LNG Industry November 2025

November 2025

CONTENTS

43 Pioneering innovation for a lower-carbon future

10 Severe service control and pressure relief valves in LNG plants

Siva Veerasakthi, Rebecca O’Donnell, Chris Jewell, and Jason Knudson, Baker Hughes, explore the various roles severe service control valves and pressure relief valves play in LNG plants and highlights the importance of choosing appropriate valves for each application.

17 The agility of FLNG

Kyle Haberberger, Black & Veatch, outlines why floating LNG is redefining what is possible in energy security.

20

Fast-track LNG deployment: From option to necessity

Morten Christophersen, CEO, ECOnnect, Norway, illustrates the importance of energy flexibility within the current geopolitical climate, and explains how strengthening regional energy security with LNG will be crucial moving forward.

23 Flexible and agile floating solutions

Maria Carolina Chang and Jonathan Raes, EXMAR, Belgium, detail why nearshore and floating LNG are gaining traction, and consider what the next decade could hold for this segment of the LNG value chain.

Insulation Q&A

LNG Industry speaks to several companies about key factors, challenges, and developments associated with insulation for LNG projects.

Fostering safer LNG operations

With US LNG playing a pivotal role in global energy security, Colin M. Frazier, API, discusses how emerging management programmes can provide operators with a proven framework for continuous improvement in process safety.

In a Q&A with LNG Industry, Abang Yusuf Abang Puteh, Senior Vice President of LNG Assets at PETRONAS, shares how the company’s pursuit of innovation has been fundamental in advancing the industry’s decarbonisation journey.

46 Harnessing digital innovations to optimise LNG transportation efficiency

Nick Fryer, Vice President of Marketing, Sheer Logistics, addresses the challenges facing modern LNG transportation and explores the digital innovations that can be implemented to combat them.

51 S-100 and the importance of safety in LNG shipping

Tom Mellor, Head of Technical Partnerships, UK Hydrographic Office, examines how a new data standard will help to transform LNG shipping, creating a safer future for the sector.

55 Bringing order to LNG operations

Willem-Wouter Rutgers, Senior Business Consultant, Quorum Software, highlights the importance of unifying LNG operations in an era of complexity.

58 Unlocking Africa's LNG potential

Keren Hall, Principal Process Consultant, LNG, Midstream & Terminal Services Lead, Consulting International, KBR, reviews Africa’s current relationship with LNG, highlighting the opportunities and challenges it presents as an energy source, and evaluates LNG’s role in the continent’s future.

61

Barnacles: How bad for the LNG transport business are they?

I-Tech evaluates the impact barnacle fouling has on the LNG transport industry and examines how effective antifouling techniques can make huge improvements.

LNG plants are expanding rapidly, emphasising timely delivery and reliable operations. Selecting the right components – especially severe service control valves and critical pressure relief valves – is vital for safety and efficiency. These valves face extreme conditions and must perform without failure. Early engagement with experts and local commissioning support ensures optimal product selection and long-term reliability. Baker Hughes' article highlights key valve applications and the importance of digital diagnostics and collaboration with EPCs to prevent downtime and accelerate project success.

JESSICA CASEY EDITOR

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While we’re experiencing colder and darker weather in the UK, many world leaders and government officials will soon be gathering in a warmer part of the world for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, otherwise known as COP30.

This year, the meeting will be held in Belém, Brazil, one of the gateways to the Amazon River. It is here the President of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, hopes to make good on his statement of ensuring the 30th conference on climate change is the “turnaround COP”.1 All eyes will be on the meetings in South America to see what is decided upon in the hopes that we can move closer to achieving the goals set in the Paris Agreement in 2015, and perhaps take it even further.2

Elsewhere, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has adjourned the sessions of the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), which had convened to consider the adoption of draft amendments to MARPOL Annex VI, including the IMO Net-Zero Framework. At the meeting, the IMO made the decision to adjourn discussions on the adoption of the Net-Zero Framework for one year, with talks to resume in 2026.3

Responses to this news have been mixed, but some see this decision as offering more time for companies and other organisations (such as SEA-LNG4) to work with members and continue the development of scientific studies to support the IMO’s work in helping the maritime industry reduce its emissions.

Of course, the industry has long been trying to find ways of counteracting the environmental concerns associated with it. As well as the IMO regulations, there are multiple other ways the entire value chain can target its emissions, both in the marine and onshore LNG industries. The articles in this issue of LNG Industry go on to showcase some of these options. For example, our annual Insulation Q&A provides insight into how insulation can be an underrated and sometimes underutilised method for improving efficiency and reducing emissions.

In addition, I-Tech talks about how barnacle biofouling can decrease a vessel’s Carbon Intensity Index rating and increase greenhouse gas emissions. With many LNG carriers carrying a lifespan of 25 – 30 years, they will be active during the enforcement of many regulations that will clamp down on emissions. As a result, hull coatings are just one method of reducing emissions and fuel costs, as well as minimising the impact of potential carbon taxation systems, as the article explains.

As we start winding down towards the end of the year, the LNG industry shows no signs of slowing down. As always, the team at LNG Industry will be with you for every news update, project and technological development, event, and more. You can pick up a copy of the November issue at the World LNG Summit & Awards, taking place in Istanbul, Türkiye, from 2 – 5 December 2025.

References

1. ‘“COP30 will be our last chance to avoid an irreversible rupture in the climate system,” calls Lula at the final thematic session of the G20 Brasil Leaders’ Summit’, G20 Brasil 2024, (19 November 2024), www.gov.br/g20/en/news/cop30-will-be-our-last-chance-to-avoid-anirreversible-rupture-in-the-climate-system-calls-lula-at-the-final-thematic-session-of-the-g20brasil-leaders-summit

2. ‘The Paris Agreement’, United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/ the-paris-agreement

3. ‘IMO net-zero shipping talks to resume in 2026’, International Maritime Organization, (17 October 2025), www.imo.org/en/mediacentre/pressbriefings/pages/imo-net-zero-shippingtalks-to-resume-in-2026.aspx

4. ‘SEA-LNG MEPC Statement’, SEA-LNG, (20 October 2025), https://sea-lng.org/2025/10/sea-lngmepc-statement

Canada BCUC approves FortisBC’s Tilbury LNG storage expansion project

The British Columbia Utilities Commission (BCUC) has approved FortisBC Energy Inc.’s application for the Tilbury LNG storage expansion project.

The project includes constructing a new, larger LNG storage tank at FortisBC’s Tilbury facility in Delta, British Columbia. The new tank will replace an existing 56-year old storage tank that has reached the end of its service life.

Following a transparent and public review process, the BCUC determined the project is in the public interest. In its decision, the BCUC agreed that replacing the existing LNG storage tank is necessary for FortisBC to continue to reliably meet customers’ increasing energy demands on peak days.

The BCUC also found that building a larger capacity tank will address the resiliency risk of FortisBC’s natural gas delivery system. The expanded LNG storage will help mitigate the risk of supply disruption by providing back-up storage of natural gas. Two-thirds of the new storage tank will be set aside as a reserve in the event of unexpected supply interruptions, while the remaining volume will be used to meet customers’ energy needs on high demand days.

The new storage tank will be used exclusively to store and supply natural gas to customers and will not be used to provide LNG for marine fuelling or for LNG export.

LNGNEWS

Iraq

Excelerate Energy signs definitive agreement for Iraq FLNG import terminal

Excelerate Energy, Inc. has executed a definitive commercial agreement with a subsidiary of Iraq’s Ministry of Electricity for the development of the country’s first LNG import terminal at the Port of Khor Al Zubair.

The agreement was signed at the office of the Prime Minister in a ceremony attended by Excelerate’s President and CEO, Steven Kobos, U.S. Deputy Secretary of Energy, James Danly, Chargé d’Affaires of the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad, Joshua Harris, Iraq’s Prime Minister, Mohammed Shia' al-Sudani, and Minister of Electricity, Ziyad Ali Fadhil.

The integrated project includes a five-year agreement for regasification services and LNG supply with extension options, and a minimum contracted offtake of 250 million ft3/d. Under the agreement, Excelerate will construct the floating LNG import terminal, which is designed to accommodate a guaranteed 500 million ft3/d of regasification capacity. The company will deploy Hull 3407, its newest FSRU, and will be responsible for delivering the topside equipment and berth modifications to enable FSRU operations at the jetty. The total project investment is expected to be approximately US$450 million, inclusive of the cost of the FSRU.

As part of the integrated arrangement, Excelerate will serve as the LNG supplier to the terminal. Commercial operations are expected to commence in 2026, subject to final permitting and construction timelines.

Tokyo Gas and Glenfarne Group sign LOI

Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd has signed a new letter of interest (LOI) with Glenfarne Group, a subsidiary of the US-based Glenfarne Group, regarding the Alaska LNG project, which Glenfarne is promoting. While this LOI is not legally binding, it aims to enable Tokyo Gas, as a strategic partner of Glenfarne, to gather information on the project's development trends and consider the economics of the project, with an eye towards future LNG procurement possibilities.

The project involves Glenfarne refining natural gas produced from the North Slope gas fields in Alaska, the US, and transporting it to the Nikiski LNG terminal

for liquefaction. The project will produce approximately 20 million tpy of LNG. Given the region's abundant natural gas reserves and proximity to Asia, the project has the potential to contribute to improving the stability of LNG supplies in the region.

Tokyo Gas has set a goal of ‘Transforming the LNG Value Chain’ in its Group Management Vision, ‘Compass 2030’. With an eye on procuring LNG from this project, the company will contribute to a stable supply of energy by diversifying its raw material procurement sources, taking into account the balance of supply stability, price, and flexibility.

LNGNEWS

Germany

DET markets Brunsbüttel regasification capacities

I

n the current marketing round on 23 October 2025, Deutsche Energy Terminal GmbH (DET) allocated all offered regasification products for the period from 2 January – 26 May 2026 for the Brunsbüttel terminal (BBU). With this, DET once again makes an important contribution to security of supply in Germany and Europe.

A total of 58 million Btu – equivalent to 16 slots, each with a standard size of 3.6 million Btu – were allocated. The auction, conducted via the digital PRISMA platform, achieved an average price of €0.66/Btu.

The remaining capacities for the year 2026 for the Brunsbüttel terminal are expected to be offered to the market in 1Q26.

USA

Delfin Midstream enters LOA with SHI

Delfin Midstream Inc. has entered into a letter of award (LOA) with Samsung Heavy Industries (SHI) whereby SHI has been selected and awarded as the exclusive EPCI contractor for the first floating LNG (FLNG) vessel of the Delfin LNG project. Delfin is also entitled to the exclusive rights to SHI’s dock for construction of the first FLNG vessel.

As part of the LOA, the parties have agreed to commence an early engagement scope of work, mobilise project teams, de-risk the overall project schedule, and prepare for imminent execution.

The announcement further secures the path towards FID in November 2025 for Delfin’s leading US energy infrastructure project offshore Louisiana.

Given the progress towards an FID for the first FLNG vessel and excellent collaboration among all the project stakeholders, the parties have agreed to strengthen their partnership in advance of the second and third FLNG vessels for the Delfin project. Under the LOA, the parties have agreed a dock reservation scheme for the second FLNG vessel for the Delfin project following FID of the first FLNG vessel, which will enable Delfin to take an FID in early 2026 for the second FLNG vessel. For the third FLNG vessel, Delfin and SHI plan to jointly develop strategic business and trade opportunities, including shipbuilding co-operation.

Italy

PATRIZIA secures €70 million financing for bio-LNG

growth

PATRIZIA, an investment manager in global real assets, through its portfolio company Renergia S.p.A., has secured over €70 million in new senior debt financing from UniCredit to accelerate the next phase of growth in Italy’s biomethane and bio-LNG sector.

The transaction establishes a flexible, long-term capital structure to support both the conversion of existing biogas plants to biomethane production and select acquisitions to expand Renergia’s integrated renewable fuels network. Once complete, the programme will enable Renergia to produce around 130 GWh of biomethane annually from approximately 230 000 t of biowaste and agricultural feedstock, thus strengthening its position as one of Italy’s leading circular-economy energy platforms.

The project financing was arranged and structured by UniCredit, acting as global co-ordinator, mandated lead arranger, bookrunner, and sustainability co-ordinator, and supports PATRIZIA’s broader strategy to scale mid-market infrastructure platforms that advance the energy transition and resource efficiency across Europe.

THE LNG ROUNDUP

X Anew Climate and Seaspan Energy complete first bio-LNG loading for maritime sector

X QatarEnergy signs 17-year LNG SPA with Gujarat State Petroleum Corp. X Rolande opens new bio-LNG station in Germany

Defining the New Generation of LNG Liquefaction Plants

- Mission-critical equipment manufactured in-house

- Nitrogen cycle & proprietary IPSMR® process technology

- Liquefaction capacities from 10,000 to >20MM tonnes per annum

- Modular design & construction minimize project cost, schedule & risk

LNG is crucial to meeting the world’s increasing energy demands and improving energy access, independence and security. By choosing Chart, you gain a reliable and trustworthy project partner with a proven, solution-driven track record who will accompany you through the entire project lifecycle.

LNGNEWS

UK

02 – 05 December 2025

World LNG Summit & Awards

Istanbul, Türkiye www.worldlngsummit.com

02 – 05 February 2026

21st International Conference & Exhibition on Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG2026) Ar-Rayyan, Qatar

https://lng2026.com

09 – 10 March 2026

LNGCON 2026

Barcelona, Spain

https://lngcongress.com

10 – 11 March 2026

StocExpo Rotterdam, the Netherlands

www.stocexpo.com

18 March 2026

World Pipelines CCS Forum 2026

London, UK

www.worldpipelines.com/events/ world-pipelines-ccs-forum--london-2026

18 – 21 May 2026

Asia Turbomachinery and Pump Symposia (ATPS) 2026

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

https://atps.tamu.edu

01 – 05 June 2026

Posidonia 2026

Athens, Greece

https://posidonia-events.com

09 – 11 June 2026

Global Energy Show Canada 2026

Calgary, Canada

www.globalenergyshow.com

Titan Clean Fuels completes first bio-LNG delivery in Portsmouth

Titan has completed the first delivery of bio-LNG to Brittany Ferries’ Saint-Malo during one of its recent regular bunker calls in Portsmouth International Port with the company’s Optimus bunkering vessel.

This Saint-Malo is a hybrid ferry that operates on LNG, battery power, or a combination to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Nicaragua and the Bahamas

Burckhardt Compression delivers optimised compression solution for LNG terminals in Nicaragua and the Bahamas

Burckhardt Compression, a global leader in reciprocating compressor systems, has delivered a turnkey compression solution for a leading manufacturer of engineered cryogenic gas processing equipment and small scale LNG and industrial gas plants at LNG terminals in Nicaragua and the Bahamas.

The customer faced a time-sensitive project requiring a compression solution that could be rapidly deployed, fit within constrained terminal layouts, and deliver high reliability and performance under cryogenic conditions. Key requirements included a turnkey, skid-mounted configuration, compact footprint, high reliability and performance under cryogenic conditions, fast delivery and installation, and extensive testing to validate operational integrity.

Rather than promoting a specific product from its own portfolio, Burckhardt Compression conducted a thorough evaluation of available technologies, including its own Laby® compressors, and determined that an other brand compressor (OBC) package would best meet the customer’s needs. This decision was based on a holistic assessment of budget constraints, delivery timelines, installation complexity, performance expectations, and long-term serviceability.

USA

Woodside announces Louisiana LNG partnership with Williams

Woodside has simultaneously signed and closed a transaction with Williams for an integrated investment in Louisiana LNG. The strategic partnership involves the sale by Woodside of a 10% interest in Louisiana LNG LLC (HoldCo) and an 80% interest and operatorship of Driftwood Pipeline LLC (PipelineCo) to Williams for a purchase price of US$250 million at the effective date of 1 January 2025. The total proceeds received are US$378 million including proportionate capital reimbursement since the effective date.

Williams will contribute its share of the CAPEX for the LNG facility and pipeline, of approximately US$1.9 billion. As part of the investment in Louisiana LNG, Williams assumes LNG offtake obligations for 10% of produced volumes.

Leveraging the established Sequent platform and capabilities, a gas supply team will operationalise and optimise daily gas sourcing and balancing in accordance with Louisiana LNG’s gas procurement strategy.

We build: Cryogenic Storage Tanks, Intermodal ISO Tank-Containers, Marine Cargo Tanks, Peak-Shaving Plants, LNG Terminals, and LNG-Cooled AI Data Centers.

Siva Veerasakthi, Rebecca O’Donnell, Chris Jewell, and Jason Knudson, Baker Hughes, explore the various roles severe service control valves and pressure relief valves play in LNG plants and highlights the importance of choosing appropriate valves for each application.

LNG plants are being developed at a record pace across the globe, with intense focus on project execution and timely delivery to market. The importance of time-to-market is paramount for LNG developers and operators as it directly impacts competitiveness and profitability.

Once LNG trains become operational, uninterrupted plant performance becomes critically important. Key equipment is expected to run reliably for extended periods before scheduled turnarounds. This makes the selection of the right components, such as severe service control valves and critical relief valves, essential for maintaining safe and efficient operations.

The goal of this article is to highlight the importance of severe service control valve and critical pressure relief valve product knowledge, choosing the right solution for the right application, and the value of partnering with companies that have the correct expertise. It also underscores the need for suppliers to offer local commissioning and start-up support to ensure smooth project execution and long-term reliability.

Severe service control valves

Severe service control valves play a vital role in the reliable operation of LNG plants. While there is no universally accepted industry definition for these valves, Baker Hughes TM – drawing on extensive experience with LNG operators and EPC firms – considers valves exposed to high pressure drops (greater than 750 psid), erosive or corrosive fluids, large flow variations, cryogenic temperatures (such as those caused by the Joule-Thomson [JT] effect), and suspended solids to fall under the severe service category.

Companies have seen first-hand that poor performance of these critical valves can result in serious consequences: plant trips, equipment damage, safety hazards, and costly unplanned downtime. Compounding the risk, these valves have typically long-lead items, and any trim replacement can take days or even weeks.

Given these challenges, this article emphasises the importance of early engagement with EPCs to bring special application engineers (SAEs) into the project lifecycle from the outset. Early discussions around start-up and commissioning support are equally essential. At Baker Hughes, SAEs bring deep expertise in LNG plant operations, product selection, material compatibility, and commissioning strategies, ensuring that the right solutions are in place to support long-term reliability and performance.

Below are the applications to be considered as severe service valves as minimum in an LNG plant. The valve locations are shown in Figure 1, which is a generic representation of the valve applications:

1. Feed gas control valve.

2. Lean amine pump recirculation.

3. Rich amine let down.

4. Vent to flare valve.

5. Compressor anti-surge.

6. Joule-Thomson valve.

Feed gas control valve

Feed gas to the LNG plant is critical and controls the inlet feedstock to the plant. This is the start of LNG production; the LNG plant requires steady feed gas flow and pressure to meet the nameplate capacity and performance guarantee expectations. The feed gas control valve accurately controls the flow and pressure of the feed gas entering the LNG plant.

The feed gas control valve faces high pressure drop that leads to high acoustic noise. Addressing the acoustic noise level at the source based on IEC 60534-8 is important. The path treatment of noise may not be suitable for this application as feed gas valves will have multiple operating cases and require addressing the noise for all cases. The operating cases vary from low flow to high flow. A single valve with special characterised trim may be required to address the wide operating cases. When the operating cases are too wide to handle for a single valve, a small valve in parallel with noise attenuation should be considered during start-up operation. If the feed gas has moisture, a self-flushing trim design is recommended to avoid hydrate formation or the need for heat tracing of valve and pipe. Ball or globe design is a suitable valve design for this application. For example, Becker T-Ball with Quiet Trim (T2 or T4) or MasoneilanTM 41000 Series with Lo-dBTM would be a suitable solution for the feed gas application.

Lean amine pump recirculation valve

The feed gas will go through pre-treatment, acid gas removal (gas sweetening), and dehydration. The pretreatment unit helps to remove the liquids and heavy impurities.

The acid gas removal unit (gas sweetening) unit will help to remove the acid gas (for example, sulfur). The lean amine is amine before it has cleaned the feed gas. The lean amine pump is designed to pump the lean solvent to the acid gas-removed column. The minimum flow recirculation valve controls the flow to protect the centrifugal pump during start-up, shut-down, and upsets cases. The valve faces high pressure drop. Due to high pressure drop, cavitation damage can occur in the valves. The valve should be designed with anti-cavitation trim with ANSI Class V shutoff. Masoneilan 1 or 2 stage anti-cavitation trim or the 18400/78400 Series LincolnLog TM is a proven solution in this application.

Rich amine letdown valve

The rich amine letdown valve regulates the liquid level in the acid gas removal column. Rich amine, containing entrained and dissolved gases (primarily hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide), accumulates at the bottom of the column. Reliable and well-designed level control is critical for efficient sour gas removal.

During operation, the valve is exposed to severe vibration, gas expansion from off-gassing, and potential solids carryover. Therefore, the design must

withstand vibration, accommodate gas volume expansion, and ensure stable operation. A cage-guided, axial-flow, anti-cavitation trim combined with a reinforced stem design provides an effective solution for this service.

Special sizing methodology is required to account for off-gassing conditions. To mitigate stem twisting and related damage, the stem may be tack-welded or fitted with an additional stem pin. The Masoneilan 18400/78400 Series LincolnLog valve is a proven solution for such applications, with a long track record of reliable performance.

Flare system – pressure control valve

Proper control valve sizing must therefore account for trim noise, outlet noise, and total noise. Outlet fluid velocity should be maintained within the recommended Mach limits. Globe or angle control valves equipped with aerodynamic noise-abatement trims are preferred to address these challenges.

Acoustic-induced vibration (AIV) and flow-induced vibration (FIV) calculations should be performed to ensure there are adequate pipe supports and bracing. In many cases, the wide open flow rate of pressure valves can influence the sizing of relief valves. Accordingly, co-ordination between pressure-vacuum (PV) and pressure relief valve (PRV) sizing is essential to optimise valve C v and ensure appropriate PRV capacity. An engineered, characterised trim is often the most effective choice for balancing PV and PRV requirements.

In addition, fixed pressure-drop noise-abatement devices, such as diffusers or stack plates, can create downstream back pressure that enables the use of relatively smaller, fit-for-purpose valve sizes.

The Masoneilan 77003 Series Lo-dB valve and Lo-DB Cartridge are suitable designs in this application.

Anti-surge valve

Compressors are among the most critical equipment in an LNG plant and represent a significant portion of the capital investment. Protecting these compressors from surge conditions is essential for ensuring continuous and reliable plant operation. An optimally-designed control valve plays a key role in maintaining stable flow and preventing compressor surge.

Given the compressible fluid volumes and pressures involved, the anti-surge valve (ASV) is subject to aerodynamic noise and vibration. The valve must respond rapidly (within 1 – 2 sec.) while still delivering precise control. When out of service, it is required to provide metal-to-metal shutoff in accordance with ANSI Class V standards.

To achieve the necessary performance, the valve trim should incorporate a characterised cage, enabling both accurate control under normal conditions and the ability to accommodate large flow rates during trip scenarios. Special design considerations are required for acoustic noise prediction as well as acoustic and flow-induced vibration analysis. For continuous operation, noise levels must not exceed 85 dBA, while higher noise levels (up to 105 dBA) are permissible under intermittent conditions such as trip or hot-gas bypass.

The ASV must be supplied with an engineered actuation package capable of meeting the stringent dynamic performance requirements specified by compressor original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). In cases where hot-gas bypass flow rates exceed the capacity of a single control valve, the use of an automated on-off butterfly or ball valve in parallel should be considered to optimise overall process control and valve sizing. The Masoneilan 72005 Series high-capacity valve with engineered characterised trim and actuator package is a proven solution in anti-surge applications.

Joule-Thomson valve

The main JT valve functions as a critical bypass element, diverting flow around the turboexpander when the expander is offline or unable to meet process flow requirements. Depending on the plant design, the fluid entering the valve can be in liquid, gas, two-phase, or liquid with dissolved gas. The valve is designed for cryogenic service and incorporates a characterised cage to address flashing, off-gassing, and potential cavitation effects.

During normal operation, the JT valve remains closed; therefore, reliable shutoff performance is essential. To ensure compliance with cryogenic leakage requirements under all operating conditions, dedicated cryogenic seat leakage testing must be conducted. Proper trim and seat design, along with actuator sizing and seat load verification, are required to achieve consistent and repeatable shutoff performance.

Cryogenic pressure relief valves

In LNG operations, PRVs are critical components that provide last-resort protection against overpressure events. Due to the high-risk nature of these systems, PRVs must meet stringent design and material standards. For cryogenic applications specific to LNG, BS-EN 13648 and ISO 21013 offer product testing guidance to ensure compliance and operational safety.

Unlike control valves, PRVs operate in a normally closed position, with the primary leak path at the

disc-to-nozzle interface. Due to elastomer incompatibility at low temperatures, metal-to-metal seating is standard.

Leakage-prevention technology

To address leakage concerns commonly encountered in cryogenic service applications, Baker Hughes engineered and patented the cryodisc design. This specialised solution significantly enhances seat tightness, ensuring reliable sealing both before and after a pressure relief event.

Central to the cryodisc’s performance is its proprietary thermolip technology, engineered to actively adapt to fluctuating thermal loads by mitigating stress concentrations and preserving structural integrity. During extreme temperature fluctuations, the thermolip deflects downward, generating uniform contact pressure across the nozzle seat. This adaptive behaviour helps maintain a tight seal even under the demanding conditions typical of cryogenic applications, where conventional seat designs may struggle to perform consistently.

Full nozzle pilot-operated pressure relief valves

Full nozzle pilot-operated PRVs are preferred in LNG liquefaction due to their superior sealing, stability, and reliability in cryogenic service. Their metal-to-metal seating eliminates the need for elastomers, which are incompatible at cryogenic temperatures, while the full nozzle and seat isolates the main valve from direct process exposure during normal operations. These valves also tolerate operation closer to their set pressure, allowing for increased system throughput without compromising safety. This capability is especially valuable in low temperature LNG processes, where maximising flow efficiency is critical. Additionally, pilot-operated PRVs along with the metal-to-metal cryodisc can help improve re-seat integrity and reduce the risk of leakage, product loss, and fugitive emissions.

Conclusion

LNG plants are designed by EPC contractors in close alignment with licensor requirements. These facilities are expected to operate safely and reliably, with minimal downtime, to meet long-term contractual obligations. Severe-service control valves and PRVs are therefore critical to ensuring dependable LNG plant performance.

This article outlines the key factors to consider in the selection of severe service control valves and critical PRVs. Beyond these factors, the integration of digital diagnostics in valve positioners enables non-intrusive preventive maintenance, helping to avoid plant trips and equipment failures.

Furthermore, early engagement of SAEs during the project development phase allows EPCs to identify the most suitable valve for each application, while also accelerating sizing and procurement activities.

Kyle

Haberberger, Black & Veatch, outlines why floating LNG is redefining what is possible in energy security.

The world’s appetite for reliable power sources deepens, and abundant natural gas continues to feed the intense demand. In an unfolding race for energy security, getting more of it to market – and positioning the processing assets in the right places – will be crucial.

Floating LNG (FLNG) assets – a transformative force in the global energy landscape – may hold the key, helping explain why global FLNG capacity is expected to more than triple by 2030.

These floating factories, of sorts, that create LNG to ship around the globe (from often-remote locations to

far-flung markets) are redefining how the fuel is monetised. Unlike traditional onshore LNG plants requiring extensive infrastructure and long development timeframes, self-contained FLNG units offer a flexible alternative. In remote offshore settings, they minimise the need for pipelines and coastal terminals, reducing CAPEX and environmental footprint. Nearshore deployments, meanwhile, can leverage existing infrastructure, including pipelines, while incorporating electric-driven motors powered by renewable energy sources to enable lower-carbon operations. Whether positioned far offshore

or closer to land, FLNG’s adaptability across geographies and configurations reinforces its role as a strategic asset in the evolving energy landscape.

And of special significance, FLNG units can be redeployed elsewhere, embodying flexibility and cementing their status as a globe-trotting game-changer in an evolving global energy ecosystem.

FLNG benefits: What’s not to like?

FLNG’s influence begins with its adaptable scalable nature – notably when using technologies such as the PRICO ® liquefaction system by industry leader, Black & Veatch – that enables rapid deployment and adaptation to an array of gas compositions and site conditions. That makes it a highly flexible solution for today’s dynamic energy landscape.

Designed for versatility, FLNG units can also be configured with or without on-board storage, powered by gas turbines or external electric sources, and accommodate various liquefaction technologies. PRICO’s single-mixed refrigerant (SMR) loop for liquefaction, for instance, simplifies operations while reducing equipment needs and lowering costs.

FLNG can be tailored to specific project needs, whether it is a compact barge for nearshore deployment or a full scale offshore production unit with integrated storage capabilities, ensuring that FLNG can meet demands of diverse markets and environmental conditions.

Beyond technical and economic benefits, FLNG plays a vital role in enhancing global energy security. By unlocking stranded offshore gas reserves and enabling rapid response to shifting demand, FLNG supports a more resilient, diversified energy supply chain. In regions where infrastructure is limited or geopolitical risks are high, FLNG is a nimble and less invasive alternative to fixed onshore installations.

Technology such as PRICO does much of the heavy lifting, offering a simplified refrigeration system requiring minimal equipment, low CAPEX and OPEX, and simplified control and maintenance, making it ideal for FLNG use. The simplicity of PRICO liquefaction design fosters flexibility and the ability to adjust to a myriad of potential gas compositions.

Mobility for a floating frontier

As the gas sector constantly changes and geopolitical uncertainty grabs more headlines, developers clamour for solutions that help them nimbly adapt to the evolving energy landscape. The mobility of FLNG answers that call, providing flexibility for rapid deployment to monetise gas assets and uproot a project to a new location.

That compelling ability to relocate a world scale energy asset on the fly is not merely a technical feat, but a strategic asset. Unsurprisingly, such flexibility is increasingly cited in permitting applications as a key advantage for future-proofing investments.

Call it a powerful hedge and a fountain of options for project developers against uncertainty in a world rife with geopolitical shifts, changing economies and regulations, tariffs, dynamic energy policies and depleting resources, among other things.

Over time, FLNG interests have showcased the ability to operate in multiple geographies, from South America to Africa to southeast Asia, redeploying when conditions (some unforeseen) merit.

Golar’s Hilli Episeyo: A mobility proof point

More than three football fields in length and about half a US city block wide, Golar LNG’s Hilli Episeyo has defined mobility. Built in Singapore without a final destination chosen, the FLNG vessel planned to use PRICO technology in a generic configuration to allow the Hilli to be deployed to any of a number of locations globally. Having the flexibility to change locations has allowed Golar to pursue projects around the globe that more traditional facilities might avoid.

In 2015, Golar entered into agreements to ultimately send the Hilli off the coast of Cameroon in central Africa, where it has been operating offshore for oil and gas company Perenco. With its contract ending in 2026, Golar looks to quickly relocate the FLNG asset to Argentina for LNG production for Southern Energy S. A. (SESA).

In the meantime, Golar is again betting on FLNG flexibility by taking a final investment decision on its MKII FLNG design in September 2024, enlisting Black & Veatch for a third time to provide its robust PRICO technology. Though that asset began construction without a home, it is now scheduled to deploy to Argentina – again for SESA –when it is completed in 2027.

Elsewhere, other FLNG projects such as Tango FLNG and Petronas Satu FLNG have utilised this mobility strategy. Tango FLNG, for example, is now operating off the coast of Congo and has produced LNG on three different continents.

Conclusion

FLNG is proving itself as a cornerstone of tomorrow’s energy strategy. Its ability to unlock stranded resources, adapt to shifting market and geopolitical realities, and redeploy across continents makes it a powerful hedge against uncertainty. As developers and operators seek resilience and agility in a rapidly changing world, FLNG’s mobility and versatility stand out – redefining what is possible for energy security and global supply.

Morten Christophersen, CEO, ECOnnect, Norway, illustrates the importance of energy flexibility within the current geopolitical climate, and explains how strengthening regional energy security with LNG will be crucial moving forward.

The 2022 sabotage of the Nord Stream pipelines exposed the vulnerability of Europe’s energy network, cutting a major artery of Europe’s gas supply and sending a clear signal: critical energy infrastructure is vulnerable, and energy flexibility is no longer optional.

With geopolitical tensions high and climate-related disruptions increasing, Europe’s energy security now hinges on solutions that can be deployed quickly and adapted to changing needs. ECOnnect Energy’s work at the Wilhelmshaven II terminal in Germany demonstrates how jettyless LNG technology can provide this resilience in practice.

A shifting energy security landscape

Europe’s energy infrastructure is in a new era, shaped not only by supply and demand, but by sabotage and vulnerability. In many ways, the 2022 sabotage of the Nord Stream pipelines in the Baltic Sea has served as a wake-up call, demonstrating how critical energy assets can be deliberately targeted to destabilise entire regions. In Norway, the Police Security Service now considers sabotage against energy infrastructure a likely threat, urging both public and private actors to strengthen their resilience.

Furthermore, NATO urges a new approach that places energy at the core of defence planning, calling for a ‘wartime mindset’. At the 2025 Hague summit, leaders reinforced this by committing 5% of GDP annually to defence capabilities, infrastructure modernisation, and innovation by 2035. This marks a clear shift where energy security is now perceived as a central strategic issue not only for the energy sector itself, but for society’s overall defence capability.

In addition to geopolitical threats, Europe’s energy systems also face growing climate-related risks. Storms, floods, and other extreme weather events can disable centralised infrastructure, leaving regions vulnerable. Flexible, modular LNG solutions offer a way to maintain supply when established networks are disrupted.

The call for energy flexibility

Historically, Europe’s energy infrastructure has been built on fixed installations such as pipelines, land-based terminals, and centralised networks. Additionally, a significant amount of Europe’s gas infrastructure, such as the pipelines from the North Sea, lies exposed on the seabed. Today’s rigid energy infrastructure represents a significant weakness, and the lack of flexibility further amplifies the issue.

Following the 2022 Nord Stream explosions, at least 11 undersea cables and pipelines in both the Baltic and North Sea have suffered suspected sabotage. This has shown how an attack or failure in just one part of the energy network can cause ripple effects throughout the entire supply chain. For instance, Norway supplies one-third of the EU’s gas through exposed undersea pipelines, underscoring the need for rapid, flexible backup solutions.

LNG on the geopolitical agenda

In response, policymakers are developing strategies to ensure reliable energy supply during unexpected events. In this process, LNG import terminals are quickly becoming a game changer. Offering an alternative to gas supply, LNG can provide energy if one supply line is disrupted.

With declining pipeline gas imports from Russia, experts expect the reliance on LNG to intensify, forecasting record-breaking import levels in the coming years.

Strengthening regional energy security: LNG terminal in Wilhelmshaven

The Wilhelmshaven II LNG terminal, owned and operated by Deutsche Energy Terminal GmbH (DET), serves as a leading example of proactive energy security, with ECOnnect Energy’s

IQuay F-Class system as a key component. With the innovative natural gas transfer solution, this project advances regional resilience through the rapid expansion and modernisation of LNG infrastructure.

ECOnnect Energy specialises in jettyless marine transfer systems. Its proprietary IQuay technology enables the transfer of LNG and other fuels efficiently and flexibly between ships and shore without the need for permanent infrastructure. These adaptable systems are drawing increased interest as energy demand and security concerns continue to evolve.

The Wilhelmshaven terminal, designed to supply up to 8.5% of Germany’s national gas demand, is critical to diversifying the country’s energy imports and reducing dependence on traditional pipeline gas. Recognised as a priority site, Wilhelmshaven underwent rapid expansion with the addition of a second FSRU. To accelerate deployment, ECOnnect’s IQuay transfer system was implemented, making the connection between FSRU Excelsior, delivered by Excelerate Energy, and onshore infrastructure. This approach enabled swift commencement of LNG imports, avoiding the typically lengthy development associated with constructing permanent infrastructure. The transfer system was fast tracked, with less than 12 months from contract award to installation, demonstrating how this approach can bypass traditional permitting and construction bottlenecks.

Looking to the future, the terminal is designed to be adaptable. The project not only addresses immediate supply challenges, but is also closely aligned with Germany’s long-term decarbonisation goals, which started in 2025. The terminal infrastructure is constructed with flexibility in mind, capable of handling not only LNG but also future energy carriers such as ammonia and carbon dioxide. Its modular design meets both civil and defence needs, strengthening broader European and transatlantic ambitions for secure and adaptable energy solutions.

In addition to rapid installation and compatibility with various vessel types, the IQuay system offers another key benefit. Since the technology was first introduced in 2017, minimal environmental impact has always been a critical focal point. Compared to alternative and traditional solutions, the disturbances to the marine ecosystem are significantly reduced, helping preserve local biodiversity and seabed integrity.

The project was made possible through close co-ordination between ECOnnect Energy, DET, German federal agencies, TES, ENGIE, and other key partners. This collaborative approach ensured that the Wilhelmshaven II terminal could be delivered on an accelerated timeline while meeting stringent technical and environmental standards.

A shared responsibility

As geopolitical threats continue to affect the energy sector, ensuring the security of supply chains is more important than ever. The transition to flexible LNG infrastructure represents a significant strategic move rather than just a technical improvement. The developments in Wilhelmshaven demonstrate the adoption of flexible and adaptable energy solutions, providing a model that can drive initiative worldwide.

Maria Carolina Chang and Jonathan Raes, EXMAR, Belgium, detail why nearshore and floating LNG are gaining traction, and consider what the next decade could hold for this segment of the LNG value chain.

When the first LNG carriers set sail in the mid-20th Century, few imagined a future where entire LNG plants could float at sea or sit just offshore, quietly transforming global energy flows.

Since then, the global LNG landscape has undergone a structural transition. Demand diversification, supply flexibility, and the drive for rapid decarbonisation are creating simultaneous opportunities for nearshore and floating LNG (FLNG/FSRU) solutions which are no longer novelties. They have become more mainstream tools in the

global quest for cleaner energy, rapid deployment, and flexible supply chains.

More and more, countries without the land, time, or capital for onshore terminals are turning to floating solutions – either moored near the coastline or stationed over offshore fields. At the same time, LNG producers are unlocking previously stranded gas reserves through floating liquefaction. The results: faster projects, smaller environmental footprints, and, in many cases, lower risk and higher flexibility.

The forces reshaping LNG

For decades, the LNG market was dominated by large scale, long-term, point-to-point supply contracts – often between major producing countries and industrialised buyers. Terminals were expensive, with fixed assets and extended project timelines that stretched well into decades. But, in the last 15 years, several seismic shifts have reshaped the industry:

1. Global demand migration: For rapid access to natural gas to power industry, reducing coal dependence and stabilising grids.

2. Decarbonisation pressures: LNG/natural gas is a transitional fuel that can displace higher-emission coal or oil and be compatible with the renewable power generation.

3. Geopolitical volatility: Events such as the Russia–Ukraine conflict exposed vulnerabilities in gas supply chains, prompting urgent moves to diversify sources, primarily via LNG.

4. Capital discipline: Investors are increasingly wary of megaproject risk; they prefer modular, phased developments with faster payback.

5. Flexibility: If demand changes, the asset can be relocated – a critical hedge against stranded investment.

Within this context, EXMAR has been a pioneer in the industry, providing innovative nearshore and floating solutions to meet the global energy needs. From the development of the ship-to-ship transfer systems to enabling the fast-track

implementation of import and export terminals in close relationship with its partners, EXMAR has helped contribute to the rapid evolution of the LNG industry.

Nearshore and floating LNG

Nearshore LNG refers to LNG facilities positioned close to shore – on breakwaters, artificial islands, next to quayside, or shallow water platforms – and tied into existing shoreline networks. They are particularly attractive where: shallow bathymetry prevents deep-draft vessels from berthing at shore, there are close connections to shore distribution facilities, or where coastal constraints limit land availability. Floating LNG technology covers a broad spectrum which fills a distinct market need:

z FSUs: LNG vessels with specific adjustments to remain permanently moored for the receipt, storage, and delivery of LNG. An example of this unit is the Excalibur FSU, owned by EXMAR, and located in Congo as a permanent FSU to receive the LNG produced at the terminal for export.

z FSRUs: These are newly-built units or converted LNG carriers equipped to store and regasify LNG on board and send natural gas directly into a shore pipeline. EXMAR’s Eemshaven LNG is an FSRU barge, which was installed in the Netherlands in a very short time due to the geopolitical volatility and was designed specifically for small draft foreseeing nearshore niche markets.

z FLNG: The reverse process: offshore facilities that take raw natural gas, process it, and liquefy it into LNG for export. EXMAR received delivery of a 0.5 million tpy barge-based FLNG in 2017 which operated initially Argentina and is currently in Congo.

FSUs provide seasonal or strategic storage flexibility enabling import or export terminals with hybrid solutions while FLNG facilities enable producers to monetise gas fields, reducing expensive investment on lengthy pipelines.

Technical and operational realities

While nearshore and floating LNG hold clear advantages, they also present unique engineering and operational challenges:

z Mooring and metocean constraints: Units must withstand storms, swells, and – in some regions – ice conditions.

z Integration with shore systems: In nearshore configurations, pipeline tie-ins, compression, and grid interconnects must be meticulously planned.

z Maintenance access: Floating units have limited space and maintainability needs to be carefully planned to minimise off-field works, which could disrupt supply.

z Safety: Emergency shutdown systems, marine exclusion zones, and crew training are paramount.

EXMAR has in-house expertise to ensure these challenges can be overcome with innovative cost-efficient solutions implemented from the design of the units and

mooring systems. Early involvement of its specialist maritime LNG operators, with decades of LNG experience, are well placed to ensure lessons learned are considered during the early phases.

FSU implementation case study

In 2022, EXMAR developed a project where its 138 000 m3 LNG carrier Excalibur (delivered by Daewoo in 2002) was converted into an FSU to remain in place for a minimum of 10 years as extra storage capacity for an export terminal 3 km from shore.

As a ship, it would normally require regular dry docking, meaning that in order to stay permanently on site, a lot of life extension work has been done on top of project-specific modifications.

Examples of such life extension works are the full refurbishment of one of the 60 bar steam boilers and the installation of a few thousand anodes in the ballast tanks.

After six months of works at the shipyard, the Excalibur FSU was able to use its own steam-powered propulsion system and sailed under its own power from Dubai to its final location 3 km offshore Pointe Noire in Congo, following the route around the Cape of Good Hope.

The company, with its in-house expertise across the whole LNG value chain, served as the EPC contractor for the implementation of the export terminal. EXMAR developed the design of the mooring system, performed the conversion and life extension in a challenging timeline, commissioned the FSU, and performed the operations and maintenance of the unit for the term of the contract.

The company’s integrated approach makes it a one-stop shop for nearshore and FLNG solutions, offering governments, investors, and operators energy security and swift development of market opportunities.

In 2025, EXMAR signed an agreement for an FSU that will be deployed in Buenaventura, Colombia, for a term of five years with possible extensions up to 10 years. An LNG carrier will be converted as a permanent storage unit that will be deployed at the inner bay of Buenaventura as part of the fast-track LNG import solution that RDP is developing. The FSU will be part of the supply chain for the delivery of 60 million ft3/d of gas to the national grid.

Opportunities

The global LNG market is currently experiencing high liquidity, with an abundance of trading activity and flexibility in supply arrangements. This dynamism is supported by a large number of LNG vessels available in the market providing opportunities to convert them into FLNG units. Together with a sufficient number of experienced yards with both the technical expertise and available capacity to carry out these conversions, an integrated solution provider such as EXMAR can integrate customised solutions from engineering to start of operations in fast track manner.

With the continued growth of LNG, its role will evolve – and so will the platforms that deliver it. Nearshore and floating solutions will not replace every onshore terminal, but they will increasingly anchor the next chapter of LNG growth: one defined by mobility, modularity, and market responsiveness.

LNG Industry speaks to several companies about key factors, challenges, and developments associated with insulation for LNG projects.

Jonathan Bush, Director of Commercial & Engineering for AlkeGel, Alkegen

Jonathan Bush stands at the forefront of revolutionary insulation technology as Director of Commercial & Engineering for AlkeGel at Alkegen, where he has spearheaded commercialisation of breakthrough aerogel insulation materials that are transforming industrial environments worldwide. Jon brings real-world insights into how innovative materials can solve complex industrial challenges while improving worker safety and project efficiency.

Mark Krajewski, Senior Director, Technical Services, Aspen Aerogels, Inc.

With over two decades of experience at Aspen Aerogels, Mark has been instrumental in advancing the use of aerogel-based insulation technologies across the LNG industry – from Aspen’s first LNG applications in the Northeastern US in 2007 to leading the efforts that resulted in the first insulation system qualified to protect LNG assets from sequential cold spill and jet fire hazards in 2019. Throughout his tenure, Mark has worked with owners, engineers, and contractors to help them unlock the performance and value of these next-generation insulation materials.

He holds a BS in Chemical Engineering from Northeastern University (1988) and an MBA from Babson College (2003).

Scott Sinclair, National Specification Manager, Johns Manville

Scott Sinclair has worked in industrial insulation for over 20 years, and has been the National Specification Manager for Johns Manville’s (JM) Industrial Insulation team since joining JM in June 2019. Prior to joining the insulation industry, he had 20+ years of experience in various technical, operations and sales/product management positions within the semiconductor and telecommunications industries. He has a BSEE in Electrical Engineering from Virginia Tech.

Scott represents JM and the mechanical insulation industry on various Association for Materials Performance & Protection (AMPP), American Petroleum Institute (API), National Insulation Association (NIA), and American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM International) committees. He is a NIA Certified Thermal Insulation Inspector and Insulation Energy Appraiser, and an instructor for both of these NIA certification classes.

Nathan Longwell, Specification Sales Manager – Gulf Coast, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

Nathan Longwell is associated with ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation as the Specifications Sales Manager for the Southeastern region of the US.

He brings in eight years of industrial experience; while most of it is in the after-market pump sector, he has an understanding for the needs and sustainable solutions for industrial plants.

Based in Houston, he is strategically situated near the majority of LNG owner offices, facilitating timely and effective in-person engagement and issue resolution.

Kamal Gupta, Global Key Account Manager – Asia, Middle East, and Africa, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

Kamal Gupta is associated with ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation as Global Key Account Manager for Asia, Middle East, and Africa region.

He brings in 16 years of industrial experience, having worked in research and development, application, testing and technical services of insulation products, polymeric compounds, and specialised high-performance coatings used in process industry, protective maintenances, and marine applications.

Based next to ROCKWOOL’s manufacturing unit in India, he is responsible for support on all technical aspects relating to Process, Marine, and Offshore insulation requirements.

Q1. What factors need to be considered when selecting insulation for an LNG project?

Jonathan Bush, Alkegen

Choosing the right insulation is pivotal to the successful delivery and completion of LNG projects, where pipe storing and transportation temperatures differ significantly from the ambient temperatures at which project managers and installers operate. Exposure to the elements, as well as hazardous chemicals, exacerbates the effects of these extreme temperature amplitudes. Effective pipe insulation can mitigate the safety and environmental risks associated with the petroleum industry by blocking heat ingress from the environment and controlling condensation, preventing ice buildup and providing critical passive fire protection. The decision-making factors at play should therefore be based first and foremost on safety and compliance. Then there is the obvious cost consideration, but several technical factors should also influence insulation selection. To ensure operational continuity, returns on investment, and operational efficiency, project managers should choose insulation that is quick and easy to install, certified for the required thermal performance, and of the optimal thickness and weight for the project. In addition, dimensional stability, ease of application, overall footprint, and the expected frequency of maintenance impact the build schedule and long-term performance. However, we should also be mindful of the fact that insulation, like most products, does not operate in a vacuum. Thermal performance, for example, can be improved depending on the interaction between all moving parts on site. Real-life conditions collectively determine whether certain type of insulation can deliver both operational performance and long-term reliability, so my advice is to seek consultation from the technical experts on the products under consideration.

Mark Krajewski, Aspen Aerogels, Inc.

Insulation selection can have an outsized influence on the overall success of an LNG project. While making up only 1% of the total cost, it can account for 5 – 10% of the craft labour hours and span 30 – 40% of the project timetable. The insulation selected can have a major influence on whether a project is on time and budget.

From a technical standpoint, the specifying engineer must assess what the primary drivers of the insulation requirements are: is it controlling condensation on the jacketing surface or is reducing heat gain into the LNG the primary driver? There are other considerations too – compressors and high velocity gases are notoriously loud, so does the insulation also need to reduce noise? Does the facility have passive fire protection requirements for process piping and equipment? Some LNG facilities now require jet fire, pool fire, and cold splash protection. On the hot side of the LNG process, a major consideration is to select materials that do not promote corrosion under insulation (CUI). The trend in facility construction is to go modular whenever it makes sense; selecting the proper insulation can allow you to move the physical insulation installation and vapour sealing from the

field to a controlled fabrication shop setting. This moves insulation hours out of the projects critical path, reducing on-site man hours, and congestion. The act of selecting the ‘right’ insulation has impacts far greater than just providing thermal protection to the asset.

Scott Sinclair, Johns Manville

Selecting insulation for an LNG project involves balancing multiple priorities across different stakeholders, including the owner/operator, design engineer, and insulation contractor. From the owner/operator’s perspective, the most critical factors are long-term performance and low total installed cost. For example, a thinner material that requires 4 – 8 times more layers may significantly increase labour costs, offsetting any savings from reduced material thickness.

For the design engineer, materials with a proven track record on LNG facilities are essential. They also prioritise availability and ease of installation, which help ensure the project stays on schedule and is executed correctly. Additionally, thermal performance affects insulation thickness, which in turn influences the design of pipe racks and supports. Material density is another key consideration – a denser product may require less thickness but could add substantial weight, necessitating more robust structural design.

The insulation contractor will focus on materials that are easy to handle and install, which can improve installation speed and reduce the risk of errors.

Ultimately, the ideal insulation system for an LNG project must strike a balance between performance, cost, constructability, and reliability, tailored to the needs of all parties involved.

Nathan Longwell and Kamal Gupta, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

Insulation materials serve several crucial purposes in an LNG facility, including heat conservation, cold insulation, acoustic protection, corrosion mitigation, passive fire protection, or any combination thereof.

For effective heat conservation, an insulation material must possess a low thermal conductivity and be able to effectively mitigate CUI. To conserve extremely cold temperatures and keep natural gas in a liquefied state, insulation must provide low thermal conductivity at low temperatures and have a closed-cell structure that is not porous to water vapour. Because cyclic plant operations can run between temperature extremes of -4˚F – 608˚F (-20˚C – 320˚C), insulation materials must be designed to withstand thermal stresses.

Because some plant operations generate high-frequency or high-decibel sound, insulation that delivers superior acoustics-dampening performance is required to protect plant personnel and neighbouring communities.

Passive fire protection requires a material with low thermal conductivity that maintains its integrity even after prolonged exposure to high temperatures.

In many plant operations, the optimal insulation material protects against multiple threats (e.g. insulation with both heat conservation and acoustic suppression properties).

Q2. What is the importance of insulation

to the LNG process?

Jonathan Bush, Alkegen

Insulation plays a vital role not only in LNG production, where it can help plants meet their quality and output requirements, but it is also important for the energy efficiency of facilities where LNG is handled, from sea-borne or land transportation to on or offshore pipe installation. One of the main benefits from insulation is that it optimises energy consumption, thereby reducing operational expenses. It also minimises evaporation losses from heat transfer between cryogenic tanks and pipelines. It protects equipment by preventing ice formation and condensation, which typically lead to corrosion. Insulation also contributes to improved safety on site by maintaining pressure stability and quieter work environments. This not only helps protect infrastructure investments, but also the people who work with LNG systems.

Mark Krajewski, Aspen Aerogels, Inc.

The benefits of operating an LNG facility with a robust, properly designed and installed insulation system cannot be overstated. With this system, the plant is efficient, has the lowest possible carbon footprint, and is safe for plant personnel and the surrounding environment. The facility will not experience weather-related variations in process conditions, and the insulated surfaces will stay dry and algae free. The facility will also be protected from the unplanned downtime that CUI can bring and, if the unthinkable happens, robust passive fire protection will give plant personnel the time needed to purge the effected processes and fall back to a safe position.

Scott Sinclair, Johns Manville

Insulation plays a vital role in the LNG process by delivering performance across three critical areas: preventing condensation (internal and external), limiting heat gain, and reducing noise.

On cryogenic piping and equipment, insulation must be thick enough to keep the outer surface temperature above the dew point. If it’s too thin, external condensation can occur, leading to mould/mildew growth, safety hazards from dripping water, and corrosion risks. Additionally, insufficient insulation allows excessive heat gain, which increases boil-off gas generation. This can cause operational instability, elevated pressures, and reduced process efficiency.

Internal condensation, which degrades thermal performance, is more dependent on the system design and installation quality – particularly the integrity of the vapour barrier that prevents moisture migration from the external environment.

Noise control is another key function. Effective acoustic insulation typically involves a combination of insulation material, mass-loaded vinyl layers, and metal jacketing. Together, these components help meet design targets for noise reduction across octave bands, ensuring safe and comfortable operating conditions within the facility.

In summary, insulation is not just a passive layer – it’s a critical system component that supports process stability,

safety, efficiency, and compliance with acoustic standards in LNG operations.

Nathan Longwell and Kamal Gupta, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

One of the main operational challenges facing an export or import LNG terminal is how to minimise the boil-off rate, or the rate at which LNG will turn into gaseous natural gas if its temperature rises above -260˚F (-162˚C). Reliquefying natural gas requires expensive and energy-intensive refrigeration systems, which lower efficiency and increase the facility’s operating costs.

A properly designed insulation system, which includes the proper selection of insulation material type, thickness, and cladding, can reduce boil-off risks and avoid the need for an extensive refrigeration step, improving plant efficiency and lowering costs.

Q3. Can insulation help reduce emissions from the LNG operations?

Jonathan Bush, Alkegen

Effective insulation directly reduces methane emissions, one of the key environmental challenges in LNG operations. Since LNG is a resource with high energy demands during its production, transportation, and installation, using the right insulation can reduce power consumption at every step of the process. Mitigating thermal stress in turn prolongs the service life of LNG equipment, necessitating fewer repairs and cutting down on transportation emissions. This not only supports global decarbonisation goals in the long term, but also helps upstream and downstream players meet their Scope 3 environmental, social, and governance (ESG) targets.

While some advanced insulation materials, such as aerogels, may carry higher upfront costs, they offer long-term benefits associated with ultra-fast installation that does not require special personal protection equipment (PPE). One of the lessons we learned from the global COVID pandemic was that the disposal of PPE is a major environmental hazard. Aerogels deliver additional environmental benefits by lowering lifetime emissions due to reduced product losses and improved vapour containment, so they are a prime example of how technological advancements can help safeguard the environment.

Mark Krajewski, Aspen Aerogels, Inc.

LNG is viewed as having the lowest carbon footprint of any of the major conventional energy sources. Facility designers are digging deep into their toolkits to further reduce the carbon intensity of the LNG that facilities produce. One often overlooked way to improve both the construction and operational carbon footprint of an LNG process facility is to choose a stringent thermal design and select an insulation that meets that strict criteria in the smallest possible footprint. This allows designers to literally reduce the footprint of the plant. Equally important is to use a system that is durable and fault tolerant so in the future the plant is just as efficient as the day it is commissioned.

Scott Sinclair, Johns Manville

Yes – insulation plays a key role in reducing emissions throughout LNG operations by improving energy efficiency in both high-temperature and cryogenic areas of the process.

In high-temperature zones, a well-designed insulation system minimises heat loss, which reduces the amount of energy required to maintain operating temperatures. This translates to lower fuel consumption, whether from on-site hydrocarbon combustion or external power generation, ultimately leading to reduced greenhouse gas emissions.

In cryogenic areas, insulation helps limit heat gain from the surrounding environment. When properly designed, installed, and maintained, the insulation system reduces the energy needed to keep process fluids at extremely low temperatures. This also results in lower emissions, both directly at the facility and indirectly through reduced demand on external energy sources.

In short, effective insulation contributes to lower energy use, greater process efficiency, and reduced emissions, making it a critical component in the environmental performance of LNG facilities.

Nathan Longwell and Kamal Gupta, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

Insulation plays a critical role in reducing emissions across LNG operations by improving energy efficiency and minimising product losses. High-performance insulation helps maintain cryogenic conditions, keeping natural gas in its liquid form with minimal energy input. By reducing heat transfer, insulation reduces the amount of energy required for refrigeration and compression, thereby cutting both fuel consumption and the associated greenhouse gas emissions.

In addition, effective insulation limits boil-off gas – the vaporised LNG that forms when heat enters storage tanks or transfer lines. Containing and reusing this gas instead of flaring or venting it helps operators curb direct methane emissions. Overall, advanced insulation materials and systems are crucial for enhancing LNG process efficiency, reducing operational emissions, and facilitating the energy industry’s transition towards more sustainable operations.

Q4.

With standards and regulations frequently revised and updated, how does this impact insulation design and quality?

Jonathan Bush, Alkegen

Unfortunately, regulations typically evolve as the result of incidents, the Grenfell Tower fire being a prime example in the UK construction industry. Insulation solutions therefore must meet ever more stringent performance requirements, depending on the application use and location. Materials that were once widely used, such as perlite or polyurethane foam, have been phased out due to performance limitations and, in some cases, serious safety incidents. Polyisocyanurate (PIR) foam, in both its multilayer, rigid form and its preformed, injectable variant, have shown different disadvantages, containing either environmentally-hazardous halogens or chemical substitutes that compromise insulation performance. Therefore, it is

paramount to test and certify any innovations in insulation materials according to the latest local regulations. ASTM C795 is the standard that defines requirements for thermal insulations used in contact with austenitic steel. ASTM C871 is contained within ASTM C795 and is the Standard Test Method for Chemical Analysis of Thermal Insulation Materials for Leachable Chloride, Fluoride, Silicate, and Sodium Ions, which covers test methods for lab processing. ASTM C795 contains the pass/fail criteria for ASTM C781. Additionally, ASTM C795 contains a requirement for corrosion testing ASTM C692, which is a 28-day corrosion test that aerogel materials must meet. Our AlkeGel Ember products are designed for higher temperature applications. The material contains high-temperature insulating wools and are 80% less dusty vs traditional aerogels.

In summary, today’s insulation must meet stricter requirements for thermal efficiency, dimensional stability, safety, and environmental health, whilst also offering best-in-class CUI mitigation.

Scott Sinclair, Johns Manville

While the core insulation materials used in cryogenic LNG applications – such as PIR and cellular glass – have remained largely unchanged for decades, evolving standards and regulations continue to influence how insulation systems are designed, specified, installed, and maintained.

Key impacts include:

z System design adjustments: Updates to codes and standards (e.g. ASTM, ISO, API) may introduce new requirements for thermal performance, fire safety, acoustic control, or mechanical integrity. Even if the base materials remain the same, insulation systems may need to be redesigned to meet revised criteria – such as increased insulation thickness, enhanced vapour barriers, or multi-layer configurations.

z Documentation and compliance: Regulatory changes often require more rigorous documentation, including material certifications, installation procedures, and inspection protocols. This ensures traceability and compliance with increasingly stringent environmental, safety, and performance standards.

z Installation practices: Updated standards may influence how insulation is installed, especially regarding vapour barrier integrity, joint sealing, and layering techniques. These changes can affect labour requirements, training needs, and quality control procedures.

z Quality assurance and testing: New or revised standards may call for enhanced testing protocols – such as thermal conductivity verification, fire resistance testing, or acoustic performance validation – to ensure consistent quality across projects and geographies.

z Sustainability and emissions: As global regulations increasingly focus on carbon reduction and sustainability, insulation systems may be evaluated not just for performance, but also for their environmental impact, including embodied carbon, recyclability, and contribution to energy efficiency.

In summary, while the fundamental insulation materials may remain stable, the design and execution of insulation systems

With 30–40 + years of demonstrated service life, TRYMER ® PIR is the insulation solution relied on for long-term performance in cryogenic environments.

Learn more about how Trymer compares in LNG applications.

*Inquire with JM for project references.

must continuously adapt to meet evolving regulatory expectations – ensuring safety, efficiency, and compliance in LNG operations.

Nathan Longwell and Kamal Gupta, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

Evolving design standards and regulations have a significant impact on insulation design and quality for LNG operations. As global and regional authorities tighten requirements around safety, energy usage, and environmental performance, insulation systems must meet higher expectations for thermal efficiency, mechanical durability, and fire resistance. For example, updated standards often demand lower allowable heat leakage rates and improved resistance to mechanical stress or cryogenic cycling. These shifts drive innovation in insulation materials and installation methods – pushing suppliers and engineers to develop solutions that not only meet compliance thresholds, but also enhance long-term performance and reliability. At the same time, sustainability considerations are increasingly shaping regulatory frameworks. New guidelines are emphasising reduced lifecycle emissions, recyclability, and safer handling of insulation materials. This encourages the adoption of advanced, high-quality insulation systems that combine efficiency and environmental responsibility. As a result, compliance is no longer just about meeting minimum requirements – it is a catalyst for better design, improved operational integrity, and reduced environmental impact across the LNG value chain.

Q5. How might insulation develop for use in the LNG industry in the future?

Jonathan Bush, Alkegen

With our AlkeGel products, the future of LNG insulation is in safe hands. AlkeGel Glacier meets the top three safety requirements of LNG applications: thermal insulation, acoustic mitigation, and best-in-class fire protection. In addition, its use translates to 20 – 30% total cost savings from installation, as AlkeGel requires minimal PPE, no special tools to cut, and is quick to install due to its malleable roll product form. AlkeGel Glacier and AlkeGel Ember protect assets

from fire, ice, mechanical damage, and CUI, whilst also helping improve energy efficiency and lower greenhouse gas emissions, ensuring that handling and transporting LNG for industry is future proof.

Mark Krajewski, Aspen Aerogels, Inc.

The trend in insulation systems is one of increased thermal resistance coupled with multiple protection requirements such as passive fire protection or noise reduction, all the while protecting metallic surfaces from corrosion. It would seem that future material developments would encompass those increased performance demands into a material that is easy to install, fault tolerant, and highly durable. Such materials exist today in the form of flexible aerogel fibre composite blanket insulation – Pyrogel and Cryogel bring those benefits and have proven their performance in the field for over 20 years. As these materials improve with future developments, all these attributes will be enhanced to bring even greater value to owners, operators, and EPCs.

Scott Sinclair, Johns Manville

As the LNG industry continues to grow and adapt to global energy demands, insulation technologies are likely to evolve in several key areas to support improved efficiency, sustainability, and performance.

1. Advanced materials

Future insulation systems may incorporate nanotechnology or hybrid composites that offer superior thermal performance with reduced thickness and weight. These materials could help optimise space, reduce structural loads, and improve energy efficiency – especially in compact or offshore LNG facilities.

2. Enhanced sustainability

With increasing pressure to reduce carbon footprints, insulation products may be developed using low-emission manufacturing processes, recyclable components, or bio-based materials. Lifecycle assessments and embodied carbon metrics could become standard in material selection.

3. Smart insulation systems

The integration of sensor technology into insulation systems could allow for real-time monitoring of temperature, moisture intrusion, and system integrity. This would enable predictive maintenance, reduce downtime, and improve safety by detecting issues before they escalate.

4. Improved fire and safety performance

As safety standards evolve, insulation materials may be engineered to offer enhanced fire resistance, lower smoke toxicity, and better mechanical resilience – especially in high-risk zones of LNG facilities.

5. Modular and prefabricated solutions

To reduce labour costs and improve installation speed, future insulation systems may be delivered as prefabricated, modular units that integrate insulation, vapour barriers, and jacketing in a single assembly. This could streamline construction and improve consistency across installations.

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With ProRox ® and CR-Tech™, the world’s first stone wool insulation with a built-in corrosion inhibitor, CUI has finally met its match. Proven to deliver 5x better corrosion mitigation than any other insulation material with inhibitors, you can be sure of unbeatable durability and performance for your pipe systems.

6. Regulatory-driven innovation

As global standards and environmental regulations become more stringent, insulation systems will need to adapt to meet new performance benchmarks, including stricter limits on thermal losses, emissions, and acoustic levels.

The future of insulation in the LNG industry will likely be shaped by a combination of technological innovation, sustainability goals, and regulatory evolution – all aimed at enhancing performance, reducing environmental impact, and improving operational reliability.

Nathan Longwell and Kamal Gupta, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

In recent years, insulation manufacturers have placed significant focus on alleviating the challenge of CUI, particularly in high-temperature, humid environments where CUI tends to thrive. The corrosion of critical pipelines under insulation can lead to costly downtime, expensive repairs, and pose threats to personnel and the environment due to leaks.

ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation has made major technological strides in developing stone wool insulation products that effectively mitigate CUI. Such innovations include our high-temperature, water-repellent WR-Tech additive, which helps shed water away from the pipe wall under the insulation, even at temperatures within the high-risk CUI zone of 100˚F – 350˚F.

Most recently, ROCKWOOL has introduced ProRox with CR-Tech, the industry’s first stone wool insulation with an integral corrosion inhibitor. The proprietary CR-Tech corrosion inhibitor is added to the inside of our ProRox pipe insulation. It activates on contact with water to form a thin, protective film on the metallic pipe surface, effectively shielding the pipe from corrosive attack.

Q6. A range of insulation is available for the LNG industry. Detail the main features behind one of your most popular insulation technologies.

Jonathan Bush, Alkegen

As mentioned, Alkegen has designed a dual-application aerogel technology specifically for LNG applications. AlkeGel Glacier has a zero-permeability integral vapour barrier, meeting the highest LNG standards for thermal pipe protection. It is suitable for both small and large bore pipe, as well as large process vessels. With this roll-format, low-dust product, we are offering competitive thermal efficiency without compromising on global sustainability mandates for the petrochemical industry. Compared to traditional aerogel blankets, our AlkeGel family offers superior material and heat flow uniformity for enhanced project safety and longevity. Hydrophobic, flexible, and resilient, AlkeGel can be installed up to 20% faster, which we believe gives LNG operators a significant competitive advantage.

Mark Krajewski, Aspen Aerogels, Inc.

Cryogel (aerogel composite fibre blanket insulation) represents the latest advancement in industrial insulation technology.

Unlike traditional cryogenic insulation materials, which are typically rigid blocks that are difficult to install and unable to accommodate differential thermal contraction, Cryogel offers a flexible, high-performance alternative. Its blanket form factor not only simplifies installation, but also delivers superior thermal efficiency, requiring less material to meet the same thermal design specifications compared to conventional insulations. Beyond thermal performance, Cryogel also provides acoustic attenuation and passive fire protection, making it a multi-functional solution for demanding cryogenic environments. Highly durable and capable of being pre-installed off-site, Cryogel delivers long-term value to facilities adopting this next-generation insulation technology. Additionally, Aspen Aerogels has been developing and manufacturing advanced aerogel blankets, Cryogel and Pyrogel, for over 20 years and is trusted by the biggest names in the LNG industry.

Scott Sinclair, Johns Manville

One of the most widely used insulation technologies in the LNG industry is Johns Manville’s Trymer® 2500 PIR. With application on over 100 LNG facilities worldwide, Trymer 2500 has earned a reputation for reliable performance and minimal maintenance across a broad range of ambient conditions, including varying air temperatures, humidity levels, and wind exposure.

Key features include:

z High thermal performance: Trymer 2500 has low thermal conductivity, meaning it requires less insulation thickness to achieve the same thermal resistance compared to other materials.

z Closed-cell structure: This provides very low vapour permeability and minimal water absorption, helping maintain thermal integrity and prevent moisture-related degradation.

z Lightweight design: Among leading cryogenic insulation options, Trymer 2500 has a significantly lower density, which reduces the load on pipe racks and supports – allowing for less robust structural design and potential cost savings.

z Efficient installation: With individual layer thicknesses up to 3 in., Trymer 2500 typically requires one-quarter to one-third fewer layers than alternative solutions. This simplifies installation, reduces labour time, and contributes to a lower total installed cost.

In summary, Trymer 2500 offers a balanced combination of thermal efficiency, structural advantages, and ease of installation, making it a preferred choice for LNG insulation systems.

Nathan Longwell and Kamal Gupta, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

ProRox PS 965 is our latest mandrel wound stone wool pipe insulation, combining the high-temperature water repellency of WR-Tech with our CR-Tech corrosion inhibitor. This combined technology offering helps keep the insulation drier while also minimising the risk that any remaining water within the insulation will reach the pipe wall. Extensive testing to ASTM standards has shown that CR-Tech (in combination with WR-Tech) effectively protects the pipe and buffers the corrosive environment formed by salts leaching out of the insulation.

Q7. Provide a short case study of an insulation installation at a stage of the LNG process.

Jonathan Bush, Alkegen

LNG facilities require advanced insulation solutions that can meet stringent fire protection requirements whilst optimising installation timelines and costs. We were recently specified to work on an LNG project that had to meet rigorous safety standards, requiring 65 mins. of jet fire protection under temperatures reaching 350˚C. By implementing AlkeGel aerogel insulation materials, the project achieved superior safety performance, significant cost savings, and accelerated commissioning schedules, demonstrating the material’s value across multiple critical project dimensions.

Additionally, the facility needed to meet ISO 15665 acoustic performance requirements without compromising installation efficiency or project timelines. Traditional insulation approaches would have required substantial material thickness, mass loaded vinyl for acoustic compliance, and extended installation periods that threatened the project schedule. The project team selected AlkeGel Fyre and AlkeGel Glacier insulation materials to address these fire protection requirements. Using either 20 mm of AlkeGel Fyre or 40 mm of AlkeGel Glacier, the installation provided over 2 hours of jet fire protection at the same 350˚C temperature range. This performance significantly exceeded the 65-min. requirement, delivering additional response time and enhanced safety margins in the event of an emergency. The ability to achieve superior fire ratings with less material thickness compared to alternative solutions established a foundation for both safety excellence and project efficiency.

One of the most significant advantages realised on this project was the acoustic performance achieved without requiring mass loaded vinyl. The AlkeGel insulation system delivered a D2 acoustic rating under ISO 15665 standards using only 60 mm of insulating material. Traditional approaches would have necessitated the installation of mass loaded vinyl layers, which provide no functional value beyond acoustics. By eliminating this requirement, the project avoided both the material costs of the vinyl itself, and the labour costs associated with securing mass loaded vinyl every three layers during installation. This acoustic solution alone resulted in approximately 15% total installed cost savings while simultaneously accelerating the installation timeline. The use of AlkeGel Glacier, particularly in its thicker 15 mm format, delivered substantial installation advantages. The thicker material meant fewer layers were required to achieve target performance specifications, and the uniformity of the aerogel material provided more predictable performance characteristics throughout the installation. This combination generated an additional 10 – 12% total installed cost savings beyond the acoustic-related savings. The reduced layer count and material consistency allowed installation teams to work at a significantly faster pace, with productivity improvements ranging from 20 – 30% faster than standard insulation materials.

Beyond the direct installation benefits, the AlkeGel material properties created unexpected advantages in overall site coordination and productivity. The low-dust characteristics of the aerogel insulation eliminated the need

for trade zone separation at the fabrication yard where several components were built out. This meant that welders, electricians, and insulation installers could all work side by side without the typical safety separations required when dustier insulation materials are being installed. The elimination of trade zones allowed for more flexible scheduling, higher personnel density in work areas, and improved overall productivity rates across multiple trades. The accelerated installation pace allowed the team to bring the project back on schedule during this critical period, directly impacting the timeline to operational status. The cumulative cost savings from eliminated mass loaded vinyl, reduced labour hours, faster installation rates, and improved site co-ordination created a compelling economic case that complemented the enhanced safety profile. Advanced AlkeGel insulation materials can simultaneously address safety requirements, reduce total installed costs, and compress project schedules, delivering value that extends well beyond the traditional insulation performance metrics.

Mark Krajewski, Aspen Aerogels, Inc.

Cryogel was utilised on a liquefaction facility in Cameron Parish, Louisiana in the US. The EPC and owner had many reasons to specify the material; however, the one that delivered the most value during construction was its ability to be pre-installed on cryogenic piping. This permitted the EPC to fully insulate and vapour seal 280-ft long pipe spools and lift them directly into the pipe rack. This saved a huge amount of on-site labour, which normally sits right in the critical path to completion. The ability to change the construction paradigm contributed to this mega-project breaking the record for time to first LNG from groundbreaking in 58 months, despite being impacted by two major hurricanes and a global pandemic. Cryogel’s combination of efficiency, toughness, and ease of installation allow the EPC and owner to capture that value that completion timeline afforded.

Nathan Longwell and Kamal Gupta, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

Stone wool products embedded with CR-Tech corrosion inhibitor represent a true industry first and, while industry interest is growing, the technology has yet to be deployed in an LNG facility. However, ProRox PS 965 with CR-Tech was recently utilised by a Canadian oil and gas operator that was experiencing significant CUI-related downtime and maintenance costs. After a thorough review, including comprehensive third-party testing, the operator was convinced that the product demonstrates the optimal balance of corrosion mitigation and acoustic protection for its miles-long network of field pipelines.

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With US LNG playing a pivotal role in global energy security, Colin M. Frazier, API, discusses how emerging management programmes can provide operators with a proven framework for continuous improvement in process safety.

War, sanctions, geopolitical uncertainties, and shipping disruptions have reshaped global energy dynamics, forcing countries to re-evaluate how they source natural gas. Europe, in particular, has turned towards LNG as an alternative to pipeline supplies, while Asia continues to expand its use of LNG to meet its growing energy needs.

These trends show no sign of slowing. Global LNG trade is projected to grow from current levels of nearly

55 billion ft 3 /d to between 70 – 95 billion ft 3 /d, depending on the scenario, by 2040. This underscores the long-term strategic role US LNG will play in supporting energy security worldwide, with an export capacity that is predicted to steadily increase as new and expanded facilities come online.

With its abundant shale gas resources, the US has emerged as Europe’s largest LNG supplier. In 2019, the US accounted for 4% of the EU’s total natural gas imports.

By 2Q25, that share has surged to 27%. US LNG provides Europe with a reliable source of natural gas as the region reduces its reliance on Russian supplies.

With this increased output comes additional challenges that demand responsible operations to ensure LNG remains a durable alternative to pipeline supplies. For LNG operators, that responsibility is process safety. As capacity scales (whether through expansion or by adding new facilities), systems and supply chains get more complex, and a structured system to make sure appropriate management of these risks helps ensure the time and attention given to safety is used efficiently. LNG facilities handle large volumes of flammable hydrocarbons under demanding conditions, and the consequences of a process safety event can be life-threatening.

Fortunately, LNG operators do not have to start from square one with process safety management. They can draw on decades of lessons learned across refining, petrochemical, and chemical operations, applying them through a proven safety management framework. For instance, API’s Process Safety Site Assessment Program (PSSAP®) is a structured, industry-led programme that

provides a clear path to assess and strengthen process safety management. It is an approach that is more important than ever, especially as US LNG rapidly expands to meet global demand.

What is at stake?

New LNG facilities introduce layers of technical challenges and operational risks (think cryogenic storage systems and high-pressure transfer operations), much like the risks faced in other hydrocarbon processing facilities or heavy industrial facilities. So, as new and expanded US LNG export facilities arise along the US Gulf Coast and other areas to meet growing global demand, their risks must be actively managed.

Effective management requires a process safety management system – a disciplined framework for designing, operating, and maintaining facilities to prevent catastrophic incidents – but this is not new territory for the LNG industry. Over the past several decades, the downstream sector has made major strides in improving process safety performance through collaborative programmes such as the API-AFPM Advancing Process Safety (APS) Initiative. APS is an industry-wide effort to gather data, share lessons learned, and define good practices for operators processing hydrocarbons. The APS Initiative therefore provides LNG operators with a strong starting point as they look to scale up quickly to meet global demand.

The case for a structured process safety management approach

Building on prior downstream learnings requires a structured system at the site level. In the US, OSHA’s Process Safety Management (PSM) Rule (29 CFR 1910.119) provides such a structure. While not mandatory for all LNG export facilities, PSM provides a common structure to help companies and sites guide their risk management and operational excellence programmes, helping them to protect workers, surrounding communities, and the environment. Consultants and subject matter experts (SMEs) can support process safety management system implementation work, too. However, those engagements often result in learnings that are limited to a single operator or facility. Additionally, such an approach is limited in its ability to benchmark against peers or to learn from others’ good practices in a consistent, repeatable way. This is where the PSSAP comes in.

A proven solution

Created in 2012, PSSAP is a voluntary, not-for-profit initiative that provides operators with information-rich assessments intended to help them strengthen process safety across facilities that process hydrocarbons, chemicals, or are otherwise regulated by OSHA’s PSM regulations. While API does not conduct regulatory audits, PSSAP gives operators insights into many of the same areas as OSHA’s PSM. However, it diverges in its approach by drawing on industry expertise and lessons learned to provide additional information. PSSAP’s elements include the latest consensus on industry good practices, helping companies implement programmes

PSSAP® ENHANCES SAFETY PERFORMANCE ACROSS THE INDUSTRY

API’s Process Safety Site Assessment Program (PSSAP®) demonstrates a commitment to a culture of safety and continuous improvement at LNG sites.

PARTICIPANTS BENEFIT FROM SHARED LEARNING, INDUSTRY BENCHMARKING, EXPERIENCED ASSESSORS AND MORE

To learn more visit: API.org/PSSAP

that prioritise the prevention of serious incidents. The goal of the industry programme is to help sites mature their process safety management programmes beyond compliance, while continuously improving and reducing the potential for safety incidents.

Each of API’s PSSAP assessments is conducted by a team of experienced third-party assessors, all with more than 25 years of direct experience, many of whom are recognised experts in the field. Over the course of a week, the experts review a facility’s programme and procedures in depth while also spending considerable time in the field, talking with operators, engineers, contractors, and senior leadership to understand how safety systems are being applied. The combination of document review and on-site verification provides a clear picture of both strengths and opportunities for improvement.

Industry programmes and LNG in action

For LNG operators now scaling up to meet global demand, PSSAP offers a field-tested framework for helping operators to assess their safety performance and identify ways to improve. To date, API has conducted four LNG facility assessments, with additional assessments planned through 2026 in multiple countries. These build on the more than 200 assessments completed since the programme’s launch, giving LNG operators confidence that they are drawing on a widely used and accepted framework.

As part of this framework, every participant receives a comprehensive review that includes:

z Analysis against more than 800 industry-developed good practice requirements that form the programme’s assessment protocols.

z Detailed observations identifying both current strengths and areas for improvement.

z Benchmarking data showing how the facility compares with anonymised peers, provided annually for six years after the assessment.

z Considerations for continuous improvement planning, helping sites take actionable next steps to strengthen safety performance.

It is a comprehensive approach that resonates strongly among programme participants. A spokesperson from Cheniere, a global provider of LNG, noted: “The assessments are not just reviewing procedures and written programmes and records that are provided to them. They are going out and talking to operators, engineers, and different specialists all the way to senior management. So, it really covers all aspects of process safety.”

By combining structured assessment processes with peer benchmarking and direct field validation, PSSAP equips LNG operators with a snapshot of performance, as well as resources and practice shares that can be used by the operator to continuously improve.

Bottom-line results

Since its inception, PSSAP has built a record of improvement across participating facilities. Nearly all sites that undergo two or more assessments see higher benchmarking scores, with some improving by more than 25% compared to their first review. These gains are especially notable in critical areas such as mechanical integrity and reliability, key elements of safe operations.

API benchmarks each requirement in the protocols, allowing participants to compare their results on a PSSAP assessment in a blinded and anonymous way. This six-year rolling benchmarking effort currently hosts results from 57 sites, ensuring participants can get a true sense of their performance relative to their peers, all with statistical rigour.

The programme’s impact extends beyond benchmarking and good practice sharing; data and trends collected through PSSAP feed directly into API’s standards development process and the APS Initiative, ensuring that guidance and work aids reflect real-world challenges and evolving good practices. Many of the programme’s assessors also serve on API standards committees, creating a continuous feedback loop between site-level experience and industry-wide best practices.

A stronger future

As LNG expands to meet global energy demands, the industry’s commitment to safety must remain firm, delivering reliable energy in a way that protects workers, communities, and the environment.

API shares that commitment and has worked with operators and contractors to strengthen standards and promote safe, responsible energy development. That same collaboration supports PSSAP, which offers LNG operators a proven framework for continuous improvement in process safety management.

By participating, LNG facilities can gain detailed insights into their operations along with benchmarking and lessons learned from peers – critical insights that strengthen both individual sites and the industry as a whole.

In a Q&A with LNG Industry, Abang Yusuf Abang Puteh, Senior Vice President of LNG Assets at PETRONAS, shares how the company’s pursuit of innovation

has been fundamental in advancing the industry’s decarbonisation journey.

The global LNG market continues to evolve rapidly, driven by rising energy demand, the need for diversified supply sources, and the push for cleaner, lower-carbon solutions. PETRONAS, Malaysia’s national oil and gas company, has remained at the forefront of this shift, demonstrating leadership in innovation through pioneering projects such as the world’s first floating LNG (FLNG) facilities and, most recently, the first cargo sail away from LNG Canada. With PETRONAS floating LNG (PFLNG) Satu and PFLNG Dua each achieving their 100th cargo deliveries, the company continues to set new benchmarks in project delivery and operational excellence.

By 2035, the company envisions gas as the destination fuel, anchored by market-leading production capacity and a proven 40-year track record of delivering over 16 000 LNG cargoes safely, reliably, and on time to more than 25 countries globally. As the company advances its transformation into a progressive,

lower-carbon solutions provider, every business decision is guided by a single vision: to deliver reliable, competitive energy that bridges today’s needs with tomorrow’s possibilities, ensuring PETRONAS remains essential in the global energy transition.

LI: PETRONAS has marked several major milestones this year, from the first cargo sail away from LNG Canada to PFLNG’s continued success. What do these milestones reveal about PETRONAS’ long-standing commitment to redefining LNG operations through innovation?

AY: Innovation has always been at the heart of PETRONAS. When the idea of FLNG was first introduced, it was considered a bold move into uncharted waters. There were no precedents to draw

from or proven models to follow, yet we recognised the potential of this technology to unlock remote and stranded gas resources that would otherwise remain untapped. The success of PFLNG Satu and PFLNG Dua proves that vision was well-founded, establishing PETRONAS as a pioneer in floating LNG.

Building on this momentum, the recent first cargo delivery from LNG Canada marked another industry breakthrough, underscoring our commitment to progressing with innovation, blending technical expertise, continued operational excellence, and global partnerships to deliver reliable and sustainable energy solutions to the world. Developed together with joint venture partners, LNG Canada is not only the country’s first LNG export facility, but also designed to be one of the lowest-emissions LNG export facilities globally.

Beyond PFLNG and LNG Canada, our commitment to innovation started closer to home. In line with PETRONAS’ aspiration to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050, we are advancing an initiative to utilise green power to the PETRONAS LNG Complex (PLC) in Bintulu. Through this initiative, the facility will utilise hydroelectric power to gradually replace gas turbine-driven power generation, further reducing our greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and carbon footprint.

Together, these milestones and efforts highlight PETRONAS’ commitment to innovation, setting new benchmarks in operational excellence and strengthening our role as a reliable, lower-carbon energy solutions partner.

LI: With PFLNG Dua delivering its 100th cargo in May 2025, and PFLNG Satu reaching the same milestones just months earlier, how has PETRONAS’ FLNG journey evolved, and what breakthroughs in technology and operations have been critical to its success?

AY: The delivery of the 100th cargoes from both PFLNG Satu and PFLNG Dua is a testament to the reliability and scalability of FLNG technology. Our flagship FLNG facility, PFLNG Satu, paved the way as the world’s first operational FLNG facility, and later became the first in the world to be relocated from Sarawak to Sabah. The redeployment proved exactly what FLNG was envisioned for; mobility and flexibility to unlock different gas fields, demonstrating the capability to move from one location to another.

PFLNG Dua built on this success with the ability to operate in water depths of up to 1500 m and produce 1.5 million tpy of LNG. This innovation has allowed us to monetise fields that were once considered too remote or uneconomical, turning previously stranded resources into valuable energy supply.

Equally transformative are the technological enhancements we have integrated into these assets. The remote operation centre (ROC), for instance, allows real-time monitoring and control of PFLNG offshore operations from onshore Kota Kinabalu, reducing offshore headcount while ensuring both safety and efficiency. These advancements demonstrate how we have continually optimised our operations through pioneering engineering with digital innovation to deliver safe, consistent, and competitive LNG supply.

LI: PETRONAS is now developing its third shore-based floating LNG facility. How will this new facility push the boundaries of floating LNG innovation even further?

AY: Building on the proven achievements of PFLNG Satu and PFLNG Dua, the third FLNG facility will bring additional capacity of around 2 million tpy while leveraging closer proximity to shore. It is part of our aspirations to ensure our LNG assets remain flexible, efficient, and capable of meeting the growing energy demands. The new facility will incorporate advanced features such as energy-efficient aero-derivative gas turbines and power generation systems to reduce its carbon footprint.

For our customers, the newbuild represents greater supply resilience and access to cleaner energy, while for the industry it underscores the role of FLNG as a viable and scalable solution in the energy transition.

LI: Taken together, how do LNG Canada and PETRONAS’ PFLNG facilities strengthen your ability to deliver LNG with greater flexibility, efficiency, and sustainability for global customers?

AY: What sets PETRONAS apart is the diversity and adaptability of our LNG assets. In addition to our existing supply nodes in Malaysia, we also have supply nodes in Gladstone LNG, Australia, and Egyptian LNG, Idku. LNG Canada is a strategic addition to our global network of supply nodes that support our efforts to diversify LNG portfolio and improve market flexibility. The facility is also the world’s lowest-emission LNG export facilities with GHG gas intensity levels around 60% below the global average, reflecting a significant milestone in our lower-carbon journey. Its Pacific-facing location offers yet another efficient shipping corridor, enabling us to deliver long-term energy solutions at scale, responsibly and reliably.

At the same time, our FLNG facilities allow us to monetise remote or deepwater gas resources directly at source, without the need for costly pipelines or onshore processing.

Together, LNG Canada and our FLNG facilities form a balanced model of scale and agility, diversifying our supply nodes, improving market flexibility, and ensuring that our global customers have reliable access to lower-carbon energy when and where they need it most. Both LNG Canada and our FLNG facilities complemented the long-standing strength of the 30 million tpy PLC in Bintulu, which remains our cornerstone supply node. By integrating the scale of PLC with the flexibility of floating LNG and the strategic addition of LNG Canada, PETRONAS is able to deliver long-term value through diversified assets that deliver both operational excellence and lower-carbon solutions.

LI

: Looking ahead, how will innovation across PETRONAS’ LNG assets continue to support global energy transition goals?

AY: The energy transition demands that LNG not only be reliable, but also lower-carbon and more sustainable. At PETRONAS, innovation is central to delivering on this expectation. Through digitalisation, automation, and remote operations, we are making our LNG assets more efficient with a much lower carbon footprint. We are also integrating energy-efficiency measures into assets operations such as energy-efficient aero-derivative gas turbines and advanced power systems to help reduce emissions and improve overall performance.

What’s more, PETRONAS views natural gas not just as a transitional fuel, but as a destination fuel in the future energy mix, providing a stable, lower-carbon backbone for economic growth. By expanding LNG supply through diversified assets, we strengthen our role as a trusted, long-term partner in delivering reliable and sustainable energy solutions to the world.

Beyond growing our global network of supply nodes, PETRONAS is also actively exploring additional solutions across the LNG value chain, including carbon capture and storage (CCS) and electrification parts of the PLC by utilising hydroelectric power to replace gas-turbine power generation to reduce carbon footprint, complementing these efficiency gains.

Our vision is clear: to provide customers with LNG that is not only secure and competitively delivered, but also aligned with their decarbonisation aspirations. By combining the scale of LNG Canada with the agility of our FLNG assets, we are confident that PETRONAS will continue to play a fundamental role in supporting global energy transition goals.

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Nick Fryer, Vice President of Marketing, Sheer Logistics, addresses the challenges facing modern LNG transportation and explores the digital innovations that can be implemented to combat them.

The LNG industry has been experiencing major shifts over the last few years. Most recently, the US has introduced tariffs that may threaten how much Chinese buyers purchase from the US going forward. This could drastically alter where LNG is being transported around the world, and by whom.

It is a stark reminder of how quickly the industry can restructure and, with that, how necessary it is to build transportation strategies that can adjust to a rapidly changing economic and political landscape. This article will explore some of the biggest challenges that modern LNG transportation faces and the digital innovations that can be used to address them so that logistics networks are more efficient and resilient than ever.

Navigating the complexities of modern LNG transportation

Before diving into the strategies for logistics optimisation that LNG transportation can use, it is worth looking at the complexities that these strategies need to address. The industry has experienced major growth in the last few years, but there have also been plenty of obstacles to

contend with. LNG is not a simple material to transport, nor are the regulations that companies have to comply with while doing so.

Here is a closer look at the complexities that underpin modern LNG transportation:

z Temperature-controlled transit: Maintaining LNG in a liquid state with controlled, cryogenic handling is no small feat. There is little room for error and transportation requires specialised carriers and systems that can monitor temperature, pressure, and any potential boil-off gas (BOG).

z Global supply chain: Like most chemical and energy-related supply chains, the LNG transportation network is global and even when companies are selling locally, they are usually orchestrating their logistics from and through remote locations. Many of the routes that the industry relies upon also pass through politically sensitive zones such as the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal. This makes transportation that much more prone to delay and disruption. It can also make logistics very expensive.

z Risk and safety management: The flammable nature of LNG requires strict safety management protocols, and not tending to this area properly can be dangerous, costly, and can expose companies to legal issues as well. In large global operations, it can seem impossible to monitor everything, making risk management even more stressful.

z Regulatory compliance: LNG shipments are governed by complex international laws, with each regulatory body requiring its own set of documentation, clearance systems, etc. What unites these compliance issues is the necessity for LNG transportation operations to commit to transparency and traceability – a significant task when considering those operations often span vast areas of the globe.

z Sustainability: Since LNG is mostly transported by sea, the industry is subject to the International Maritime Organization (IMO)’s targets for reducing emissions. This and other sustainability initiatives have placed added regulatory pressure on LNG transport. Now it is not just about documenting and sticking to baseline transportation and safety guidelines, but about tracking and reducing energy usage too.

How to drive operational visibility through digital integration

The challenges that LNG transportation faces all point to one thing: the need for greater visibility. There are some key ways in which digital integration can improve operational visibility in LNG transport.

Integrated fleet management systems

These systems can provide dashboards that show real-time vessel tracking, fuel usage, engine health, etc. all in one place. The integration is what ensures that data does not end up fragmented and unusable. Instead, it is funnelled through a centralised platform that applies operational benchmarks. These systems are able to generate automated alerts on potential failures with cryogenic control, for example, and flag poor engine health or vessels that are behind schedule. The benefit of this level of data-driven visibility is that it makes it far easier to see potential issues, even in large, global logistics networks. It also allows companies to maintain more consistent standards across different fleets.

Sensor-based monitoring

IoT devices and other sensors are being deployed across maritime shipping operations, but they hold particular value when it comes to the high-risk world of LNG. Sensors can detect any anomalies instantly such as hull stress and cargo temperature shifts. This allows for far more proactive responses to these issues and, in turn, less risk of them snowballing into costly or unsafe incidents.

Predictive analytics

Usually powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, predictive data can help LNG carriers with routing and general fleet maintenance. These algorithms use historical sensor data to spot early signs of failure and plan maintenance. The technology provides greater insight and visibility while also pushing efficiency by automating many of the tasks associated with long-term maintenance.

Digital records

Every time an LNG vessel is tracked and logged in a digital system, it makes it that much easier to provide the necessary records for compliance. Some digital logbooks can automate the documentation itself and ensure that the data is ready to be provided to bodies like the IMO whenever requested for audit. This helps companies steer clear of fines and keep their transportation operations as free as possible of regulatory delays.

Unlocking efficiency with data-driven route optimisation

Both real-time data and predictive analytics can be used to completely transform how LNG carriers approach routing. These systems are dynamic. They are not just assisting with one aspect of routing, but all of it. They can provide insights into everything from weather issues to vessel performance, energy efficiency, and geopolitical crises that might cause bottlenecks. By doing so, the technology unlocks a new level of efficiency in LNG transportation.

Companies can plan their routes according to better fuel usage and see any potential issues ahead of time that may threaten delivery schedules or safety. There are also cost benefits as less money is lost to fuel and delays.

Delivery companies utilise routing technology to drive same-day deliveries, but for LNG carriers, the concern is meeting cargo arrival windows, which are often contractual. Missing them can impact customer trust or even incur fines. Data-driven route optimisation helps businesses stay on schedule, and if that is not possible because of extreme circumstances, the platforms can provide the information needed to help negotiate new delivery windows.

Enhancing compliance and safety through smart monitoring tools

LNG transportation is high-risk – there is no way of escaping that. Technology, however, can be used to make transportation safer and compliant with regulations. Smart monitoring tools pair IoT and other sensors with AI-powered data analytics so that LNG transportation is not just tracked, but the alert systems and documentation of everything are automated as well.

A recent study showed that in one case, simply introducing remote safety monitoring through IoT and satellites helped

provide real-time data on equipment, environmental conditions, and overall safety.1 This then reduced the need for on-site personnel and improved the safety of the operation.

Smart monitoring reduces the need for manual work while also increasing the accuracy of the task. This keeps everyone safer and ensures that every aspect is tracked digitally so that there can be full transparency with regulatory organisations. It is also worth noting that the best safety measures are proactive. There again, smart monitoring tools are highly effective. Through the use of historical data, these tools can flag potential early warnings of high-risk situations and help prevent incidents from occurring. There is an environmental benefit to this as well since LNG safety issues can quickly spiral into ecological crises. It is one of the many ways in which LNG transport efficiency goes hand-in-hand with sustainability concerns.

Case study: Digital transformation in LNG transportation

The big name that always comes up when looking at the impact that digitisation can have on LNG transport is Shell. The company has been open about its efforts to digitise operations and the way in which it has helped the company improve on both safety and efficiency.

audit preparation time by 50% and made the company’s adherence to maritime regulations more efficient.

These numbers illustrate just how powerful digital tools can be in optimising LNG transport. It is worth noting that the improvement Shell experienced invariably improved its bottom line and made the company more competitive in the LNG landscape. Embracing digitisation allows companies to not only keep up with the times but get ahead of them.

Future outlook: Embracing innovation for sustainable LNG logistics

The pressure on LNG logistics to be more sustainable and efficient is not going anywhere. If anything, the parameters are likely to get tighter in the coming decades. Thankfully, the technology that can make LNG carriers more sustainable is what is also set to make them safer and more cost-effective.

Using smart tools like digital routing and fleet systems helps both the planet and companies trying to stay competitive. Seeing how these issues come together and approaching them in a unified way through dynamic innovations is the future of LNG transportation.

Tom Mellor, Head of Technical Partnerships, UK Hydrographic Office, examines how a new data standard will help to transform LNG shipping, creating a safer future for the sector.

LNG shipping continues to stand as one of the most critical components of global energy infrastructure, transporting super-cooled natural gas across oceans to meet the world’s growing energy demands. With over 700 LNG carriers currently in operation and fleet expansion continuing at pace, the industry handles cargo worth billions while maintaining an exemplary safety record.

The sector faces unique operational challenges that distinguish it from conventional shipping. LNG facilities and shipping operations often occur in remote, challenging environments, with limited onsite staff and high operational costs, making safe navigation particularly critical. As port access options are often limited and some facilities are

ill-equipped for LNG bunkering operations, route flexibility can be restricted, and therefore, precise voyage planning is essential.

With non-negotiable safety margins and the need for operational precision, the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO)’s S-100 data standard offers transformative potential. This framework supports a wide range of hydrographic, maritime, and geographic information, enabling greater flexibility, interoperability, and integration of diverse digital data sources. By providing a more detailed understanding of the maritime environment, S-100 could enhance the already rigorous safety protocols that define LNG operations, creating new

opportunities to prevent incidents and optimise voyage planning.

LNG shipping and the safety landscape

The exceptional safety record of LNG shipping has been achieved through decades of technological advancement and operational discipline. Operations are subject to rigorous inspection regimes that exceed standard maritime requirements, with Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF)’s Ship Inspection Report Programme (SIRE) inspections taking place regularly.

Given the operational complexities stemming from specific operating temperatures and deeper draughts, LNG tankers must adopt a highly conservative approach to navigation, particularly regarding doubtful soundings. Current Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems (ECDIS) default to a 20-m under-keel clearance for safety purposes. Any planned route with less clearance cannot be plotted and will trigger system alarms.

Operational challenges continue to evolve as trade routes expand, port facilities become more congested, and environmental regulations become more stringent. The limited number of ports equipped for LNG bunkering operations compounds these challenges, restricting route options and requiring highly precise voyage planning to ensure vessels can reach appropriate refuelling facilities. This makes LNG tankers an ideal candidate for digital solutions like the S-100 framework, which can optimise operations while still ensuring compliance.

What is the S-100 framework?

S-100 is a new data framework, developed by the IHO, that will inform the next generation of maritime technologies. Unlike the current S-57 standard, S-100 will provide the user with an enriched view of the marine environment with inter-operable data layers within a unified framework. This framework will enable the integration of bathymetry, real-time tidal data, surface currents, weather information, and navigational warnings into a cohesive display, enhancing situational awareness.

The S-100 data framework will support multiple product specifications that address specific navigational needs; these will be available to the navigator in a single ECDIS display.

z S-101 Electronic Navigational Charts (ENCs) will form the foundation data layer, over which other powerful data sets will be overlaid. S-101 will provide an enhanced chart display that maintains compatibility with existing systems while enabling new functionalities.

z S-102 bathymetric surface data will offer high-resolution seafloor mapping, essential for precision navigation in constrained waters.

z S-104 water levels information will deliver real-time tidal predictions.

z S-111 surface currents will provide detailed current flow and direction data for safe navigation and route optimisation.

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) performance standard has outlined that from 1 January 2029, all newly installed ECDIS (including retrofits) must be capable of displaying S-100 data. These ECDIS will still be capable of displaying S-57 data (current ENCs) as the industry enters a ‘dual-fuel’ period. This phased approach ensures a smooth transition for the industry while maintaining compatibility with existing S-57 chart systems during the migration period.

How S-100 can benefit the LNG industry

The S-100 framework could offer significant operational advantages for LNG carriers, addressing critical challenges in a sector where precision navigation directly impacts both safety and commercial viability. S-100 implementation has the potential to unlock previously unavailable waterways while optimising cargo loading capabilities, improving route planning, and ultimately supporting safer and more efficient LNG operations.

Opening up new waterways

As LNG carriers operate within narrow safety margins that demand precise navigation and situational awareness, the S-100 framework could prove particularly valuable. The S-102 bathymetric surface specification will provide detailed depth information with increased granularity, enabling safer and more flexible route plotting than current systems allow. Real-time tidal data (S-104) integration will also allow for the combination of water levels with weather and bathymetric information to determine actual safety depths at any given moment. Importantly, this information will integrate into safety contours plotted on ECDIS displays, maintaining clean, interpretable displays for bridge teams, whilst retaining a familiar look and feel. This could give pilots and port authorities greater confidence in the depth available to vessels and potentially unlock longer tidal windows, increased draught allowances, and open access to shallow or constrained waterways.

Optimised cargo loading

With the granularity of bathymetric data afforded by S-102, this can translate to the ability to set more precise safety contours on ECDIS. This additional precision could reduce under-keel clearance requirements and potentially open up additional navigational channels that were once deemed

too shallow, or ease congestion in busy shipping lanes. With greater confidence in the depth of water beneath the keel, this could even enable LNG carriers to load additional cargo, improving efficiencies while also maintaining safe clearances in shallow or restricted waters.

Improved route planning

For LNG operators, managing the restricted number of ports equipped for LNG bunkering can be difficult. S-100-enabled ECDIS systems support optimised routing that could reduce emissions through more efficient voyage planning, directly supporting decarbonisation initiatives.

Furthermore, the framework’s ability to integrate Marine Protected Areas information (S-122) directly into navigation displays addresses a critical compliance challenge, as mariners must currently manually plot these areas during route planning, creating risks of error.

Benefits to safety

Regulatory compliance implications of S-100 adoption extend beyond navigation requirements. For ports handling LNG traffic, the S-100 data framework is likely to enable better co-ordination of large vessel movements through enhanced real-time situational awareness. Port authorities could optimise traffic flow while maintaining safety standards, supporting their dual objectives of keeping operations safe, while maximising throughput.

The framework’s environmental data layering also creates opportunities for more sophisticated hazard assessment. With LNG carriers navigating confined waterways, having the ability to access integrated displays showing depth contours, current patterns, weather conditions, and regulatory boundaries simultaneously will enable more informed decision-making relating to safety concerns. Additionally, the standardised data format has the potential to improve vessel-to-shore communications. Enhanced co-ordination with port authorities, pilots, and terminal operators could support more effective information sharing during critical phases of LNG carrier operations – from port approach and cargo transfer completion – to ensure safer operations.

Testing S-100

Current S-100 data trials provide valuable insights into the standard’s practical applications for commercial

shipping operations. The UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) and French Hydrographic Office (SHOM) are conducting live sea trials of S-100 ECDIS in the Portsmouth to Saint-Malo corridor, testing S-100 across different hydrographic authorities. These trials, involving collaboration with ECDIS manufacturers including NAVTOR, Furuno, OSI, and 7Cs demonstrate the practical benefits of S-100 ECDIS systems in real-world navigation scenarios.

Recognising the importance of customer-centric development, UKHO trial programmes are expanding to include testing with pilots, roll-on roll-off passenger ferries, fast ferries, and simulator-based shore testing to broaden feedback collection. The results of these trials are important to the UKHO and the wider hydrographic community in ensuring that S-100 meets the evolving demands of the maritime industry.

S-100 sea trials are also happening elsewhere around the world, such as in Canada’s St. Lawrence seaway, designated as an international S-100 sea trial area, which started in June 2025. These trials are focused on route monitoring and involve collaboration between the Canadian Hydrographic Service and the wider maritime community.

A safer future for LNG shipping

The S-100 data standard points towards significant advances in LNG shipping safety and efficiency. Real-time data processing capabilities supported by S-100’s standardised format create opportunities for smarter decision-making at sea.

The S-100 data standard represents a transformative opportunity for LNG shipping to enhance its already exemplary safety record through improved navigation technology and comprehensive situational awareness. The framework’s ability to integrate diverse maritime data sets into unified displays addresses specific operational challenges facing LNG carriers while supporting more informed decision-making throughout all phases of voyage execution.

The potential benefits extend beyond immediate safety improvements to encompass operational efficiency, regulatory compliance, and future technology integration. LNG carriers equipped with S-100-compatible ECDIS systems will have access to more precise navigation data, enhanced environmental awareness, and improved co-ordination capabilities that support safer, more efficient operations.

While this is exciting, industry collaboration will be essential for realising S-100’s full potential in LNG shipping applications. Implementation requires co-ordination between hydrographic offices, technology providers, and LNG operators. The phased implementation timeline provides opportunities for LNG operators to gain experience with S-100 compatible ECDIS systems before full industry adoption. Those who engage early with trials and pilot programmes can develop expertise that supports smoother fleet-wide implementation.

As the global energy landscape continues to evolve and LNG shipping volumes expand, S-100 data standards offer powerful tools for maintaining and enhancing that commitment, providing LNG operators with the technological foundation needed to navigate safely in an increasingly complex marine environment.

Willem-Wouter Rutgers, Senior Business Consultant, Quorum Software, highlights the importance of unifying LNG operations in an era of complexity.

The LNG sector is undergoing rapid transformation. Between 2016 – 2024, global LNG volumes grew at an average annual rate of 5.6%, reaching approximately 413 million t.1 While this momentum underscores LNG’s critical role in the energy transition, it also brings a sharp increase in operational complexity. From evolving commercial structures to new regulatory demands and variable trading patterns, today’s LNG terminals must operate within an increasingly intricate landscape.

Legacy systems and operational risks

Historically, many operators have managed these complexities using spreadsheets and siloed applications – tools that were never designed to support today’s pace or scale. This fragmentation undermines data integrity, complicates decision-making, and exposes companies to financial and operational risk.

In LNG operations, differences between scheduled plans and actual delivered quantities are inevitable. Invoicing for sale and purchase agreement (SPA) contracts is based on the loaded or unloaded quantity, typically verified by an independent surveyor, using measurement data from the vessel’s on-board custody transfer measurement system (CTMS) that is captured in the software. While these variances do not affect invoicing directly, they can impact cargo tracking, operational co-ordination, and the timeliness of activities like customs clearance or contract settlement. When accuracy and timing matter, unaligned data still carries operational and commercial risks.

As the industry matures, the need for integrated, auditable systems that bring cohesion to terminal operations and commercial business processes has become essential – not just for efficiency, but for resilience and accountability.

Integration plays a critical role in navigating this complexity. The ability to unify planning, scheduling, cargo management, inventory, invoicing, and compliance in a single system offers not only cost and time savings, but ensures full traceability across commercial processes. As financial regulations such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) place increasing scrutiny on data accuracy and auditability, integrated platforms are becoming indispensable in meeting both operational and regulatory obligations.

Leading LNG operators are now investing in commercial solutions that standardise workflows across multiple terminals, reducing manual re-entry and ensuring synchronised data from ship arrival or ship loading to cash settlement. Solutions like Energy Components are already

managing more than half of LNG cargoes worldwide, demonstrating a clear industry shift towards platform consolidation and system reliability.

Shifting market forces and terminal evolution: Drivers of rising global LNG demand

This need is especially acute as LNG demand continues to rise. Global forecasts anticipate a 60% increase in LNG consumption by 2040, driven largely by growth in Asia.2 Additional drivers behind this demand growth include emission reductions in heavy industries and transportation, rising energy consumption from data centres and the technology sector – particularly due to the rise of artificial intelligence (AI) – and LNG’s increasing cost-effectiveness as a fuel for shipping and road transport.

China and India, in particular, are accelerating efforts to expand their natural gas infrastructure. China plans to connect 150 million people to piped gas by 2030, while India aims to add 30 million connections in the next five years.3 Both countries are also investing heavily in LNG import capacity, recognising its role as a flexible, lower-emission energy source.

Reflecting these developments, market dynamics are also shifting. In 2024, China capitalised on favourable pricing to import 79 million t of LNG,3 while India increased its intake by 20% to meet surging power demand during an early heatwave.4 In Europe, LNG imports have risen sharply in response to supply constraints, with infrastructure investment accelerating as countries seek to reduce reliance on Russian gas.

European countries also rely heavily on underground gas storage (UGS) facilities. Often located in salt caverns or depleted gas fields, these provide crucial buffers for winter heating and unexpected supply disruptions. The EU has set mandatory filling targets to ensure a stable gas supply, particularly during the winter months.

1H25 alone saw a significant redirection of cargoes from Asia to Europe, underscoring how price, climate, and geopolitics now converge in real time to reshape supply routes.

The expanding role of LNG terminals

These shifts require LNG terminals to move beyond their traditional role as throughput hubs. Today’s operators must act as orchestrators, extending beyond what terminals offer with typical throughput agreements (TUA). Operators are managing a broader portfolio of services such as storage and reload, borrowing and lending, small scale LNG, bunkering, and ship-to-ship transfers.

Supporting this expansion calls for systems that can handle a greater volume and variety of transactions, while maintaining visibility, control, and compliance. Industry demand is rising for future-proof, integrated, cloud-based solutions that leverage AI-driven bots to support better, faster decision-making amid this complexity.

This expanded role demands the ability to manage complex, multi-party service agreements, automate nominations across several service types, and settle transactions with complete auditability. The scale and variability of today’s LNG workflows make manual or

semi-manual solutions no longer viable – particularly at high-throughput terminals that must remain agile under changing market conditions.

Shipping evolution and digital collaboration

Shipping, too, is evolving. As demand grows across continents, the global LNG carrier fleet is expected to expand accordingly.2 The rise of LNG-powered vessels also reflects the sector’s commitment to reducing emissions and advancing sustainability goals. This shift supports cleaner fuel use and meets increasingly stringent international regulations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Managing shipping logistics in this context demands seamless, real-time collaboration between terminals, traders, and fleet operators – something only possible with unified digital systems that offer end-to-end transparency. These platforms enable the synchronisation of complex schedules and operational data across multiple parties, reducing delays and operational risks.

Integrated systems also support real-time berthing forecasts, cargo documentation, and vessel arrival notifications: key features that help avoid port congestion, minimise demurrage risk, and optimise berth utilisation. These capabilities have become mission critical as chartering strategies grow more dynamic, shipping lanes more contested, and global supply chains more interconnected. By leveraging advanced digital collaboration tools, LNG operators can enhance operational efficiency, reduce costs, and maintain the agility needed to thrive in a rapidly changing market environment.

Redefining the customer experience in LNG

Customer engagement is another area undergoing transformation. The industry is shifting away from legacy systems like the Electronic Bulletin Board (EBB) – which once served as the primary interface for terminal communications – towards centralised customer portals designed for today’s pace and complexity. These modern platforms offer secure, auditable, real-time access to nominations, documentation, and change requests, eliminating the delays and inconsistencies of email-based exchanges. By acting as a single source of truth, portals reduce support burdens, streamline issue resolution, and enable immediate visibility across the supply chain. As commercial activity becomes more dynamic, these tools provide the responsiveness and transparency necessary to build trust and sustain high-value relationships.

Portals now routinely support timestamped activity logs, version-controlled documentation, and simultaneous publication of updates to all registered shippers, ensuring fairness and regulatory compliance. By aligning internal processes with these customer-facing platforms, operators also reduce administrative workload and improve data quality at every transaction point. These platforms often include alert systems that notify customers of key updates such as schedule changes, helping all parties stay aligned. Security protocols like encrypted access and user permissions protect sensitive data while enabling collaboration.

Systemic integration powers sustainable growth

Ultimately, sustainable growth in the LNG sector hinges on systemic integration across commercial, operational, and logistical functions. Today’s LNG contracts are increasingly complex, combining dynamic pricing models, varied delivery schedules, multi-location co-ordination, and evolving regulatory requirements. Managing these intricacies requires integrated software solutions that not only streamline processes, but also provide full traceability, auditability, and compliance – essential for meeting financial regulations such as SOX and industry best practices.

Beyond operational efficiency, systemic integration drives faster, more confident decision-making by unifying planning, scheduling, cargo management, inventory, invoicing, and compliance data within a single platform. This cohesion breaks down data silos and ensures that all stakeholders – from terminal operators to customers and shippers – work from a single source of truth. Such transparency is critical for reducing errors, minimising costly delays, and enhancing customer trust through real-time access to nominations, documentation, and transaction statuses.

As LNG terminals and operators face increasingly complex commercial agreements and rapidly shifting market dynamics, scalable, cloud-based digital infrastructure becomes a key competitive advantage. It enables portfolio-wide optimisation, proactive risk management, and agile responses to changing supply, demand, and climate-driven fluctuations. Integration also helps reduce the total cost of ownership by eliminating costly, error-prone manual processes and multiple disconnected applications, while enhancing data integrity and audit trails.

Quorum and solutions like Energy Components demonstrate the industry’s clear shift towards platform consolidation and integrated hydrocarbon management. More than half of global LNG cargoes are managed on such systems, highlighting how these technologies empower reasonable and prudent operators to fulfil their obligations efficiently and transparently.

As LNG cements its role as a cornerstone of the global energy transition, companies that embrace comprehensive digital transformation – integrating their terminal operations end-to-end – will define the future of resilience, agility, and sustainable growth in this dynamic, high-stakes industry.

References

1. ‘Global LNG Market Trends’, Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry (Japan), (23 June 2025), www.meti.go.jp/ press/2025/06/20250623002/20250623002-b.pdf

2. RASHAD, M. and CHOW, E., ‘Shell expects 60% rise in global LNG demand by 2040 as Asia leads growth’, Reuters, (25 February 2025), www.reuters.com/business/energy/ shell-expects-60-rise-global-lng-demand-by-2040-2025-02-25

3. ‘Asian economic growth expected to drive 60% rise in LNG demand to 2040’, Shell, (25 February 2025), www.shell.com/news-and-insights/newsroom/news-andmedia-releases/2025/lng-demand-expected-rise-by-sixtypercent-by-2040.html

4. BOUSSO, R., ‘EU energy policy trapped between US gas and Chinese green tech’, Reuters, (31 July 2025), www.reuters. com/markets/commodities/eu-energy-policy-trappedbetween-us-gas-chinese-green-tech-bousso-2025-07-31

Keren Hall, Principal Process Consultant, LNG, Midstream & Terminal Services Lead, Consulting International, KBR,

reviews Africa’s current relationship with LNG, highlighting the opportunities and challenges it presents as an energy source, and evaluates LNG’s role in the continent’s future.

Africa holds around 514 trillion ft3 of proven natural gas reserves, rivalling some of the world’s largest producers. Yet despite this abundance, per-capita gas consumption in Africa remains less than one-quarter of the global average. According to the African Energy Commission, Africa’s own energy use is still dominated by polluting biofuels and waste (54.4%), oil (26.3%), and coal (2.6%). Natural gas contributes only 7.4% to the continent’s domestic energy needs. Africa accounts for around 10% of worldwide LNG exports, and consumes about 4% of the world’s total natural gas itself.

This poses a conundrum. On the one hand, LNG exports generate vital export earnings and support GDP growth. On the other, there is a pressing need to expand reliable, affordable, and cleaner domestic energy solutions. As Africa undertakes its energy transition in the years ahead, LNG can play an important transitional role.

The opportunities and challenges

The opportunities for LNG in Africa cover both supply and demand. On the supply side, the continent has vast reserves that are still underdeveloped. Countries like Mozambique, Senegal, Mauritania, and Tanzania are emerging as new hubs. These nations, along with others such as South Africa, Ethiopia, and Morocco, account for around 84% of recent reserve growth, according to Global Energy Monitor. Nigeria, the continent’s largest holder of gas reserves, has about 209.26 trillion ft3 of proven natural gas as of January 2024, according to the Nigerian Upstream Petroleum Regulatory Commission. Yet a significant share of this gas is not monetised. The World Bank’s Global Gas Flaring Tracker 2025 shows that Nigeria flared around 6.5 billion m3 in 2024, a 12% increase on the previous year. This pushed its flaring intensity to more than twice the global average. Eliminating this routine flaring would present an additional revenue stream of over US$1 billion annually, as well as a clear improvement in environmental emissions.

There are also demand opportunities. Industrialisation, urbanisation, and population growth all demand energy. LNG offers solutions for power generation and for industrial facilities where a reliable supply is critical. It can also replace more polluting and expensive liquid fuels like diesel and heavy fuel oil, or multiple smaller energy users can be supplied by via road, rail, or river delivery of LNG to local gas distribution networks.

However, there are significant challenges. In terms of infrastructure, inland areas have weak road and rail networks, making it difficult to move product reliably. As well as this, the region’s political and security landscape also adds complexity and increases financing costs. Another concern for producers is competition at the global level, with new LNG supply

ramping up in places like the US, the Middle East, and Asia-Pacific. Despite these challenges, African projects have an opportunity to compete and attract investment by managing costs and ensuring reliability.

Stranded and associated gas

Stranded gas reserves, which are located in areas without access to pipelines or export infrastructure are still common across Africa. Associated gas, which is often produced alongside oil, is still regularly flared or reinjected.

LNG provides a way of unlocking this value. Floating LNG (FLNG) projects, as well as modular and small-to-medium scale liquefaction plants, can bring in revenue from resources that would otherwise go unused. For example, Nigeria’s first 2.8 million tpy FLNG facility is expected to start operations in 2028. Similarly, Senegal and Mauritania’s Greater Tortue Ahmeyim (GTA) FLNG project shows that offshore gas can be commercialised without the need for large onshore plants and pipelines.

Small scale and modular LNG

Modular LNG facilities are also emerging at the smaller end of the scale. These plants typically produce less than 1 million tpy and can be built more quickly and at lower cost. Instead of relying on major pipelines or ports, their output can be transported by truck, rail, or containers. This allows LNG to reach inland industrial sites, mining operations, and power plants, which would otherwise rely on diesel or heavy fuel oil.

In parts of East Africa, modular, small scale LNG plants are being deployed to handle smaller gas volumes, typically 20 – 30 million ft3/d with scalable designs. Instead of relying on fixed pipelines, these schemes use a ‘virtual pipeline’ model. Here, gas is liquefied on site, loaded into cryogenic containers, and then transported by road to inland customers. Regasification units are then located near the point of use, whether that is an industrial site, power plant, local gas distribution network, or transport hub.

At a time when global gas flaring hit 162 billion m3 in 2024 – the highest level since 2007 – and almost equivalent to the total annual gas consumption in Africa, converting stranded and associated gas into LNG not only provides a valuable source of revenue, but also reduces flaring and cuts emissions.

Africa’s LNG transition

Most African countries today are reliant on liquid fuels such as diesel and heavy fuel oil which are usually imported, expensive, and emissions intensive. However, Africa’s energy transition does not have to follow the same journey as Europe or North America. LNG is a cheaper, cleaner alternative to

oil-based fuels, producing fewer emissions and pollutants, which can ultimately improve the region’s energy security.

For many, LNG is also the key to helping in the transition to renewables. Africa has world-class solar and wind potential, but these are intermittent. Natural gas is a flexible, reliable backup that can help to stabilise the grid and ensure consistent supply. African economies can use LNG to shift away from high-emissions fuels, while building the infrastructure for a more sustainable energy grid.

Case in point

Experience shows that no one-size-fits-all solution exists when developing LNG in Africa. Projects can range from micro scale inland developments to large offshore export hubs, each of which requires a tailored approach.

KBR was one of the first companies to support LNG in Africa. The company has supported projects at Bonny Island in Nigeria for decades, and more recently contributed to development for the GTA FLNG project in Senegal and Mauritania.

KBR has a 30-year track record at the Bonny Island LNG complex, Nigeria’s flagship LNG facility. Beginning in 1995, KBR and its partners delivered EPC services for the first six LNG trains, completed between 1999 – 2007. These projects established Bonny Island as one of Africa’s largest LNG export hubs.

In 2018, KBR was again selected by Nigeria LNG (NLNG) to carry out the FEED for the Train 7 expansion project, working with TechnipFMC and JGC. Train 7 is designed to add around 8 million tpy of liquefaction capacity, raising NLNG’s total production to approximately 30 million tpy.

KBR has also played a key role in the GTA LNG project, located on the maritime border of Senegal and Mauritania. The project is one of the world’s first deepwater FLNG developments, with a vessel designed to deliver around 2.5 million tpy of LNG in its initial phase.

In 2017, KBR was awarded the project’s pre-FEED and project support contracts, followed in 2018 by the FEED contract for Phase 1 infrastructure, covering the hub and terminal facilities. Since then, this has expanded to include EPCM services for Phase 1, integrating the hub, quarters and utilities, and supporting systems.

KBR continues to support multiple LNG projects in Africa, including the development of small scale repeatable modular designs for associated gas monetisation.

Overcoming the obstacles

Developing LNG in Africa is different from other mature markets. The permitting process can be protracted; logistics networks are often underdeveloped and the access to skilled labour is limited. This is made worse by political instability and security risks, which can put off lenders from financing projects.

Overcoming these obstacles is not easy, but modularisation can help to reduce the risk by offering a system that can be scaled in phases, with lower up-front capital costs and the ability to start generating revenue early. These smaller, flexible designs can also allow projects to respond quickly to demand or changes in policy. Small scale, modular, and repeatable designs can be made reusable so that they can be moved to enable use on shorter life sites.

Another important factor is developing the capacity of the local workforce and strengthening the supply chain. For developers, it is vital to build this resilience into their operations, through good security planning, logistics redundancy, and sound financial structures.

LNG’s role in Africa’s future

Africa’s LNG sector is at a crossroads. With vast reserves, new projects in Mozambique, Senegal, Mauritania, and Nigeria, to name a few, as well as growing export potential, LNG is set to play a pivotal role in the continent’s economic growth. At the same time, LNG can help meet domestic energy needs by displacing costly, polluting liquid fuels and supporting the integration of renewable energy.

Africa is a diverse region and there in no one-size-fitsall approach. Success will depend on using a mix of large scale export hubs with flexible, small scale, modular, and repeatable solutions that are tailored to local demand. Done correctly, LNG will both drive trade and support Africa’s energy transition.

I-Tech evaluates the impact barnacle fouling has on the LNG transport industry and examines how effective antifouling techniques can make huge improvements.

As vessels that generally trade in high biofouling exposure regions have the occasional need to steam slowly or experience long periods of inactivity, the global fleet of LNG carriers faces a higher risk of barnacle biofouling compared to many other ship types.

While protecting these vessels from the 4000+ marine biofouling species in the depths and shallows is no mean feat, their unique operating profile, often in warmer waters between the Middle East and Asia, significantly widens the

window of opportunity for barnacle larvae to make their home on the hull and in niche areas.

It is a lesser-known fact that barnacle larvae can only attach themselves to a ship hull when a ship is stationary or is travelling at a low speed up to around 6 knots. For that reason, it appears that barnacles are less of a threat to ships when compared to other biofouling species, which can colonise on the hull without the need for stillness or slowness. However, since LNG carriers sail in waters where

barnacle larvae are more present, intermittently sitting idle for short or long periods, this makes them a sailing and sitting target for barnacles.

Commercially idle LNG carriers are also at great risk. While the LNG shipping sector is rapidly evolving, with 303 LNG carriers being built globally and 98 scheduled for delivery in both 2026 and 2027 respectively, nearly 60 LNG carriers sat idle in May 2025 – according to data from Clarkson Research. This is attributed to oversupply following a downturn in the market, putting these off-hire LNG carriers at risk of sitting for long periods of time in waters where it is a barnacle paradise, with the perfect conditions for them to colonise.

It is a known fact that barnacle fouling creates an extremely high level of hydrodynamic drag on the hull. As soon as larvae have the chance to attach, they glue themselves to the surface and create a calciferous bottom plate using one of the strongest glues in nature. From this glued baseplate, they build up walls around their soft body to form a volcano-shaped shell.

The frictional resistance that the volcano-shaped hard shells of the barnacles create when water flows over the hull surface slows the vessel down, creating the need for a ship to burn more fuel to maintain the same speed or, if a vessel is operating on fixed shaft power, it will suffer speed losses.

Therefore, for the LNG-carrying fleet, like for any other type of ship, wherein fuel costs are one of the most critical components of the ship’s operating expenses, mitigating the negative impact of barnacle biofouling on vessel performance is a significant challenge, particularly when the risk of contracting barnacle biofouling is so high.

Barnacle fouling is more prevalent than commonly thought

In a recent study commissioned by I-Tech, developers of the barnacle repelling antifouling technology, Selektope, and conducted by coatings consultancy group, Safinah, nearly one-fifth of a sample group comprising 685 vessels inspected in dry dock between 2015 – 2025 were found to have more than 20% of their hull surface covered by barnacles.

This extensive analysis of hull condition ranged across a large group of ships, varying in type and age, and findings confirmed that the presence of barnacle biofouling is ubiquitous.

Alarmingly, more than one-fifth of vessels inspected in the sample group, comprising the majority of vessel types with a range of trading activity levels, were found to have over 20% of their underwater hull surface covered with barnacle biofouling, whereas only 140 vessels inspected had the optimal condition of less than 0.1% barnacle biofouling coverage.

Although this sample group is relatively small compared to the 55 000 merchant ships trading internationally, the high prevalence of barnacle biofouling on these vessels provides an indicative insight that should concern the industry given the immense negative impact of barnacle biofouling on vessel emissions.

The presence of barnacles is higher on tankers

In the study, barnacle biofouling was found on all vessel types. However, it was present on tankers more than on other ship types. For example, almost 90% of tankers were found to have barnacle biofouling present on their underwater hull with varying intensity, compared to around 70% of pure car carriers and container ships inspected.

It was also clear that lower activity vessels are at greater risk and barnacle biofouling is more prevalent on the flat bottom area compared to vertical sides or boot top hull areas.

To a certain degree, variations in barnacle biofouling between vessel types can be attributable to different root causes; different paint systems, speed, activity, and route. However, the presence of more than 10% barnacle biofouling coverage can result in significant added resistance, with 36% more shaft power required to maintain the same speed through water. This has a significant negative impact on a vessel’s fuel use and subsequent emissions to the atmosphere.

Extrapolating from published data, this level of hard biofouling could be responsible for at least 110 million tpy of excess carbon emissions, and an additional US$15 billion spent for the global commercial fleet. The actual figure is likely to be higher, as this is a conservative calculation based on current low sulfur fuel oil prices and only assumes a 10% coverage of hard biofouling.

Therefore, the significant extent of hard fouling found across this sample of 685 vessels demonstrates the magnitude of unnecessary demand being placed on engines due to barnacle biofouling, increasing fuel consumption and emissions, and exacerbating speed losses due to increased hydrodynamic drag.

The findings that more than one-fifth of vessels in this study had more than 20% barnacle biofouling also reinforces the fact that antifouling coating systems with good static performance, boosted by the presence of biocides that target

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hard fouling, even under extended static conditions, are an absolute necessity if barnacle fouling is to be reduced to much lower levels for fleets on a global scale.

In an additional part of the research study, data analysis conducted on a sample group of vessels using coatings containing Selektope showed that, in the majority, no barnacle biofouling was present. This confirms that effective barnacle fouling protection is always worth the investment, not least because these organisms can drag a vessel’s Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) down and thrust greenhouse gas emissions up.

With a lifespan of 25 – 30 years, LNG carriers will sail through multiple regulations coming into force that require the tightening of emissions and maintaining of high vessel performance to reduce high fuel costs and minimise the commercial impact of potential carbon taxation systems.

From the conclusions drawn in the research paper, advice for shipowners and/or operators includes the careful consideration of complex biofouling protection components, particularly the biocide complex composition, during the antifouling coating selection process. Ensuring adequate hard biofouling protection, for all vessels, but particularly those at risk of more extended idling periods while in service, is essential for the proper protection of the global shipping fleet from barnacle biofouling.

Innovating to beat barnacle biofouling

As the first line of defence against biofouling for most marine vessels, biocidal antifouling coatings play an integral role

in the decarbonisation challenge of the global shipping industry and in mitigating biosafety risk from commercial vessels, in the short and mid-term future.

In the face of increasing biofouling pressures, innovative strides are being made by coating manufacturers to meet this challenge using the limited number of marine biocides that are approved for use and at the lowest concentration possible, all while ensuring that coatings continue to deliver the biofouling protection that the global shipping industry requires.

For barnacle fouling prevention, the antifouling technology, Selektope, is used in many antifouling coatings as a technology that acts as insurance. This backup technology is deployed as needed during times when a vessel is idle or operating at low speeds. This is due to its highly selective precision, efficiency at extremely low concentrations, and sustained performance under static conditions.

Selektope is an organic, non-metal active agent that prevents barnacle fouling by temporarily activating the swimming behaviour of barnacle cyprid larvae, repelling them from the hull surface. As it is an organic compound, the barnacle larvae metabolise it and return to normal function after a few hours. When included in 60-month antifouling coatings, this assures that a vessel can remain idle for extended periods without experiencing the adverse effects of barnacle fouling, which is very important for LNG carriers, their unique trade patterns, and operating profiles.

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