War International History Project, 2012 …

Khrushchev’s commitment to Cuba and his apparent defeat in the missile crisis caused him to lose prestige at a time when his domestic policies also were coming under fire. In October 1964, the Central Committee of the Communist Party forced him to resign.

Source 11.5.10 Historian Alice George, The Cuban Missile Crisis: The Threshold of Nuclear War, 2013 … Lesson 11.5 review

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11.5 Review questions

1 Identify how the Cuban Missile Crisis started.

2 Explain why Americans were so concerned about the situation.

3 Explain what the superpowers eventually agreed to do to end the Crisis.

4 Discuss what the Crisis showed about the Cold War, quoting at least two historians mentioned in this lesson.

Which other conflicts occurred during the Cold War and how was Australia involved?

Learning intention

Having learned about Berlin, Cuba, NATO and the Warsaw Pact, in this lesson we look at wars in Korea and Vietnam, in which Australians fought.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Hear, think, wonder

Using the following weblink https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mGDhzVi1-bqU&rco=1 hit song from the Australian band ‘Redgum’, released in 1983. It narrates the singer’s brother-in-law’s experience during the Vietnam War.

What do you hear the singer say about what the soldiers experienced?

What does it make you think?

What do you wonder?

Source 11.6.1 Australian troops in action in Vietnam, 1969, the year of the events described in the song ‘I Was Only Nineteen’. …

Australian soldiers fought in two major wars in Asia to support their Cold War ally, the United States, and to try to hold back their Cold War ‘enemies’. The outcomes

The Korean War

During World War II, the Allies had liberated Korea from Japanese occupation. They split Korea in its centre, at the ‘38th Parallel’ (38° north of the Equator). To the south, the United States installed Synghman Rhee as the head of a military government. To the north, the Soviet Union supported Kim Il Sung, a young Russian-trained communist. Both men had fought against the Japanese and saw themselves as future leaders of a united Korea, but they held opposite political viewpoints.

In June 1950, the communist Korean People’s Army crossed the 38th Parallel and invaded South Korea. Kim Il Sung said their purpose was ‘a just war for the unification and independence of the motherland and for freedom and democracy’. They took one week to capture the capital city, Seoul. The United States, under its policy of containment, intervened with troops to support the South Koreans. Later that year, Chinese soldiers, having just won victory in the communist revolution at home, crossed the border to help the North Koreans. The conflict raged for three years.

of the wars and the experiences of the soldiers were notably different from the world wars that had given rise to the ‘Anzac legend’.

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Each side amassed around 3 million soldiers. An unusual feature of this Cold War confrontation was that the support for South Korea had the approval of the United Nations Security Council (which passed the vote while Russia was boycotting the meeting, due to the UN’s non-recognition of communist China). Therefore, when Prime Minister Robert Menzies committed Australian soldiers, sailors and airmen to support the American-led forces, they did so as part of

a UN-approved mission, which eventually involved 21 nations, although 90 per cent of the foreign troops were American. Menzies said the Korean War would be the new UN’s ‘first crucial trial of strength’. Strategically, involvement solidified Australia’s alliance with the United States.

An opinion poll at the time found that 70 per cent of Australians agreed with their nation’s participation in Korea. Australians who volunteered to serve gave various reasons, e.g.: ‘As a young man I was very concerned about the Communist threat to Australia,’ ‘further travel and adventure; an ideal opportunity to further test myself’, ‘I don’t have very strong convictions about Communism. Maybe it’s just because I like a certain amount of excitement’. Australia eventually committed over 17 000 troops to the Korean War, of which 340 were killed and over 1200 wounded.

The overall numbers are staggering: estimates of North Korean casualties include up to 406 000 military dead/ missing and 1.5 million military wounded, with China losing a further 600 000 military dead/missing and South Korea losing 217 000 military dead/missing and over 400 000 wounded. Tragically, many victims were non-combatants: up to 1.5 million North Korean civilians and 1 million South Korean civilians were left dead/missing. The United States lost over 36 000 soldiers and brought home over 100 000 wounded.

An Armistice agreed in July 1953 ended the conflict back where it began: The two Koreas were divided at the 38th Parallel by a 2-km wide Demilitarized Zone. Kim Il Sung remained the dictator of North Korea until his death in 1994.

ANZUS Treaty military alliance between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States in which each nation pledged to aid the others if any one country was attacked guerilla warfare unconventional or irregular warfare conducted in small independent groups

He was succeeded by his son Kim Jong Il, who died in 2011 and was succeeded by his son Kim Jong Un, who continued North Korea’s pursuit of nuclear weapons in defiance of international condemnation. South Korean politics were dominated for decades by military leaders and plagued by corruption,

Concepts and skills builder 11.6

Analysing causes and consequences

Examine the following source and then answer the questions that follow.

1 Identify the symbols used represent communist forces.

2 Describe what the map predicts could happen Korea, Formosa (Taiwan) Indo-China (Vietnam).

3 Explain the map-maker’s message about China.

4 In 1954, President Eisenhower coined term ‘domino theory’: If one state fell communism, the one next door could next, and so on. How could this map be used evidence of domino theory thinking?

Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, using historical sources

until democracy was put in place in the 1980s–1990s. Good relations with Western powers helped to make South Korea prosperous, led by technology companies including Hyundai, Kia, LG and Samsung. North Korea, by contrast, is one of the world’s most isolated and poorest countries.

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The Vietnam War

World War II saw the rapid collapse of British power in South-East Asia. In response, Australia turned to the United States to help secure Australian interests in the region. This was formalised in 1951 by the ANZUS Treaty of alliance between the three Pacific nations of Australia, New Zealand and United States. Australia’s role in Korea, and then in Vietnam, was proof of the importance of that alliance.

As in Korea, in the 1950s the United States and its allies became concerned

that Vietnam could fall to communism, and then spread to topple the next ‘domino’ in the region. North Vietnam was a communist state led by Ho Chi Minh, who had won independence from France and was supported by China and the Soviet Union. South Vietnam, whose government was allied with the United States, came under attack by communist or ‘Viet Cong’ guerilla warfare in the early 1960s. When the US government initially sent ‘advisers’ to train and support south

Source 11.6.3 Australian soldiers prepare to board US Army Iroquois helicopters after searching the coastal village

about the conditions of the

We are ever mindful of the warmth of relations between ourselves and the people, of the United States of America – an association which I am sure can only grow in strength as both our countries work together in the cause of freedom and justice within the framework of the democratic way of life.

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Vietnamese soldiers, Menzies committed small teams of Australian advisers to help. When the US increased its support to include hundreds of thousands of active combat units, it requested support from Australia and from 1965 Australian infantry troops were committed to Vietnam.

The decision of Menzies’ Liberal Party government to send troops to Vietnam was controversial. Unlike Korea, this action was not authorised by the United Nations, and most Western allies, including Britain, were not involved. Australia and New Zealand were the only nations from outside the immediate region of Vietnam to support the Americans. The leader of the Labor Party opposition, Arthur Calwell, said in May 1965 that Australians should not risk their lives to support ‘an unstable, inefficient, partially corrupt military regime’ in South Vietnam.

The government also introduced conscription: men over the age of 20

conscription compulsory enlistment for national service, particularly in the military

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were randomly selected to serve in the army for two years. This ‘birthday ballot’ used a lottery system, whereby birthday numbers on wooden balls were drawn from a barrel. While it guaranteed that the army would have enough recruits, national service caused a great deal of anxiety for young people and their families. Between 1965 and 1972, of the 800 000 young men who were eligible, 63 000 were conscripted and over 19 000 served in Vietnam. More than 1200 of them were wounded and 200 were killed in action. In total, over 60 000 Australians fought in the war, 523 of whom were killed and 2400 wounded.

Initially, opinion polls showed that most Australians supported the

deployment of troops: Up to 62 per cent support in a 1967 survey. However, USled forces struggled to make progress in the jungles and villages of Vietnam, despite committing over 2.7 million American troops and dropping more tons of explosives on North Vietnam than had been dropped on Germany, Italy and Japan during World War II. Napalm, a petrol-based gas, was used extensively to destroy forests and villages where Viet Cong soldiers might be hiding. An estimated 1.1 million North Vietnamese soldiers were killed, and up to 250 000 South Vietnamese soldiers and over 58 000 American soldiers killed or missing in action. In total, as many as 2 million Vietnamese civilians may have died.

As people in Australia and America saw the devastation that the conflict was causing on the nightly television news, public opinion turned against the war. From 1969 onward, a majority of Americans who were surveyed in opinion

polls said that they thought sending troops to Vietnam was a mistake. The polls were similar in Australia.

Enormous protests began at Australian universities and later included the general population. They followed protests across America in October 1969, which involved over 500 000 protesters, calling for a moratorium against the war. On 8 May 1970, Australian moratorium marches involved over 200 000 protesters, the largest in Melbourne, with 70 000 people. Later protests, in September 1970 and June 1971, were marked by violent clashes with police.

The Australian government eventually began to withdraw Australian combat troops from Vietnam. This process was completed after the Labor Party, led by Gough Whitlam, was elected in 1972. The US struggled to withdraw on terms that secured them ‘peace with honour’. But not long after the 1973 Paris Peace Accords ended the war and the US withdrew its forces, North Vietnam invaded the South and won a decisive victory, uniting the country as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. moratorium suspension of activity to consider whether to continue or discontinue the activity

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1 Identify the similarities in the reasons for the Korean and Vietnam Wars.

2 Explain the difference between the allied involvement in Korea and Vietnam.

3 Explain the outcome of the Korean War.

4 Explain the outcome of the Vietnam War.

5 Discuss why the Vietnam War was controversial in Australia.

What are the ethics of reporting on conflict?

Learning intention

Last lesson outlined the Vietnam War. This lesson looks at the role of the media in reporting on that conflict.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see in the photograph?

What does it make you think?

What does it make you wonder?

Source 11.7.1 ‘Saigon Execution’: photograph by Eddie Adams, February 1968 …

War photography

On 1 February 1968, General Nguyê ˜ n Ngo . c Loan, chief of the South Vietnamese police, shot dead a Viet Cong (North Vietnamese) prisoner. The execution happened on a main street in Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, after 72 hours of chaotic street fighting, known as the Tet Offensive. This was a surprise attack by 85 000 pro-communist troops from the north. It began with a suicide bombing on the American embassy under the cover of fireworks celebrating the Vietnamese new year (Tê ´ t).

The photograph of the execution was published the very next day on the front page of many newspapers, and it shocked the world. Here was proof that America’s ally would execute an unarmed prisoner in handcuffs, without trial, in plain sight. In a single image, an American photojournalist had captured the brutality of the Vietnam War. He expected to witness an arrest, but to his shock, he captured an execution, which might be regarded as a war crime. He was Eddie Adams, and for this work he won the Pulitzer Prize for the best news photo of the year.

print the image next to a photograph of a child killed by the Viet Cong. This happened, but the general’s execution was the image that people remembered. Adams received money and awards for showing one man killing another, and it troubled him. American and southern Vietnamese troops killed tens of thousands of Viet Cong in combat. Was it fair to single out one death? Also, nearly 8000 South Vietnamese civilians had been killed in a few short days, and there was no freedom of the press on the procommunist side; no media to expose the ‘enemy’ in the act of committing atrocities.

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On the day, Adams saw General Loan as a cold-blooded killer. After pulling the trigger that killed the captive, named Nguyê ˜ n Va˘n Lém, General Loan simply said, ‘They killed many of our people and many of yours.’ The image helped to move public opinion in the USA and elsewhere against the Vietnam War, which became an increasingly unpopular conflict as the American death toll rose to 500 per week. Was this a war worth fighting to preserve democracy, or were both sides equally at fault? Could the war ever be won? Negative public opinion was one reason why the USA began to plan its withdrawal, ending the Vietnam War sooner that it might have otherwise finished.

However, Adams later had regrets. He said that, for balance, newspapers should

Shortly after the event, the photographer spent time with General Loan, and learned more. A group of soldiers had frogmarched the prisoner to their general, who was waiting in a jeep. The soldiers reported that Lém was suspected of having been involved in the deaths of over 30 civilians found in a mass grave, and to have killed the family one of Loan's colleagues. Loan was furious that Lém was a soldier hiding in the checked shirt of a civilian. Without hesitation, Loan fired his pistol. ‘If you hesitate, if you didn't do your duty, the men won't follow you,’ the general said later.

General Loan continued to fight for the South Vietnamese, and was admired as a brave leader. He lost a leg to machine gun fire while leading a charge over a bridge. After the communist victory, he started a new life in the United States. He was a qualified pharmacist and pilot, but he ran a pizza and Vietnamese restaurant in Washington, DC.Partly due to the photograph, immigration authorities wanted to deport him, and asked Adams to testify against him. Instead, Adams testified in Loan’s favour, saying that he might not agree with the act he photographed, but he admired the general’s character, and

was concerned that his whole life was judged by one image. ‘The general killed the Viet Cong; I killed the general with my camera,’ reflected Adams. Loan was allowed to remain in the USA. However, people who recognised him from the 1968 photograph sometimes harassed him at his business.

Still photographs are the most powerful weapon in the world. People believe them, but photographs do lie, even without manipulation. They are only half-truths. What the photograph didn't say was, ‘What would you do if you were the general at that time and place on that hot day, and you caught the so-called bad guy after he blew away one, two or three American soldiers?’

Source 11.7.2 Eddie Adams, Time magazine, 1998 …

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Concepts and skills builder 11.7

Asking historical questions

Reflect on the narrative above and discuss the following questions in groups.

1 Why did the ‘Saigon Execution’ photograph influence public opinion?

2 Was General Loan justified in shooting the prisoner?

3 Is there an ethical difference between the killing in the photograph and other deaths in combat (e.g. exchange of gunfire / bombing / land mines)?

4 Did Eddie Adams make the right decision in shooting the photograph and sending it out to newspapers?

5 What do you think photographers and reporters should do during a war?

Historical concepts and skills: communicating, historical questions

The first television war

Source 11.7.3 An American couple watches a television report of the Tê ´ t Offensive in their living room, 1968. What can the couple see on their screen?

Over 70 per cent of Australian homes and over 90 per cent of American homes owned a black and white television set by the time their nations had begun sending troops to the conflict. Therefore, television reporters joined radio and newspaper journalists in Vietnam, and for the first time it was possible for people back home to view the progress of a war in the nightly news.

Historians argue that media coverage infl uenced people’s attitudes to the Vietnam War. As we have seen, Adams’ photograph of a South Vietnamese general shooting an unarmed prisoner in the street made the front page of newspapers including the New York Times , which led to debates across the country about the ethics of the war. Later that month, famous CBS television host Walter Cronkite raised serious questions about whether the US could ever win, stating on the nightly news on 27 February 1968 that

he expected “the bloody experience of Vietnam...to end in a stalemate” and that the only “rational way out” is to negotiate an end to the war.

In March 1968, US Army photographer Sergeant Ron Haeberle took photographs of American soldiers indiscriminately killing up to 500 people, including women and children who were sheltering in an irrigation ditch, at a village called My Lai. The photographs were published in the very popular Life! magazine, and sparked national outrage.

Source 11.7.4 South Vietnamese children flee from their village after it was accidentally bombed and set on fire with American-supplied napalm in June 1972. How many reporters can you see filming their pain? The girl in the middle, Phan Thi Kim Phuc, survived by tearing off her burning clothes, but required 14 months in hospital to heal her burns. Her naked photo was put on the front page of the New York Times. What does this show about the role of war photography?

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What did the Cold War have to do with space?

Learning intention

Previous lessons explored conflict and tension between the Cold War superpowers across the Earth. This lesson looks at competition in space.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, puzzle, explore

Why do you think space exploration related to the Cold War? What questions do you have about space and how it affected international relations? How can you find out more?

Source 11.8.1 ‘Earth Rise’, the first photograph of the rising Earth from the Moon, taken by Apollo 8 astronauts as they became the first humans to orbit the Moon, December 1968. Earth is over 380 000 km away. Poet Archibald MacLeish in the New York Times said: ‘To see the Earth as it truly is, small and blue and beautiful in that eternal silence where it floats, is to see ourselves as riders on the Earth together, brothers on that bright loveliness in the eternal cold.’

The Space Race

While the United States and the Soviet Union were locked in competition with each other to gain territory and alliances across the planet, they also sought to beat each other into space. The rivalry to achieve first place in this complex and dangerous field became known as ‘The Space Race’.

One reason that the superpowers focused energy and resources on space programs was strategic: There could be military advantages to sending rockets and satellites into orbit. Another reason was propaganda: The nation that could achieve ‘firsts’ in space could claim that its scientists and engineers were superior, and every achievement and every setback for Russian ‘cosmonauts’ and American ‘astronauts’ took place under intense media scrutiny.

The Soviet space program took the initial lead in the Space Race. In October

1957, the satellite Sputnik entered Earth’s orbit, circling the globe every 90 minutes. This was the first human-made object in space, and it spread fear throughout the United States that the Soviet Union was making rapid advances that could undermine national security. Concerns about America falling behind worsened in November 1957 with the launch of Sputnik II, this time containing a live dog, and in September 1959 when the Soviet Union landed the first unoccupied probe on the Moon. In April 1961, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in orbit, aboard the Vostok I space capsule. Gagarin became a national hero and Soviet superiority in rocket science was clear.

In an effort to catch up, a United States space program was established, called the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Between 1960 and 1973, NASA spent US$28 billion

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spacewalk procedure in which astronauts/ cosmonauts leave their space capsule to perform activities in open space

developing rockets, spacecraft and ground systems (equivalent to over $300 billion today): up to 4 per cent of the federal government’s budget, involving over 20 000 companies and universities. According to secret reports from US spies, the Russian space program was spending between one-quarter and one-half that amount.

In February 1962, America launched its first astronaut into orbit, John Glenn. However, the Soviets continued to set the

Concepts and skills builder 11.8

pace – cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space in 1963, Alexey Leonov became the first individual to complete a spacewalk in March 1965, and a Soviet probe landed on Venus in 1966. The only way the Americans could overtake the Soviets was to shoot for a different ‘first’, and in 1962, President John Kennedy announced that their mission would be to land a piloted craft on the Moon.

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Analysing perspectives and evaluating interpretations

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions that follow.

The recently announced launching of an earth satellite by the Soviet is but more proof of growing Communist superiority in the all-important missile field. If this now known superiority over the United States develops into supremacy, the position of the free world will be critical.

At the same time we continue to learn of the missile accomplishments of the possible enemy. For fiscal reasons this Government, in turn, continues to cut back and slow down its own missile program. I have been warning about this growing danger for a long time, because the future of the United States may well be at stake.

Source 11.8.3 Senator Stuart Symington commenting on Sputnik I and demanding an investigation, as reported in “Congressional Investigation is Demanded,” Winston-Salem Journal, October 6, 1957

But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago, fly the Atlantic? We choose to go to the Moon. We choose to go to the Moon in this decade, and do the other things – not because they are easy, but because they are hard. Because that goal will serve to organise and measure the best of our energies and skills. Because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one which we intend to win.

Source 11.8.4 US President John F Kennedy’s explanation for wanting the US to land a man on the Moon, September 1962 …

1 Identify how the 1957 source described the Soviet Union and its achievement.

2 Describe what warning Senator Symington gave.

3 Explain the reasons President Kennedy gave for the Moon mission.

4 Compare these sources: How are they different perspectives about the Space Race?

5 Analyse how Kennedy’s language shows that his choice to go to the Moon was designed to inspire Americans.

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

Kennedy’s political pledge to go to the Moon became an enormous technical challenge for thousands of scientists and engineers, with no guarantee of success. It became known as the Apollo program, and each spacecraft was numbered, testing more systems on each launch. The program had setbacks, including the deaths of three astronauts while testing Apollo 1 on the ground, and an explosion that prevented the Apollo 13 mission from landing on the Moon.

On 20 July 1969, Apollo 11 landed a person on the Moon, which many had thought was impossible. In doing so, NASA captured the imagination of the world. The rocket burned 18 000 kg of liquid fuel per second at lift-off.

When Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin

stepped out of their module and walked on the Moon’s surface, the astronauts’ incredible experience was broadcast live on television across the world. Armstrong famously said, ‘That’s one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.’

Arguably, the ‘giant leap’ was such a singular event that the history of human exploration could be divided into two: Before and after the Moon landing. Five more landings followed, with a total of 12 American astronauts walking on the lunar surface. It was a propaganda triumph, despite all the Russian firsts that came before. The United States was then regarded to have ‘won’ the Space Race. In the 1980s, NASA developed a reusable Space Shuttle that marked the next innovation in space travel.

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Cooperation in space

A series of treaties were agreed in the 1960s and 1970s to improve cooperation and reduce conflict in space. In 1967, the Outer Space Treaty was finalised, which banned the stationing of nuclear weapons and weapons of mass destruction in outer space, and the Recovery Treaty, under which nations agreed to assist each other to recover astronauts and objects if they were stranded in space. In 1984, the Moon Agreement stated that the Moon and other celestial bodies should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes.

After the Moon landings, space also presented practical opportunities

for improving international cooperation. In 1971, the Russian space program began establishing a space station in orbit, as a base for cosmonauts to live while conducting their scientific research. This would later form the core of the International Space Station, which today is a 100-metre-long solar-powered living quarters for seven astronauts, run by 15 countries.

In 1975, a joint US–USSR mission involved the Apollo and Soyuz spacecrafts docking together in space and forming a combined spacecraft for two days.

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Technologies developed specifically for space travel have since become widely available and in everyday use.

Wireless headsets

Mini digital computers

Computer mouse

Cordless drills

Handheld vacuum cleaners

Quartz crystal wristwatches

Pool and spa water purification

Solar panels

Freeze-dried food

Air-cushioned athletic shoes

Laptop computers

Smoke detectors

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Digital photography

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Table 11.8.1 Space program inventions (1960s–1990s), which were developed for astronauts but then became commercially available to the general public. Which of them do you think are so useful and beneficial that they could justify the huge costs of the space program?

1 Identify what the Soviet space program achieved before the Americans.

2 Explain the effects of the Sputnik launch.

3 Discuss why the United States decided to go to the Moon.

4 Explain how the Space Race became a propaganda success for the USA.

5 Discuss how the Space Race had an impact on people’s lives.

What problems did the Soviet Union face?

Learning intention

Having learned about crisis points, conflicts and the Space Race, you will now look at two problems that threatened to bring down the USSR in the 1980s: Afghanistan and Chernobyl.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Claim, support, question

Make a claim: Based this image and on your learning so far, why do you think that failure to defeat Afghan fighters might have placed pressure on the leaders of the Soviet Union?

Support: What evidence or reasoning can you provide to support your claim?

Question: What questions do you have about your claim? How would you interrogate it to determine how accurate it is?

Source 11.9.1 A group of Afghan Mujahideen fighters, Kunar Province, Afghanistan, c.1980. The Soviet Union’s army tried for nine years to defeat these fighters, and failed.

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Two disasters placed pressure on the Soviet Union in the 1980s. One was a war on its southern border, in Afghanistan, where the USSR spent nearly a decade in trying and failing to keep a communist government in power. The other was a catastrophic accident in the west, at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine.

Failure in Afghanistan

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In 1978, a small band of Soviet-trained Afghan fighters seized power in Afghanistan on the USSR’s southern border and established a communist regime. Islamic leaders opposed them, and proclaimed a jihad (armed struggle) against the new regime, which resulted in a civil war. In December 1979, the Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev ordered Soviet troops to invade Afghanistan and support the communists. They faced fierce opposition from rebel militias known as the Mujahideen, who believed they were fighting for their religion and for their nation’s freedom.

Soviet intervention in Afghanistan was seen in Moscow as an extension of the foreign policy known as ‘the Brezhnev Doctrine’, which promised that the Soviet Union would respond to any threat to socialist rule. In Washington, however, this was perceived as an attempt to take over a neighbouring country.

A week after the invasion, US President Jimmy Carter condemned ‘this new Soviet threat to world stability,’ and announced that he would cut trade and

Concepts and skills builder 11.9

Using historical sources

Examine the following source and then answer the questions that follow.

1 Identify how the painting shows guerilla warfare tactics.

2 Describe the environment in which the war occurred.

Source 11.9.2 Mujahideen fighters use an Americansupplied anti-aircraft ‘Stinger’ missile to shoot down a Soviet helicopter, in 1986. (Source: CIA Museum)

cancel planned arms control talks with the USSR, and refuse to send a team of American athletes to the Moscow Olympic Games. The United States and 65 of its allies boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics, which were the first to be held in a communist country. Later, the US would give direct aid and funding of up to $20 billon to the Islamic resistance, not because the Americans supported the Mujahideen ideology, but because they were causing deep problems for Moscow.

For nearly a decade, the Soviet Union was bogged down in a guerilla war. Over 500 000 soldiers were sent to Afghanistan, one in eight of whom were killed or missing action. In the mid-1980s, US President Ronald Reagan began supplying anti-aircraft missiles for the Mujahideen to shoot down Soviet aircraft. By 1986, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev recognised that the war was futile, and blamed ‘imperialist’ foreign interference. Afghanistan, he said, had become ‘a bleeding wound’. The last Soviet soldiers left Afghanistan in February 1989.

radiation sickness poisoning caused by exposure to unsafe levels of ionising radiation, e.g. from a nuclear power plant accident, with symptoms including nausea, vomiting, skin disease, hair loss, organ damage and sometimes death

3 Explain why the American Central Intelligence Agency might have included this painting in its museum, even though it depicts a war that did not directly involve the USA.

4 Analyse how this painting could be used as evidence of the difficulties faced by Soviet forces in Afghanistan.

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

Chernobyl nuclear disaster

On 26 April 1986, the worst nuclear accident in history occurred, when one of the reactors at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine exploded, releasing radioactive material into the atmosphere. Fire fighters took nine days to extinguish the fire, and thousands of emergency responders were exposed to doses of radiation hundreds or even thousands of times the safe level, developing serious radiation sickness. People who lived near the power plant were exposed to radiation through the air and their food at levels 37 000 times stronger than an x-ray.

Clouds of radioactive particles from Chernobyl were carried by wind across Belarus, Ukraine and Russia, and some neighbouring nations, until they fell to earth as ‘fallout’ dust. This was first detected by routine tests of workers’ shoes in Sweden. Western media coverage speculated that a major meltdown had occurred.

Soviet government media at first denied that there was a crisis, and authorities did not start evacuating the nearest city (Pripyat, population 50 000) for 36 hours, by which time many of the residents were showing symptoms of radiation poisoning, particularly the children. One of them, Alexander Sirota, who was nine years old, later wrote that the evacuation ‘seemed like an exciting game … We did not know and did not understand then that we were leaving our town for ever.’

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Source 11.9.3 Map of Chernobyl radiation. Which Soviet states were most affected? …

Chernobyl had far-reaching effects. A 30-km ‘closed’ zone was established around the site, from which 200 000 people were relocated. More than half a million people worked as ‘liquidators’, to sweep up and bury contaminated materials. The initial clean-up cost over 14 billion rubles (over US$20 billion today). Across Europe, for several months, various agricultural products such as milk, vegetables and meat were declared unfit for human consumption. Many children were disabled, and there was an enormous rise in the rates of

cancer in the population. In Ukraine alone, 1.8 million people were officially recognised as victims, and decades later, 36 000 women received state pensions as widows of men who died as a result of their exposure to Chernobyl. It is expected that the region will be uninhabitable for at least 3000 years, due to radiation in the soil.

The environmental and health catastrophe caused by Chernobyl made many people question the safety of nuclear energy. Politically, it raised questions about the Soviet Union’s ability to protect its people and its tendency to hide the truth. In the most affected states, Ukraine and Belarus, anti-Moscow movements gained more support.

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Source 11.10.1 Ronald Reagan, “Tear down this wall!” 12 June

How did the Cold War end?

Learning intention

Having learned about problems the USSR faced in the 1980s, you will now look at plans that the final leader of the Soviet Union made to try to change his country.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Hear, think, wonder

What do you hear the US president say, to the people of Berlin and to the leader of the Soviet Union?

What does this make you think?

What does it make you wonder?

Source 11.10.2 Ronald Reagan speaks at the Berlin Wall, 12 June 1987. …

Glasnost and perestroika

Gorbachev declared that the economy of the Soviet Union was in urgent need of ‘restructuring’, known as perestroika, and that the political system needed openness, known as glasnost

A series of perestroika laws between 1986 and 1988 aimed to make significant changes to the communist system, to move away from government control of all industries. These laws:

• Allowed individuals to keep the profits of their own work

• Encouraged foreign investment in state enterprises

• Empowered local managers to decide what to produce, according to local customer demand

• Permitted private ownership of businesses for the first time since 1928.

However, some perestroika reforms worsened the situation. Company directors and trade union leaders enriched themselves without looking after their

workers, and the prices of many essential goods and services rose. At shops and grocery stores, people found empty shelves and long queues.

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Reforms to introduce glasnost included:

• Allowing local elections and non-communist candidates

• Permitting more freedom of speech

• Relaxing censorship of ‘Western’ books and products

• Creating a Congress of People’s Deputies (similar to a parliament), with free elections by 1989.

At the time, Gorbachev was praised around the world for relaxing government control of people’s lives. However, the result was widespread discussions across the Soviet Union of what had gone wrong in their history, the effect of which according to historian Sheila Fitzpatrick was ‘to undermine the public’s confidence rather than rally it for reform’.

Source 11.10.3 Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (1931–2022), the eighth and final leader of the USSR, from 1985 to 1991. Gorbachev was a lifelong communist, but when he came to power in 1985, he saw problems in the Soviet system. The war in Afghanistan and the arms race drained the state’s budget, while the living standards of its people fell. As he prepared for his first day in office, he told his wife Raisa, ‘We just can’t go on living like this’.

Determining historical significance

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions that follow.

11.10.4 Customers

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The Law on State Enterprise of 1987 gave factory managers more freedom from central control and powers to set wage levels and product prices, though in practice it resulted in little beyond raising prices for goods of still mediocre quality. … By the end of 1991 [the people lining up in queues] blamed [Gorbachev] for their economic misery, for the loss of an empire, for casting away all that the glorious victory of 1945 had brought (at colossal sacrifice) and for ‘selling out’ to the West. He had inherited a superpower. Little over six years later it had gone.

Source 11.10.5 Ian Kershaw (a British historian), Personality and Power: Builders and destroyers of a modern Europe, London: Penguin, 2022, pp. 345, 358

1 Identify what the photograph shows about daily life in a Soviet city after Gorbachev’s reforms.

2 Explain how queuing might affect people’s view of the government.

3 Identify what Professor Kershaw says was the result of the Law on State Enterprise.

4 Explain what Kershaw says the ordinary shoppers blamed Gorbachev for.

5 Analyse how these sources could be used to support a claim that Gorbachev’s reforms had unintended consequences.

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

Arms control

Arms control talks between the superpowers into the 1980s sought to reduce tensions and bringing weapons of mass destruction under control. While they

would not bring about total disarmament, they brought leaders together and showed that both nations recognised the costs and risks of the Cold War.

Reagan: ‘For the first time in history, the language of ‘arms control’ was replaced by ‘arms reduction’ … We can only hope that this history-making agreement will not be an end in itself but the beginning of a working relationship that will enable us to tackle the other urgent issues before us …’

Gorbachev: ‘The treaty whose text is on this table offers a big chance at last to get onto the road leading away from the threat of catastrophe. It is our duty to take full advantage of that chance and move together toward a nuclear-free world, which holds out for our children and grandchildren and for their children and grandchildren the promise of a fulfilling and happy life without fear and without a senseless waste of resources on weapons of destruction.’

Source 11.10.6 The US and Soviet leaders speak after signing the Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty, Washington, 8 December 1987 …

Date Talks Agreement

1968 Non-Proliferation Treaty

1972, 1979Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I and II)

1987Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty

1991, 1993Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START I and II)

2002Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT)

2010New START

To prevent the spread of nuclear weapons: States without nuclear weapons would not acquire them; states with nuclear weapons would pursue disarmament.

To set limits on total numbers of missile defences, missile launch silos and strategic delivery vehicles.

To eliminate an entire category of nuclear weapons: All ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges of 500 to 5500 km.

To reduce deployed strategic arsenals to 1600 delivery vehicles, carrying no more than 6000 warheads (later to be reduced to 3000).

To reduce deployed strategic arsenals to no more than 2200 warheads each.

To reduce each side to 1550 strategic nuclear warheads deployed on 700 strategic delivery systems, with inspections to verify.

Table 11.10.1 Nuclear treaties and talks, 1968–2010 …

The fall of the Berlin Wall

The Berlin Wall stood, since 1962, as a concrete representation of the way the Iron Curtain divided Europe. In 1987, the fiercely anti-communist US President Ronald Reagan – who had in 1983 described the USSR as an ‘evil empire’ – visited the wall and delivered one of the most famous speeches of the Cold War. Before an audience of 20 000 West Berliners, Reagan challenged Gorbachev to show that he was serious in his reforms, and ‘tear down this wall’.

In 1988, Gorbachev reformed Soviet foreign policy by cutting off economic and military support to member states of the Warsaw Pact. He removed Soviet tank divisions and withdrew

50 000 soldiers from East Germany, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. He also encouraged them to introduce glasnost and perestroika in their countries. The East German government was isolated and weak. Public protests grew in number, calling for reforms and a relaxation of the border between East and West Germany. Still, it came as a surprise when on 9 November 1989, East German soldiers finally allowed people to pass through checkpoints. Families from the two sides of the city reunited, and for weeks, people came to the wall with hammers and other tools, to chip away at the hated barrier. The Berlin Wall had fallen, and the two Germanys were reunified within a year.

Source 11.10.7 East German soldiers stand by as the Berlin Wall is dismantled, November 1989. How would you describe the body language of the soldiers?

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The end of the Iron Curtain

Independence movements quickly emerged. When unpopular communist governments lost the backing of the USSR, they collapsed. This was mostly achieved through non-violence, such as the ‘Velvet Revolution’ in Czechoslovakia and general strikes calling for freedom of religion and democracy organised by the ‘Solidarity’ workers’ trade union in Poland. Solidarity’s charismatic leader, Lech Wałe˛sa, won a huge majority in Poland’s first free elections. At the border between Hungary and Austria, people held a ‘PanEuropean Picnic’ in August 1989. The Iron Curtain was finally opening.

Change occurred differently across the 15 republics of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev planned to allow them to develop democracy, but not independence. However, the governments that were elected supported independence, and began to break away, starting in the Baltic states. Attempts to keep the USSR together by force failed.

In August 1991, senior communists tried to stage a coup d’état, arrest Gorbachev and seize control of the country. The newly elected leader of

Russia, Boris Yeltsin, a former communist who had become independent, headed off the coup and became the real powerbroker. At the end of 1991, he established the Commonwealth of Independent States with Belarus and Ukraine, Gorbachev resigned, and the Soviet Union was no more.

d’état a violent and illegal attempt by a military group to overthrow a government

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1 Identify the two policies that Mikhail Gorbachev introduced to reform the Soviet Union.

2 Explain the unintended consequences of Gorbachev’s policies.

3 Discuss the significance of the fall of the Berlin Wall.

4 Explain what happened when communist governments lost the backing of the USSR.

5 Research the status of nuclear weapons around the world, using the online resource of the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, at: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11430. How successful was arms control?

What perspectives emerged about the end of the Cold War?

Learning intention

Having learned about glasnost and perestroika and the end of the Iron Curtain, you will now explore the debate over why the Cold War ended in the way that it did.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Step in, step out, step back

Step in: Imagine you were a person standing in this line. What do you think you might feel, believe, know or experience?

Step out: What would you like or need to learn to understand these people’s perspective better?

Step back: What do you notice about your own perspective and what it takes to take somebody else’s?

Source 11.11.1 The queue outside the first McDonald’s in Moscow on its opening day, January 1990. 5000 customers waited up to five hours in the queue to buy a burger, which cost as much as a monthly bus pass.

Did anyone win the Cold War?

When the Cold War ended, journalists and historians began to analyse why. Did Ronald Reagan win the Cold War, by increasing the pressure on communists? Did Gorbachev lose the Cold War, by dismantling the Soviet state too soon? Did ordinary people make the most difference? People who had led nations and movements during the Cold War also contributed their perspectives, often to defend their reputations.

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Concepts and skills builder 11.11

Analysing historical perspectives and evaluating historical interpretations

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions that follow.

What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of postwar history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.

Source 11.11.2 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History?, 1989 …

He [Ronald Reagan] won the Cold War without firing a shot.

Source 11.11.3 UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, 1990 …

The end of the cold war has been a victory for all humanity. A year and a half ago, in Germany, I said that our goal was a Europe whole and free. Tonight, Germany is united. Europe has become whole and free, and America’s leadership was instrumental in making it possible.

Source 11.11.4 US President George Bush, State of the Union speech, January 1991 …

Although it has become fashionable to credit the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev with ending the Cold War, in truth it was the Reagan administration that forced Moscow down a path of reform that ultimately led to drastic disarmament and the end of the Soviet empire in eastern Europe.

Source 11.11.5 Niall Ferguson, ‘How to Win the New Cold War’, Foreign Affairs journal, January 2025, p. 26 …

We are living in a new world: An end has been put to the Cold War, and the arms race and the insane militarization of the country, which disfigured our economy and the public consciousness and morals, have been halted. The threat of a world war has been removed. … The changes ran up against our intolerance, low level of political sophistication, and fear of change. … The old system collapsed before a new one had time to begin working.

Source 11.11.6 Mikhail Gorbachev, Resignation speech, December 1991 …

Gorbachev did not understand that, in a vast territory stretching from the Bug to the Kuriles, from Taimyr to Kushka, it was impossible to transform the psychology of the people overnight in one huge market-oriented melting pot … as a result, the country began to burst at the seams from an overload of ideas and schemes, before falling apart in tiny pieces.

Source 11.11.7 Valery Boldin, former adviser to Gorbachev, Ten Years That Shook the World, translated by Evelyn Rossiter, New York: Basic Books, 1994, pp. 294, 296

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The ending was, in a way, a ‘victory’ of the West, but … the role of longer-term processes within the Soviet Union (the erosion of ideology, the pent-up desire for relaxation) played a much greater role than the shortterm measures of the Reagan or Bush administrations.

Source 11.11.8 Vladislav M. Zubok, ‘Why Did the Cold War End in 1989? Explanations of "The Turn"’, in Westad (ed.), Reviewing the Cold War, Routledge, 2001, p. 361

1 Identify claims that credit US leaders with ending the Cold War.

2 Identify counter-claims that credit other factors with ending the Cold War.

3 Select three sources that argue that the end of the Cold War was significant, and explain their reasons.

4 Analyse which two sources you find the most useful explanations of the end of the Cold War, and explain why.

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

Russia after Gorbachev

When the Berlin Wall came down, an ambitious 37-year-old secret service agent proud to represent the Soviet Union at the KGB office in Dresden, East Germany, found himself surrounded by a crowd of anti-Russian protesters. He called the nearby Soviet base for backup, but got no reply. To his horror, he realised that Moscow had abandoned its agents and that he was on his own. The agent returned to Russia to look for a different job. He never forgave the Soviet leadership for allowing the USSR to fall apart, and eventually moved to Moscow to become a politician. His name was Vladimir Putin.

A decade later, the Russian government headed by Boris Yeltsin was in crisis and heavily in debt. Yeltsin chose Putin – first to run the new security service that had replaced the KGB, then as Prime Minister, and then as Acting President when Yeltsin resigned in December 1999. In the March 2000 elections, Putin won 54 per cent of the popular vote, and he has remained as leader ever since. Putin’s aim to rebuild part of the Soviet empire threatens a return to Cold War-like mistrust between world powers.

The demise of the Soviet Union was the greatest geopolitical catastrophe of the century … As for the Russian people, it became a genuine tragedy. Tens of millions of our fellow citizens and countrymen found themselves beyond the fringes of Russian territory.

Source 11.11.9 Russian President Vladimir Putin, State of the Union address, April 2005

After 2014, when Putin ordered the Russian army to annex the region of Crimea from Ukraine, Russia was increasingly isolated from international organisations. Putin lost his seat at the ‘G8’, for leaders of the world’s most industrialised economies, and the group became known as the G7. Russian

A new Cold War?

Putin has been described as starting a New Cold War. In 2021, he had the Russian Constitution changed to remove the restrictions on how long he could serve as president, making him the longest-serving leader since Stalin. When Russia invaded eastern Ukraine in February 2022 (which Putin claimed was ethnically Russian) and displaced millions of people, Russia was suspended from the UN Human Rights Council. However, Russia retains its permanent seat on the UN Security Council, meaning that Russia can veto any decision to which it objects.

The war in Ukraine echoed Cold War conflicts: It began in part because Ukraine’s president Volodymyr Zelenskyy wanted to join the NATO alliance, which Putin claimed threatened Russian security, and Western allies have not directly sent troops, but have committed heavily to support Ukraine.

In 2024, President Putin made efforts to secure alliances around the world. Within a month, he visited three nations ruled by communist governments: China, where he signed a partnership for a

teams have been banned from Olympic Games and World Cup football finals, and sanctions were imposed on Russian companies. A further sign of the isolation came during the Covid pandemic, when Russia developed its own vaccine separately from global efforts, named Sputnik V.

sanctions economic penalties, e.g. bans on trade, imposed on a country to try to achieve policy outcomes

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‘new era’ of cooperation with Xi Jinping; North Korea, where he signed a security pact with Kim Jong Un; and Vietnam, for energy cooperation. At the same time, Russian warships visited Cuba for joint military exercises.

Many of the weapons of mass destruction that were developed during the Cold War arms race remain. Thousands were dismantled under disarmament deals; however, Russia and the USA still possess over 5000 nuclear warheads each, 1500 of which are deployed on bombers or other missile delivery systems. The rest are stockpiled.

There remains a division of opinion over whether nuclear weapons make the world safer because they deter conflict, or more dangerous, by creating fear and distrust. A non-government International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) was started by concerned citizens in Melbourne in 2007, and in 2017 resulted in a United Nations Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, to prevent ‘the catastrophic humanitarian consequences’ of nuclear conflict.

Up until now there has been the uproar and screaming about inflicting a strategic defeat on Russia on the battlefield. Now they are apparently coming to realize that it is difficult to achieve, if possible at all. In my opinion, it is impossible by definition, it is never going to happen. … Everyone in the West thinks that the Russian people have been split by hostilities forever. No. They will be reunited. The unity is still there. Source 11.11.10 Vladimir

ICAN won the 2017 Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts. To date, over 90 member states of the United Nations have signed on. However, international treaties only apply to states that agree to sign them, so the ban has limited impact

on the world’s nine nuclear weapon states. Although Australians started the campaign for the treaty, the Australian government did not support or sign the treaty, due to its alliance with the United States.

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1 Identify three reasons people gave to explain why the Cold War ended.

2 Explain how Vladimir Putin’s Cold War experience shaped his views. 3 Explain recent events that echo issues from the Cold War. 4 Explain Australia’s role in efforts to ban nuclear weapons.

End of investigation review: How did regional and global conflict related to the Cold War affect the world after 1945? 11.12

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Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable chapter summar y

• Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learnt about the Cold War? For this activity, copy the diagram and fill out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic What I have learned

How the Cold War started Berlin crisis

Cuban missile crisis

Korean War

Vietnam War

The Space Race

Afghanistan

Chernobyl

The end of the USSR

Making thinking visible

This exercise in visible thinking asks you to track the difference between what you knew about the Cold War before, and what new understandings you have acquired since reading this chapter.

Using the stem sentences here, write a paragraph explaining what you previously knew about the topic. Then write another paragraph explaining what you now understand about the topic.

2A I used to think that the Cold War involved … 2B Now I think that the Cold War involved

2C I used to think that Americans and Russians were … 2D Now I think that Americans and Russians were … 2E A simple explanation for how the Cold War ended is … 2F A better explanation for how the Cold War ended is …

Practice questions

1 Identify four wars or conflicts that occurred during the Cold War, including where and when they happened and who was involved.

2 Match each cause on the left with its consequence on the right.

Causes

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Consequences

USA and USSR both developed nuclear weaponsInnocent people were accused of being traitors Stalin wanted to keep East and West separate

The superpowers came close to nuclear war Americans feared communist invasion

A space race began Communist forces invaded from the north

An arms race began Soviet missiles were installed near the USA

Public support for wars decreased Superpowers wanted to prove their technical superiorityThe Iron Curtain Reporters showed people the realities of war

The Soviet Union was weakened The USSR suffered disasters in Afghanistan and Chernobyl

The Korean War and the Vietnam War Gorbachev introduced reforms to the communist systemThe USSR changed rapidly and collapsed

3 Select two pairs of causes and consequences that you have found the most interesting to learn about, and explain why you chose them, giving details.

Source 11.12.1 CBS News anchorman Walter Cronkite conducts an interview with an American officer during the Tê ´ t Offensive, February 1968.

4 Analyse the following artefact as a historical source, using the questions below.

a When was this source created, in the context of the Cold War?

b What does it show about conflicts during the Cold War?

c What aspects of how the Cold War affected people’s lives does the source depict?

d Explain how you could use the source to generate further research questions, and as evidence.

5 Perspectives and parallel narratives: There were at least two sides to all events and debates during the Cold War. Choose a key event from either the start, middle or end of the Cold War, and develop parallel narratives about its causes and effects. On the left side of the page / table, provide a narrative from the perspective of the East (e.g. Soviet) and on the right side, provide a narrative from the perspective of the West (e.g. American). Write at least one paragraph on each side. Then reflect on what the activity made you think.

Event:

Eastern narrative:

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Western narrative:

Reflection: Response to chapter inquiry question: how did regional and global conflict related to the Cold War affect the world after 1945?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question, using all the key terms listed below.

• superpower

• ideology

• warfare

• containment

• arms race

• brinkmanship

• space race

In what ways is this a significant

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Image: In Investigation 1, you will learn about environmental change and how it is managed around the world. In Investigation 2, you will study the ways that geography impacts our wellbeing as a species.

Part 2 Geography

Watch the video for an introduction to Geography in Year 10 and the geographical skills and concepts you will be working with.

INVESTIGATION 1 Environmental change and management

OVERVIEW

Environmental change and management examines the functions of the environment that support people’s lives and wellbeing, as well as ways of assessing the sustainability of these functions. Students identify environmental changes that threaten sustainability and therefore need management. Students examine the impacts of people’s attitudes, values and ways of thinking on their views of environment management, first generally and then through the ways of thinking and practices of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Students have the opportunity to examine the causes and consequences of a change within the context of a specific environmental issue and the strategies to manage the change, including the application of geographical concepts and methods.

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description –Levels 9 and 10’

CURRICULUM GOALS

• How can geographical thinking help in understanding and responding to an environmental issue?

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

CHAPTER 12

How do environments change and what are the associated impacts?

LESSONTITLE

12.1Setting the scene: unsustainable tourism in Thailand

12.2What is an environment?

12.3What are the characteristics of different environments?

12.4What are the causes of environmental change?

12.5What are the impacts of environmental change?

12.6Is the fishing industry sustainable?

12.7Why is climate change both a cause and consequence of environmental change?

12.8How do people influence environmental change and sustainability?

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Setting the scene: unsustainable tourism in Thailand

Learning intention

This opening lesson considers some of the ways in which a seemingly innocent activity like visiting a tourist destination can cause a range of environmental changes.

revegetation process of replanting vegetation on land that was previously degraded erosion gradual wearing away and removal of rock, soil or sediment by wind, water or other natural forces

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You may have heard of an old movie released in 2000 called The Beach, starring Leonardo DiCaprio. It was a movie adaptation of a novel by Alex Garland. The story is about an American backpacker who discovers a secret beach in Thailand that is rumoured to be a pristine paradise, unspoiled by local people and tourists. In the real world, this place is known as Maya Bay and it is part of the island of Phi Phi Leh in southern Thailand. As shown in the aerial photo in Figure 12.1.1, the island is surrounded by limestone hills up to 100 metres tall, giving the 300-metre-long bay the allure of secrecy.

Despite its clear water, white sand and vibrant vegetation, Maya Bay’s characteristics did not completely suit what was needed for filming the movie. Therefore, some of the vegetation was removed and replaced with foreign palm species to match what viewers would perceive as a typical coastal paradise. This led to protests from local Thai environmentalists who were worried about the environmental sustainability of the site. After filming, the site was revegetated. However, since new plantings were not completely established, the dune system was left vulnerable to erosion. Although bamboo barriers were constructed to

protect the dunes, subsequent high tides and strong storms led to significant erosion and sand was washed into the sea, damaging the bay’s fragile coral reef.

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Following the success of The Beach, Maya Bay became a tourist attraction. Visitors flocked to the site, craving the same experience as DiCaprio’s character in the movie. While they were expecting to find an isolated paradise, in reality they were faced with hordes of other visitors, ruining the very attraction they were coming to see. While the bay received an average of 171 daily visitors in 2008, this increased to over 5000 daily visitors in 2018 arriving on around 200 boats.

Studies from Thailand’s Kasetsart University showed that approximately 90 per cent of the coral system had been damaged, largely from boat anchors, and that the site needed time to naturally recover. In response to this degradation, Thailand’s Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation closed the beach to visitors on 1 June 2018. As part of the rehabilitation efforts, coral was propagated from local species to help

restore the ecosystem, and a restriction was placed on boats, forcing them to remain 300 metres away from the shoreline. Although the closure was initially meant to last only four months, it was extended indefinitely to allow the environment time to fully recover.

rehabilitate restoring an area of land back to its original state after it has been damaged propagate to use existing plants to grow more specimens of the same plant

ecological relating to the environment

Gross Domestic Product measure of a country’s economic activity based on the total value of goods produced and services provided in that country in one year

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Early observations have shown that these steps have been successful in rehabilitating the site. Blacktip reef sharks have returned to the area, which is a sign of its returning ecological health. The site reopened to visitors in January 2022 with new tourism regulations. Numbers are capped at 2000 people per day and boats will be forced to use new infrastructure to reduce the impact on the coral reef. The bay is expected to close periodically to allow it to recover following busy tourism seasons.

Lesson 12.1 review

Tourism is a vital industry in Thailand, accounting for an estimated 18 per cent of the country’s Gross Domestic Product . However, approximately 80 per cent of Thailand’s coral reefs have been destroyed due to pollution, damage from boat anchors and development of the coastline. Thailand’s natural environment is a drawcard for tourists. Therefore, its degradation is not only threatening its environmental sustainability, but also the economic sustainability of the tourism industry itself.

12.1 Review questions

Think, pair, share

Answer the following questions by considering both positive and negative impacts. Share your thoughts with a partner and justify your opinion.

1 Do you think tourism should be permanently banned in Maya Bay?

2 Would you visit Maya Bay?

3 Can you think of any examples of unsustainable tourism in Australia?

What is an environment?

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn what environment means, the components that make up an environment and the ways in which environments can be classified.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Describing an environment

1 Describe the different features of the environment that you can see in Figure 12.2.1.

2 Have you ever seen an environment that is similar to this? Consider places you have been to, heard about in a book, or seen on television.

3 What connection to you think people might have with this place? How do you think people might use the place or have changed the place?

habitat area of an environment in which an organism lives ecosystem community of living organisms that interact with the non-living components within an environment process series of natural steps or human actions that lead to change respiration when living organisms release carbon dioxide during the production of energy such as when food is consumed photosynthesis process by which plants convert solar energy and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen fossil fuels resources such as coal and gas that are formed from the buried and decaying remains of organisms

What is an environment?

The term ‘environment’ comes from the French word environ, meaning ‘that which surrounds’. In geography we define the environment as being all the living and non-living components within and surrounding a place. In a forest environment, living components range from the tallest tree receiving the most sunlight right down to the tiniest insects breaking down plant matter on

the forest floor. Non-living components such as the shape of a landscape, the amount of sunlight it receives, soil types and moisture levels determine the types of habitat within an environment and therefore the types of organisms that live there. As shown in Figure 12.2.2, these components can be broadly grouped as the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.

Atmosphere: the thin, fragile layer of gases that surround the Earth

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Lithosphere: the Earth’s crust, including landforms, rock and soil

LITHOSPHERE

Crust Mantle

form

What is an ecosystem?

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms that interact with the non-living components within an environment. Elements of an ecosystem are interconnected through processes such as nutrient cycles and energy transfers. For example, Figure 12.2.3 shows the different processes within the carbon cycle. In the carbon cycle,

Biosphere: living matter on Earth, including all plant and animal life forms

12.2.2 The hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere together support the biosphere, which contains all the living things within an environment. …

carbon dioxide is released from organisms during respiration and absorbed from the atmosphere into plant material via photosynthesis . Dead and decaying organisms release carbon back to the atmosphere. Organic matter that doesn’t break down turns into fossil fuels such as coal, which is a resource used by people.

Concepts and skills builder 12.2

Interpreting a flowchart

Figure 12.2.3 is a flowchart of the carbon cycle. It demonstrates the way that carbon moves between plants, animals and microbes from the earth’s crust up into the atmosphere. Flowcharts are diagrams that use arrows to show processes and links between parts of a process. Key terms within this flowchart include:

• Combustion: The process of burning something such as coal or wood

• Assimilation: The incorporation of carbon from the atmosphere into organic molecules

• Respiration: When living organisms release carbon dioxide during the production of energy

• Decomposition: The release of carbon when dead organisms are broken down by bacteria and fungi.

Analyse the carbon cycle flowchart to help answer the following questions:

1 List three ways that carbon moves into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.

2 List three ways carbon moves from the atmosphere back to the earth’s surface.

3 State which of the processes in the cycle are due to human actions.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection

What is biodiversity?

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Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living things within an environment, including plants, animals and microorganisms. It is an important measure of the health of an environment. The natural components and processes

within a healthy environment help to maintain high levels of biodiversity. On the other hand, when the biodiversity of an environment is reduced it is a sign that the environment has been modified, damaged or has experienced degradation

biodiversity the variety of living things within an environment, including plants, animals and microorganisms – the more living things in an environment, the higher its biodiversity degradation reduction in the quality and health of a natural environment due to natural processes or human activities

geographic characteristics physical and human characteristics of a place

climate long-term trends in the weather conditions of a place; for example, average rainfall and temperature

elevation the height of a place above sea level topography relief, or shape, of the surface of a landscape

vegetation all the types of plants found in a place; for example, grasses, shrubs and trees

water quality condition of water in terms of its chemical, physical and biological properties

population density number of people per square kilometre

How are environments classified?

Geographers classify environments based on their combinations of geographic characteristics. In land-based environments, these include climate, elevation, topography, vegetation and soil types. In marine environments, characteristics include water quality and depth. The location of a place often plays a large role in determining its environment. For example, a forest found near the equator within the tropical climate zone, such as a forest in Indonesia, is likely to have a consistently warm temperature and experience high rainfall. It will therefore be classified as a tropical rainforest. However, a

forest located within in a wet temperate zone, like a forest in Tasmania, will be classified as a cool temperate rainforest. The characteristics of human or built environments vary significantly based on their population density and features such as roads, buildings and land uses.

Although environments can be classified based on similar characteristics, they can also vary greatly within these classifications. Figure 12.2.4 shows three distinct examples of coastal environments that vary based on the natural processes that formed them and their level of modification by people.

Review questions

1 Define the following terms, providing an example where appropriate: a environment b ecosystem c biodiversity d atmosphere e lithosphere f hydrosphere g biosphere.

2 List some of the non-living components in an environment that can determine the types of plants and animals living there.

3 ‘Biodiversity is the most important measure of the health of an environment.’ Explain what this statement means and discuss whether you agree with it.

4 Describe the differences in the characteristics of the three coastal environments shown in Figure 12.2.4.

What are the characteristics of different environments?

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Learning intention

This lesson introduces the difference between environment types and their characteristics.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Describing the characteristics of different environments

Figure 12.3.1 depicts two forest environments that share some common characteristics but are also very different. The Amazon Rainforest is a tropical rainforest covering more than five million square km in the northern region of South America. The Dandenong Ranges is located 35 km east of Melbourne’s CBD. It is a temperate rainforest dominated by Mountain Ash trees with an undergrowth of tree ferns.

1 In a table, list the similarities and differences of the two forests shown in Figure 12.3.1. Consider the density and diversity of the vegetation (trees, shrubs and grasses).

2 Search online to find additional images of these forests and use Google Earth to view these places from above using satellite imagery. Add any observations to your table.

3 Suggest a reason why you think these forests have different characteristics.

floodplain the area of flat, low-lying land beside a river which is prone to flooding riparian relating to the banks of a river or lake

continental shelf part of the edge of a continent that is submerged beneath shallow ocean

salinity measure of the amount of salt in water or soil

acidity measure of the amount of acid in water, measured using the pH scale turbidity measure of the transparency, or cloudiness, of a liquid, caused by the concentration of suspended particles within it

dissolved oxygen amount of oxygen contained in water, used by aquatic organisms for respiration

estuaries environments in which the mouth of a freshwater river meets the open sea wetland place where stagnant or flowing water covers the soil at various times throughout a year

Common types of environments

This unit explores many different types of environments, many of which may already be somewhat familiar to you from places you have visited or from the settings of some of your favourite movies or television series. Table 12.3.1 summarises five common types of

Table 12.3.1 Descriptions of five types of environments

Type of environmentDescription

Terrestrial

environments and their characteristics. Urban environments might seem like a strange inclusion; however, human environments are becoming increasingly common as humans continue to modify natural environments to suit their needs.

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Freshwater

Terrestrial, or land, environments are likely the first type that come to mind when considering different types of environments. They include different types of forests from dense tropical rainforest to drier temperate woodlands. They also include deserts, grasslands, mountain ranges and ice environments such as Antarctica. Land environments vary greatly based on climate (see Figure 12.3.6), soil types, elevation, vegetation and topography.

Freshwater environments include rivers, lakes and wetlands, and the landscapes that surround them. As rivers flow, they erode the landscape, transport sediment and deposit it downstream. These processes create distinctive landforms such as valleys, waterfalls and floodplains. Freshwater bodies contain aquatic plants within the water and riparian vegetation along banks that maintain the health of ecosystems.

Coastal Coastal environments are the link between the land and sea. They transition from components typically found in inland environments, such as dune vegetation, to components typically found in marine environments, such as coral reefs. Coastal environments are dynamic, meaning they are constantly changing. This is due to process driven by the action of the tides, wind and waves.

Marine

Urban

Oceans are the largest environment on Earth covering 71 per cent of its surface. Marine environments can be divided into two main categories: Coastal and open ocean. The coastal zone includes areas as far inland as a high tide can reach, and as far out as the edge of the continental shelf. Marine environments vary based on water temperature, salinity, acidity, turbidity, nutrient levels and the degree of dissolved oxygen.

Urban environments are places that have been highly modified by people and are dominated by manufactured materials. Examples include dense cities such as Melbourne, including its outer suburbs, and regional centres such as Ballarat. The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines urban environments as places that contain at least 1000 residents and have a population density of more than 200 people per square kilometre.

Environments do not exist in isolation. In fact, some of the most unique ecosystems are found where these environments meet. For examples, estuaries are environments in which the mouth of a freshwater river meets the open sea, providing a habitat containing a mix of riverine and marine characteristics (Figure 12.3.2). Wetlands are places where stagnant or flowing water covers

the soil at various times throughout a year (Figure 12.3.3). They act like giant sponges, absorbing and filtering excess nutrients and pollutants from freshwater, which supports the health of rivers and creeks. During high rainfall events, rivers flood outwards onto the landscape, depositing rich sediment over floodplains, recharging wetlands and maintaining the health of nearby forests (Figure 12.3.4).

12.3.2 The Daintree River flows into the ocean near Cape Tribulation, Queensland, and provides a unique habitat for species such as estuarine crocodiles.

12.3.3 Loch McNess (Nyungar: Wagardu Lark), a coastal freshwater lake that forms part of a series of wetlands near Perth, Western Australia

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Figure 12.3.4 The Lake Eyre Basin in central Australia, known by the local Arabana people as Kati Thanda, is a dry and salty lakebed covering around one-sixth of Australia’s land area. Roughly every three years, this barren landscape becomes a thriving oasis as floodwaters travel more than 1000 km down rivers such as Warburton River to recharge the basin.

The spatial distribution of land environments

Figure 12.3.5 shows the spatial distribution of land cover across the globe. This distribution is based on a range of factors including:

• Latitude, which broadly determines climate zones

• How close a place is to the coast

• Elevation, which can determine rainfall and temperature

• The presence of major landforms, such as mountain ranges.

Figure 12.3.5 The global distribution of land cover …

land cover the physical land type covering the Earth’s surface including vegetation, water, ice and bare soil

latitude the angular distance of a place north or south of the earth’s equator

Climate is one of the main factors determining the type of environment found in a particular location. Climate is defined as the long-term average weather of a place including its average rainfall and temperature. It is not to be confused with weather, which is the temperature and precipitation at a particular time. For example, the weather in Melbourne on precipitation any type of water that falls from the atmosphere onto Earth’s surface, such as rain, snow, sleet or hail

3 February 2024, was hot and dry with a minimum of 20.0°C and a maximum of 36.7°C. Based on Melbourne’s climate, the weather in February is usually between an average of 14 and 25.3°C and so the weather on this date was above the seasonal average. Figure 12.3.6 shows the climate ranges for different land environments based on temperature and precipitation

Figure 12.3.6 Precipitation and temperature are the two main climate factors that determine the type of terrestrial environment that will exist in a place.

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Concepts and skills builder 12.3

Determining environments based on climate

Figure 12.3.6 shows the precipitation and temperature ranges for different types of terrestrial environments. For example, temperate season forests have an annual precipitation of between 50 mm and 230 mm and a temperature range between 6°C and 22°C. Tropical rainforests exist in areas that receive over 240 mm of rainfall and have a temperature range of between 22°C and 30°C.

1 Using Figure 12.3.6, draw a table summarising the annual precipitation and average temperature ranges for each type of terrestrial environment.

2 Mount Dandenong averages 116.6 mm of rainfall annually and has an average maximum temperature of 15.2°C. Which type of environment would this place be classified as based on climate?

3 Mildura averages 28.6 mm of rainfall annually and has an average maximum temperature of 24.0°C. Which type of environment would this place be classified as based on climate?

4 Innisfail in northern Queensland averages 354.9 mm of rainfall annually and has an average maximum temperature of 28.0°C. Which type of environment would this place be classified as based on climate?

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

While factors like latitude and climate zone are often a large determinant of the type of environment found at a location, there are many cases when the combination of additional factors have a big influence. Southern Peru and northern Chile on the western coast of South America are located north of the Tropic of Capricorn, which should be classified as a subtropical climate and therefore should be a similar environment to the Amazon rainforest to the east. However, this location is extremely dry and is known as the Atacama Desert. This is because it is located in a rain shadow in which the coastal mountains, known as the Chilean Coast Range, stop rain coming from the west, and the Andes mountain range blocks rain from coming from the

east. This makes it the second driest place on earth behind the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica.

Earth, averaging just 15 mm of rainfall each year with some regions receiving less than 3 mm.

Amazing but true…

The Atacama Desert has been used by NASA as a test site for rovers prior to missions to Mars because of the similarities with the Martian landscape.

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12.3 Review questions

1 Figures 12.3.1 to 12.3.4 and 12.3.7 are photographs of some unique and contrasting environments. Describe the characteristics of each of these environments including the shape of the landscape, the presence or absence of water, and the characteristics of the vegetation.

2 Explain what an estuary is and why they are unique environments.

3 Use Figure 12.3.5 to answer the following:

a Name three places that have barren or sparsely vegetated land.

b Name the dominant type of land cover in South America.

c Latitude is a major factor determining the type of environment and land cover that exists at different locations. Find evidence that supports this idea and examples that do not.

4 Explain why northern Chile is a desert despite being located within a subtropical climate zone.

What are the causes of environmental change?

Learning intention

This lesson introduces some of the causes of environmental change due to both natural processes and human activities.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Analysing the effects of environmental changes

1 List the environmental changes that might occur due to a large-scale bushfire or the widespread deforestation of a natural forest, as shown in Figure 12.4.1.

2 Explain why bushfires might be considered both a natural and human cause of environmental change.

3 What evidence suggests that the deforestation in the second image has caused by people rather than a natural process?

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The causes of environmental change

Natural environments are dynamic. This means they are constantly changing. On a local scale, environments change owing to the processes occurring within an ecosystem such as photosynthesis, nutrient cycling or erosion. Despite these constant changes, undisturbed natural environments are usually in a state of equilibrium. This means that all the components and processes within an ecosystem are balanced. For example, if a tree dies within a forest, it will decay and add nutrients to the soil. Its death provides space and food so that a new tree can grow in its place. Natural disturbances such as landslides and bushfires can temporarily disrupt an environment’s balance and lead to significant changes until a system once again reaches a state of equilibrium.

As populations grow and technology improves, people are having an increasingly large impact on environments. For example, people are able to permanently remove an entire forest, dam a large river or drain a wetland to create farmland. When these disturbances are large enough, ecosystems are unable to recover, leading to permanent changes. The ways people cause environmental changes can be direct or indirect. Clearing a forest to create grazing land for cattle is a direct change because it involved physically changing the land cover. However, population growth is an indirect cause as it leads to a subsequent increase in demand for food which then drives deforestation.

Classifying factors that cause environmental change

The circumstances that contribute to changes are known as factors. Factors determine the reasons for and the extent of environmental changes. For example, the development of a luxury hotel on a coastline might be driven by the opportunity for profit, which is an economic factor. Residential development might be occurring nearby to house a growing population, which is a social factor. Government regulations will

determine where these developments are allowed to occur and the scale of the development – these are political factors. The scale and type of development will also be determined by environmental factors such as the shape of the landscape and risks associated with sealevel rise and flooding. Factors can be grouped into different classifications to help understand links and patterns. These classifications are listed in Table 12.2.

Table 12.4.1 Factors can be classified using the acronym SHEEPT (Social, Historical, Economic, Environmental, Political, Technological)

ClassificationDescription

SocialFactors relating to people, including culture, values, religion, population structure, education and ethnicity

HistoricalFactors relating to actions or events from the past that might influence the present

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EconomicFactors relating to the earning or spending of money

Environmental/ Physical Factors relating to the influence of the characteristics of natural or human environments

PoliticalFactors relating to governments and the impacts of their decisions

TechnologicalFactors relating to the influence and uses of difference types of technology

state of equilibrium a balance between all the components within an ecosystem

deforestation process of clearing land to turn a forest environment into a different type of land for uses such as agricultural, residential or urban

Forest loss and protection in Ethiopia

Over the last century, Ethiopia’s forest cover has reduced from 45 per cent to just 5 per cent. The main factor driving this environmental change has been rapid population growth and the resulting increase in demand for firewood and agricultural land. Despite rapid deforestation, around 35 000 forests remain in the areas surrounding Ethiopia’s churches (see Figure 12.4.2), ranging in size from 3 to 300 hectares. Orthodox Tewahedo churches in Ethiopia view forests as spiritual environments and

Figure 12.4.2

Forests surrounding churches are the last remaining examples of the lush forest that once covered Ethiopia. …

places of worship. This has resulted in religious leaders protecting forests close to churches, while forests further away from churches have been cleared. These uncleared forests have created pockets of high biodiversity, providing a habitat for insects that can help to pollinate crops. This has made the farmland near churches more productive. Seeds from these forests are also being used to revegetate surrounding regions in an attempt to once again change the environment back to its original form.

Concepts and skills builder 12.4

Using satellite imagery to collect data

Figure 12.4.3

Geography skills video: Digital skills: Using a GIS – Google Earth satellite imagery

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Figure 12.4.2 is an example of satellite imagery – a photo taken by a satellite orbiting the Earth. As technology improves, satellite imagery is becoming an increasingly useful way of viewing land cover and tracking environmental changes, especially in remote areas. Although there are many types of satellite imagery, one of the most common and easy to access is via Google Earth.

In an article for the Nature journal in 2019, Alemayehu Wassie Eshete wrote, ‘If you see a forest in Ethiopia, you know there is very likely to be a church in the middle’. Evaluate this statement using evidence from satellite imagery by following these steps or by accessing the video tutorial.

1 Open Google Earth and search for Anbesame, a town to the southeast of Lake Tana.

2 Zoom into forest regions within a 20-km radius.

3 Count how many church forests you can find like the one shown in Figure 12.4.2, and how many forests you can find without churches. Adding placemarks might help you record your findings

4 Evaluate Wassie’s statement by stating the degree to which you agree based on the data you have collected.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

The Great Pacific garbage patch

Between Hawaii and California there is a massive accumulation of plastic debris floating in the North Pacific Ocean. It is known as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch and covers an estimated 1.6 million square km! The sources of the debris include discarded fishing nets and singleuse plastics such as packaging and bottles. The patch is growing with around two million tonnes of plastic washed out to the ocean each year which are carried to the patch by wind and ocean currents. These plastics eventually break down into smaller particles known as microplastics where they continue to cause harm to

the marine environment. As a result, microplastics have been found in 210 fish species consumed by humans. There have been many attempts to clear the oceans of plastic. The Ocean Cleanup is a company aiming to help restore the marine environment by removing pollution in the patch and by intercepting plastic in rivers before it enters the ocean. Long U-shaped barriers are used to create artificial coastlines that guide the plastic to where it can be collected, removed and sorted. The Ocean Cleanup aims to clean up 90 per cent of floating plastic pollution by 2040.

1 Define environmental change. In your definition, include one example due to natural causes and one due to human activity.

2 Using the SHEEPT acronym, classify the following factors that could lead to environmental change:

a A State government has decided to widen a highway requiring the clearing of roadside vegetation

b Tractors provided to a remote village in Bhutan are allowing local people to grow crops in mountainous regions

c A residential construction boom in the outer Melbourne suburbs has led to a demand for Merbau timber from Indonesia

d Celebrities have taken selfies at remote natural locations, leading to a rapid growth in local tourism.

3 Discuss how a social factor has affected the distribution of environmental change in Ethiopia.

microplastics small pieces of plastic less than five millimetres in length

What are the impacts of environmental change?

Learning intention

This lesson explores four common ways in which changes to environments lead to a range of positive and negative impacts: land degradation, habitat fragmentation, river regulation and pest and weed infestation.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: describe the scene shown in Figure 12.5.1.

2 Think: the Aral Sea, Central Asia, was formerly the third-largest lake in the world. What do you think must have happened to turn it into a barren wasteland?

3 Wonder: suggest three impacts that might have resulted from this environmental change.

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The impacts of environmental change

Environmental changes lead to a range of positive and negative consequences, which geographers call impacts. Some of these impacts are environmental, affecting both human and natural environments. Others are social, affecting peoples’ lives, or economic, affecting different aspects of the economy. Although environmental changes often lead to predominantly negative environmental impacts, there are often economic or social benefits that are driving the change. For example, the Aral Sea, located between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, was once a large lake covering 68 000 square km and supporting a thriving fishing industry. In the 1960s, the rivers that supplied water to the lake were diverted so that the water could be used for irrigation. Since then, most of the lake has dried up and has become a desert, destroying the local fishing and agricultural industries and causing one of history’s worst environmental disasters (see Figure 12.5.1).

Land degradation

unsustainable agricultural practices (see Table 12.5.1).

Removing forests to increase agricultural land in Ethiopia has led to short-term economic and social benefits for many local people by lifting them out of poverty and increasing their quality of life. However, in the long term it has led to widespread land degradation through soil erosion, which has reduced crop productivity, caused a loss of rural livelihoods and threatened wildlife habitats.

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Land degradation refers to a reduction in the quality of soils within an environment, which reduces the productivity of land for agriculture as well as its ability to support an ecosystem or environment. There are several types of land degradation, including soil erosion, increased salinity, desertification (see Lesson 13.6) and a decline in soil fertility. In some cases, land degradation occurs due to natural processes. For example, high-intensity monsoonal rains can erode precious topsoil layers, while dry conditions during a drought can make topsoil vulnerable to wind erosion. However, land degradation is predominantly due to human activities. Land shortages, poverty and rapid population growth can force communities to cultivate food on less productive land and to increase the yield by using

Human activity Cause of land degradation

DeforestationThe removal of trees makes the soil vulnerable to erosion from wind and water

OvergrazingIntensive grazing of livestock does not allow vegetation to recover from trampling, compaction of the soil or the overconsumption of vegetation Over-cultivationExcessive cultivation of land degrades soil quality, reducing its ability to grow crops in the future

Excessive irrigation Irrigation can cause the water table to rise, bringing salt to the surface and increasing the salinity of the soil …

Habitat fragmentation

Habitat fragmentation is when a large area of continuous habitat is divided into a number of smaller areas. This changes the spatial distribution of the remaining habitat, leaving populations of species isolated and eliminating the interconnection between them. Habitat fragmentation can occur naturally due to events such as large-scale bushfires or lava flows following a volcanic eruption.

irrigation the practice of supplying land with water so that crops and plants will grow soil fertility ability of soil to grow plants, especially in agriculture soil erosion the wearing away and removal of the topsoil layer, usually by wind or water land degradation a reduction in the quality of soil within an environment water table the level below the surface of the ground at which you start to find water

flow

controlling

However, humans are more often responsible for habitat fragmentation through actions like logging forests for agriculture, urban development and the construction of roads and railway lines.

The main impact of habitat fragmentation is the reduction in the size of a habitat. This impacts larger species that need large areas in which to roam. It also increases competition among species for food and other resources. Figure 12.5.2 demonstrates how some species that adapted to living within an environment, such as the interior of a forest, can find themselves living on what are now the edges of that environment. This new habitat may

not have suitable conditions in terms of shade, temperature and wind protection. Habitat fragmentation also leads to a reduction in genetic diversity. Fragmented animal populations have a smaller pool of breeding partners. This can lead to genetic abnormalities, increased vulnerability to disease and even local extinction.

River regulation

All civilisations rely on inland water sources for their survival. As such, inland water sources are among the most modified and degraded environments on Earth. One of the biggest changes to river environments is flow regulation through the construction of dams. By constructing dams, rivers are regulated to ensure they provide a reliable supply of water for agricultural and urban uses. However, as shown in Figure 12.5.3, flow regulation causes a range of negative impacts on river environments by reducing the flow of sediment and movement of fish through the river system. While dams protect cities and agricultural environments from flooding, this in turn stops floodwaters from recharging nearby water-dependent environments such as wetlands.

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Transportation of sediment is blocked, which damages downstream habitats

If dams fail or overflow then the rapid of stored water can severely flood downstream communities

Dam walls blocks fish migration and can prevent successful fish breeding

Dam flow regulation alters the natural flow of rivers and prevents flood cycles

Pest and weed infestation

Pests and weeds are plants and animals that have been introduced into an environment in which they do not naturally occur. Pest animals such as cane toads, foxes, rabbits and deer have been introduced to Australia since colonisation. Introduced predators such as foxes and feral cats have led to the direct extinction of many of Australia’s native species, while other introduced species have indirectly impacted native species by competing for food and habitat resources. Larger pests such as deer, horses and pigs damage native vegetation and soils through grazing and by compacting the soil.

Weeds are broadly defined as plants growing where they are not wanted.

Invasive weeds are a serious threat to both natural and rural environments. They typically produce large numbers of seeds to help them to spread over vast areas and out-compete local species for water, sunlight, nutrients and space. As weeds establish over large regions, they reduce the biodiversity and abundance of indigenous species, including the animals that rely on those plants for habitat. The spread of weeds can cause havoc for farmers by decreasing agricultural outputs and affecting profits. A study by the Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Management estimated that weeds cost Australian farmers around A$1.5 billion each year in weed management and a further A$2.5 billion in lost agricultural production.

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indigenous species particular species of vegetation that occur naturally within an environment

exotic species nonindigenous plant species that have been introduced to an area native species species that are from a particular country, but not necessarily indigenous to the local region

Figure 12.5.5

Geography skills

video: Digital skills: Using a GIS – FeralScan

Amazing but true…

While many exotic species of plants grow as weeds and change Australian environments, many Australian native species are causing the same impacts overseas. Many species of Eucalypts, such as blue gum, were planted around the world as a source of timber. These species now grow out of control in places such as California, replacing local indigenous species and leading to an increased bushfire risk.

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Concepts and skills builder 12.5

Using a Geographic Information System to collect and analyse data

A geographic information system (GIS) is a form of technology used to gather, manage and analyse spatial information such as the prevalence of pest species. Geographers can organise this data in layers using interactive maps to compare data sets at various scales and over various time periods. FeralScan is an example of a tool that uses GIS to record and manage the spread of pest species. Users are able to use the phone app to log sightings of various pest species, which are uploaded to a GIS database.

Visit the Australian government’s FeralScan website and choose a pest species to track. Either use the steps below or follow along via the video tutorial.

1 Click on the map of Australia in the top right corner. Based on this map, in which regions of Australia is this pest the most prevalent?

2 Zoom into Victoria and compare the distribution of your pest species in rural and urban locations.

3 Click on ‘Select Data’ on the top right of screen and change the reporting period to explore how the distribution of sightings changed over various years.

4 FeralScan relies on local citizens to upload data using a mobile app. Why do you think this is an essential part of managing pests and weeds? What challenges does this create?

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Review questions

1 Using Table 12.5.1, write a paragraph or draw a diagram explaining how land shortages, poverty, population growth and unsustainable agricultural practices can lead to land degradation.

2 Explain the causes of habitat fragmentation and its environmental impacts.

3 Discuss why constructing dams to regulate the flow of rivers can have both positive and negative impacts.

4 Summarise the ways in which pests and weeds can impact the natural environment. Research some examples to include in your summary.

Is the fishing industry sustainable?

Learning intention

This lesson focuses on overfishing as an example of an impact of environmental change due to unsustainable practices.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: what is your initial reaction to seeing Figure 12.6.1?

2 Think: why do you think this situation has occurred?

3 Wonder: what questions do you have about this situation?

overfishing the taking of fish at a rate that the species cannot replenish itself

What is overfishing?

Over 140 million tonnes of seafood are consumed by people each year, serving as a daily source of protein for 1.2 billion people. As the global population continues to rise, so does the demand for seafood. Seafood consumption has doubled over the last 50 years to more than 20 kg per person per year. Figure 12.6.2 shows that the global distribution of the amount of fish consumed by people varies

considerably, with some populations consuming more than 100 kg of fish per person each year. Current rates of fishing are increasing to meet this growing demand, which is leading to overfishing. At the current rate in which fishing occurs, fish stocks are not able to be naturally replenished at a fast enough rate, leading to a decline in supply and impacting marine environments.

Concepts and skills builder 12.6

Analysing change over time using a choropleth map

Choropleth maps represent data by shading or colouring areas, such as countries, based on a data value. Figure 12.6.2 is a choropleth map in which darker blue colours are used to represent countries with populations that consumed large amounts of fish and seafood in 2022. Follow the steps below to explore how this data has changed over time:

1 Access the ‘Fish and seafood consumption per capita’ page on the Our World in Data website. List five countries that consume a large amount of fish and five who consume a small amount.

2 Suggest a reason why some populations consume more fish than others.

3 Click on a country to view a graph of how its seafood consumption has changed over time. Describe this trend.

4 Suggest a reason why a country’s fish consumption per person may have changed.

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5 Use the time slider under the map to change the year. Record observations of which regions have increased or decreased their fish consumption.

6 Suggest a reason for the trend identified in question 5.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Why is overfishing unsustainable?

Sustainability refers to whether an environment is able to meet current needs without compromising the ability to meet the needs of future generations. Sustainability is often defined as having three spheres: Environmental, social and economic (see Figure 12.6.2). In lesson 12.1, you learnt about unsustainable tourism in Maya Bay, Thailand. In this example, overtourism degraded the natural beauty that was attracting tourists, threatening the environmental sustainability of the bay and the economic sustainability of the local tourism industry. The decision to halt tourism may have led to the loss of employment, threatening the social and economic sustainability of the region.

Fishing itself is not necessarily an act that causes environmental change. Fish stocks can be classified as a renewable natural resource that will regenerate without the need for any input from people. However, if fish stocks are diminished at a rate that is faster than they are being replenished then

the use of this resource is considered unsustainable. In other words, the supply may eventually run out and future needs will not be met. When overfishing occurs, not only is this unsustainable in terms of the marine environment, it also threatens the economic sustainability of fishing businesses which in turn affects the social sustainability of people who rely on this industry.

whether an environment is able to maintain current needs without compromising its ability to meet the needs of future generations

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What are the impacts of overfishing?

According to the State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2024 report, around 38 per cent of global fish stocks had been fished beyond their sustainable limit, a significant increase from just 10 per cent in 1974 (see Figure 12.6.4). At this rate, adult fish are caught at such a high rate that they are not able to breed fast enough to replenish the population. If this trend continues, fish stocks will continue to decrease. As yield decreases, commercial fishing fleets are venturing deeper into the ocean and harvesting fish further down the food chain to meet demands. This is further damaging the ecological balance of marine environments.

bycatch fish and other marine animals that are unintentionally caught in commercial fishing operations

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With fish stocks depleting and global demand for fish continuing to rise, it is projected that the global fishing industry, which is worth over $200 billion, could collapse as early as 2050. This is a cause for concern for the three billion people who rely on the fishing industry for income and as a food source. In an attempt to remain financially viable and meet demand, fishing businesses have moved away from traditional forms of fishing and are now using fish trawlers.

These large commercial fishing vessels

Lesson 12.6 review

drag nets through the ocean and along the sea floor. Super trawlers are particularly large vessels, often 100 metres in length, with the capacity to stay at sea for several weeks and catch and transport thousands of tonnes of fish. Along with the intended profitable fish, the large nets from trawlers catch lots of unintended additional fish such as turtles, sharks and inedible fish. This is known as bycatch. It is estimated that between 10 and 25 per cent of all marine animals caught globally is bycatch and therefore tossed overboard.

12.6 Review questions

1 Define overfishing and list the impacts of this environmental change.

2 Explain why overfishing is considered to be unsustainable. Consider environmental, social and economic sustainability.

3 a Using Figure 12.6.3, describe how the proportion of fish stocks that are underfished, fished sustainably and overfished has changed between 1974 and 2021. bList the likely impacts that will occur if the level of unsustainable overfishing continues its trend.

4 Reflect on what you have learnt about the use of fish trawlers and bycatch. Has this information changed your view of the fishing industry or prompted you to re-evaluate your consumption habits?

Why is climate change both a cause and consequence of environmental change?

Learning intention

This lesson introduces climate change as a natural process and a consequence of environmental change. It also considers how anthropogenic climate change is impacting environments on a global scale.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: what do you think has caused coral bleaching shown in Figure 12.7.1?

2 Think: what do you think the impacts will be if the Great Barrier Reef is destroyed? Consider environmental, social and economic impacts.

3 Wonder: do you think saving the Great Barrier Reef should be a major priority for Australians? Justify your answer.

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greenhouse effect an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere that causes a gradual warming of the surface of the Earth

anthropogenic caused by human activity

Climate change as a natural process

Climate change refers to changes in the pattern of weather, known as climate, over larger periods of time. It is a natural process responsible for large-scale climate cycles called glacial and interglacial periods. Glacial periods, commonly referred to as ice ages, occur roughly every 100 000 years. During these periods, ice sheets expand over much of the world’s land surface. During the last glacial

period, which was around 20 000 years ago, the climate was an average of 6°C cooler, around one-quarter of the earth’s land surface was covered in ice and sea level was around 125 metres lower than it is today. Since then, the climate has warmed and most of the ice has melted, except in polar regions and places with high elevation, which has caused sea levels to rise to their current levels.

Climate change as a consequence of environmental change

When solar radiation hits the Earth, some of it is absorbed and some is reflected back into space. However, some atmospheric gases, called greenhouse gases, absorb and reflect this heat back towards the Earth. This is known as the greenhouse effect (see Figure 12.7.2). Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth’s average temperature would be –18°C and most of the land would be covered in ice.

Since the Industrial Revolution, the actions of people have been increasing the concentration of greenhouses gases in the atmosphere. For example:

• carbon dioxide has been emitted through the bur ning of fossil fuels such as coal (see Figure 12.7.3)

• methane has been emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas and oil, and emitted by livestock and other agricultural practices

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• nitrous oxide has been emitted from various agricultural and industrial activities.

Environmental changes also contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. For example, deforestation is responsible for up to one-fifth of global emissions. Forests absorb carbon dioxide as vegetation grows. This carbon is stored within the vegetation and is released when vegetation is removed or burnt.

The increase in the volume of these greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere is causing the enhanced greenhouse effect in which more heat is being absorbed by the atmosphere (see Figure 12.7.2). As a result, the Earth’s average temperature is rising, precipitation patterns are changing, ice sheets and glaciers are melting, sea levels are rising, and ocean waters are becoming more acidic. These impacts are together known as anthropogenic climate change – climate change due to the activities of people.

Natural greenhouse e ect

More heat escaptes into space Less re-emitted heat

Human enhanced greenhouse e ect

Less heat escapes into space

More re-emitted heat

thermal expansion increase in the volume of a material due to an increase in temperature

Climate change as a cause of environmental change

Anthropogenic climate change is expected to have far-reaching impacts on all types of environments. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the global average temperature as of 2023 has already risen by 1.1°C since 1880

and there is a 50 per cent chance it will reach 1.5°C of warming by 2040. If emissions policies remain without any signifi cant change the climate is projected to reach an average global warming of 3.2°C by the of the century (see Figure 12.7.4).

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Figure 12.7.4 Projections for global average surface temperature change by the end of the century compared with the pre-industrial climate from 1850–1990. SSP stands for Shared Socioeconomic Pathways. These projections differ based on different scenarios depending on the extent to which greenhouse gas emissions are managed at a global scale. For example, the SSP1-1.9 projection is likely if greenhouse gas emissions are reduced significantly whereas the SSP5-8.5 projection is more likely if greenhouse gas emissions increase.

Increases in global temperatures are already changing rainfall patterns, which is increasing the prevalence of droughts and the frequency and magnitude of bushfires. In the summer of 2019–2020, the Black Summer bushfires burnt more than 24 million hectares of Australian bushland and killed 33 people and an estimated one billion animals. A study from Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) confirmed that the disastrous fire season was fuelled by conditions formed by anthropogenic climate change and that bushfires of a similar scale are likely to become more common in the future.

If warming reaches 1.5°C, around 7 per cent of the Earth’s environments will shift into a new climate zone. Many species will be forced to migrate towards

the poles, up mountains or into deeper water as the climate of their original habitat becomes unsuitable. Habitat fragmentation means that some species will not be able to migrate and therefore will be vulnerable to local extinction. Under this warming scenario, 14 per cent of all land-based animal and plant species will face a high risk of extinction, rising to 29 per cent of species if warming reaches 3°C.

Anthropogenic climate change is also expected to raise sea levels due to thermal expansion and melting glaciers and ice sheets. Scientists have calculated that the average global sea level has already risen around 25 cm since 1880. Projections show that it could rise by between 29 and 88 cm by 2100 (see Figure 12.7.5). This could have disastrous

impacts on coastal environments due to increased erosion, flooding and the displacement of millions of people who live in low-lying coastal regions. Within marine environments, increased ocean temperatures, along with acidification

because of an expected increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in ocean waters, are already leading to widespread coral bleaching and harming species such as molluscs and plankton (see Figure 12.7.1).

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Low-likelihood, high-impact storyline, including ice-sheet instability processes, under SSP5-8.5

Figure 12.7.5 Projections for global mean sea-level rise compared with levels in 1900. SSP stands for Shared Socioeconomic Pathways. These projections differ based on different scenarios depending on the extent to which greenhouse gas emissions are limited on a global scale.

Concepts and skills builder 12.7

Analysing projected data using an interactive map

Projections of sea-level rise have often been criticised based on local data. However, sea-level rise is going to be uneven on a global scale due to ocean dynamics (wind, currents, heating, evaporation and precipitation) and because the earth’s gravity field is uneven. In other words, just because sea-level may not have risen much at one particular location does not mean it has not risen elsewhere. In order to gain a clearer understanding of global sea-level rise, NASA have developed a sea-level projection tool (see Figure 12.7.6). Launch this tool from the NASA website and follow the steps below or use the video tutorial to complete an analysis of global sea level rise.

1 Click on locations in three different world regions and record how much sea level is projected to rise by 2100 at these locations. Is there a significant difference in the regions you chose?

2 On the toolbar on the left, change ‘Decades’ to 2150 and update the map. Have the projections for your locations changed? Use the map legend and colours to determine the regions of the earth that are expected to experience the highest and lowest rise.

3 Change ‘Decades’ back to 2100 and change the ‘Data’ to ‘Warming Level’. Change the ‘Scenario’ to various degrees of warming and record how your data changes for each scenario.

4 Using the information gathered, write a paragraph summarising the impact that anthropogenic climate change is expected to have on global sea level rise over the next century.

12.7.7 NASA’s sea-level projection tool enables users to access global sea-level projection data from the IPCC’s 6th Assessment Report.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Lesson 12.7 review

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12.7 Review questions

1 Explain why climate change can be considered both a natural process and an unnatural process due to the actions of people.

2 Using Figure 12.7.2, explain the greenhouse effect and the causes and consequences of the enhanced greenhouse effect.

3 Using Figure 12.7.3, describe the trend in carbon dioxide levels over the last 800 000 years.

4 Using the data from this lesson, summarise the projected impacts of climate change including average global temperature and sea-level changes.

5 Explain the link between anthropogenic climate change and environmental change.

How do people influence environmental change and sustainability?

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Learning intention

This lesson considers the ways in which the worldviews and actions of people can influence environmental change and sustainability.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: based on the placards held by the people in Figure 12.8.1, what do you think the protest was about?

2 Think: do you think it is appropriate for students to miss school for a day to protest about this issue?

3 Wonder: would you consider missing school to protest about an issue for which you feel strongly?

Figure 12.8.1 On 15 March 2019, around 20 000 people attended a School Strike for Climate rally outside Melbourne’s Parliament House.

environmental activism the actions of individuals or groups aiming to protect or support the natural environment

citizen science the collection and analysis of data by members of the general public in collaboration with professional scientists

People’s worldviews play an important role in environmental management. Society can help to manage the environment through their actions and lifestyles. This

Environmental activism

In 2018, Swedish environmental activist Greta Thunberg began protesting about climate change outside the Swedish Riksdag, or Parliament. She was 15 years of age at the time. As the popularity of her cause grew, it led to the development of the School Strike for Climate movement. This movement involved around 2000 simultaneous protests across 125 countries by over a million students.

On 15 March 2019, around 100 000 Australian school students chose to skip school to participate in this event. Across Australia’s capital cities and regional centres, students demanded that the Australian government:

• Say no to all new fossil fuel development

• Commit to powering Australia with 100 per cent renewable energy by 2030

can include participating in environmental activism, making informed consumer decisions or voting for a political party that best aligns with their views.

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• Stop the development of the Carmichael coal mine in Queensland.

This protest sparked debate between those who supported the students and their cause, and those who believed that students should not sacrifice time in the classroom to attend a protest.

Protesting is a form of environmental activism, actions taken by people to protect, support or improve the national environment. Environmental activism also includes volunteer projects such as participating in a community tree planting or cleaning up coastal pollution. It can also include citizen science initiatives such as the Aussie Bird Count or FeralScan (see page 372) where local people upload environmental observations which become important data sources to help scientists monitor environmental changes.

Consumer choice

One common way in which all people influence environmental change is through the choices they make as consumers. People can choose products and brands that align with their worldview, which flows on to the profits of companies and therefore the choices they make in production. Examples include purchasing brands based on the packaging material to reduce single-use plastics, choosing fish and seafood that has been certified to have been fished

sustainably and choosing wood products that have been harvested from plantation forests rather natural forests (see Figure 12.8.3). Fish and seafood certified by the Marine Stewardship Council meet standards based on sustainability. Fisheries that meet these requirements only fish healthy stocks, manage stocks so that they can continue to be fished in the long term, and minimise their impact on other species and the wider marine environment.

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… Unfortunately, trends towards preferences for more sustainable products have led to the growth of greenwashing Greenwashing is when a company misleads consumers about the positive environmental impact or sustainability of their products and services. Clever advertising, false claims and misleading information are used to overstate environmental benefits to capitalise on the growing demand for sustainable products. Examples include car companies who deceive consumers about the emissions

ratings of their vehicles, manufacturers claiming products, such as textiles, are made using sustainable materials such as bamboo when they are actually made primarily from other synthetic materials, and companies who claim their items, such as coffee pods, are recyclable when only a small amount can be recycled at very specialised waste-management facilities. Although companies who deliberately mislead consumers face financial penalties, fines do not always provide enough of a disincentive.

greenwashing when a company misleads consumers about the positive environmental impact of their products and services

Concepts and skills builder 12.8

Participating in citizen science

Participating in a citizen science project is a great way to learn about environmental management, data collection and geospatial technology. Research one of these projects and download the necessary tools to participate. Ensure you choose a project that is suitable for the time of year and your location. Examples include Aussie Bird Count, eBird, FeralScan, Fluker Post, iNaturalist (see Figure 12.8.4), Frog Census, Australian BioBlitz, Climate Watch and National Waterbug Blitz.

1 Whether you par ticipated in collecting data or just downloaded the necessary app, discuss the degree of simplicity and accessibility in collecting data.

2 Access the data collected from other users or from previous years. Do you think this data would be useful for groups that manage environmental impacts?

3 What other t ypes of data do you think would be useful for citizens to collect to help raise awareness and manage environmental issues?

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Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Lesson 12.8 review

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12.8 Review questions

1 Define environmental activism and provide two examples.

2 a Undertake research to learn more about School Strike 4 Climate. For example, when was the most recent action? How many students in Australia got involved? Are there any strikes planned for the future?

b State whether you think this form of environmental activism should be encouraged and whether you think it will be effective.

3 a Recall a time when you have seen a company advertise its products with claims of sustainability or positive environmental impact. Do you think this form of advertising is effective? Do you think it should be allowed? Do you think you are influenced by it?

b Research noteworthy examples of companies who have been penalised for greenwashing. Do you think the penalty they received was severe enough to solve the problem?

4 Based on what you have learnt in this lesson, discuss the extent to which the opinions of the public are able to influence environmental change and sustainability.

CHAPTER 13

How are the impacts of environmental change managed?

LESSONTITLE

13.1Setting the scene: lamenting the loss of the night sky

13.2How is environmental change managed?

13.3Case study: restoring penguin habitat on the Summerland Peninsula

13.4Case study: using the knowledge of First Nations people to manage Kakadu

13.5Case study: monitoring and insuring the health of the Mesoamerican Reef

13.6Case study: battling land degradation in northern China

13.7Fieldwork: evaluating the success of local environmental management

13.8End of investigation review: Environmental change and management

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Setting the scene: lamenting the loss of the night sky

Learning intention

This lesson explores the ways in which an increase in the use of artificial lighting has caused significant environmental change in our urban areas.

The world’s first electric streetlights were installed in Paris in 1878. Australia was not far behind with its first streetlights used in Waratah, Tasmania, in 1886 and installed across all of Tamworth, New South Wales, in 1888. Since then, streetlights have become a standard feature of cities across the world and Australia alone has an estimated 2.5 million. While streetlights have improved visibility and safety on our roads, they have caused a gradual yet significant change to our urban environments called light pollution.

Light pollution exists when the light from artificial sources, such as streetlights,

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overpowers the light emitted by stars at night. The brighter the sky glows due to these light sources, the less visible the stars become. In addition to a growth in the number and intensity of artificial lights, light pollution has increased due to lights shining upwards and bouncing off clouds, glare from lights that are not shielded and the reflection of light off surfaces. The recent shift towards the use of LED lights was expected to reduce energy consumption due to their increased efficiency. However, this also encouraged cities to increase their use of lights, leading to a further increase in light pollution while also reducing any actual energy savings.

13.1.2 Light pollution increases and the visibility of stars decreases towards dense urban environments

Scientists have estimated that around 80 per cent of people live in places that experience light pollution, with around one-third no longer able to view the Milky Way in the night sky. Data collected from a project called Globe at Night has revealed that the average light pollution across the globe increased by an average of 10 per cent per year from 2011 to 2022. While Australia has the lowest proportion

of land affected by light pollution among other developed countries, it has one of the highest rates of light pollution per person. While the ability to view stars at night may seem trivial, humans have evolved without artificial light. As natural darkness is replaced with artificial light, our circadian rhythm and sleep cycle is affected which can increase the risk of physical and mental health issues.

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Amazing but true…

At an increase in light pollution of 10 per cent per year, a child who could see 250 stars at their home when they were born will only be able to see 100 stars when they turn 18.

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Animals are also impacted by light pollution, relying on natural darkness for navigation, reproduction and safety. Studies have been undertaken showing the impact of artificial light on the sea turtle population in Western Australia. Glowing skies near sea turtle rookeries cause turtle hatchlings to lose their sense of direction. While hatchlings naturally crawl from their nests towards the illuminated horizon to find the ocean, many get confused and die as

they head towards the artificial lights of nearby cities. Lighter nights have been shown to delay the breeding season of tammar wallabies, meaning joeys are born at times when food resources are less abundant. Just like humans, the sleep cycle of magpies is affected by the white-blue shade of streetlights. Nesting magpies are unable to get their required 10 hours of sleep, increasing their need for an afternoon nap and decreasing their ability to forage for food.

rookery the nesting location of populations of sea turtles hatchlings a young animal that has recently emerged from its egg tammar wallaby a type of small wallaby native to South and Western Australia

While light pollution presents a range of challenges, there is a potential to solve its problems relatively quickly. Unlike greenhouse gases in our atmosphere or plastics in our oceans, light pollution can be removed instantly by simply turning off artificial lights. While this itself is an unrealistic option, approaches that will have a similar effect include directing light downwards towards the ground, using warmer colours, shielding light sources so they don’t produce glare and reducing

the use of artificial light only to places where and when it is needed. A recent study conducted in Canberra showed that adaptive lighting can be used to reduce light pollution. This involves dimming or brightening streetlights to adapt to weather conditions, seasonal changes and the time of night. They found that for every 10 per cent that they dimmed the lights, the unnatural brightness of Canberra’s night sky decreased by 5 per cent, helping to restore the environment to its original condition.

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Although in some ways light pollution is a relatively easy environmental problem to solve, its solution may impact people in different ways. Examples of people who may be affected include local residents, environmentalists, people who work late at night, advertising companies and people of different age groups. Choose one of these perspectives and complete the following sentences:

1 I am thinking of the issue of light pollution from the viewpoint of …

2 My opinion is …

3 A question I have from this viewpoint is …

How is environmental change managed?

Learning intention

This lesson presents five different ways in which environments can be managed: preventing changes, reversing changes, monitoring and assessing changes, using artificial structures, and incorporating the expertise of First Nations peoples.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: describe the environment shown in Figure 13.2.1.

2 Think: suggest an environmental and social benefit of preserving and enhancing these types of environments within metropolitan Melbourne.

3 Wonder: describe an environment located near your home or school. Include its main features and the reasons why it is significant to you or to other people.

Management strategies are used to reduce the negative impacts and support the positive impacts associated with environmental change. At a local scale, this might involve the revegetation of a coastal dune system or wetland.

Figure 13.2.1 is a photo of the Brushy Creek Wetlands near Chirnside Park, where Melbourne Water have planted 60 000 aquatic plants. This wetland helps to filter runoff, improving the quality of the stormwater that enters local

waterways. Environmental management strategies are often introduced by countries at a national scale. In 2020, France introduced a law stating that all disposable cups, cutlery and plates had to be made of compostable material. Some environmental changes such as overfishing, climate change and land degradation affect large world regions or the entire earth. In these cases, strategies are required that are coordinated between several countries.

Preventing environmental change

One way to manage environmental change is by preventing it from occurring in the first place or stopping it from becoming more severe. Although Australia’s landscape has historically suffered from the infestation of many weed and pest species, strict biosecurity laws currently manage these threats and attempt to prevent the introduction of new threats. It is cheaper and far more effective to prevent invasive species from coming to Australia than it is to remove them once they have established.

Creating national parks is another way of preventing environmental change. Although countries vary in the way they

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manage national parks, the underlying aim is to conserve the natural environment by limiting development and disturbances by people. The Grampians National Park (Gariwerd) (Figure 13.2.2), located 260 km west of Melbourne, became a national park in 1984. It is recognised on the Australian National Heritage List as a place of natural beauty and as a home to one of the best examples of Aboriginal rock art. National parks are areas reserved for the protection and conservation of unique ecosystems with high levels of biodiversity, places with significant natural or geological features and places of cultural significance.

Figure 13.2.3A Grampians National Park 1:25 000 topographic map extract showing the town of Halls Gap. Contains Vicmap information © The State of Victoria, Department of Sustainability and Environment, 2007. Reproduced by permission of the Department of Sustainability and Environment

Built up area, recreation area

Central business district

Sealed surface road with route marker, bridge

Unsealed road or minor road in urban area

Vehicular track

Foot track with foot bridge

Gate, cattlegrid, leveebank

Embarkment, cutting

Railway, multiple track, single track

Railway station, railway siding

Railway disuse, dismantled or under construction

Railway bridge, railway tunnel

Building, post office, church, public hall

School, police station, hospital, fire station

Fence

Power transmission line with pylon

Pipeline disappearing underground

Trigonometric station, spot elevation

Landmark area, quarry

Landmark object, tank or well

Windpump, mine

Pine plantation, orchard or vineyard

Timber, recreation area

Scattered timberm oval

Scrub

Mangrove

Figure 13.2.3B Legend for Grampians National Park topographic map …

Concepts and skills builder 13.2

Reading a topographic map

Windbreak

Contours

Depression contours

Cliff, rock outcrops

Sand

Unstable sand dunes

River, creek

Aqueduct, channel, drain

Lake penennial, intermittent

Dam or weir, dam carrying road, dam batter

Culvert Falls, rapids

Rapids in large river

Waterhole, dam, swimming pool

Water well or bore, spring

Land subject to inundation

Swamp or marsh

Shoreline with mud or sand flats

Rock bare or awash, rocky ledge or reef

Wreck, marine navigation light or lighthouse

Breakwater, pier or jetty, boat ramp

Wharf

Navigation beacons

Minor administrative boundary

Figure 13.2.4

Geography skills video: Working with topographical maps to calculate area …

Figure 13.2.5

Geography skills video: Creating a cross section

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Topographic maps are representations of features of the Earth’s surface. This includes hydrology (lakes, rivers, wetlands), relief (mountains, valleys, ridgelines), vegetation, and human features such as roads, place names and cities. These features are represented using the symbols and colours found in the legend. One of the most prominent features of these maps is contour lines which show changes in elevation. See the video below for a guide to using topographic maps.

Use these instructions to answer the questions below. (AR stands for Area Reference and GR stands for Grid Reference.)

1 What is the scale of the topographic map in Figure 13.2.3A? Explain what this means.

2 What is the approximate distance of the drive from Boulder Rock (AR 3588) to Little Joe Hill (AR 3785)?

Measure between the nearest points on a sealed road to these features.

3 Name the features located at the following coordinates.

• GR 363874

• GR 343849

• GR 345861

4 Name the three types of vegetation found in AR 3485.

5 What is the bearing of Peverill Peak (AR 3687) from The Pinnacle lookout (AR 3486)?

6 Draw a cross-section from Belfield Peak (AR 3485) to the peak at GR 369863. What is the average gradient from Bellfield Peak to the Fyans Creek?

7 Using information from the previous questions, describe the shape of the landscape and the natural features surrounding Halls Gap. Suggest why it is an ideal location for a town.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, place, scale

Monitoring and assessing environmental change

While monitoring and assessing environmental impacts does not directly influence changes to the environment, the data gathered is used to inform management decisions. A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a form of spatial technology that involves gathering, managing and analysing spatial data. Data is organised in layers using interactive maps and used to find spatial patterns

and relationship. Global Forest Watch is an example of a GIS that can be used to create maps and analyse forest trends anywhere in the world, and to add local data and observations. As shown in Figure 13.2.4, this data can be used to monitor tree loss over time due to a range of causes. The interactive map can be used to determine the distribution, spatial extent and types of forests lost anywhere in the world.

Reversing environmental change

Environmental management sometimes involves a reversal of the actions of previous management strategies that have been deemed unsuccessful. This can be driven by changes in technology, the opinions of local residents or environmental management priorities.

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Historically, many urban rivers in Australia were diverted, channelled using concrete, or enclosed in pipes to reduce the risk of flooding and to accommodate nearby land uses. Although this management aided urban development,

it severely degraded the health of these waterways. During 2017 and 2018, the Victorian government daylighted 830 metres of the Dandenong Creek in Heathmont that had previously been converted to an underground pipe. As shown in Figure 13.2.5, the piped waterway was replaced with an open channel that closely resembled the original shape of the creek. Additional management of the Dandenong Creek has involved the revegetation of its riparian zone and revitalising the nearby wetlands. Similar actions have been undertaken in urban waterways across Melbourne’s suburbs.

daylighting to restoring a waterway to its original form by replacement of an underground pipe with an open stream channel

Figure 13.2.7

A section of the Dandenong Creek was changed from an underground pipe in December 2017 (left) to an open stream in July 2018 (right)

Using artificial solutions to replace natural processes

Artificial solutions are often used to mimic natural processes within a changed artificial something produced by people, as opposed to something that occurs naturally

environment. This allows ecosystems to still function within human environments such as an urban or agricultural region.

Table 13.2.1 summarises four examples.

Table 13.2.1 Examples of management strategies using artificial solutions to reduce the negative impacts of environmental change

Management strategyExplanation

Wildlife corridors

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Fish ladders

Sea walls

Raingardens

Wildlife corridors are thin, vegetated corridors of land that join previously isolated habitats. They reduce the impacts of habitat fragmentation by restoring the interconnection between places. This wildlife bridge in Banff National Park, Canada, enables the movement of large mammals between habitats that were fragmented by the construction of a highway.

Fish ladders reduce the impact that dams and other flow regulation infrastructure have on fish migration and breeding cycles. They allow fish to travel over or through obstructions using a series of ascending pools. Fish ladders on the Murray River, New South Wales, facilitate fish movement within this highly regulated system.

Sea walls are large vertical structures that run parallel to the shoreline. They are designed to protect coasts in urban areas from erosion, from flooding due to storm surges and from rising sea levels. This sea wall at Dawlish, in southern England, protects this resort town from damaging coastal processes.

Raingardens are a specific type of garden bed that use different layers of soil, sand and gravel to filter and treat stormwater runoff in urban settings. They serve the same purpose as natural wetlands. Raingardens have replaced traditional nature strips and drains in Ringwood North, Melbourne.

Example

Environmental management involving First Nations peoples

In Australia, the expertise of First Nations peoples is being used in conjunction with modern methods to manage environments across Australia. First Nations peoples lived sustainably across Australia for tens of thousands of years using traditional burning techniques, fish traps, cropping and hunting practices to survive. These sustainable methodologies are a stark contrast to the changes that have been made to the landscape since European settlement.

In places like Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory, rangers use traditional Aboriginal knowledge and techniques along with modern technology to manage controlled burns. These smaller fires

are started early in the dry season to reduce fuel load and create firebreaks, establishing a mosaic of burnt and unburnt areas. The vegetation within this environment has evolved to adapt to fire. Strategic use of fire helps this vegetation to regenerate and increase its biodiversity. It also reduces the likelihood of uncontrolled wildfires later in the dry season, avoiding damage to ecosystems, habitats and expensive infrastructure.

Evaluating the effectiveness of environmental management

A common task that geographers undertake is measuring and evaluating the effectiveness of a management strategy. This involves investigating whether a strategy is successful, or is likely to be

controlled burns (also known as prescribed burns) use of fire for forest management purposes, such as the reduction of fuel load

fuel load amount of flammable material within an area

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Canopy up to 17 m

The canopy is not burned during cultural burning. This gives shelter to animals while also preserving seeds and fruits. Caring for the canopy also provides shade and helps the landscape to recover.

In ‘hot fires’, the flames often reach high into the canopy of the trees and destroy the entire landscape. The soil is often baked, all wildlife, fruits and seeds are often destroyed.

Non-Indigenous fire management practices often burn large areas of land at a higher height than cultural burning. These fires are also considered ‘hot fires’.

Cultural burning, or ‘cool fires’, involves burning grasses, leaf litter, and the lower bark of trees. The fire spreads slowly and is closely watched. Animals have time to flee. They are sometimes channelled and hunted as they flee.

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successful in the future. A range of criteria are used to judge the effectiveness of a strategy such as whether it:

• has met or is likely to meet its specific targets or intended outcomes

• is affordable and economically viable

• is fair for all stakeholders

• is likely to meet its deadlines or achieve its goals within the intended time scale

• is economically, socially and environmentally sustainable.

Lesson 13.2 review

In cases where only some of the criteria have been met, or where criteria have been partially met, a judgement call is needed. This involves weighing up the positives and negatives. In following lessons, you will have the opportunity to evaluate several management strategies through a series of Australian and international case studies.

13.2 Review questions

1 Using a table, summarise the five types of environmental management presented in this lesson. Include an example for each either from this lesson or one that you have found yourself.

2 a Using Figure 13.2.7, describe the change in the geographic characteristics of the Dandenong Creek between 2017 and 2018.

bDiscuss whether you think this sort of management is beneficial and should be undertaken in more creeks across Melbourne.

3

a List a criterion that could be used to evaluate each of the management strategies in Table 13.1.

b Discuss which of these strategies are likely to have the biggest positive impact on the local environment.

Case study: restoring penguin habitat on the Summerland Peninsula 13.3

Learning intention

This lesson is case study exploring the environmental change of the Summerlands Peninsula from a housing estate back into a penguin habitat.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

You have an obligation as the custodians of the land or people responsible for the time being to see the long term and not just the immediate past and the immediate future.

– John Cain, former Premier of Victoria

1 Think: explain how John Cain’s quote relates to the concept of sustainability.

2 Pair: with a partner, discuss whether you think it is important to consider the future condition of environments rather than just focusing on short-term impacts.

3 Share: this lesson is based on efforts to try to sustain Phillip Island’s penguin population. Suggest why this is a priority for the region. Discuss as a pair, and be prepared to share your answers with the class.

Phillip Island is located in Victoria’s Western Port Bay, approximately 80 km south-south-east of Melbourne. About 90 per cent of the island’s 100 sq km has been cleared and is currently used for urban and agricultural uses. The remainder of the island is made up of woodlands, wetlands and coastal areas. The Summerland Peninsula is located on the western tip of the island near the internationally recognised Penguin Parade (see Figure 13.3.1).

Figure 13.3.3 In 1984 Dr Peter Dann from Phillip Island Nature Parks projected that the local penguin colony would be extinct by 1997 if land uses at the time continued.

Environmental change: Summerlands Estate

Unlike the rest of Phillip Island, the Summerland Peninsula has little agricultural value and therefore has been left relatively unchanged since the 1920s. This means that it still has natural features that support a healthy penguin colony. All other penguin colonies on the island have been destroyed. As described in the excerpt in Figure 13.3.2, the region’s natural characteristics sparked the interest of property developers and in 1927 the Summerlands Estate was established, subdividing the region into 986 residential housing blocks. By 1985, the estate contained 183 houses, one motel, one shop, a ninehole golf course and a network of roads throughout the estate.

The impacts of environmental change: a decline in penguin numbers

During the 1950s, the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife began to realise that the size of the Summerland Peninsula’s Little Penguin population was falling rapidly. The local penguin habitat had been reduced in size, degraded by vegetation removal and weed infestation, and fragmented by the construction of roads. Hundreds of penguins were killed each year by residents’ dogs, wild foxes and road accidents.

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With a further 2000 residents expected to move into the remaining vacant blocks, a 1984 study by Phillip Island Nature Parks projected that the penguin colony would become extinct by 1997 (see Figure 13.3.3). In addition to environmental concerns, the economic sustainability of the region was also at risk. The closure of the Penguin Parade would have been a disaster for Phillip Island’s tourism industry and the local economy.

Numbers of penguins at the Parade and projected numbers

Managing environmental change: Penguin Protection Plan

In 1985, John Cain, Premier of Victoria, announced the establishment of the Penguin Protection Plan. His decision was based on lobbying from conservation groups and on consultation with local residents and the local tourism industry. The conservation strategy was based on a land buyback. The Victorian government would buy properties within the Summerlands Estate and then remove

houses and other urban infrastructure like power lines (see Figure 13.3.4). Foxes and weeds were also to be removed, and the penguin habitat was to be revegetated and turned into a wildlife reserve. In 2011, the final houses were removed from the estate. All that remains today are a few scattered power poles and some underground cables. Revegetation and rehabilitation of the penguin habitat is ongoing and is now managed as part of the Phillip Island Nature Park.

Evaluating environmental management: Was the Penguin Protection Plan effective?

Environmental sustainability

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In terms of environmental targets, the Penguin Protection Plan was an overwhelming success. The penguin colony’s population grew from 12 000 breeding birds in 1984 to a stable 40 000 at present. Rangers have counted the number of penguins crossing the beach at the Penguin Parade each night since

1977 (see Figure 13.3.6). Variation in their population is based on changes in the number of penguins, the distribution of suitable habitat and the availability of food sources. An average of 940 penguins crossed the beach each night during the 2017–2018 season, making it the ninth year in a row that the population has been above the long-term average of 636. Since then, the number of penguins have continued to grow, with 5219 penguins counted in May 2022, the highest number recorded since 1968.

Figure 13.3.5 Houses on the Summerland Estate were replaced with over 2000 penguin nesting boxes which allow them to raise their chicks with protection from predators. …

The increase in the size and quality of the penguin habitat, along with the construction of 2000 penguin boxes (Figure 13.3.6), has meant that the distribution of the population has also increased. Weeds have also been managed over 400 hectares, and 120 000 grasses, shrubs and trees have been planted. This has benefitted other species, such as the short-tailed shearwater. Fox eradication was also completely successful, leading to the reintroduction of the critically endangered eastern barred bandicoot into the area.

Average number of penguins crossing Penguin Parade beach each evening

penguins

Gross Regional

Product measure of a region’s economic activity based on the total value of goods produced and services provided in a region in one year

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Economic sustainability

The growth in the number of penguins in the region is a positive for the local economy. The Penguin Parade is Phillip Island’s primary attraction, contributing the largest share of the A$529 million that Phillip Island Nature Parks contributes to Victoria’s economy each year. In the 2023–24 season, 709 527 people visited the Penguin Parade, approximately one-third of whom were international tourists. These tourists spend over A$300 million annually on local accommodation, restaurants

and other tourism activities. This in turn supports over 3000 jobs on the island and contributes nearly 40 per cent of the region’s Gross Regional Product. The recent growth in tourism numbers has enabled the movement and upgrade of the Penguin Parade Visitors Centre. This has allowed the rehabilitation of the wetland habitat where the old Visitors Centre was located, as well as the realignment of roads and car parks. This realignment will reconnect areas of divided habitat and reduce habitat fragmentation.

Social sustainability

Despite its successes, not all aspects of this strategy were successful. The property buyback was expected to take 15 years and was budgeted at A$1 million per year. This eventually grew to 25 years due to a lack of funding. During this time, landowners could not develop vacant blocks and homeowners could not make any improvements or modifications to

their houses. Many residents described these circumstances as living in a state of limbo. Others felt guilty about their unintentional impact on the penguin colony. Although properties were initially sold to the government on a voluntary basis, many residents did not want to leave and 42 properties had to be compulsorily acquired. Ms Verwey, a local resident, stated that:

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… we were horrified and deeply shocked and incredibly saddened that all of this was going to come to an end.

– Fiona Pepper, ‘When Phillip Island penguins won, and land owners lost’, ABC News, 8 April 2018

Despite these negative impacts, the long-term social impacts are expected to be positive in terms of recreation, local jobs and environmental conservation.

Concepts and skills builder 13.3

Evaluating a management strategy

Geographers evaluate management strategies, such as the Penguin Protection Plan, to determine their success now and into the future. The level of success is often determined based on the extent to which goals have been achieved. Undertake research using the prompts below to evaluate the Penguin Protection Plan in terms of its environmental, economic and social sustainability.

1 Determine the health of Phillip Island’s penguin population. Find data such as the recent number of penguins crossing the beach and information about recent rehabilitation works to improve the penguins’ habitat.

2 Determine the amount of money generated from Phillip Island Nature Parks and the Penguin Parade in recent years. Consider the significance of the penguin colony to the local economy.

3 Determine the number of visitors to the Penguin Parade in recent years. Consider whether this growth in tourism justifies the social impacts of the compulsory acquisition of properties in the Summerlands Estate.

4 Based on the research you have undertaken, discuss the extent to which the Penguin Protection Plan has been successful.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Lesson 13.3 review

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13.3 Review questions

1 Search for Summerland Peninsula on Google Maps.

a Describe the location of the Summerland Peninsula within Phillip Island.

b Turn on satellite view by clicking on the box in the bottom left corner. Using the satellite image, describe the natural and human geographic characteristics of the region.

2 a Refer to Figure 13.3.2. What features were advertised to attract people to the Summerlands Peninsula in 1927?

b List the environmental impacts of the Summerlands Estate following this environmental change.

3 What did the 1984 study by Phillip Island Nature Parks reveal about the projected future of the Summerland Peninsula’s penguin colony? Explain why this was both environmentally and economically unsustainable.

4 Suggest how the views of different groups of people might have caused conflict during the implementation of the Summerlands land buyback.

5 Explain how Phillip Island’s environment and economy are interconnected.

Case study: using the knowledge of First Nations people to manage Kakadu 13.4

Learning intention

This lesson is a case study considering how the knowledge of First Nations peoples can be used to rehabilitate degraded wetlands in Kakadu by restoring the traditional fire regime.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Reflecting on land management by Traditional Custodians

This earth, I never damage. I look after. Fire is nothing, just clean up. When you burn, new grass coming up. That means good animal soon, might be goanna, possum, wallaby. Burn him off, new grass coming up, new life all over.

– Bill Neidjie, the last surviving speaker of the Gaagudju language, an Indigenous language from northern Kakadu after which Kakadu National Park is named

Reflect on the quote by Bill Neidjie. Consider the role fire plays in the culture and lifestyle of First Nations peoples. Compare this to the way bushfires are managed by non-Indigenous Australians.

Kakadu National Park is located in the Northern Territory, around 150 km southeast of Darwin. It is Australia’s secondlargest national park, covering almost 20 000 sq km. Kakadu contains a range of environments within its area, including coastal zones, floodplains, wetlands, savannah, woodlands, rainforest and stone country (Figure 13.4.1). Figure

13.4.2 shows the distribution of these environments within the region. This rich diversity of environments is home to many rare and endemic plants and animals,

including one-quarter of Australia’s fish species and one-third of its bird species.

Figure 13.4.1 The East Alligator River drains from the inland stone country of Kakadu, a flat and rocky region that endures extreme heat, long dry spells and torrential rain

species that are endemic are only found in a particular place and nowhere else on Earth

13.4.2 Distribution of environments within Kakadu National Park …

In addition to its environmental assets, Kakadu is valued for its cultural history.

The region has two groups of First Nations people who are considered the Traditional Custodians and Owners of the land: The Bininj in the north and the Mungguy in the south. These two First Nations groups have an intimate knowledge of the local environment, its cycles and seasonal changes (see Figure 13.4.3). For the last 65 000 years, First Nations people have cared for the land around Kakadu. They have passed down their spiritual connection through generations using art, language, ceremonies, kinship and land management techniques.

low-intensity bushfire fire that burns mainly grasses and lowlying vegetation rather than trees fire regime pattern of fires that occurs within an ecosystem, classified by the frequency, intensity, size and seasonality of fires

high-intensity bushfire fire that generates very high heat, burning both the ground surface and trees, and eliminating all fauna

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Environment change: a new fire regime

Prior to European settlement, First Nations people managed Kakadu using fire. Low-intensity bushfires were used to aid hunting, protect food resources, clear campsites, communicate between groups, and as part of spiritual and cultural rituals. Over time, traditional fire regimes became an essential component of the local ecosystem, helping to provide habitat for species that had adapted to these conditions.

When Europeans arrived in the region, many First Nations people left their land, were removed, or died of

disease. This meant that traditional fire practices decreased in frequency. The landscape changed accordingly. During the wet season, monsoonal rains lead to rapid plant growth. In the absence of traditional burning during the dry season, this vegetation dried out and accumulated into a large fuel load. This led to more frequent high-intensity bushfires. While low-intensity fires had benefitted the environment, these more powerful fires were destructive, altering the balance of the ecosystem and changing the distribution of plants and animals.

Environmental change: pests and weeds

Since European settlement, the spread of pests and weeds has become an environmental issue within Kakadu. Weed species present include Mimosa, a woody shrub from Central America that forms thickets across floodplains, and Salvinia, an aquatic fern that can choke waterways. Feral animals introduced to the region, both intentionally and accidentally, include cattle, pigs, horses, cats, dogs, rats, cane toads and Asian water buffalo.

Asian water buffalo were introduced in Kakadu in the 1820s. By the 1960s, their numbers had grown to approximately 20 000 and they were particularly prominent across the Alligator Rivers region (see Figure 13.4.4). These pests eroded river banks, muddied water, ate large amounts of grasses and competed with native wildlife for habitat.

During the 1980s and 1990s, most buffalo were removed from Kakadu to prevent further destruction. However, the successful eradication of this pest led to further changes. Each buffalo used to eat an average of 20 kg of grass each

day. The absence of buffalo meant that the native mudja grass (Hymenachne acutigluma) and introduced para grass (Brachiaria mutica) spread rampantly throughout Kakadu’s wetlands, outcompeting other plant species. This prevented water birds from feeding, reduced local biodiversity and increased the bushfire fuel load. Combined with an absence of traditional fire management, this further increased the vulnerability of Kakadu to high-intensity bushfires.

Managing Kakadu: a partnership with the Bininj/ Mungguy peoples

Since the 1970s, half of Kakadu has been classified as Aboriginal land under the Aboriginal Land Rights Act. The traditional custodians of the land, the Bininj/ Mungguy peoples, lease the land back to the Director of National Parks, which is part of the Australian government. These two groups manage the park in partnership.

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This partnership enables Aboriginal knowledge about fire management, as well as knowledge about other aspects of the local environment, to be incorporated into management strategies.

The Kakadu National Park Management Plan (2016–2026) outlines current priorities for management. Its vision is that Kakadu is a place where:

• The cultural and natural values of the park are protected and Bininj/Mungguy culture is respected.

• Bininj/Mungguy peoples are involved in all aspects of managing the park.

• Knowledge about country and culture is passed on to younger Bininj/Mungguy people and future generations of Bininj/

Mungguy people have the option to stay in and look after the park.

• World-class visitor experiences are provided and tourism is conducted in culturally, environmentally, socially and economically sustainable ways.

• Disturbed areas are rehabilitated and reintegrated into the park.

• Bininj/Mungguy peoples gain sustainable social and economic outcomes from the park.

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Burning for biodiversity: a return to the traditional fire regime

The Burning for Biodiversity project is an example of successfully involving First Nations peoples in environmental management. The Australian Government’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), together with the Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre work with a family of Traditional Custodians and Owners of the land to manage the biodiversity of the floodplains of the South Alligator River. The management process involves the yearly burning of two types of fires. Low-intensity protective burns occur on the edges of the floodplain in May, which is early in the dry season when the fuel load is still moist. The early protective burns prevent these later, larger fires from spreading into the surrounding woodlands. Higher-intensity burns take place throughout the floodplain at the end

of the dry season in October, when water levels are low and fuel loads are high. This burning regime continues until the wet season arrives in December.

Burning for Biodiversity has been a success, transforming the region back into a diverse wetland habitat thriving with waterbirds. Additional benefits of the program have included the return of food resources for local Aboriginal people, the opportunity to teach the younger generation about traditional practices, and for these methods to serve as an example of how traditional environmental management could be applied throughout other parts of Australia. It is hoped that similar prescribed burns can be used elsewhere in Kakadu to restore the delicate balance of its ecosystems.

Concepts and skills builder 13.4

Evaluating a management response

Access https://vimeo.com/118081463 to watch the video from the CSIRO demonstrating an example of a traditional burn as part of the Burning for Biodiversity project.

Use the information from the video and the information in this chapter to answer the following questions:

1 What do you think is meant by the phrase, ‘You look after the country and the country will look after you’?

2 Describe the characteristics of the landscape that the family are burning.

3 Why are wind and rainfall essential for fire management?

4 Why are the fringes of the wetland burnt early in the dry season?

5 What have been the benefits of removing Hymenachne (mudja grass) from the region?

6 Why is it essential that Aboriginal peoples contribute to the management of Kakadu?

7 Using the information from the previous questions, evaluate the effectiveness of the Burning for Biodiversity project. Consider:

• environmental sustainability in terms of changes to biodiversity

• economic sustainability in terms of positive and negative impacts that it could have on the tourism industry

• social sustainability in terms of the education of the local community about traditional practices.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Lesson 13.4 review

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13.4 Review questions

1 a Why is Kakadu considered to be such an important natural environment?

b What are the names of Kakadu’s Traditional Custodians and Owners? For how many years have they lived in and managed Kakadu?

c Describe two factors that have led to changes in Kakadu’s landscape.

2 Refer to Figure 13.4.2.

a What type of vegetation covers most of Kakadu?

b In which direction do you think the rivers are flowing? Why?

c What type of impact do you think the different types of roads might have on the local environment?

3 Using buffalo as an example, discuss how the management of a pest or weed can lead to additional environmental impacts.

4 Summarise the main features of the Burning for Biodiversity management strategy.

Case study: monitoring and insuring the health of the Mesoamerican Reef 13.5

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Learning intention

This lesson is a case study exploring the threats to the Mesoamerican Reef and the ways in which an environment insurance scheme is attempting to ensure its sustainability.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Thinking about investments in environmental protection

We’ve made really great progress precisely quantifying what you can achieve by investing in nature.

– Mark Tercek, CEO, The Nature Conservancy

1 What are the reasons why people might invest in nature and what do you think might be ways in which this can be done?

2 What does quantifying mean?

3 Why do you think it is unique and challenging to be able to quantify the achievements of an investment in a natural environment?

The Mesoamerican Reef is a marine system stretching over 1000 km from the northern tip of Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, along the east coasts of Belize and Guatemala, ending at the Bay Islands in the north of Honduras (see Figure 13.5.1). This marine system supports mangrove forests, coastal

wetlands, seagrass beds and the world’s second-largest coral reef. The reef provides a habitat for 65 species of coral and 500 species of fish, including whale sharks, and other marine creatures such as turtles and manatees. This makes it one of the most biodiverse ecosystems in North and South America.

Major rivers Coastal lagoonsCoral reefs Mangroves Urbanised areas1–500 501–1000 1001–1500 1501–2000 2001–2500 2501–3000 3001–3500 3501–4000 1–10m 11–50m 51–100m 101–200m 201–2000m 2001–3000m

3001–4000m

4001–5000m

5001–6000m

6001–7000m

7001–8000m

8001–9000m Lakes

Amazing but true…

Coral reefs have very high biodiversity. They are home to 25 per cent of all marine species on Earth despite only covering 0.1 per cent of the ocean’s total area.

Figure 13.5.2 Coral polyps are tiny organisms found in tropical waters. Their bodies are soft, but they contain a protective limestone skeleton at their base, which they use to attach to rocks on the sea floor. These tiny organisms then clone themselves, forming a colony and joining with other corals to form a reef.

subsistence fishing fishing that is done primarily to provide food for the people doing the fishing as opposed to being sold for profit runoff water that flows over the surface of the land rather than being absorbed macroalgae large marine algae, such as seaweed and seagrass, that typically grow in shallow water

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turbidity a measure of the cloudiness of a body of water

In addition to its biological importance, the Mesoamerican Reef provides a source of income for two million local people who work in commercial fishing and tourism industries. It also provides a vital food source for those who rely on it for subsistence fishing. Tourism is a very significant industry in this region, contributing almost a quarter of Belize’s

Gross Domestic Product. The reef system also acts as a buffer that absorbs the force of large waves, protecting the shoreline from severe storms, coastal erosion and floods. A healthy coral reef can absorb up to 97 per cent of a wave’s energy. This is particularly vital because the reef’s location in Central America makes both it and the coastline vulnerable to hurricanes.

Environmental change: local causes

The Mesoamerican Reef faces several threats that are damaging its environmental assets at an alarming rate. These include mining, agriculture, commercial development, tourism and overfishing. Figure 13.5.1 shows the topography of the region, with higher elevations further inland and river systems that flow towards the coast. The shape of this landscape means that inland pollution will eventually drain into river systems and discharge into the reef, including untreated waste like raw sewage and agricultural runoff that contains pesticides and fertilisers. These nutrients and pollutants cause the excessive growth of macroalgae which compete with corals and can cause them to perish.

The clearing of coastal vegetation such as mangrove forests (Figure 13.5.3), and the subsequent construction and farming that occur in their place, is adding excessive sediment into river systems flowing out to the reef. This is increasing the water’s turbidity, depriving corals of the sunlight needed to grow.

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Environmental change: global causes

In addition to local impacts, the Mesoamerican Reef is being threatened by climate change in a number of ways:

• Warming ocean temperatures will cause widespread coral bleaching.

• Sea-level rise will cause increased coastal erosion and increase turbidity.

• The coastline will be more vulnerable to more frequent storms and subsequent flooding.

• Increased rainfall will increase the runoff of pollutants.

Increased amounts of carbon dioxide absorbed by the ocean will lead to ocean acidification, which will reduce the ability of corals to grow and recover from damage.

Corals and zooxanthellae algae have a symbiotic relationship, meaning they rely on each other to survive. It is this algae that gives corals their colour. As can be

seen in Figure 13.5.4, increased ocean temperatures make the algae leave the corals tissue, which turns the corals white and leaves them without their major food source. This is known as coral bleaching. Although corals can survive bleaching, bleached coral is far more vulnerable to other disturbances such as pollution or severe storms and far more likely to die as a result.

In 2023, a long-lasting heatwave between May and August raised temperatures more than 3.5°C above the summer average. This caused bleaching throughout the Mesoamerican Reef, including the death of species that had not previously been affected. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change projects a global temperature rise of 1.5°C above the pre-industrial average could kill or severely degrade up to 80 per cent of coral reefs.

zooxanthellae algae tiny plantlike organisms that live in the tissue of corals coral bleaching when water is too warm, corals will expel the algae living in their tissues causing the coral to turn completely white

Figure 13.5.4

Up to 80 per cent of the coral in the southern region of the Mesoamerican Reef are showing signs of bleaching.

Coastal Management Trust: insuring the reef

Each year, more than 12 million tourists visit Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, generating US$9 billion annually. The region is reliant on the Mesoamerican Reef, both as a major tourist attraction and as a buffer that protects the coastline from hurricanes which are also the biggest immediate threat facing the future of the reef.

In order to ensure the sustainability of the reef and the industries that rely on it, Nature Conservancy partnered with the State Government of Quintana Roo in Mexico to establish the Coastal Management Trust scheme in 2018. This scheme is an insurance policy. The Trust receives money from the tourism industry and uses it to insure 60 km of the reef against damage from hurricanes.

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The money is used to finance the ongoing maintenance of the reef in order to improve its health and therefore its ability to protect the coastline. Following any large storms and hurricanes, the scheme will fund restoration activities such as stabilising uprooted corals, helping the reef to recover so that it can once again protect the coastline. In this way, the trust helps to ensure the ecological conservation of the reef while ensuring the survival of the tourism that relies on it. Although the trust is currently only applied to 60 km of coastline near Cancun, it is hoped that this model will be applied to other regions, and that similar schemes might be developed for other ecosystems.

Healthy Reefs Initiative: assessing and monitoring the reef

Assessing and monitoring the health of an environment is an essential component of environmental management. The Healthy Reefs Initiative is a collaboration of 48 different non-government organisations throughout Central America that

monitor and evaluate the health of the Mesoamerican Reef. Figure 13.5.5 shows this data organised in a Geographic Information System that can be used to explore various data layers and to compare data from different time periods.

Concepts and skills builder 13.5

Using a Geographic Information System (GIS) to monitor environmental health

Figure 13.5.5 GIS is used to assess and monitor changes to the Mesoamerican Reef.

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A geographic information system (GIS) is a form of technology used to gather, manage and analyse spatial information such as environmental change. Geographers can organise this data in layers using interactive maps to compare data sets at various scales. A GIS has been used to map, explore and analyse data from the Healthy Reefs Initiative. By manipulating digital maps and data layers, users can view photos of the Mesoamerican Reef, explore the health of various sites over time and analyse the extent of various impacts. Follow these steps to gain an understanding of the health of the Mesoamerican Reef:

1 Visit the Healthy Reefs Initiative website and select ‘Data Explorer’ from the top menu. Click on various sites within the reef to see photos. Compare the characteristics of at least two of the sites.

2 Click on the ‘2006–2016’ tab and select the ‘Reef Health Index–Sites’ tab. Using the slider, describe the change in the overall health of the reef between 2006 and 2016. In your answer, refer to specific sites and subregions as evidence.

3 Select either the ‘Coral Disease’ or ‘Coral Bleaching’ tab and summarise the extent of the impacts using dot points.

4 Access the most recent Report Card from the Healthy Reefs Initiative website. Describe how the recent assessment of the reef’s condition compares with its health in 2016.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Geography skills video: Digital skills: Using a GIS – Healthy Reefs …

Figure 13.5.6

Lesson 13.5 review

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13.5 Review questions

1 List three reasons why the Mesoamerican Reef is a significant environment.

2 Refer to Figure 13.5.1.

a Using the linear scale, estimate the area of coastline that contains mangroves.

b What impact might this have on the health of nearby corals?

c Describe the physical characteristics of the surrounding landscape, including the variation in elevation and the distribution of rivers.

d Why are these features important factors in contributing to the damage to the Mesoamerican Reef?

3 Summarise the local and global threats to the health of the Mesoamerican Reef.

4 a Describe how the Coastal Management Trust is aiming to achieve environmental, social and economic sustainability in Mexico.

b List three criteria that could be used to evaluate the success of the Coastal Management Trust in the future.

5 Download the latest Report Card from the Healthy Reefs Initiative website.

a Which subregion has the highest Reef Health Index (RHI) score?

b Which country has the highest average RHI score?

c Compare the latest data with the data from previous report cards. Comment on the trend.

Case study: battling land degradation in northern China 13.6

Learning intention

This lesson is case study focusing on a type of land degradation occurring in China called desertification. It considers the ways in which local action and national strategies are aiming to reverse this environmental change.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Thinking about the human impact of land degradation

I’d rather die from exhaustion than from being bullied by sand.

– Yin Yuzhen

Towards the end of this lesson you will learn about Yin Yuzhen, a resident of the Mu Us Desert in northern China, who has dedicated her life to restoring the land by planting forests. In the quote above, what do you think Yuzhen means when she refers to be being ‘bullied by sand’?

Desertification in northern China

Desertification is a type of land degradation in which drylands gradually become drier until areas that once were arable can no longer be used for agricultural production. This essentially turns the land into a desert, making it uninhabitable. Drylands are particularly vulnerable to desertification because they have very low and irregular rainfall. Despite these unfavourable conditions, one-third of the world’s population live in drylands and rely on the land for both subsistence and commercial agriculture

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Desertification is one of the most significant environmental challenges faced in China. More than one-quarter of China’s land area has been affected, totalling over 2.5 million sq km. As shown in Figure 13.6.1, desertification is occurring primarily in China’s northern and northwestern regions. Each year, the Gobi Desert spreads over an additional 3600 sq km of grassland, turning it into a barren wasteland.

desertification the process by which land changes into desert, usually due to drought, deforestation or unsustainable agricultural practices drylands dry regions that experience very low and very irregular rainfall arable land that is suitable for growing crops subsistence agriculture farming crops that are used to feed the farmer’s family and for local trade commercial agriculture largescale production of crops for sale on the wholesale or retail market

Causes of desertification

A leading direct cause of desertification in China is the widespread deforestation that occurred throughout the twentieth century. Trees were cut down for firewood and to make room for farmland. While the root systems of these trees would normally hold soil in place, their removal made the soil vulnerable to wind erosion, blowing away valuable topsoil. Deforestation was followed by a combination of unsustainable land management practices including overgrazing by livestock, overcultivation of the land, and poor water management, which leads to soil salinity.

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The unsustainable land management that caused desertification throughout the twentieth century was driven by China’s rampant population growth and its global agriculture industry. China is the second-most populous country in the world, with over 1.4 billion people to feed (see Figure 13.6.3). In addition, China’s

thriving agriculture industry produces food for 20 per cent of the world’s population and provides jobs for 35 per cent of China’s labour force. The demands on the land in these dryland regions have meant they have exceeded their ecological carrying capacity. The landscape has not been able to recover.

Anthropogenic climate change is also likely to continue contributing significantly to China’s rate of desertification. Studies have shown that climate change will continue to make many places on Earth hotter and drier, leading to a reduction in soil moisture. An increase in the frequency of severe storms might also lead to further soil erosion. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, China’s semi-arid and dry subhumid zones have experienced steady increases in temperature and decreases in precipitation since the 1970s.

Impacts of desertification

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Around 400 million people in China are currently impacted by desertification. Farmers in the most affected regions are forced to abandon their land due to a decline in productivity. It is estimated that this loss in production alone costs China US$6.9 billion each year.

Another severe impact is an increase in the frequency and intensity of sandstorms due to the exposed soil that is more susceptible to erosion. Sandstorms

have a severe impact on the health of people living in places such as Beijing, with links found to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. When combined with industrial pollution, dust storms can raise the air quality in Beijing to extremely hazardous levels. On an international scale, these storms also impact agriculture in Japan and Korea, costing billions in loss of productivity. Traces of particles from China’s deserts have even been found as far away as New Zealand.

Concepts and skills builder 13.6

Summarising information using a concept map

A concept map is a diagram that visually represents the relationship between concepts or ideas. These concepts are written inside boxes or circles and organised in a logical way. Arrows containing linking terms are used to demonstrate the links between these concepts.

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Draw a concept map to show the links between the causes and consequences of desertification in China using information from within this lesson. Consider the links between direct and indirect causes and the ways in which environmental impacts can lead to additional economic and social impacts. Complete your concept map by hand or by using a digital design tool.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place

One woman v desertification: a local response

When Yin Yuzhen was 19 years old, she moved to a small village in the Mu Us Desert region of Inner Mongolia following an arranged marriage. She struggled with feelings of isolation due to the desolate environment that surrounded her home. Despite having no experience or knowledge of forestry, she began planting trees in the hope she could bring some life to what was a barren wasteland. Although most of her initial plantings failed, after 30 years of persistence, Yuzhen and her villagers planted over 600 000 trees covering 4000 hectares.

Yuzhen’s forest has created a protective windbreak that successfully protects her village from sandstorms and has halted desertification. She now lives amongst 100 different species of trees and shrubs that support populations of wild roosters, rabbits and foxes. Her local village is also thriving economically, earning money from agriculture, honey production and as a tourist attraction. Yuzhen has won over 60 awards locally and internationally and was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. On two occasions, Yuzhen was selected as one of the 10 most powerful

women in China and she was honoured as one of the torchbearers for the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Many people have benefitted from her expertise in forest management and sustainable agriculture, applying her techniques within other dryland regions.

The Great Green Wall of China: a national response

Since 1978, China has been planting billions of trees along its northern and northwestern regions as part of the ThreeNorth Shelterbelt Project, more commonly known as the Great Green Wall. It is hoped that this large-scale afforestation will protect the country from desertification by creating a 4800-km protective buffer between desert and farmland. To date more than 66 billion trees have been planted, with planting set to continue until 2050 with a goal of planting around 80 billion trees.

The success of this response is currently mixed. Since the program began, tree cover in China’s north has increased from 5 to 12 per cent. The project has

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also increased the world’s forest cover. A study from NASA using satellite imagery has determined that the global green leaf area has increased by 5 per cent since the start of the twenty-first century. At least 25 per cent of this increase has occurred in China. Figure 13.6.7 shows the regions of China that have had the largest growth. However, this data only accounts for the total amount of vegetation and not the quality or type of vegetation. Nearly one-third of this vegetation is due to intensive agriculture, which may also be contributing to desertification through overcultivation and does not necessarily provide any environmental benefit.

afforestation planting vegetation in an area to establish a forest global green leaf area measure of vegetation coverage that includes forests, plantations and agriculture

13.6.7 China’s green leaf area coverage has increased since 2000 …

Some regions in China have shown a reduction in the rate of desertification. For example, the Loess Plateau has seen a 20 per cent increase in forest cover. However, many regions have been unsuccessful in rehabilitating the landscape. One of the major criticisms of the project is that young trees need lots of water to grow and that there is insufficient water to sustain them in dryland regions. In some cases, these trees are actually contributing to desertification by absorbing additional water from dwindling groundwater supplies. Tree growth has also been slower than expected and many trees have died from disease or due to a lack of water. Studies have shown that only an estimated 15 per cent of the trees planted since 1978 have survived.

Recommendations for the future of the project include:

• planting grassland species instead of trees in drought-prone areas

• choosing local tree species that use less water

• thinning out existing plantations to increase the stability of remaining trees and reduce their water consumption

• increasing the biodiversity of planted forests to decrease their vulnerability to disease

• prioritising the maintenance of existing trees to increase their likelihood of survival

• facilitating natural regeneration of forests in addition to plantations.

13.6 Review questions

1 Define desertification with reference to causes, impacts and examples.

2 Using Figure 13.6.1, describe the spatial distribution of places where the soil is most degraded in China. In your answer, include specific place names and try to estimate the area of China that is degraded.

3 With reference to Figure 13.6.3, explain how China’s population growth has indirectly led to desertification.

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4 Using the example of sandstorms, explain why environmental change on a regional or national scale can have impacts of an international scale.

5 Explain why the increase in global green leaf area shown in Figure 13.6.7 does not necessarily represent progress in afforestation and a decrease in desertification.

6 In one paragraph, compare the effectiveness of the local and national responses to desertification in China.

Fieldwork: evaluating the success of local environmental management

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Learning intention

In this lesson, you will have the opportunity to design a fieldwork investigation, in which you will investigate a local example of environmental change and management.

Fieldwork is an essential part of studying geography. It enables you to investigate many of the concepts studied in the classroom while out in the real world. In this example, it also provides the opportunity to apply your knowledge to answer a research question based on the impacts of environmental change. In this investigation, your aim is to investigate a local example of environmental management and evaluate its effectiveness. The following structure will help to form the basis of your study.

Table 13.7.1 Fieldwork report: tasks to be completed

Section

Explanation

Title and introductionChoose a suitable topic and title for your investigation. It should include the scope and location of your investigation. Write a brief introduction outlining the main aspects of your study including the type of environmental change you will be investigating and a summary of its management

Background informationResearch some background information about your chosen topic and locations. This will provide some context for your study.

Research questionWrite a research question that you intend to answer using the data that you collect. You may prefer to write one overall research question and multiple sub questions.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a clear and concise statement that can be tested. It should be written prior to collecting your primary data.

Examples

• A comparison of the health of the Dandenong Creek from its source to the sea

• An investigation into the success of beach renourishment at Hampton Beach

• An evaluation of the health and biodiversity within the Yea Wetlands

• An evaluation of the success of weed eradication in the Mornington Peninsula National Park

• Geographic characteristics of your chosen locations and a map showing your study area

• Regional information such as the natural and human history of the area and its land uses

• How does the health of the Dandenong Creek and its surrounding environment vary from its source in the Dandenong Ranges to its confluence with Eumemmerring Creek in Patterson Lakes?

• Renourishment at Hampton Beach has restored the area to make it usable by people but has led to additional negative environmental impacts

Section Explanation

Primary data collectionPrimary data is data you collect yourself in the field specifically for your investigation. Consider the types of primary data that you will need to collect to answer your research question. Consider the equipment and preparation required.

Examples

• Photos and field sketches

• Vegetation identification and abundance using quadrants

• Observations of processes such as erosion

• Assessment of water quality including pH, turbidity, temperature, nutrient levels

• Waterbird identification and count

• Interviews with local environmental groups and relevant organisations

Secondary data collectionSecondary data is data that other people have collected that you can use as part of your investigation. Undertake research to find suitable sources of information that you can apply to your topic.

Presenting and analysing your data

Discussion, conclusion and evaluation

Summarise your findings in visual formats that are easy to read and understand.

Use your primary and secondary data to answer your research question. Provide a concise summary of your major findings. Evaluate the success of your data collection and your overall investigation.

• Water quality data collected by Melbourne Water

• Climate data from the Bureau of Meteorology

• Information about local vegetation species from council websites

• Websites of local environment groups and social media campaigns

• Different types of graphs (pie, line, bar) and maps (choropleth, thematic, political)

• Annotated photos and field sketches

• Data summary tables

• The extent to which your hypothesis has been supported or disproven

• An answer to your research question

• The positive and negatives of your data collection methods and how they can be improved

References

Include a bibliography listing any sources used. Melbourne Water 2022, Rivers and Creeks: Dandenong Creek, Victorian State Government, accessed 8 August 2024, https://www. melbournewater.com.au/water-and-environment/ water-management/rivers-and-creeks/dandenongcreek

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End of investigation review: Environmental change and management

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable cummar y

• Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Making thinking visible

Headlines

1 Write a headline for one of the environmental changes outlined in the case studies in Lessons 13.3–13.6. Consider the most important aspect of the change and its impacts.

2 Write a second headline based on the level of success of the management response. Consider how the situation has changed and any subsequent changes to the environment.

Extended response questions

1 Use the information from the case studies presented in Chapter 13, evaluate the effectiveness of a management response to environmental change.

In your response.

• Outline the type of environmental change and its impacts

• Describe the management response

• Weigh up the positives and negatives of the response and its ability to manage environmental change using statistics as evidence

• Conclude with a statement of the effectiveness of the response.

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2

Choose one of the following quotes from naturalist Sir David Attenborough. Using information you have lear nt from this chapter, explain what Attenborough is referring to and discuss the extent to which you agree with him.

• ‘A hundred years ago, there were one-and-a-half billion people on Earth. Now, over six billion crowd our fragile planet. But even so, there are still places barely touched by humanity.’

• ‘Many individuals are doing what they can. But real success can only come if there is a change in our societies and in our economics and in our politics.’

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• ‘The only way to save a rhinoceros is to save the environment in which it lives, because there’s a mutual dependency between it and millions of other species of both animals and plants.’

• ‘If we [humans] disappeared overnight, the world would probably be better off.’

Solving geographical problems

Choose one of the impacts of environmental change outlined in Chapter 12 and design your own strategy to manage the impact. Consider whether your strategy will:

• Assess and monitor the change

• Reverse or adapt to the change

• Provide an artificial solution

• Involve an Indigenous perspective

• Indirectly respond to the impact by raising awareness.

Swap your response with a classmate and evaluate each other’s response using a range of suitable criteria.

Research task

Choose one of the types of environmental change discussed in this chapter, or one of your own choice. Examples include habitat fragmentation, the spread of pests and weeds, deforestation, or river regulation. Prepare a case study relating to a specific place. Undertake research using a variety of sources and media in the following areas:

• Background information including location and geographic characteristics

• A summary of factors that led to environment change

• A description of the environmental change including a variety of impacts

• An outline of at least one management strategy seeking to reduce negative impacts or enhance positive impacts

• The success or likely success of the management responses outlined.

Present your findings in a report that includes relevant maps, data and statistics.

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INVESTIGATION 2 Geographies of human wellbeing

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OVERVIEW Geographies of human wellbeing focuses on the question of human wellbeing, how it may differ from the concept of development and how it can be measured and mapped. Students consider the global pattern of wellbeing and then examine the spatial distribution of wellbeing within a country at a regional scale, for example using India (a country of growing importance to Australia) as the case study. Students examine the spatial distribution of wellbeing among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. This is extended by a study of wellbeing in Australia at the scale of the students’ city or rural area. Finally, students investigate programs to raise human wellbeing in Australia and overseas, and the role of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description –Levels 9 and 10’ CURRICULUM GOALS

• How does changing the scale of an investigation change our understanding of the issue being studied?

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

CHAPTER 14

What is human wellbeing?

LESSONTITLE

14.1Setting the scene: Hong Kong – a harbour of disparity

14.2What is human wellbeing and how is it measured?

14.3How do wealth, total fertility rate and adult literacy rate contribute to wellbeing?

14.4How do health, sanitation and life expectancy contribute to wellbeing?

14.5How are wellbeing indicators interconnected?

14.6How does human wellbeing vary at a global scale?

14.7Why does human wellbeing vary spatially at a global scale?

14.8What are the consequences of global variations in wellbeing?

14.9Case study: how does human wellbeing vary within Vietnam?

14.10How can human wellbeing vary at a local scale?

14.11The wellbeing of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

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Setting the scene: Hong Kong – a harbour of disparity

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Learning intention

This lesson is an introduction into human wellbeing, looking at an example of inequality in living conditions in Hong Kong.

At first glance, Hong Kong’s Victoria Harbour (Figure 14.1.1) depicts an idyllic urban paradise. Tall, modern skyscrapers stretch out along a tranquil coastline surrounded by luscious forests. For the 15 per cent of the population who are millionaires, and its 60 billionaires,

Amazing but true…

it is indeed a place of luxury. However, household income within Hong Kong varies enormously. In 2023, the average household income for the region’s richest 10 per cent was nearly 60 times greater than the poorest!

In 2019, Hong Kong became the city with the highest concentration of rich people in the world.

Rent in Hong Kong is among the most expensive in the world. Even a one-bedroom apartment in a mid-range suburb is unaffordable for most of Hong Kong’s working class. As a result, many families are forced to live in cramped conditions with three generations (children, parents and grandparents) under one roof. An estimated 100 000 people who are less fortunate live in subdivided apartment units that each measure less than 4 square metres! As for instance

shown in Figure 14.1.2. Many of these subdivisions are illegally built and do not meet safety standards. The least fortunate people are forced to live in cubicles or cages that are barely large enough to fit a bed (see Figure 14.1.3). Living conditions for poor people are very tough – many elderly women collect and sell cardboard to scrape together a very basic living (Figure 14.1.4). Homelessness is on the rise and the waiting list for public housing is up to six years.

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Lesson 14.1 review

14.1 Review questions What makes you say that?

Visit the Dollar Street website, produced by the Swedish Gapminder organisation, and explore the homes of different families around the world. In pairs, ask each other the following questions and then prompt each other to justify your opinions by asking ‘what makes you say that?’

1 Which of the families you investigated do you think would have the highest level of wellbeing?

2 What do you think are some of the challenges facing some of the families at either end of the income spectrum?

3 Which of the families you investigated do you think has a lifestyle similar to yours? 4 What has this exercise shown you about wellbeing across the world? Go

https://www. gapminder.org/ dollar-street

Figure 14.2.1

Geography skills video: Digital skills: Using a GIS – Google Street View …

What is human wellbeing and how is it measured?

Learning intention

This lesson provides a brief introduction into what human wellbeing means for different people and the ways in which it can be measured and compared.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Analysing different living standards in the same place

1 Compare the characteristics of what you can see in the left and right sections of the aerial photograph in Figure 14.2.1. Using a table, list the differences in living conditions.

2 Use Google Street View to visit Kyra Sands and access photographs of the region. It might help to turn on the satellite image on the base map so you can choose areas that look similar to the ones shown in Figure 14.2.2. Add observations to your table.

3 The housing shown on the left of Figure 14.2.2 is an informal settlement, commonly known as a slum. In these regions, residents do not have legal ownership of the land and live in densely packed housing that is built using scrap materials. They lack basic services such as piped water, sanitation and electricity.

a Why do you think some people in Johannesburg live in large houses while others live in these slums?

b Research more about slums in Johannesburg by watching a video or reading an article. How does life in a slum compare to life in the suburbs?

c Do you think Australia has slums? Why?

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Defining wellbeing

Human wellbeing can be defined as an overall measure of the health and quality of life of a group of people. Human wellbeing varies significantly depending on the place and population for which wellbeing is measured. In the world’s poorest regions, wellbeing involves having the basic requirements needed for survival, such as food, clean water, shelter, clothing and safety. In wealthier regions,

Measuring wellbeing

There is no single measure of human wellbeing. Instead, comparing the wellbeing of populations involves using a variety of indicators or measures. When combined, these indicators give an overall view of a population’s wellbeing. Examples of indicators include wealth, life expectancy and access to health and education services. Some wellbeing indicators, such as infant mortality rate (IMR), are objective and quantitative This means that they can be measured and quantified, making them easy to compare. Other indicators, such as happiness, are subjective and qualitative, making them more difficult to measure and compare.

health, income, education and happiness are more common measures of wellbeing. In many cases, individuals make decisions about what they consider to be the qualities of a prosperous life and then measure their level of wellbeing based on whether they have the ability and resources available to them to achieve those qualities in their own lives.

human wellbeing overall measure of the health and quality of life of a group of people

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Measures

Happiness is one of the most important indicators of wellbeing, but it is one of the most difficult to measure. The United Nations World Happiness report ranks countries based on their economic situation, social support, life expectancy, freedom, generosity and perceptions of corruption. In 2024, Finland was ranked the happiest country, largely due to its strong sense of community, while Australia just scraped into the top10. In contrast, the least happy countries were Afghanistan, Lebanon, Lesotho and Sierra Leone –places facing political instability, economic hardships and war.

indicators

measures used to assess and track changes in progress and performance infant mortality rate (IMR) measure of the number of children per 1000 children born who die aged under 1 year of age objective result or judgement that is not influenced by the personal feelings or opinions of an individual subjective result or judgement based on personal beliefs and feelings quantitative data based on numerical quantities that can be counted or measured qualitative data not based on numeric quantities, usually measured using techniques including observations, interviews and surveys mindfulness technique for achieving a calm mental state by focusing awareness on the present moment

Concepts and skills builder 14.2

Classifying indicators

Geographers find it useful to classify the world around them to increase their understanding and enable comparison. Classifying means arranging things into groups, classes or categories based on common characteristics. In this lesson, you have learnt the difference between an objective and subjective measure and that some measures are quantitative while others are qualitative.

1 Fill out a table like the one below to classify the following wellbeing indicators.

Wellbeing indicator

Wealth

Happiness

Job satisfaction

Social connectedness

Environmental qualities (climate, green space, air quality)

Infant mortality rate

Work-life balance

Personal security and safety

Percentage of people who have finished secondary school

Objective/subjectiveQuantitative/qualitative

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2 Choose two of the wellbeing indicators from the table above and justify their classification. In other words, why are they objective or subjective? Why are they measured using qualitative or quantitative data?

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place

14.2 Review questions

1 a What are wellbeing indicators and why are they used?

b Explain the difference between a qualitative and quantitative indicator and provide an example of each.

c Explain the difference between an objective and subjective indicator and provide an example of each.

2 What do you think is one of the most important indicators or measures of human wellbeing? Justify your choice.

3 a What is a slum?

b Suggest a way that a country like South Africa could improve its wellbeing for those currently living in slums.

4 Research a list of the happiest and least happy countries in the world. Suggest reasons for large differences in happiness between countries.

How do wealth, total fertility rate and adult literacy rate contribute to wellbeing?

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will be introduced to three common indicators of wellbeing: wealth, total fertility rate and adult literacy rate.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson

Analysing a cartogram

Figure 14.3.1 is a cartogram, a type of map in which the sizes of countries are manipulated to represent the variable being mapped. In this example, wealthier countries with a higher GDP are larger than poorer countries.

1 Based on Figure 14.3.1, list the countries and regions which are the wealthiest and poorest.

2 Which countries or regions have been distorted the most in the cartogram? In other words, which ones are much larger or smaller on the cartogram than on a traditional map?

3 Brainstorm a list of ways in which increased wealth can improve human wellbeing and why people in poorer countries often have lower levels of wellbeing.

Figure 14.3.1 Cartogram showing the relative sizes of countries based on their wealth, measured as Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

cartogram type of map in which the sizes of countries are manipulated to represent the variable being mapped

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) a measure of a country’s economic output

per capita per person

absolute wealth wealth compared to a fixed standard (for example, whether a person is above or below the national poverty level) relative wealth how a person’s wealth compares with the other people in their community cost of living amount of money needed to afford basic necessities such as housing, food, clothing and health care

Wealth

One of the most common measures of wellbeing is wealth. Wealth provides access to life’s necessities and opportunities, and affects all other wellbeing indicators. For example, regions with greater wealth have a greater access to health services, higher levels of education and a higher life expectancy. A common way of measuring and comparing wealth between countries is Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita. GDP is a measure of a country’s economic output based on the total value of goods produced and services provided in a year. ‘Per capita’ means per person. GDP per capita is therefore a measure of a country’s wealth divided by its total population. Wealth can also be measured by average annual income, as shown in Table 14.3.1.

When considering an individual’s wellbeing based on their wealth, it is important to differentiate between absolute and relative wealth. Absolute wealth refers to wealth compared to a fixed standard, such as whether a person is above or below the national poverty level or the national average. On the other hand, relative wealth relates to how a person’s wealth compares with the other people around them, including their family and friends, colleagues and

Total fertility rate

total fertility rate (TFR) total number of children expected to be born to a woman in her lifetime if she lives to the end of her childbearing years

the people living within their suburb or region. Another important consideration is the cost of living within a place compared with the average income.

Table 14.3.1 shows that Switzerland has the third-highest annual income at $95 490; however, it is also ranked the second-most expensive country in which to live based on the cost of rent and groceries. This shows that a higher income does not always lead to a higher standard of living.

Table 14.3.1 Countries with the highest average incomes in 2022 in United States dollars (USD)

CountryAverage annual income (USD)

080

490

540 Luxembourg 89 200

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The total fertility rate (TFR) is the total number of children expected to be born to a woman in her lifetime if she lives to the end of her childbearing years. In 2024, the TFR in Australia was 1.6 babies per woman. This does not mean every woman in Australia will give birth to 1.6 babies, though! This value is calculated based on the average number of children each woman gives birth to in a country – this

Source: World Data website

means on average Australian women have one or two children. In contrast, the TFR in Niger in 2024 was 6.4, meaning on average women in Nigeria have six or seven children.

Table 14.3.2 shows the 10 countries with the highest and lowest TFR. Globally, the TFR has fallen from approximately five in the 1960s to 2.3

in 2024 (see Figure 14.3.2). There are many factors responsible for this trend, including advancements in contraception, greater access to family planning, better health care and a higher life expectancy.

Table 14.3.2 The 10 countries with the highest and lowest TFR

Countries with the highest TFR

Furthermore, greater career opportunities for women have meant many have delayed the age at which they choose to have children, resulting in women having fewer children overall. family planning services that help women to gain greater control over the number of children they have, and the timing between births

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Source: CIA World Factbook, 2024 Figure 14.3.2 The change in

adult literacy rate (ALR) proportion of adults in a population who can read and write

sub-Saharan Africa region of Africa located south of the Sahara Desert

Concepts and skills builder 14.3

Describing the trend of a line graph

Geographers use line graphs to analyse how phenomena change over time. These types of graphs are created by plotting data for each year on a set of axes. Years are marked on the x-axis and the variable being measured is marked on the y-axis. Each data point is then joined with a line so that the trend of change can be seen.

Figure 14.3.2 is an example of a line graph showing how TFR has changed since the 1950s.

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1 Choose three of the countries and describe their trends. Include the following:

• An overall description of what the graph is showing. What variable is the graph representing? Has it increased, decreased, or remained stable over the time period?

• What values support your description? How much has the variable gone up or down? Over how many years?

• Mention any time periods that stand out as being unusual due to their rapid or slow growth. Include any peaks (high values) or troughs (low values) and quote the values for these.

2 Compare the trends of the three countries analysed in question 1. Are their trends similar or different?

3 Explain whether the countries analysed in question 1 match the global trend. Suggest a reason for this.

4 Choose one country and suggest a reason for the trend. For example, why do you think China’s TFR dropped sharply during the 1960s and 1970s? Why do you think Niger’s TFR is still much higher than the other countries? Undertake research to see if your suggestion is correct.

5 Based on the analysis you have undertaken, justify which of the countries in Figure 14.3.2 are likely to have the highest and lowest levels of human wellbeing.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Adult literacy rate

The adult literacy rate (ALR) refers to the proportion of adults in a population who can read and write. It is an important indicator of wellbeing. One of the main reasons is that being able to read can improve a person’s employability and earning potential. Literacy is also often used as a measure of a population’s overall level of education. Back in 1800, the adult literacy rate was just 12 per cent of the total world population. In 2024, it reached 86.3 per cent, 90 per cent for males and 82.7 per cent for females. However, there is a large variation in the ALR between world regions. In subSaharan Africa the average ALR is just 67.7 per cent, compared to 99.9 per cent in northern Europe. Rates also vary within

a country. Females have lower levels of literacy rates in countries in which they have less educational opportunities. Lower rates are also found in ethnic minorities and low-income earners.

In addition to the basic ability to read and write, an important measure of wellbeing is health literacy. The World Health Organization defines health literacy as the ability of individuals to gain access to, understand and use information in ways that promote and maintain good health. Although the ALR in Australia is over 99 per cent, a national health survey by the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 2018 showed that 14 per cent of Australians found it

difficult to navigate the healthcare system. As shown in Figure 14.3.3, this varied considerably throughout the different age groups. Low levels of health literacy

affect wellbeing as it can lead to higher rates of hospitalisation, less frequent use of health services and overall higher government costs.

Figure 14.3.3 Results from Australia’s Health Literacy Survey showing whether people found it difficult or easy to navigate the healthcare system …

persons

years

years

years

years

years 65 years and older

English as a main language spoken at home

Language other than English spoken at home

Source: Health Literacy Survey, 2018

14.3 review

14.3 Review questions

1 a Define Gross Domestic Product per capita and explain why it is used as an indicator of human wellbeing.

b Refer to Table 14.3.1. In which world regions are most of the countries with the highest and lowest annual incomes located?

2 a Define total fertility rate and explain why it is used as an indicator of human wellbeing.

b Outline some of the challenges that countries with a very high or low total fertility rate might face.

3 a Define ‘adult literacy rate’ and explain why it is used as an indicator of human wellbeing.

b Suggest an impact that lower literacy rates in females might have in a country such as Niger.

c What is health literacy and how does it affect wellbeing?

d Using Figure 14.3.3, describe how the level of health literacy is associated with age in Australia. Suggest a way this may affect the wellbeing of different age groups.

4 ‘Education is the fundamental key to providing improvement in wellbeing.’ To what extent do you agree or disagree with this statement?

How do health, sanitation and life expectancy contribute to wellbeing?

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will be introduced to three common indicators of wellbeing: health, sanitation and life expectancy.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: describe what life might be like for the boy depicted in Figure 14.4.1.

2 Think: suggest the dangers of not having safe and clean access to a toilet.

3 Wonder: reflect on what this image makes you feel about your own level of wellbeing.

Health and disease

The ability for a population to treat and control the spread of diseases, and to provide appropriate health care, is an important indicator of wellbeing. Although many diseases affect all people irrespective of their living conditions or wealth, there are many preventable and treatable diseases that occur predominantly in poorer regions. For example, malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites spread when Anopheles mosquitoes bite people. In 2022, malaria was responsible for the deaths of 608 000 people worldwide and it was also one of the leading causes of death for young children. Although climate is a major factor determining the prevalence of malaria, 93 per cent

of malaria-related deaths occurred in sub-Saharan African countries (see Figure 14.4.2). This suggests that there is a correlation between the impact of malaria and other factors such as wealth and access to health care.

Amazing but true…

In 2019, an article in The New York Times described mosquitoes as the deadliest creatures to humans on the planet. An estimated total of 52 billion people have been killed by mosquitoes over the last 200 000 years.

phenomena facts, circumstances, or situations that can be observed; for example, GDP or life expectancy in each country

Concepts and skills builder 14.4

Describing spatial distribution using a choropleth map

Choropleth maps represent data by shading or colouring areas, such as countries, based on a data value.

Figure 14.4.2 is a choropleth map in which darker colours are used to represent countries with a larger number of deaths due to malaria. Geographers use maps to analyse the distribution of phenomena in space. In this context, space refers to spatial location and distribution refers to the way things are arranged. By analysing the spatial distribution of phenomena, geographers are able to identify trends and patterns.

When describing spatial distribution, there are three important things to include: the pattern, quantification and an exception. This is also known as the PQE method. Use at least one sentence to answer each of these questions relating to the spatial distribution of deaths due to malaria. Make sure you refer to specific countries and regions, and use the legend to refer to specific values.

• Pattern: give a general overview of the distribution.

– Is the overall distribution even or uneven?

– Which regions or countries have a high and low number of deaths? Provide some examples.

• Quantification: provide specific evidence to demonstrate the pattern. Use the legend and approximate areas using percentages.

– Roughly how much of the Earth has a high or low number of deaths?

– What percentage of Africa has a high or low number of deaths?

– How prevalent are deaths across Europe?

• Exception: identify an example or several examples of specific places that do not fit your pattern.

– Where is there a place that has a high number of deaths surrounded by places with a low amount?

– Where is a place that has a much higher or lower amount than anywhere else?

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space,

physician medical practitioner, such as a doctor, nurse or surgeon

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Another factor determining wellbeing based on health and disease is access to physicians, such as doctors or nurses. This is often measured in terms of the number of physicians per 1000 people.

The global average is 1.5 physicians per 1000 people, yet this measure can be is as high as 5.9 in Cuba or 4.1 in Australia, and as low as 0.04 in Liberia.

Sanitation

Cardiovascular diseases, including heart attacks and strokes, are the leading cause of death around the world. Three-quarters of deaths due to cardiovascular diseases still occur in low- and middle-income countries due to a lack of health care services that can offer things like early detection and treatment.

the safe management and movement of human excreta from a toilet to storage, treatment and safe use or disposal. In excreta faeces, urine and other waste material discharged from the body

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), sanitation refers to the provision of facilities and services for

other words, access to a clean and safe toilet. Around the world, approximately 2 billion people live without adequate sanitation like a toilet or latrine, something that most people in Australia take for granted. Figure 14.4.3 shows that almost all people in North America and Europe have access to basic sanitation, while nearly 30 per cent of people in Central and South Asia don’t have access to any form of sanitation.

In addition to making life difficult and unpleasant, a lack of sanitation leads to the spread of infectious diseases like

Regions

diarrhoea, cholera, typhoid and dysentery. This can be especially dangerous if infected faecal matter contaminates water supplies (see Figure 14.4.1) and if there is a lack of access to physicians. Every year, half a million children die from diarrhoea, which causes dehydration and related illnesses such as malnutrition This makes diarrhoea the second leading cause of death in children aged under five. A lack of sanitation also drastically reduces school attendance, particularly for girls, which ultimately leads to a reduction in the literacy rate.

latrine communal toilet or a simple form of sanitation; for example, an open trench malnutrition medical condition resulting from a lack of nutrition by not eating enough food, eating an imbalance of foods or eating an excessive amount of food

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life expectancy the number of years someone is expected to live from birth food security measure of people’s access to enough food to meet their dietary needs

Life expectancy

Life expectancy refers to how long a person can expect to live from birth. It is calculated based on the average age that members of a particular population are when they die. Life expectancy is an important indicator of wellbeing – it increases as other areas of wellbeing improve. For example, countries with high life expectancy usually have universal access to sanitation, medical facilities, food security and education, and enough wealth to provide all of these things.

As Figure 14.4.4 shows, average life expectancy across the world has risen significantly over the last century. Despite

all world regions showing a similar growth trend, there is a significant difference between current life expectancy in regions such as sub-Saharan Africa and southern Europe. For example, in 2024 France had an average life expectancy of 83.3 years, whereas in Nigeria life expectancy was only 56.1 years. There is also a significant difference between the life expectancy of males and females. In Monaco, which has one of the highest life expectancies in the world, males live to an average of 85.29 years, whereas females live to 89.11 years. This is due to biological differences, but also behavioural factors like higher smoking rates in males.

Figure 14.4.4 Life expectancy has increased dramatically in all world regions since 1880.

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Figure 14.4.5 In 2023, Japan had the third-highest life expectancy in the world at 84.95 years, below Macao at 85.51 years and Hong Kong at 85.83 years. The Japanese government invests large amounts of money to ensure its elderly population maintain healthy and fulfilling lives.

14.4 Review questions

1 a Define health and explain why it is used as an indicator of human wellbeing.

b Suggest a factor contributing to the variation in the number of physicians per 1000 people in different countries.

2 a Define access to sanitation and explain why it is used as an indicator of human wellbeing.

b Refer to Figure 14.4.3. Describe how access to sanitation varies across the world. Refer to specific world regions and data from the graph.

3 a Define life expectancy and explain why it is used as an indicator of human wellbeing.

b Using Figure 14.4.4, describe the change in life expectancy in the different world regions. Have all regions increased by a similar amount?

c Suggest a reason for the overall trend in life expectancy shown in Figure 14.4.4.

d Figure 14.4.4 shows a small decrease in life expectancy in 2020 and 2021. What do you think was responsible for this?

e Suggest a reason why life expectancy in Africa is far below the rest of the world.

4 Describe a way in which sanitation, health and life expectancy are linked.

How are wellbeing indicators interconnected?

Learning intention

In the last three lessons, you learnt about a variety of indicators used to measure human wellbeing. In this lesson, you will explore ways in which these indicators are interconnected.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Thinking about fertility rates

1 Why do you think the total fertility rate is so high in Chad compared to a country like Australia or Germany?

2 What might be some of the challenges facing Chad given its high total fertility rate?

3 In what ways might having lots of children provide an economic opportunity for a country like Chad?

Interconnection between wellbeing indicators

Many of the indicators used to measure wellbeing are interconnected. This means that they are linked and affect each other. For example, access to adequate sanitation can affect the prevalence of many preventable diseases, while higher levels of education can lead to an increase in wealth. Some of the poorest countries in the world, such as Chad, have the largest families due to a lack of money to purchase contraception, a lack of access to family planning services, and cultural and religious preferences.

Figure 14.5.2 shows the relationship between wealth and life expectancy. Countries with a high GDP per capita above US$32 000 tend to also have a life expectancy of above 70 years.

Conversely, countries in the lowest income level have a life expectancy of around 60 years. Although there is clearly an association between these variables, this does not mean that one necessarily causes the other. A stronger economy and a high-paying job do not guarantee a long life, although it does provide access to health care and healthier living conditions, which may contribute to a longer life. It is also important to consider exceptions to the trend. For example, Guyana has a relatively high GDP per capita of US$34 400, yet a life expectancy of only 64.3 years. This is due to a shortage of health care workers, a high prevalence of chronic diseases such as diabetes and a relatively high child mortality rate.

interconnection the relationship between places and people, and the ways in which they influence each other variable characteristic, factor or quantity that increases or decreases over time

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Figure 14.5.2 A scatter graph showing the relationship between GDP per capita and life expectancy. The colours on the graph represent different world regions, as shown on the location map beneath the graph.

dependent variable variable that tends to change as values of the independent variables change independent variable variable which changes in value are not thought to be determined by other values under consideration correlation relationship between variables – for example if the dependent variable increases or decreases as the independent variable increases, there is a correlation between those two variables

Concepts and skills builder 14.5

Analysing the relationship between variables using scatter graphs

Figure 14.5.2 is an example of a scatter graph. They show the relationship between two different variables. The dependent variable goes on the y-axis (vertical axis). A dependent variable is a value that tends to change as the independent variable changes. The independent variable goes on the x-axis (horizontal axis) of a scatter graph. In Figure 14.5.2, GDP per capita is the independent variable and life expectancy is the dependent variable. This is because life expectancy changes based on changes to GDP per capita. The data points represent values from different countries with the size of the circles representing the size of the population.

The relationship between variables is known as a correlation. When increases in an independent variable are related to increases in a dependent variable, the direction of this correlation is said to be positive. When increases in an independent variable are related to decreases in the dependent variable, the direction of this correlation is said to be negative. The strength of a correlation is determined by how closely the data points are aligned (see Figure 14.5.3).

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Strong postive correlation

Strong postive correlation

Strong postive correlation

Week postive correlation

Week postive correlation

Week postive correlation

No correlation

No correlation

No correlation

Strong negative correlation

Strong negative correlation

Strong negative correlation

Week negative correlation

Week negative correlation

Week negative correlation

Figure 14.5.3 The direction and shape of the data points on a scatter graph determines whether the relationship is strong, moderate or weak and whether it is positive or negative

Either follow the steps shown in the video tutorial, or which follow in writing. Visit the Gapminder website and click on the Tools item in the menu bar.

1 Describe the direction and strength of the correlation between GDP per capita and life expectancy.

2 Using the colour legend, list the world regions with the highest and lowest income and life expectancy.

3 Using the year slider underneath the graph, describe how income and life expectancy, and the relationship between them, has changed over the last 200 years.

4 Change the dependent and independent variables to some of the other wellbeing indicators introduced within this chapter. For example, explore the correlation between adult literacy rate and child mortality or life expectancy and total fertility rate. Describe the relationship between these variables.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Lesson 14.5 review

14.5 Review questions

1 Define interconnection and provide an example of how two or more wellbeing indicators are interconnected.

2 a Explain the difference between the dependent and independent variables and outline where they are located on a scatter graph.

b If a correlation between two variables is positive, what tends to happen to the dependent variable as the independent variable increases?

3 Why should you avoid using the word ‘causes’ when describing the correlation between variables?

4 a Using Gapminder, describe the correlation between adult literacy rate and babies per woman. Include examples in your description including reference to specific countries, regions and statistics.

b Explain why you think the correlation from part a exists.

How does human wellbeing vary at a global scale?

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child mortality rate the percentage of children who die before reaching the age of five

Learning intention

This lesson focuses on a comparison of the distribution of different human wellbeing indicators at a global scale.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Reflecting on overpopulation

A common misunderstanding is that if we save all the poor children, the world will become overpopulated. This may sound logical, but it’s wrong. It’s the other way around. Saving the poor children’s lives is required to end population growth.

– Hans Rosling, physician and cofounder of the Gapminder Foundation

1 Why do you think some people claim that saving poor children will lead to overpopulation?

2 Justify whether you agree or disagree with this claim.

3 Why do you think Hans Rosling claims that saving poor children will end population growth?

Geographers use maps to analyse the spatial distribution of phenomena such as wellbeing indicators. Concepts and skills builder 14.3 introduced a method for describing spatial distribution of phenomena where a pattern, quantification and exception are identified. This skill can be used to analyse how wellbeing varies on a global scale. For example, it is clear from Figure 14.6.1 that Europe contains clusters of countries with very low child mortality rates (CMR) whereas the rate is far greater in sub-Saharan Africa. On the other hand, as can be seen from Figure 14.6.2, around 20 per cent of the countries in sub-Saharan African have a total fertility rate (TFR)

of above four children born per woman compared to fewer than two in Europe.

Regardless of how clear a distribution pattern may seem, the real world is full of exceptions. An exception is a place that doesn’t have the same qualities as the places surrounding it, and therefore doesn’t fit the pattern. When looking at the distribution of wealth in Figure 14.6.3, Saudi Arabia is an exception because it has a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita of US$40 000–50 000, which is much higher than that of the countries that surround it within the Middle East region.

An analysis of the way wellbeing indicators vary across the globe can help to allocate resources, track progress in improving wellbeing and project future changes to wellbeing. Study the five choropleth maps on the following pages and see if you can spot a clear pattern, quantify this pattern and find an exception.

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Figure 14.6.3 The global distribution of wealth measured as GDP per capita, 2023

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Figure 14.6.4 The global distribution of adult literacy rate measured as the percentage of adults aged 15 and over who can read and write, 2023

Figure 14.6.5 The global distribution of life expectancy at birth, 2023 …

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Concepts and skills builder 14.6

Describing spatial association using choropleth maps

In the previous lesson, scatter graphs were used to analyse the relationship between two variables in terms of the influence that one variable had on another. In a similar way, we can look at the link between variables or phenomena by analysing their spatial association – the degree to which they share a similar distribution. For example, is there a spatial association between CMR and TFR? Do countries with a high CMR tend to also have a high TFR? Why might these two indicators be interconnected? Do countries with a low GDP per capita also have lower life expectancies? Are there any exceptions?

When describing spatial association, there are three important things to include: the degree of the association, quantification and examples, and an exception. This is known as the DQE method.

A strong spatial association between two phenomena would mean that their distributions are very similar; for example, if areas that have a high amount of something in one map also have a high amount of something else in the other map.

A moderate spatial association between two phenomena would exist if some regions of the map share a similar distribution while other regions of the map do not.

A weak spatial association between two phenomena would exist if the two maps do not appear to have many or any regions that correlate.

spatial association the degree to which two or more phenomena share a similar distribution on the Earth’s surface

1 Use at least one sentence to answer each of the following questions relating to the spatial association between CMR (Figure 14.6.1) and TFR (Figure 14.6.2). Make sure you refer to specific countries and regions and use the legend to refer to specific values.

• Degree: state whether the spatial association is strong moderate or weak. ‘There is a strong/moderate/ weak spatial association between … and …’

– Do countries/regions with a high CMR rate also have a high TFR?

– Do countries/regions with a low CMR also have a high TFR?

• Quantification: provide specific examples and evidence to demonstrate the degree of spatial association.

– Which regions have both high CMR and high TFR?

– Which regions have both low CMR and high TFR?

– Use the legend to quantify the examples above.

• Exception: are there any exceptions to the degree of spatial association you have described?

– Is there a country that has a high CMR but a low TFR?

2 Repeat this same process to compare the spatial association of another pair of wellbeing indicators in Figures 14.6.1 to 14.6.5.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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14.6 Review questions

1 Refer back to Concepts and skills builder 14.4 in lesson 4. Choose one or more of the maps in Figures 14.6.1 to 14.6.5 and describe the global distribution of the wellbeing indicator represented.

2 Explain what spatial association means and why describing the spatial association between wellbeing indicators is useful for geographers.

3 Refer back to Han Rosling’s quote in the lesson opener. Use your knowledge of the spatial association between CMR and TFR to justify why saving poor children’s lives is required to end population growth.

Why does human wellbeing vary spatially at a global scale?

Learning intention

The last lesson considered how the distribution of wellbeing varies across the world and the spatial association between wellbeing indicators. This lesson looks at the some of the reasons for these variations.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson

Think, pair, share

Education is a human right with immense power to transform. On its foundation rest the cornerstones of freedom, democracy and sustainable human development.

– Kofi Annan, former Secretary-General of the United Nations

1 Think: explain why you think Kofi Annan thinks education is such an important factor contributing to wellbeing.

2 Pair: suggest another factor that contributes to human wellbeing. Compare your factor with a classmate and discuss your ideas to determine which factor is the most significant.

3 Share: prepare to share your factors with the class.

Factors contributing to variation in wellbeing

Geographers recognise that there are many factors that contribute to variations in human wellbeing between countries. Factors in Geography can be classified using the SHEEPT acronym, which stands for Social, Historical, Economic, Environmental, Political and Technological. These classifications are summarised in Table 14.7.1. For example, Saudi Arabia owns 20 per cent of global oil reserves, which is the main reason it has the strongest economy in the Middle East. The presence of oil in Saudi Arabia is an environmental factor while the resulting strong economy is an economic factor.

Political decisions can also play a vital role in determining a country’s wellbeing. Many Central American countries, such as Guatemala and El Salvador, are battling poverty, crime and political instability. In contrast, Costa Rica is politically stable, economically prosperous and the happiest country in this region. It also has the highest adult literacy rate at 90 per cent and an infant mortality rate of just 6.5 infant deaths per 1000 live births. This is largely because it has not had an army for 70 years – the money saved on defence has been spent on education and health care.

Table 14.7.1 Factors can be classified using the SHEEPT acronym

ClassificationDescription

Social Factors relating to people, including culture, values, religion, population structure, education and ethnicity

Historical Factors relating to actions or events from the past that might influence the present

Economic Factors relating to the earning or spending of money

Environmental/PhysicalFactors relating to the influence of the characteristics of natural or human environments

Political

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Factors relating to governments and the impacts of their decisions

TechnologicalFactors relating to the development and uses of difference types of technology

Concepts and skills builder 14.7

Classifying factors

For each of following factors:

1 State how each of the following factors could contribute to a low or high level of human wellbeing.

• Australia has a large supply of natural resources, such as coal and uranium.

• Many people in Niger follow a strain of Islam that encourages followers to have as many children as possible.

• An aid organisation has provided free contraception and education to women in a village in Ethiopia.

• Afghanistan has been involved in violent conflict for several decades and has a life expectancy of just 62 years.

• Luxembourg was ranked the wealthiest country in the world in 2024 with a GDP per capita of US$131 000.

• The population density of Manila, Philippines, has reached over 40 000 per sq km.

• A new malaria vaccine has been developed and the Nigerian government has made it freely available.

2 Use the information in Table 14.7.1 to classify each of the factors as social, historical, economic, environmental, political, or technological.

3 Write a brief statement justifying your choice for each example. Note that some factors could have more than one classification.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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The link between economic development and human wellbeing

Economic strength, often measured as GDP per capita, is an underlying factor influencing wellbeing. This is because wealthy countries often have other strengths, such as higher levels of health care, greater access to education and better living conditions.

Countries with strong economics are known as developed countries. They are more industrialised and have a stronger economy than poorer developing countries. The distribution of countries with these classifications is shown in Figure 14.7.1.

developed country country with a high GDP per capita, higher standards of living and greater access to medical care and technology industrialised country or region that has transformed its economy from one based on agriculture to one dominated by industries such as manufacturing developing country country with a low GDP per capita and a low level of industrialisation

Countries are generally considered to be developed if they have a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of above US$12 000, although many developed countries have a GDP per capita closer to US$40 000 or more. Developing countries

are defined as having a low GDP per capita and a low level of industrialisation. They generally rank low in a range of indicators such as adult literacy, access to sanitation and life expectancy. They also often have high levels of unemployment, widespread

poverty, poor living conditions, a less safe environment to live in and rapidly growing populations.

Less economically developed countries are a subcategory of developing countries. They have the lowest level of social and economic development and often depend on developed countries to

support them in establishing industries. On the other hand, countries transitioning towards being economically developed are referred to as emerging markets. For example, China has the world’s second-largest economy but it also has a relatively low GDP per capita due to its enormous population.

Composite statistics: Human Development Index

Because there are so many factors that contribute to human wellbeing, it can be useful to compare countries using composite statistics. Composite statistics combine a variety of measures into one value. The United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) is an example, which ranks countries by their level of human development. It is calculated based on three areas:

• Health – life expectancy at birth

• Education – expected years of schooling for children and average years of schooling for adults

• Income – measured by Gross National Income per capita.

The result is a HDI value between zero and one. The countries with the top three HDI values in 2024 were Switzerland, Norway and Iceland, while Australia ranked 10th. The bottom three countries were Somalia, South Sudan and Centra African Republic. A full list of countries ranked by their HDI can be found on the World Population Review website. You can access this site via the following weblink: https://worldpopulationreview.com/ country-rankings/hdi-by-country

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14.7 Review questions

1 a Define ‘factor’.

b Outline one factor that affects human wellbeing for each of the SHEEPT classifications.

2 Compare the differences between developed and developing countries.

3 a List five developed, developing and least developed countries using the information in Figure 14.7.1.

b Evaluate whether developing and developed countries are distributed according to region. In other words, do all countries within a world region have a similar level of development? Provide examples to support your evaluation.

4 Explain why composite statistics are a useful tool in comparing something like human wellbeing.

What are the consequences of global variations in wellbeing?

Learning intention

This lesson outlines three of the consequences of the global variations in wellbeing outlined in the previous lessons.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson

Analysing a data source: Where do the world’s millionaires live?

1 List the three countries with the greatest number of millionaires.

2 Comment on whether the distribution of the world’s millionaires is even.

3 Suggest a reason why the United States has so many millionaires compared to the rest of the world.

Country

Australia

Canada

France China Germany

Italy

Korea

Japan

Rest of

Switzerland

United

United

United States: 41%

inequality a lack of equality in size, degree or circumstances economic inequality differences in wealth within a population

Economic inequality

Variation in human wellbeing between and within countries leads to inequality. In many cases, this stems from economic inequality in which part of a population has a far greater share of wealth than another part. The Global Wealth Report 2023 published data demonstrating that the wealthiest 1.1 per cent of the world’s

adults owned nearly half of the world’s wealth, while the poorest half owned less than 1 per cent (see Figure 14.8.2). This wealth gap is widening. Each year the richest 1 per cent of the population earn nearly twice as much as the rest of the world put together!

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ageing population population in which the proportion of people 65 years old or older is growing

…

Population growth

Wellbeing indicators, such as access to physicians and infant mortality rate (IMR), can influence both life expectancy and total fertility rate (TFR). When combined, these indicators can determine whether a population is growing, stable or declining. Economically developed countries usually have better health care resources which lowers the IMR and raises life expectancy. These countries also tend to have a lower TFR due to the reasons outlined in Lesson 14.3. Due to fewer babies born, populations in these countries usually remain stable or decline. As their populations live longer, the

median age in these countries is high, as is their proportion of population aged over 65 years.

Germany’s population is stable with a growth rate alternating between periods of growth and decline, reaching –1.9 per cent in 2011 and 0.8 per cent in 2023. While a large annual intake of immigrants keeps its population stable, it has an ageing population with a median age of just under 45 years and over 22 per cent of its population aged over 65 (see Figure 14.8.3).

In developing countries, particularly the least developed countries, the total fertility rate (TFR) is usually very high. Although life expectancy is relatively low, the number of births far outweighs deaths, leading to rapid population growth. At 3.66 per cent in 2023, Niger has the thirdhighest annual population growth rate in the world. This is due to it having the world’s highest TFR of 6.5 children per woman. If this growth rate is maintained,

Niger’s population of 27.2 million in 2023 will reach 67 million by 2050. Figure 14.8.4 shows that Niger’s population is very young. This can lead to economic growth by providing a demographic dividend in which there is a large number of people of working age. However, if it is not managed correctly, this factor can also create high youth unemployment, a lack of universal education, political unrest and a lack of food security.

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demographic dividend potential economic growth that can occur when the largest proportion of the population is of working age

Concepts and skills builder 14.8

Analysing population pyramids

Figures 14.8.3 and 14.8.4 are known as population pyramids. These are a type of graph that shows a population’s structure in terms of its age and sex. These graphs display the proportion of the population in five-year intervals which are divided into males and females. This information can be used to determine whether a population has a high or low life expectancy and TFR, whether a population is growing, stable or shrinking, and whether a population is predominantly old or young.

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Figure 14.8.5 shows how these graphs can be interpreted. Less developing countries tend to have a triangular shape indicating both a high number of births and a low life expectancy – a growing population. Graphs that are more rectangular represent developed countries with a declining TFR and a growing life expectancy – a stable population. The most developed countries have an upside-down triangle shape showing a very low TFR and a large proportion of the country aged over 60 – a declining population.

Download a copy of the population pyramids for Germany and Niger from populationpyramid.net and follow these steps to complete an analysis:

1 Describe the overall shape of the pyramid.

2 Quote the proportion of the population in important age cohorts (e.g. 0–4, 25–29, 65–69).

3 Make note of an bulges or indentations and explain what they might refer to. For example, why does Germany’s pyramid have a bulge in 55–59 and 30–34?

4 Discuss what the population pyramids for Germany and Niger reveal about their relative level of human wellbeing.

Repeat these steps to compare wellbeing in Australia, Brazil and the United States of America.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Migration

Variations in wellbeing within or between countries can lead to internal and international migration Emigrants from places with lower levels of wellbeing often leave their homes either permanently to seek a better life, or temporarily to seek employment or educational opportunities. International migrant workers often send money home to their families in their home countries in the form of remittances. While this has a very positive economic impact on the emigrants’ countries of origin, it often has a negative economic impact on the country to which they have migrated. For example, a country’s local economy does not benefit from the earnings that are sent to emigrants’ home countries, while the unemployment rate of nationals can rise due to emigrants being employed in the place of locals. This situation has occurred in Saudi Arabia, where approximately one-third of its population are immigrant workers from places like India and Bangladesh. This has led to high levels of unemployment for Saudi Arabians.

In some cases, people migrate not by choice but due to fears that their home country is unsafe. Each year, people from places such as Mexico, Guatemala and Venezuela flee the inequality, violence and economic hardship they experience in their home countries, seeking better living conditions in the United States. In 2019, Guatemala was considered one of the most dangerous places to live because of its longstanding civil war, while Venezuela was battling a severe economic crisis. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, many of these people fleeing their home countries are refugees who are legally seeking asylum. In May 2019 alone, 132 887 migrants were stopped by the US Border Patrol after crossing the US–Mexico border seeking asylum. Many of the asylum seekers who cross the US–Mexico border are detained for processing. The vast majority are denied refugee status, meaning that they are not allowed to settle within the United States.

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internal migration the temporary or permanent movement of people within a country international migration the temporary or permanent movement of people between countries emigrant person leaving their country of origin remittances money that an international migrant earns and sends back to an individual or family in their home country national a citizen of a country immigrant person moving to a foreign country refugee person who has fled their home country and is unable or unwilling to return due to fear of being persecuted asylum seeker person who flees their home country and enters another country to apply for protection as a refugee

Lesson 14.8 review

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14.8 Review questions

1 Using Figure 14.8.2, summarise the severity of economic inequality between the world’s adults.

2 Explain how differences in wellbeing, particularly TFR and life expectancy, can determine whether a country’s population is growing, stable or in decline.

3 Suggest why having an ageing population might create economic and social challenges for developed countries.

4 a Explain why variations in wellbeing can lead to international or internal migration.

b Explain how a refugee is different to a migrant worker.

5 ‘Inequality is both a cause and a consequence of variations in human wellbeing.’ Evaluate this statement with reference to some of the topics and specific examples explored in this chapter.

Case study: how does human wellbeing vary within Vietnam?

Learning intention

The previous two lessons have considered how human wellbeing varies across the world. This lesson looks at how wellbeing can vary within a country at a national scale with a focus on wellbeing within Vietnam.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

The images in Figure 14.9.1 depict the contrasting living conditions and lifestyles between Vietnam’s rural (a and b) and urban (c and d) regions.

1 See: what can you see in each image? Consider both the people and their environment.

2 Think: what do you think life would be like in these contrasting regions?

3 Wonder: what do you wonder about the differences in wellbeing in rural and urban Vietnam?

region a defined area that usually shares a particular set of characteristics urban environments with a high population density that have highly developed infrastructure, such as cities, suburbs and large towns rural environments with a low population density with sparse infrastructure, such as farms, open spaces and natural areas

How does human wellbeing vary at a national scale?

Variations in human wellbeing can occur on a national scale, which means they can vary from place to place across an entire country. This variation is often measured by region. Geographers use regions as a way of dividing an area into smaller areas that differ in their characteristics. Differences in wellbeing within a country are often referred to as inequality.

Inequality can be defined by measures like wealth, safety, air quality and internet speeds. For example, Mexico has a very high variation in homicide rates, ranging from just 2.4 murders per 100 000 people in Yucatan on the eastern peninsula, to almost 65 per 100 000 in Guerrero on the Pacific coast.

Variations in wellbeing within Vietnam

Vietnam is a developing country with one of the fastest growing economies in Southeast Asia. Its economic reform, known as the Doi Moi, began in 1986. Since then, Vietnam’s economy has grown significantly, which has led to a considerable reduction in poverty and vast improvements in living standards. However, this economic growth has also widened the gap between rich and poor people. This gap is particularly prevalent when comparing relatively wealthy urban regions with surrounding poorer rural areas.

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Figure 14.9.2 The distribution of Vietnam’s rural and urban population. One-third of Vietnam’s population lives in urban areas, which make up just 5 per cent of the land mass.

Amazing but true…

The richest person in Vietnam earns more in one day than the poorest person earns in 10 years. This richest person could spend US$1 million every day for six years before they ran out of money.

Differences in wellbeing between Vietnam’s rural and urban regions

Vietnam’s economy was once based largely on agriculture, dominated by the production of rice, sugarcane, corn and sweet potato. Recent government expenditure and foreign investment have led to a transition towards manufacturing and services industries. However, although Vietnam’s urban regions have become growth centres, rural regions are still largely agrarian and have shown only minor economic growth (see Figure 14.9.3). In addition to economic

inequality, rural regions fall behind urban regions in many wellbeing areas:

• Although Vietnam’s overall total fertility rate (TFR) is 1.94 births per woman, the TFR remains higher in the Central Coast and Central Highlands regions, both at 2.43 births per woman. This is largely due to a lack of contraception and family planning services.

• In Vietnam’s large cities, such as Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, the infant mortality rate (IMR) is around 7 deaths per 1000 live births, a value in line with many developed countries. In contrast, the IMR in Vietnam’s remote rural areas is more than twice as high due to limited access to health care.

• Although over 80 per cent of Vietnamese people have access to a safe water supply, remote mountainous regions still lack this access.

• On average, residents in urban areas of Vietnam have attended two more years of schooling compared to those in rural areas.

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agrarian relating to agriculture and the cultivation of land

Urbanisation in Vietnam

One of the biggest impacts of the economic divide between urban and rural areas has been rapid urbanisation. The rapid expansion of the business sector in urban areas of Vietnam has created an increase in the demand for labour. Consequently, many Vietnamese people have left rural areas for large cities such as Hanoi in search of better employment opportunities and living conditions.

Figure 14.9.4 shows the growth in Vietnam’s urban areas associated with a decline in rural areas.

While rural-to-urban migration often improves the wellbeing of those who migrate, it also increases the unevenness of wealth distribution – urban areas continue to prosper while neighbouring rural regions struggle to retain workers. As a result, even less money is invested in poor rural regions, further reducing the wellbeing in these areas. On the other hand, while urban areas prosper economically, rapid urbanisation can lead to increases in population densities.

Associated impacts include a reduction in housing availability and affordability, increased traffic congestion and poorer air quality.

To manage the urban–rural divide, the Vietnamese government is faced with a number of challenges, including:

• Providing economic support for disadvantaged people (for example, subsidies to help rural farmers to maintain economic growth in the agricultural sector)

• Investing in rural areas to develop industries that will provide jobs

• Increasing the level of education in rural areas, particularly for females and ethnic minorities

• Managing urbanisation to ensure it is sustainable and doesn’t adversely affect urban regions

• Attracting foreign investment to establish industries in rural areas that will help to evenly distribute wealth, job opportunities and the population.

Figure 14.9.4 Changes in the number of people living in urban and rural regions of Vietnam between 1950 and 2023, projected to 2050 …

Concepts and skills builder 14.9

Analysing overlapping area graphs

An area chart is a combination of a bar graph and a line graph. They show values changing over time. These values can be tracked in the same way you can track change in a line graph and can be read vertically at any time as you would a bar graph.

Figure 14.9.4 is known as an overlapping area graph because it contains a comparison of two variables which overlap to show their comparison. Both variables need to be read from the bottom of the Y-axis to record their total. For example, in 2000 Vietnam had 22 million people living in urban areas and around 61 million living in rural areas, making a total of 83 million people.

1 How many people were living in Vietnam’s rural and urban areas in 2020 and what was the total population?

2 What significant change is projected to occur in 2037?

3 What is expected to be the distribution of people living in rural and urban areas in 2050?

4 What issues may develop as a result of the change in rural and urban populations towards 2050?

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

14.9 Review questions

1 Use several examples to summarise the inequality in wellbeing between rural and urban regions in Vietnam.

2 Using Figure 14.9.2, describe the distribution of urban and rural areas across Vietnam. Where are urban areas located? How are they arranged? How much of Vietnam contain urban areas? Which region contains the most urban areas?

3 Using Figure 14.9.3, quantify how the difference in income monthly income in rural and urban areas has changed between 2010 and 2022. State whether the gap has closed or widened.

4 ‘Unsustainable levels of rural-to-urban migration can lead to a reduction in wellbeing in both rural and urban areas. ’ To what extent you agree with this statement? Use information from this chapter to justify your argument.

5 Of the five management challenges facing the Vietnamese government, justify which you think will be the most effective in reducing inequality across Vietnam.

How can human wellbeing vary at a local scale?

Learning intention

The previous lesson considered how human wellbeing can vary across countries. This lesson focuses on variations at a local scale within cities and regions.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson

Calculating the number of schools in an area

Figure 14.10.1 is a summary of the average number of schools per 2000 students in different regions within Windy City (a fictional suburban region). A value of 1.5 does not mean there are one and a half schools containing 2000 students, it means on average there are 1.5 schools for every 2000 students.

1 Calculate the average size of the schools for each of the locations in Figure 14.10.1. To do this, divide 2000 by the number of schools. For example, 2000 divided by 1.5 equals 1333.3 students per school.

2 Compare the average size of schools in Windy City with the average for Greater Greenswood.

3 Discuss why a limited number of schools, or excessively large schools, could lead to a reduction in wellbeing within a local area.

Contrasts in wellbeing at a local scale

Human wellbeing varies between countries and within countries, but it also varies at a local scale. In geography, ‘local scale’ refers to a specific place or small region. This could be a village, town or city, or a suburb within a city. Comparing human wellbeing at a local scale involves making comparisons between places and analysing the variation within places.

There is a large amount of variation in wellbeing within London, England. In

the Westminster region, for example, the average life expectancy in Lancefield Street, Queens Park, is 83.72 years. In comparison, the life expectancy of Grosvenor Cresent, Belgravia, is over 94 years (see Figure 14.10.2). Across London, the gap between the places with the highest and lowest life expectancy is 20 years – similar in scale to the divide between economically developed and developing countries.

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In 2017, Melbourne was voted the world’s most liveable city for the seventh year in a row, based on criteria such as education, health care and safety. However, within Melbourne there are varying levels of wellbeing based on environmental factors like climate,

access to green space, employment levels and the availability of services. Newer suburbs in Melbourne’s growth regions often struggle with a shortage of schools (see Figure 14.10.1) and public transport, leading to longer commute times and traffic congestion.

Measuring wellbeing at a local scale

In many countries, data relating to demographic, economic, social and health factors is collected on a regular basis using a census. In Australia, this data is collected and updated every five years by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The data is collected based on the location of every person in Australia on the night of the census. Examples of the data collected include the size of families,

the method of travel to work, household incomes and the prevalence of long-term health conditions. Geographers analyse this data to determine demographic and wellbeing trends, which in turn can assist with informing decisions about the allocation of funding or construction of new infrastructure such as hospitals and train lines.

green space area of vegetation reserved for recreational or aesthetic purposes within an urban environment demographic relating to the structure or characteristics of a population census official count or survey of a country’s population, usually occurring at regular intervals

Figure 14.10.5 Geography skills video: Digital skills: Using a GIS –informed decisions and the ABS …

Comparing individual suburbs

Demographic and wellbeing data can be organised by location to directly compare different places. A Melbourne-based company called informed decisions (generally known as ‘.id’) provides local area profiles containing various types of demographic and socio-economic data. Informed decisions’ data services are used to inform local and state government decisions in areas such as education,

residential development, retail and health care, and in the provision of utilities, such as water and power. Table 14.10.1 and Figures 14.10.3 and 14.10.4 show a comparison between two Local Government Areas (LGAs), the City of Stonnington and the City of Casey, using census data accessed via the location profiles on the informed decisions website.

Table 14.10.1 Demographic and wellbeing data for City of Stonnington and City of Casey, 2021

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Concepts and skills builder 14.10

Collecting and summarising data

The data in Table 14.10.1 was gathered using information in the area profiles within the informed decisions website. Similar data can be found in the census summaries within the website of the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Nine data measures were chosen out of a much larger list. Visit either the informed decisions or Australian Bureau of Statistics websites and follow the steps below to complete a comparison of wellbeing at a local scale. You can also follow along using the video tutorial.

1 Choose the locations for your comparison. You may wish to compare your local area to another nearby place, or somewhere in another region of Melbourne or Victoria.

2 Draw a table similar to Table 14.10.1 and enter the data you gather for your two chosen locations. Consider adding some rows to your table and choosing some additional categories to add to your summaries.

3 Locate population pyramids for your two locations from the informed decisions website.

4 Compare the data you have gathered. Consider:

• Which data indicator showed the greatest variation?

• How many of the indicators show higher levels of wellbeing at one location compared to the other?

• Is there a significant difference in the age–sex distributions of your locations as shown in their population pyramids?

5 Summarise your findings by justifying which location has a high level of human wellbeing.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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Lesson 14.10 review

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14.10 Review questions

1 a Use Google Street View to visit Lancefield Street, Queens Park and Grosvener Crescent, Belgravia. Compare the geographic characteristics of these places such as the types of buildings, the types of cars driven and the presence of green space.

b Choose two streets in different parts of an Australian city or town and compare them in the same way. Discuss which is likely to have a higher level of wellbeing.

2 a Explain what a census is and how its data is used.

b Access a sample Australian census household form from the Australian Bureau of Statistics website. Choose three questions and explain why the data might be useful.

3 a Justify which three types of data in Table 14.10.1 reveal the most about wellbeing in different LGAs.

b Compare the population pyramids for the City of Stonnington and City of Casey using the skills learnt in Concepts and skills builder 14.10. What clues do they provide about the level of wellbeing in these areas?

c Overall, justify whether people in the City of Stonnington or the City of Casey are likely to have a high level of wellbeing.

The wellbeing of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

Learning intention

This lesson explores the wellbeing of Australia’s First Nations Peoples broadly across Australia and at local scales.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson

Discussing efforts towards Reconciliation

Reconciliation will not work if it puts a higher value on symbolic gestures rather than the practical needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders in areas like health, housing, education and employment.

– Warren Mundine AO, Bundjalung man, business leader and ex-politician

1 What do you think Mundine means when he refers to symbolic gestures rather than practical needs?

2 Do you predic t that there is a significant difference in the wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders and non-Indigenous Australians in the areas of health, housing, education and employment?

In 2024, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples represented approximately 3.8 per cent of Australia’s total population. However, there is a wide gap between the wellbeing of Indigenous Australians and non-Indigenous Australians, based on demographics, education, employment and health. This gap is even wider when comparing the 15 per cent of Indigenous Australians living in remote communities (see Figure 14.11.2).

14.11.1

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Measuring the wellbeing of Australia’s First Nations peoples

Demographics

The differences in the wellbeing of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians becomes apparent when comparing demographics. The life expectancy for Australians is 81.2 years for males and 85.3 years for females. This is considerably higher than for Indigenous Australians at 71.9 years for males and 75.6 years for females. These differences are visible when comparing age structures. Figure 14.11.3 shows the age structure of Australia’s Aboriginal

and Torres Strait Islander population compared with its non-Indigenous population. Non-Indigenous Australians have a population pyramid similar to most other developed countries with a narrow base indicating a low total fertility rate (TFR) and rectangular body and broad top depicting a high life expectancy. The pyramid for Indigenous Australians is similar to those of developing countries with a broad base and a triangular that tapers inwards, indicating a high TFR and low life expectancy.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Non–Indigenous people

unemployed an individual who is without a job and who wants to and is available for work

Education

The differences in wellbeing between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians extend beyond demographic measures. The 2021 Australian Census revealed that only 68 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island Peoples aged between 20 and 24 years had completed year 12. While this was a large increase from 32 per cent in 2006, it is still very low when compared with 91 per cent for non-Indigenous Australians. While year 12 completion rates were high in major cities at 76 per cent, they were far lower in remote and very remote areas at 53 and 42 per cent.

Employment

At the time of the 2021 census, 7.4 per cent of Indigenous Australians aged between 15 and 64 were unemployed, far higher than non-Indigenous Australians at 3.9 per cent. Furthermore, Indigenous Australians are underrepresented in the workforce with low rates of employment in all age groups (see Figure 14.11.4). Participation in the workforce influences median household income. Median household income for Indigenous families in 2021 was A$825 per week, far below A$1141 for non-Indigenous Australians. Incomes were even lower in remote communities, in which households earned an average of A$459 per week.

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Health

One of the biggest concerns facing Aboriginal communities is the prevalence of treatable and preventable diseases. Scabies is a treatable skin infection that spreads from person to person. It is widespread throughout remote Aboriginal communities, but rare throughout the rest of Australia. Within Aboriginal communities, studies have shown that up to 70 per cent of children are infected with scabies within the first year of their life. This is the third-highest rate of infection in the world. If left untreated, this infection can lead to kidney disease and heart conditions, or develop into a more severe form of infection known as crusted scabies. It is estimated that up to 1 per cent of all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples living in remote communities have crusted scabies,

which is life threatening without adequate treatment.

There are several factors that contribute to the severity and prevalence of scabies and other diseases within these communities. This includes overcrowded housing, and the sharing of beds, clothes and towels. Within the Katherine region, Northern Territory, approximately one in four Aboriginal people are homeless due to the high price of rental houses and the lack of public housing. This rate of homelessness is over 30 times the Australian average. People in Katherine who live in houses are often living with three or four generations (children, parents, grandparents and greatgrandparents) under the same roof in very crowded conditions (see Figure 14.11.5). This allows infections like scabies to quickly pass between family members.

scabies skin condition caused by microscopic mites burrowing under the skin public housing housing provided by governments for people with low incomes, including those who have experienced homelessness or family violence

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Concepts and skills builder 14.11

Writing summary statistics

An important skill in Geography is writing summary statistics taken from paragraphs of text. This can assist you in learning evidence that you will later use in reports, presentations and examinations. Once you have read and understood information from a source such as a textbook, summarising material as notes means you do not have to keep referring back to these sources to find key information.

1 Create headings that you will use to organise notes regarding the wellbeing of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

2 Scan through the text and write down any key information under these headings. This should include definitions of key terms, summaries of important explanations and summary statistics such as facts and Sources. Ensure your notes are as concise as possible.

3 Refer to the data within Sources and record key findings from these graphs.

4 Consider transferring these summaries onto digital or handwritten cue cards to use as revision.

5 Use this technique to summarise notes from other case studies and key lessons throughout this chapter.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Lesson 14.11 review

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14.11 Review questions

1 Find a map online of Australia’s total population distribution and compare it to the distribution of Indigenous communities using Figure 14.11.2. Suggest a reason for any similarities and differences.

2 Compare the population pyramids for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians using Figure 14.11.3. Refer to specific age cohorts as well as the overall shape of the pyramids. Explain why this data is relevant in understanding the difference in wellbeing between these two groups.

3 Refer to Figure 14.11.4.

a State the youth employment rate (ages 15–24) for Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.

b In which age group is there the biggest gap in employment?

4 Explain how the number of Indigenous Australians living in overcrowded houses can impact health and wellbeing.

CHAPTER 15

How can human wellbeing be improved?

LESSONTITLE

15.1Setting the scene: reinventing the toilet

15.2Can human wellbeing be improved on a global scale?

15.3Can Australia ‘Close the Gap’ and improve the wellbeing of First Nations Peoples?

15.4How is India improving its adult literacy rate?

15.5How can spatial data be used to monitor wellbeing at a local scale?

15.6Fieldwork: comparing the wellbeing of local places

15.7End of investigation review: geographies of human wellbeing

Setting the scene: reinventing the toilet

Learning intention

This lesson will look at the efforts of the Gates Foundation to improving health outcomes on a global scale.

In rich countries we have sewers that take clean water in, flush some of the dirty water out, in almost all cases there’s a treatment plant. Could you process human waste without that sewer system?

–Bill Gates, Reinvented Toilet Expo 2018

philanthropist a person who donates their personal time and money to helping others informal settlements also known as slums, densely packed housing made of scrap materials in locations where residents do not have legal ownership of the land

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In 2000, Bill Gates, philanthropist and billionaire founder of Microsoft, established the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, now known as the Gates Foundation. This non-government organisation aims to improve health care and reduce poverty in some of the poorest regions of the world. Examples of their achievements have included the reduction in the spread and impact of infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria, improving educational attendance in poorer regions, reducing poverty and inequality, and expanding health care services to poorer communities around the world.

A recent focus of the Gates Foundation has been improving sanitation in developing countries within sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. The aim is to improve the safety of sanitation facilities and reduce preventable deaths from diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea and

dysentery. The rapid growth of cities and informal settlements in these poor regions has created a need for innovative sanitation solutions, since traditional sewerage systems are not financially viable.

Since 2011, over US$200 million has been spent on the Reinvent the Toilet Challenge. The aim was to develop a toilet that could remove germs from human waste while recovering useful resources such as energy, clean water and nutrients. It also had to be able to operate ‘off the grid’ – without a connection to a water supply, sewerage system or an electricity grid while remaining affordable. Several toilets have been designed to meet these criteria, using localised chemical treatment rather than expensive sewerage infrastructure. The next step is reducing the cost and producing these toilets at a large enough scale to enable widespread access to safe and sustainable sanitation services in the world’s poorest regions.

15.1.1 Beijing, 2018: Bill Gates presenting at the Reinvented Toilet Expo using a beaker of faeces to highlight the health concerns related to a lack of sanitation

The Gates Foundation is just one example of many organisations aiming to improve human wellbeing on local, national and global scales. These include government organisations such as the Australian Government’s Department of Social Services, which manages national policies that aim to create an equitable society in areas such as rent assistance, homelessness

15.1.2 This self-contained toilet was developed as a solution to sanitation in denselypopulation urban areas within developing countries.

… and the National Disability Insurance Scheme. The Gates Foundation is an example of a non-government organisation (NGO). These not-for-profi t organisations work independently of governments and are funded by grants, memberships, private donations, and the sale of goods and services. Other examples include Oxfam and the Australia Red Cross.

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1 Write down your initial reaction to the work of the Gates Foundation in designing toilets such as the one shown in Figure 15.1.2.

2 What do you think about the likely success of this initiative across informal settlements in developing countries?

3 What do you wonder about the implementation of this program? Consider the barriers that the organisation is likely to face.

4 Undertake research to determine what has currently been achieved and what will likely to be achieved in the near future.

not-for-profit organisation an organisation that does not operate for the profit or personal gain of its members

Can human wellbeing be improved on a global scale?

Learning intention

This lesson focuses on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which is a global approach to improving human wellbeing.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Figure 15.2.1 The United Nations’ 17 Sustainable Development Goals

The Sustainable Development Goals, listed in Figure 15.2.1, are a set of 17 goals seeking to assist all countries in achieving a higher level of human wellbeing. Answer the following three questions, ensuring that you justify your choices.

1 See: State the three goals that you think should be the highest priority.

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2 Think: State the goal that you think is the least significant.

3 Wonder: Suggest a goal that you think should be added to this list.

2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

In 2015, the United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. This Agenda involves all 193 developing and developed member countries of the UN working together to achieve 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. The goals are listed in Figure 15.2.1. These goals include an overall aim to reduce poverty while improving wellbeing in terms of education, sanitation, equality and peace. They also include aims to tackle climate change and ensure the sustainable management of marine and terrestrial environments.

A fundamental part of the 2030 Agenda is sustainability, which is defined by the UN as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. The SDGs cover all three elements of sustainability: economic, social and environmental. The UN acknowledges that all three of these elements are interconnected and therefore are a crucial part of maintaining the wellbeing of individuals and entire populations.

The 17 SDGs contain a total of 169 targets against which the success of the goals will be measured. Each of these targets has a set of indicators that are used to determine whether each target has been met. The goals are non-binding, meaning that governments are not legally forced to meet them. However, countries

are expected to establish their own national policies to achieve each goal and are involved in reviewing their progress at a local, regional and national scale.

Data demonstrating the progress made for each of the SDGs can be accessed using the SDG-Tracker. Figure 15.2.2 shows data from this tracker relating to the first goal, No Poverty. It reveals that the developed world has managed to maintain or improve its progress towards alleviating poverty, whereas the situation in subSaharan Africa remains challenging. The progress in individual countries can also be accessed. Figure 15.2.3 shows that although Chad has managed to achieve a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, it is struggling in many critical areas such as poverty, health, gender equality and access to clean water and sanitation.

The main obstacle to the success of many of the SDGs is funding. An article published in The Economist suggested that achieving all 17 goals will require US$2–3 trillion each year for the entire 15-year period. This is considered to be unrealistic. Studies have shown that just solving the issue of access to clean water and sanitation is estimated to require US$200 billion. Unless major changes are made to the funding of SDGs within UN member countries, it is unlikely that many countries will meet their targets.

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Concepts and skills builder 15.2

Evaluating management strategies using data

Geographers evaluate management strategies, such as the SDGs, to determine their ongoing success and likelihood of future success. The level of success is often determined based on the extent to which goals have been achieved. Search online for ‘SDG Country Profiles’ and go into this The Sustainable Development Report site. Then follow the steps below to evaluate the extent to which a country has achieved the SDGs.

1 Select a country and record its SDG Index Rank. Click on its SDG Index Score and analyse the graph on the left of the screen. State whether the country is scoring high overall and whether it has shown progress since 2000.

2 Count how many goals still have major challenges remaining (red), significant challenges remaining (orange), challenges remaining (yellow) and goal achieved (green).

3 Select one of the goals and record which indicators within this goal have been achieved or are showing progress and which are still barriers to meeting the goal.

4 Repeat these steps with multiple countries to determine which are showing better progress in meeting the SDGs and achieving higher levels of human wellbeing.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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15.2 Review questions

1 The SDGs are not legally binding.

a What does legally binding mean?

b Do you think it would be more effective to make the SDGs legally binding?

c Why do you think the SDGs are not legally binding?

2 Search online for ‘SDG Interactive Map’.

a Choose a goal and describe the distribution of its success. Which countries or regions have achieved the goal and which still have major challenges remaining?

b Choose an indicator from the menu on the left. What does this indicator mean? Is its distribution similar to the overall goal?

c Click through multiple goals. Overall, which regions appear to have the highest and lowest levels of success in meeting the goals?

d Suggest reasons for your answer to part c by considering the link between various goals and the factors that might determine success.

Can Australia ‘Close the Gap’ and improve the wellbeing of First Nations Peoples?

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Learning intention

This lesson focuses on Australia’s ‘Closing the Gap’ national agreement, which seeks to improve the wellbeing of Australia’s First Nations People.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Closing the Gap

In a country like Australia it is shocking that there are still communities who don’t have a clean and reliable source of drinking water. Many of these communities are remote, First Nations communities.

– The Hon. Tanya Plibersek MP, Minister for the Environment and Water, 2023

1 What is Plibersek referring to by ‘ a countr y like Australia’?

2 Why do you think some Aboriginal communities still do not have access to a clean and reliable water source?

3 What do you wonder about other levels of human wellbeing within these communities?

One of Australia’s most significant social issues is the wellbeing gap between Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians. A vast inequality exists in areas such as wealth, education and health. To improve the wellbeing of First Nations Peoples and reduce this inequality, the Australian government

Closing the Gap targets

established a strategy called Closing the Gap in 2005. This national approach involved setting 19 targets (see below) seeking to reduce disadvantage in the areas of health, life expectancy, education and employment by 2031, while strengthening culture and increasing participation in decisionmaking.

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The following are a selection of 8 of the 19 targets that make up the National Agreement on Closing the Gap.

• Close the Gap in life expectancy within a generation, by 2031.

• By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander babies with a healthy birthweight to 91 per cent.

• By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People (20–24 years) attaining year 12 or equivalent qualification to 96 per cent.

• By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth (15–24 years) who are in employment, education or training to 67 per cent.

• By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People living in appropriately sized (not overcrowded) housing to 88 per cent.

• By 2031, reduce the rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people (10–17 years) in detention by at least 30 per cent.

• By 2031, the rate of all forms of family violence and abuse against Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women and children is reduced by at least 50 per cent, as it progresses towards zero.

• By 2031, there is a sustained increase in number and strength of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages being spoken.

Closing the gap in life expectancy

Indigenous males and females born in 2021 were expected to live to 71.9 and 75.6 years, respectively, compared with 80.6 and 83.8 years for non-Indigenous Australians. This demonstrates a gap of 8.8 years for males and 8.1 years for females. The gap is much larger in Western Australia (13.4 years) and the Northern Territory (12.8 years). Although Figure 15.3.2 shows that overall gap in life expectancy has reduced from around 10 years in 2005, it is well above the necessary trajectory to meet the target of closing the gap to zero by 2031.

Improvements in life expectancy since 2005 have come largely from a reduction in death due to circulatory diseases such as heart disease and stroke. However, this has coincided with an increase in the cancer rates of Indigenous Australians which is responsible for the slight widening of the gap since the 2015–2017 period. Other factors contributing to the remaining gap include a prevalence of risk factors such as smoking, obesity, alcohol use and poor diet within Aboriginal communities.

Figure 15.3.3 The gap in the proportion of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians who have attained a Year 12 or equivalent qualification.

Figure 15.3.2 The gap in the life expectancy between Indigenous and non-Indigenous males and females (actual) compared with the trajectory that is needed to close the gap by 2031.

Closing the gap in education

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People attaining year 12 or equivalent has increased from 39.4 per cent in 2001 to 68.1 per cent (see

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Figure 15.3.3). While it still falls short of non-Indigenous Australians at 90.7 per cent, the gap is certainly closing. Despite this success, the target to achieve a rate of attainment of 96 per cent is still unlikely to be met by 2031.

Concepts and skills builder 15.3

Projecting trends using a line of best fit

Concepts and skills builder 15.2 focused on evaluating a management strategy based on the extent to which goals have been achieved. Data can be used as evidence to determine whether targets have been met. However, this process is more challenging when the targets are for the future. In these cases, current data trends must be projected to determine the likelihood of future success. One way to do this is by using a line of best fit. Refer to Figure 15.3.2 and follow the steps below to evaluate whether the gap in life expectancy is likely to be closed by 2031.

1 In Figure 15.3.2, the ‘actual’ dots in brown represents the gap in life expectancy. Use a ruler to draw a straight line that best represents the trend of the four ‘actual’ dots. This is known as a line of best fit. This line should be drawn so that it minimises the distance between itself and the data points – it might go through some points and between others.

2 Extend your trend line in a straight line through to 2031.

3 Interpret your trend line. Based on what you have drawn, and assuming the current trend continues, what will be the gaps in life expectancy for males and females in 2031?

4 Repeat the same steps using Figure 15.3.3 to determine whether the target to increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People (age 20–24) attaining year 12 or equivalent qualification to 96 per cent is like to be met.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Closing the gap progress report

A 2024 report revealed that 5 of the 19 Closing the Gap targets are on track, which was an improvement compared to previous years. The proportion of First Nations babies born at a healthy weight has improved and is expected to meet the targeted 91 per cent by 2031. This is encouraging considering this indicator determines the likelihood of health later in life, including a reduction in the prevalence of diabetes and heart disease. The target to provide a 15 per cent increase in the land mass subject to Aboriginal and Torres

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Strait Islander People’s legal rights is also on track to be met and exceeded. Unfortunately, the target to reduce adult imprisonment is not on track and is showing signs of worsening.

Closing the gap successes

Table 15.3.1 provides a snapshot from the Productivity Commission from July 2025 showing the progress on Closing the Gap targets. Overall there were many positive results worth analysing.

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15.3 Review questions

1 Figure 15.3.1 shows a sample of the 19 targets as part of the Closing the Gap initiative. Find a full list online at the Closing the Gap website. This can be accessed here https://www.closingthegap.gov.au/ national-agreement/targets

a Classify each of the targets based on whether they are addressing economic, social or cultural wellbeing issues. Economic is to do with finances and employment, social is to do with people and cultural is to do with language, tradition and spirituality.

b Choose three of your classifications and justify your choices.

2 a Life expectancy data from the 2020–2022 period was seen as alarming compared to the previous years. Explain why using data from Figure 15.3.2.

b Research more recent life expectancy data from the Closing the Gap website and outline whether this alarming trend has continued.

3 Explain why a greater number of Indigenous Australians completing a Year 12 or equivalent qualification is a useful indicator in determining their future wellbeing.

4 a Repeat the steps from Concepts and skills builder 15.3 to analyse the likelihood of other targets being met. Data for each target can be found on the Closing the Gap website.

b Explain the important assumption that must be considered when projecting data into the future.

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How is India improving its adult literacy rate?

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Learning intention

This lesson focuses on the ways in which India is working towards improving its literacy rate on a national scale.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Figure 15.4.1 is a photo of a class in India that is likely very different to your own.

1 See: What do see in the image? What are the similarities and differences between this school and your own?

2 Think: What do you think a school day would be like for these students?

3 Wonder: What do you wonder about other aspects of wellbeing in rural India?

What is India’s adult literacy rate?

According to UNESCO, around 765 million people in the world cannot read or write. Around 300 million of these people live in India. Although this sounds like an alarming statistic, India has made significant progress in improving its adult literacy rate (ALR) from just 18 per cent in 1951 to 74 per cent in 2011 and 78 per cent in 2023 (see Table 15.4.1). Despite this steady increase, over one-fifth of India’s 1.4 billion people still lack literacy skills, while an additional one-quarter have only very basic literacy skills. As a result, India is struggling to grow its economy and support and stabilise its booming population.

Table 15.4.1 Change in India’s literacy rate for those aged over seven years, from 1921 to 2021, based on data from the Indian Government Census.

Concepts and skills builder 15.4

Plotting data to create a line graph

In Concepts and skills builder 11.3 you learnt to analyse the trend of line graphs. In this lesson, you will learn to plot data to create a line graph to demonstrate change over time. Use the data from Table 15.4.1 and follow the steps below to graph the change in India’s combined adult literacy rate from 1921 to 2021. This will be easier to complete using graph paper.

1 Write an appropriate title for your graph.

2 Draw a set of axes. Your x-axis should be labelled as ‘Year’ and your y-axis should be labelled as ‘Combined adult literacy rate in India’.

3 Determine an appropriate scale for your graph and mark appropriate increments. The data for years is already in 10-year increments. You will need to determine an appropriate increment for adult literacy rate. Ensure this is consistent. For example, consider increments of 5, 10 or 20 per cent.

4 Plot each data point as accurately as possible. Use a ruler to determine where each data point fits within each increment.

5 Rule a straight line bet ween each of your dots to show the trend of the graph.

6 Repeat this process to graph the change in India’s male and female ALR. If you plot this on the same set of axes, ensure you use different colours and include a legend to differentiate between the datasets. Line graphs can also drawn using Excel or a similar spreadsheet program. This is particularly useful for large datasets. Follow the steps in this video and compare your results to your hand-drawn graph.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

UNESCO the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, an agency seeking to build peace through international cooperation in education, science and culture

Bollywood nickname for India’s film industry, based in Mumbai (formerly Bombay), ‘Bombay’ + ‘Hollywood’ = ‘Bollywood’ same language subtitles television or movie subtitles that are in the same language as the audio

How is India’s adult literacy rate distributed?

In 2009, the Indian Parliament passed the Right to Education Act, which mandates that all children aged between 6 and 14 have access to free and compulsory education irrespective of their socioeconomic background. Although this has led to an overall increase in the number of children attending school, its success has not been universal (see Table 15.4.2). In Kerala, on India’s southwestern coast, the literacy rate is above 99 per cent, similar to most developed countries. In contrast, the literacy rate is below 80 per cent in Bihar in the north, and close to 70 per cent in Andhra Pradesh on the southeastern coast.

Table 15.4.2 The Indian states with the highest and lowest adult literacy rates

Highest ALRLowest ALR

State ALR State ALR

Kerala99.31Andhra Pradesh70.66

Ladakh96.74Rajasthan (see Figure 15.4.1) 72.98

Mizoram95.78Arunachal Pradesh74.52

Lakshadweep95.28Telangana75.76

Uttarakhand93.32Bihar78.32

In India’s urban regions, the ALR has improved significantly and currently averages 87.8 per cent, above the global average of 87.01 per cent. However, rural

areas are lagging behind at just 73.5 per cent. In remote rural areas, government schools lack adequate infrastructure including classrooms, learning materials and toilets, and many cannot attract qualified teachers. There is also an uneven distribution of expenditure on education, with rich states spending up to six times more on education per student than poorer states. Many underprivileged families from poorer regions are not able to prioritise education, which perpetuates the poverty cycle.

Similar inequality exists based on gender. While average male literacy rate across India is 84.7 per cent, the rate is far lower for females at 70.3 per cent. Forty per cent of girls drop out of school before reaching secondary school, often due to a need to contribute to domestic duties.

Amazing but true…

A study of 188 schools in central and northern India showed that 89 per cent of Indian schools had no toilets, and that there was an average of 42 students for every teacher.

How is India improving its adult literacy rate?

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Non-government organisations have implemented several innovative strategies to try to improve literacy rates in India. Planet Read is an organisation that seeks to raise awareness of this issue and educate millions of people using Bollywood movies. Same language subtitles are used when broadcasting weekly Bollywood movies. As part of this program, the lyrics to songs are highlighted in a style similar to karaoke so that viewers are able to follow along with

the singing. This is an extremely effective strategy, considering an estimated 780 million Indians watch an average of more than three hours of television every day! Studies have shown that 90 per cent of Indian viewers using same language subtitles have improved their literacy skills by viewing these programs. Furthermore, this approach is simple to implement, very affordable, and can reach hundreds of millions of people, even in remote communities.

Another initiative seeking to improve India’s literacy is Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao, translated as Save Daughters, Educate Daughters. Launched in 2015, this government campaign seeks to address gender-based discrimination by promoting the education of girls. In addition to improving the literacy of India’s females, it is hoped that this program will reduce sexism in India and reduce the alarming trend of female foeticide in which families preference male offspring. This is a particular problem in states such as Bihar where sex-selective abortions have led to a gender imbalance.

Overall, the initiative has failed to achieve its goals, with progress seen in

just 53 of the 161 regions involved in the scheme. The main criticism of the initiative was the way in which funding was distributed, with spending largely focused on publicity rather than measures seeking tangible improvements in the health and education of females.

Despite varied success in India’s approaches, the overall ALR in India is on the rise. It is predicted that India will achieve universal primary education by 2050. If India can continue to strive for gender equality and invest in improving education in rural areas, it is likely that it will achieve universal literacy by 2060.

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1 Explain and quantify the inequality between males and females in terms of ALR in India.

2 Explain why India’s ALR is higher in urban areas than rural areas.

3 Use the line graph created in Concepts and skills builder 15.4 to project India’s ALR for the next three decades. Justify whether it is likely that India will achieve universal adult literacy by 2060.

4 Compare the effectiveness of Planet Read and Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao. Which of these strategies has had the most success in raising India’s literacy rate? Why do you think it has been more successful?

How can spatial data be used to monitor wellbeing at a local scale?

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Learning intention

This lesson considers how a Geographic Information System such as the Victorian Women’s Health Atlas can be used to monitor and manage wellbeing at a local scale.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Discussing the importance of accurate health data

Access to reliable data is critical to our efforts to improve health outcomes. It is an important tool in program and policy design and evaluation. Until now we haven’t been able to easily access gender-specific data on key health issues. The Victorian Women’s Health Atlas makes visible the differing experiences of women and men and provides an evidence base for planning and monitoring which will contribute to lasting improvements in women’s health.

–Rita Butera, Executive Director of Women’s Health Victoria

1 Using an example from what you have learnt so far in this Investigation, justify why access to reliable data is critical in improving health and wellbeing.

2 This lesson focuses on how data can be used to explore the inequality in the wellbeing of men and women in Victoria. Suggest three areas in which you suspect this inequality might exist.

Gender inequality in health and wellbeing in Victoria

In 2015, the Royal Commission into Family Violence determined the extent of gendered inequalities within Victoria. This refers to wellbeing issues that disproportionately affect particular genders. For example:

• 75 per cent of the victims of family violence are women

• Men are more likely than women to experience alcohol-related harm, although the rate among women is increasing

• While 34.2 per cent of Victorians have ever been diagnosed with anxiety of repression, the proportion is significantly higher in women (41.1%) compared with men (26.5%)

• Men are less likely than women to seek professional help for a mental-health issue

Victorian Women’s Health Atlas

In response to the wellbeing challenges facing Victoria’s women, an independent non-government organisation called Spatial Vision developed the Victorian Women’s Health Atlas in 2015. The Atlas is an interactive data tool used to assess gender and health inequalities across the state. More than 50 health and socioeconomic indicators are mapped by Local Government Area (LGA). Users can compare data for a range of health and wellbeing indicators, create visualisations, track trends over time and compare data at local, regional and state-wide levels.

• Women are twice as likely as men to be hospitalised for self-harm

• Men are three times more likely than women to die by suicide.

In order to try to achieve gender equality in health and wellbeing, the Victorian government established its first gender-equality strategy, Safe and Strong. It sets out a framework for action to achieve gender equality, defined as ‘the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women, men and transand gender-diverse people’. This will involve long-term changes to attitudes and behaviours towards different genders and reforms in schools, workplaces, community groups and the media. A key component of the program involves tracking progress using data so that actions can be altered if goals are not being met.

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Examples of the types of data that can be analysed using the Atlas include the proportion of women earning above

the median wage across Victoria’s LGAs, the prevalence of mental health issues such as anxiety and depression and rates of family violence (see Figure 15.5.1). This up-to-date and reliable data can be used by state and local government as well as health groups and social services to compare wellbeing in different regions, to make informed policy and program decisions, to allocate funding and resources based on priorities, and to monitor progress and impact over time. The overall goal is to recognise diversity and disadvantage so that fair wellbeing outcomes can be achieved for both women and men.

Figure 15.5.3

Geography skills video: Digital skills: Using a GIS – Victorian Women’s Health Atlas

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Swan Hill

Wagga Wagga

Figure 15.5.1 The spatial distribution of the rate of family violence towards women in Victoria in 2022, measured per 10 000 women …

Figure 15.5.2 A comparison of the rate of violence towards men and women in various LGAs compared with the state average

Concepts and skills builder 15.5

Using a Geographic Information System to analyse spatial data

A geographic information system (GIS) is a form of technology used to gather, manage and analyse spatial information such as wellbeing data. Geographers can organise this data in layers using interactive maps to compare data sets at various scales. The Victorian Women’s Health Atlas is an example of a GIS which contains a wealth of health and wellbeing data for Victorians.

Search online for the Victorian Women’s Health Atlas and follow the steps below, or the online tutorial, to use the Victorian Women’s Health Atlas GIS to analyse wellbeing data. You can also follow the steps in the video tutorial.

1 Choose a priority health area such as ‘Violence Against Women’.

2 Select an indictor within this area such as ‘Family Violence’.

3 Choose rate (per 10 000) as the measure as this provides a fairer comparison between LGAs since it does not take population size into account.

4

The map will show the rates of family violence across Victoria in 2022 as the default view (as per Figure 15.5.1). A value of 200 means 200 out of every 10 000 women in that region experienced family violence in 2022.

• Read the text on the left of the screen to learn more about the source of the data.

• Switch between the maps for males and females using the buttons on the top right.

• Click on various LGA on the map to view comparison data for males and females.

• Use the buttons on the top right to switch between a map of Victoria, a Victorian region or the Melbourne metropolitan region.

• Use the year slider to view changes to data over time.

5 Hover your mouse over the bar graphs at the bottom of the screen they should look something like (Figure 15.5.2). This provides the rates of family violence towards males and females in all LGAs ranked from lowest to highest.

6 Follow the same steps to explore data for other wellbeing indicators such as mental health, education, income and obesity.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

15.5 Review questions

1 Explain why collecting and analysing data like the Victorian Women’s Health Atlas is essential in improving wellbeing at a local and regional scale.

2 Spatial Vision claim the following benefits of the Victorian Women’s Health Atlas:

a Translates volumes of statistical data into a dynamic and engaging resource

b Easy to use for a non-technical audience

c Allows the identification of patterns and anomalies through the use of map-based presentation.

Evaluate each of these claims based on your user experience.

3 a Choose a wellbeing indicator from the Atlas, such as individual weekly income, and use the steps from Concepts and skills builder 14.4 to describe the spatial distribution of this indicator at a regional scale across Metropolitan Melbourne. Remember to refer to specific patterns, place names, quantified values and exceptions.

b Use the year slider to determine how the distribution has changed over time.

4 With a partner, choose two wellbeing indicators from the Atlas, such as anxiety or depression and obesity, and view their maps side-by-side. Use the steps from Concepts and skills builder 14.6 to describe the spatial association between these indicators. Remember to refer to the degree of association, examples, quantified values and exceptions.

Fieldwork: comparing the wellbeing of local places

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will have the opportunity to design a fieldwork investigation in which you will compare the level of wellbeing within two different places.

Fieldwork is an essential part of studying geography. It enables you to investigate many of the concepts studied in the classroom while out in the real world. It also provides the opportunity to apply your knowledge to answer a research question based on issues regarding wellbeing in your local area. In this investigation, your aim is to determine the level of human wellbeing at a local scale and compare the level of wellbeing in two or more different places. The following structure will help to form the basis of your study.

Table 15.6.1 Fieldwork instructions for comparing the wellbeing of places

SectionExplanation

Title and introduction

Background information

Research question

Choose a suitable topic and title for your investigation. It should include the scope and location of your investigation. Write a brief introduction outlining the main aspects of your study including the type/s of wellbeing you will be investigating and the places you will be comparing.

Research some background information about your chosen topic and locations. This will provide some context for your study.

Write a research question that you intend to answer using the data that you collect. You may prefer to write one overall research question and multiple sub questions.

HypothesisA hypothesis is a clear and concise statement that can be tested. It should be written prior to collecting your primary data.

Examples

• A comparison of the wealth of Ringwood and Croydon in Melbourne’s east

• A comparison of the health and wellbeing of young people in Shepparton and Euroa

• An investigation into the level of happiness within Melbourne’s inner and outer suburbs

• The impact of rapid urban development on the wellbeing of people in Melbourne’s growth suburbs

• Geographic characteristics of your chosen locations and a map showing your study area

• Regional information, such as the history of the area

• Is there a significant difference in the wealth of residents in Ringwood and Croydon?

• Are people happier in Melbourne’s inner suburbs compared to its outer suburbs?

• Does living in a rapidly growing suburb decrease your level of wellbeing?

• People in Melbourne’s inner suburbs are happier than people in Melbourne’s outer suburbs

SectionExplanation

Primary data collection

Primary data is data you collect yourself in the field specifically for your investigation. Consider the types of primary data that you will need to collect to answer your research question. Consider the equipment and preparation required.

Secondary data collection

Presenting and analysing your data

Discussion, conclusion and evaluation

Secondary data is data that other people have collected that you can use as part of your investigation. Undertake research to find suitable sources of information that you can apply to your topic.

Summarise your findings in visual formats that are easy to read and understand.

Use your primary and secondary data to answer your research question. Provide a concise summary of your major findings. Evaluate the success of your data collection and your overall investigation.

References Include a bibliography listing any sources used.

Examples

• Interviews with local residents, councillors, businesses, police, youth workers

• Surveys of residents living in a particular street

• A comparison of the styles and sizes of houses and types of cars on the road

• Measurements of the quality of public services such as green space and sporting facilities

• Photos and field sketches

• Census data including population density, median age, employment data, method of transport to work, household size, education level

• Demographic data such as population pyramids

• Satellite imagery and maps showing the location of relevant geographic characteristics

• Different types of graphs (pie, line, bar) and maps (choropleth, thematic, political)

• Annotated photos and field sketches

• Data summary tables

• The extent to which your hypothesis has been supported or disproven

• An answer to your research question

• The positive and negatives of your data collection and how they can be improved

• Australian Bureau of Statistics 2021, Community Profiles, Australian government, accessed 5 September 2023, https://www.abs.gov.au/census

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End of investigation review: geographies of human wellbeing

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Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable chapter summar y

• Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Making thinking visible

I used to think …, now I understand that …

Throughout this unit, you have learnt about different ways in which wellbeing is measured and how it varies across different countries. This has helped you to overcome some common misunderstandings. Use the following sentence stems to write a sentence or short paragraph demonstrating your understanding of these concepts. Refer to examples from the unit wherever possible.

1A I used to think that nearly everyone in the world has access to a toilet.

1B Now I understand that …

2A I used to take the ability to read and the opportunity to attend school for granted.

2B Now I understand that …

3A I used to think that families in poorer countries often had lots of children because …

3B Now I understand that …

4A I used to think that all countries in Africa were suffering from low levels of wellbeing.

4B Now I understand that …

5A I used to think that wellbeing would not vary much across a city like Melbourne.

5B Now I understand that …

6A I used to think that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples had a similar level of wellbeing to non-Indigenous Australian people.

6B Now I understand that …

Extended response questions

1 ‘Low levels of wellbeing are a cycle that will continue unless there is specific intervention from gover nment or non-government organisations.’ Discuss the extent to which you agree with this statement by referring to one or more of the case studies presented within this unit.

2 Discuss the importance of spatial technology, such as GIS, in assessing, monitoring and managing wellbeing at a local, national and global scale.

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Solving geographical problems

Design your own strategy to manage one of the wellbeing issues identified in this unit. Consider the scale of your initiative, the targets that need to be achieved, the organisations that would be involved, whether the cost would be realistic and the timeframe for which specific targets would need to be met. Some ideas for issues to tackle include:

• The wellbeing gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous people within Australia

• Inequality within a city such as London or a country such as Vietnam

• The prevalence of treatable diseases within vulnerable communities

• The variation in life expectancies between and within countries and the association between life expectancy and the total fertility rate

• The impacts associated with one particular aspect of wellbeing, such as sanitation, literacy or happiness.

Share your initiative with a classmate and ask them to evaluate its likely success.

Research task

Choose one or more of the wellbeing indicators discussed throughout this chapter and prepare a case study relating to a specific place at a local, regional or national scale. For example, an investigation into why the total fertility rate is so high in Niger or why the adult literacy rate in Morocco has grown significantly. Undertake research using a variety of sources and media to find information in the following areas:

• Detailed information about the indicator, including the factors that change it and the impacts it can have

• Background information about your chosen location, including data about your chosen indicator and related indicators

• A summary of factors that have led to this wellbeing situation

• An example of a management initiative seeking to manage or improve wellbeing and an evaluation of its success or likely future success.

Present your findings in a report that includes relevant maps, data and statistics.

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Part 3 Economics & Business

Watch the video for an introduction to Economics & Business in Year 10 and the skills and concepts you will be working with

INVESTIGATION

Why is there so much inequality in income and wealth?

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OVERVIEW

This text addresses the curriculum content and learning framework used for investigating inequality of income and wealth.

CURRICULUM CONTENT

The VCAA prescribes the following curriculum:

Students examine the interdependence of economic decision-making between consumers, businesses and government. They consider the need for economic intervention by government and the Reserve Bank of Australia through fiscal and monetary policy, the circular flow model and the economic indicators used to measure economic performance.

Students consider the implications of Australia’s participation in the global economy and changing patterns of international trade.

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Economics & Business’, ‘Band description –Levels 9 & 10’

LEARNING FRAMEWORK

This text provides students with lessons related to the above question and curriculum content, using an investigative learning framework.

The learning framework is presented in two chapters covering the following investigations:

How does the Australian economy operate? (Chapter 16), including:

• How do the circular flow and business cycle models explain an economy?

• How can the strategies of economic growth and redistribution improve people’s material wellbeing?

• What economic policies can the government use to contribute to these strategies?

What is Australia’s place in the global economy? (Chapter 17), including:

• What are the types of international money flows?

• What are the economic benefits and costs of globalisation?

At the end of each chapter there is an opportunity for a student to write a paragraph about their investigation.

Setting the scene: how could the least advantaged be supported?

Learning intention

In this lesson, we will look at people’s materal wellbeing and how this can be improved.

Why is there so much inequality in income and wealth? Is this wide material inequality fair? Is it fair that people get riches from their parents? If people are equal, do the more fortunate have an obligation to help the less fortunate live a decent life? People work and live together to enjoy a decent lifestyle. These dealings and interactions form a society. Part of a society is the economic dimension arising because resources are insufficient to produce all the goods and services desired by the population for their material wellbeing.

Material wellbeing, both for individuals and the nation as a whole, is based on the happiness or satisfaction obtained from consuming produced goods and services. But, while there is growth in goods and services for the nation, it is not shared fairly. There are too many individuals living below a minimum acceptable level of consumption. Figure 16.1.1 provides a plan for a fairer society.

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The vision for a better society is to ensure that all individuals receive a fair share of the goods and services produced annually. A fair sharing means everyone enjoys a minimum level of goods and services for living an acceptable and decent life.

The goals for the economy to achieve this vison in the future are:

• sustained maximum growth in the total level of production and income

• fair inequality in sharing the total level of production and income.

Maximising growth is being economic –using available resources to produce the highest material wellbeing. This requires efficient use of available resources. Efficiency strategies include:

• efficient allocation of resources for making the most-preferred products

• efficient methods of production in businesses

• efficient distribution of products to markets

• efficient market exchanges

• efficient government involvement in the economy.

The other goal is the fair sharing or equitable use of the growing total amount of goods and services produced for consumption. This means taking income from the richer people and directing it to the least advantaged people so that all enjoy an acceptable minimum level of consumption. Equity strategies include:

• determining the minimum acceptable level of income

• identifying those receiving less than the minimum acceptable income

• investigating the needs of the least advantaged.

society all the activities of people living together in a region economic dimension that part of a society that involves decisions to maximise the output from using the available resources resources things used to make desired products; this includes human and wealth resources material wellbeing the happiness or satisfaction a person gains from material goods and/ or services vision a long‑term general objective

So, more total goods and services produced and then shared in a fairer way will enable all citizens to enjoy an acceptable minimum level of material wellbeing. For the least advantaged people, this will mean a redistribution of income, which is growing, from the rich to them in order to enable them to purchase the minimum necessary goods and services for consumption.

Figure 16.1.1 A plan for a fairer society …

Figure 16.1.2 A meeting of senior government staff to decide how to increase efficiency in the economy.

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The Victorian Curriculum lists a range of skills that you will need to develop. To help you practise and integrate these skills in Economics and Business, we have developed the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation. There are opportunities to apply this method throughout the lessons, as well as in a final research task (Lesson 16.11).

Q-CAFÉ method of investigation

Q Questions are formed to investigate an issue, problem or system. This leads to a definition of the problem.

C Collect and compare data and information relevant to the problem.

A Analyse and interpret data. Describe relationships using graphs, models or in writing. These relationships may be association, cause-and-effect or trend.

F Findings and conclusions from the investigation are identified and summarised Data sources are checked for authenticity.

É Evaluate your findings against a chosen standard regarding benefits (advantages) and costs (disadvantages).

Express your findings clearly and convincingly in the research task.

Note that the research task is designed to be completed over the duration of the unit, rather than in the final few weeks. Be sure to get started as soon as possible!

Lesson 16.1 review

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16.1 Review questions

1 Explain what material wellbeing is.

2Distinguish the material wellbeing of a nation from that of an individual.

3 Describe the strategies that could be used to increase the rate of economic growth.

4 Describe the strategies that could be used in improving the sharing of products among the people of a nation.

What is economic growth performance?

Learning intention

Setting the scene considered the material wellbeing of people in Australia. Individual material wellbeing can be improved with economic growth and a fairer sharing of that growth. In this lesson, you will learn about the Australian economy’s growth performance over recent years.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Sector snapshot discussion

1 Look at the chart showing different sectors’ contributions to Australia’s production.

2 In small groups, discuss what factors might limit economic growth based on what you see.

3 Choose one person from your group to summarise your discussion for the class.

Services Mining Construction Manufacturing Agriculture

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, December 2024

Figure 16.2.1 Approximate contributions of major sectors to Australia’s GDP. ‘Services’ includes finance, education, health care and professional services.

The economy

An economy is a major part of a society, which is all the activities people undertake living together. An economy, then, is those ‘doings’ that involve getting the most material wellbeing from consumption of goods and services produced with available resources. Being economic is using resources efficiently to maximise consumption of goods and services.

The doings in an economy include accumulating resources, employing resources, producing goods and services, distributing to market, trading products, consuming products, spending, earning income, saving, lending, taxing, importing and exporting.

Economic growth

Australia is the thirteenth-largest economy in the world. Growth in the size of the economy means more doings; in particular, more production of goods and services. Such national economic growth can be due to more labour hours and/or higher labour productivity

More labour hours are provided by an increased number of workers employed. The extra work hours may come from:

The resources for making goods and services are owned privately and collectively (publicly). Private resources owned by individuals in households are:

a human resources – labour hours and skills, including enterprise in business

b wealth resources – natural (e.g., land), physical capital (e.g., computers), financial resources (e.g., bank deposits).

Collective or public resources include the national wealth of natural resources (crown land), physical resources (buildings) and money resources (bank accounts).

a higher overtime by existing workers

b a natural increase in the population, and/or more immigration of people with wanted skills.

Higher labour productivity can come from:

a improved skills from training and education

b working with better machinery and equipment

c working in better business management systems.

Measurement of economic growth

National

The broad indicator of growth in the economy is the growth in the national production of goods and services. This is measured by the growth in GDP (chain volume) on a three-monthly basis by the ABS.

Since the circular flow model (see Lesson 16.4) demonstrates the equality of total spending and total income with the total value of total production, the ABS estimates GDP by averaging those three different measures it calculates.

economy all the activities of the people in society using available resources efficiently to produce the maximum output of desired goods and services; an economy is a subset of a society doings the activities that people engage in, such as accumulating resources, producing goods and services and consuming those goods and services; through these doings, people interact and form an economy being economic maximising the output obtained from using available resources human resources labour hours and skills useful in producing goods and services wealth resources natural, physical and financial assets useful in making products economic growth an increase in the total amount of goods and services produced over time labour productivity the output of goods and services produced by a person over a specific time period

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GDP (chain volume) the total real amount of goods and services produced over a period, with prices held constant GDP (chain volume) per head the total real amount of goods and services produced over a period divided by the population, giving the average product per person

Individual

The average growth in goods and services available to an individual is measured by GDP (chain volume) per head. Of course, half the people are below the average and half are above the average.

Table 16.2.1 Australia’s recent economic growth: annual rate

Recent performance

Table 16.2.1 provides recent growth measurements for the national economy and for the average individual in Australia.

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Source: ABS Quarterly GDP (Chain Volume) and Population growth rates

Over the recent seven-year period, the national economy has grown by an average 2.3 per cent per year (per annum, p.a.). This increase has come with average population growth of 1.3 per cent p.a. Consequently, the extra amount of goods and services available per person only grew by 1 per cent p.a. With such

Concepts and skills builder

16.2

Investigating economic growth performance

a low growth for individuals on average, the additional amount going to the least advantaged would not have been much over the seven years covered.

Note that individual material wellbeing has declined on average over the last financial year, as measured by the GDP (chain volume or real) per head.

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

You are working as an economic research assistant for a leading Australian media outlet. Recent reports indicate that while Australia’s GDP has grown steadily, the benefits have not been evenly distributed among individuals. With population growth driven by immigration and natural increase, your task is to explore how production and population changes have affected real GDP per head. Investigate whether factors like the composition of production and the rate of population growth have limited the maximum potential of individual economic growth.

Q (Question) What factors limit the maximum growth in the economy?

C (Collect)

A (Analyse)

F (Findings)

É (Evaluate)

Collect data by searching online for information about the three largest types of production contributing to total production over the last year in Australia.

Analyse the composition of population growth over the last year and its impact on labour productivity.

Summarise your findings by comparing whether real GDP per head increased by more than the average, as indicated in Table 16.2.1.

Evaluate the influence of immigration on this growth. Do you think the level of immigration is too high, and what might be its long-term effects on economic performance?

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

Figure 16.2.2 People working in a warehouse aim to optimise their labour productivity by working efficiently to deliver the right products to the right customers.