• Cognitive, emotional and social child development
• Human life cycle and ageing
• Identity and relationships
• Religion and myth VIDEO
• Religious conflicts around the world
• Social conflict and inequality
• Modern society, globalisation and multiculturalism
• The public sphere
• The welfare state
• Mass media and information
• Adolescence
• Teens issues
• Individuals, groups and social cognition
• Crime and deviance
4 PEDAGOGY p. 86
5 LAW & ECONOMICS p. 112
CAREER ADVICE p. 138
• What is pedagogy?
• The history of pedagogy (1)
• The history of pedagogy (2)
• Voices in pedagogy (1)
• Voices in pedagogy (2)
• Voices in pedagogy (3)
• Voices in pedagogy (4)
• The origins of law
• Politics and rights
• Human rights
• Employment rights
• Women’s rights
• The right to integration
• Production and business sectors
• Learning styles
• Teaching styles
• Emotional intelligence
• Learning disabilities and learning difficulties
• Special educational needs: the journey to inclusion
• Economics and the business world
• Banking
• Finance
• Marketing
• Advertising
VOICES IN THE NEWS
Body art
• Tattoos Are Nothing New
• Body piercing
LITERARY VOICES TEST YOUR COMPETENCES
Ernest Hemingway: old age and resilience
FILM CORNER
The Curious Case of Benjamin Button
The importance of memory
COMPITO DI REALTÀ
Creating a memory archive about post-war life in your country
The use of AI
• AI Elections
• The use of AI to predict future crime
The impact of climate crisis
• Climate Anxiety
• Positive steps to tackle climate anxiety
George Orwell: Nineteen Eighty-Four and fake news
FILM CORNER
Coded Bias
William Golding: is it easy to be young?
FILM CORNER
Billy Elliot
Child-centred education
• Does the Montessori Method Work? VIDEO
• Empathy education
Charles Dickens and education
FILM CORNER
Good Will Hunting
Protect the environment
COMPITO DI REALTÀ
Making an environmental educational project
iGeneration issues
COMPITO DI REALTÀ
Creating a social advert
Bring your memories into the future
COMPITO DI REALTÀ
Creating a time capsule
Marketing & advertising
• Marketing to Millennials and Zoomers
• Debranding
Adrienne Rich: poverty, the greatest injustice
FILM CORNER
Sorry We Missed You
Business plans
COMPITO DI REALTÀ
Designing promotional material
DOSSIER HIGHLIGHTS
1 THE UNITED KINGDOM p. 152
2 THE UNITED STATES p. 174
• Geography VIDEO
Quick facts
• History
Key moments in the 20th and 21st centuries
• Society and culture
VIDEO
UK population and identity
Food and sport
• Geography VIDEO
Quick facts
• History
Key moments in the 20th and 21st centuries
• Society and culture
US population and identity
Food and sport
3 THE ENGLISHSPEAKING WORLD p. 196
• English-speaking countries
The British Empire Colonisation in Africa Ireland VIDEO Canada VIDEO
• Economy
Primary sector
Industry and manufacturing Service sector
Adam Smith
John Keynes
• Economy Primary sector Industry and manufacturing Service sector
21st-century crises
Australia and New Zealand VIDEO
The Caribbean VIDEO
South Africa VIDEO
India VIDEO
4 THE EUROPEAN UNION & THE UNITED NATIONS p. 214
• International institutions
Key events in the history of the EU
EU institutions
VIDEO
Issues facing the EU
The EU agenda
VIDEO
The EU and young people
TEST YOUR COMPETENCES p. 234
EXAM PRACTICE p. 236
The United Nations
UN system
UN Human Rights Council
UNESCO – World Heritage List
The 2030 Agenda
• Politics
The UK political system
The Constitution Devolution
Queen Elizabeth II (1926-2022)
The UK Government and Prime Minister Political Parties
• Politics VIDEO
The US political system Political parties US elections
CITIZENSHIP
Women’s rights VIDEO
Gender equality
PODCAST The gender gap
LITERARY VOICES
Virginia Woolf and feminism
FILM CORNER
Made in Dagenham
The digital world VIDEO
Fake news
PODCAST The digital divide
Henry David Thoreau: an experiment in sustainability
FILM CORNER Into the Wild
Sustainable cities and communities around the world VIDEO
PODCAST Improving air quality
Margaret Atwood: the risk of global extinction
FILM CORNER Before the Flood
Climate action VIDEO
Green Capital and Green Leaf Awards
PODCAST Eco-influencers
George Gordon, Lord Byron: a beauty to protect
FILM CORNER
The Day After Tomorrow
è il nuovo corso in lingua inglese destinato al triennio del Liceo delle Scienze Umane e del Liceo Economico Sociale.
Il volume si articola in 5 moduli dal contenuto settoriale e 4 dossier di civiltà, organizzati in questo modo:
THEORY
• Testi teorici che affrontano i temi di indirizzo con approfondimenti tratti da fonti, documenti e video autentici.
• Attività per lo sviluppo delle abilità linguistiche, per la preparazione alle certificazioni Cambridge e alla Prova INVALSI.
• Box di approfondimento (LOOK CLOSER e FACT CHECK).
• Attività di personalizzazione attraverso la produzione orale e scritta (YOUR VOICE) e incentrate sulla mediazione, sul debate e sullo sviluppo delle 6C e delle soft skills
VOICES IN THE NEWS
• Articoli tratti dalla stampa internazionale con attività in stile INVALSI e Cambridge English Qualifications
• Attività di produzione finale incentrate su mediazione e debate
TEST YOUR COMPETENCES –COMPITI DI REALTÀ
LITERARY VOICES
• Analisi di brani letterari classici e contemporanei collegati ai temi del modulo e del dossier.
• Suggerimento di visione di un film in tema con il brano letterario corredato da attività di comprensione.
Ogni modulo si conclude con la verifica delle abilità e delle competenze attraverso un compito di realtà che consente di mettere in pratica in modo autonomo e all’interno di un contesto autentico simulato quanto appreso.
Puoi scaricare gratuitamente dal sito www.gruppoeli.it i seguenti materiali: materiale didattico supplementare tutti gli audio in formato MP3 | il FLIP BOOK
Punk music and culture Scheda di approfondimento online
The British Isles Video autentici con attività nel FLIP BOOK
PRELIMINARY Attività per la preparazione agli esami & FIRST Cambridge English Qualifications: B1 Preliminary e B2 First
CRITICAL Attività per lo sviluppo delle 6C THINKING e delle soft skills
AI ACTIVITY
Attività per un uso consapevole dell’intelligenza artificiale e per lo sviluppo delle competenze digitali
CAREER ADVICE
Una sezione dedicata all’orientamento: suggerimenti per individuare i propri punti di forza e consigli pratici per affrontare la ricerca del lavoro e l’ingresso nel mondo professionale, per scegliere il percorso di studi universitario, per scrivere correttamente un CV e per preparasi al meglio per affrontare un colloquio di lavoro e l'esperienza dei PCTO.
DOSSIER
La ricca sezione di civiltà offre un approfondimento relativo a geografia, storia, società, economia e istituzioni del Regno Unito e degli Stati Uniti, una presentazione degli altri principali paesi di lingua inglese (ESW) e infine cenni storici e obiettivi dell’Unione Europea e dell’ONU.
CITIZENSHIP
In ogni dossier vengono proposti percorsi di Educazione civica e di analisi degli obiettivi dell’Agenda 2030.
Ogni sezione si apre con un video per la flipped classroom e si chiude con un podcast con attività di critical thinking
LITERARY VOICES – FILM CORNER
A conclusione di ogni dossier, un percorso letterario e una clip di un film inerente al tema trattato, come nei moduli.
TEST YOUR COMPETENCES
Al termine della sezione Dossier un momento di autovalutazione con compito di realtà, come nella sezione analoga in chiusura dei moduli.
EXAM PRACTICE
Prosposte e spunti per alcuni collegamenti interdisciplinari da poter effettuare durante il colloquio d'esame.
Il FLIP BOOK è la versione digitale interattiva del libro di testo. È possibile scaricarlo su computer o tablet utilizzando il codice presente all’interno della copertina.
Inoltre si può utilizzare l’App EliLink per ascoltare gli audio, guardare i video e fare gli esercizi comodamente su smartphone Che cosa c'è nel FLIP BOOK?
• esercizi interattivi e auto-correttivi e audio degli esercizi di ascolto
• diverse tipologie di video con opzione sottotitoli
• FLIPPED CLASSROOM con video
• libro liquido, dove è possibile modificare lo sfondo e il carattere del libro digitale, e ascoltare la lettura dell’intero volume
• accesso diretto alle schede di approfondimento
• Voices in Human Sciences for everyone
OBJECTIVES
THEORY
Getting to know:
• what anthropology is
• its history
• its main theories and voices
• human beings and their environment
• issues related to the life cycle
ANTHROPOLOGY
‘The purpose of anthropology is to make the world safe for human differences.’ Anthropologist Ruth Benedict (1887-1948)
• issues related to identity
• issues related to religion and myth
• issues related to religious conflicts
NEWS
The meaning of body art and tattos over time and in different cultures
LITERARY VOICES
• Ernest Hemingway: old age and resilience
• Film Corner
The Curious Case of Benjamin Button
Contenuti digitali della sezione
THINKING ROUTINE
1 VISIBLE THINKING Look at the photo. See
1 What are the people doing? How are they dressed? Think
2 Where do you think they come from? Wonder
3 What would you like to know about them and where they live?
FLIPPED CLASSROOM
2 British anthropologist Desmond Morris uses the expression ‘the Soccer Tribe’. What does Morris mean by this expression? What is similar about modern football fans and ancient tribes? Do people behave differently when watching their favourite team win or lose? Why?
3 Watch the video about football in Soweto and answer the questions.
1 How many people are at the Soccer City Stadium in Soweto today?
2 Who are the Kaizer Chiefs playing against today?
3 What is the name of the special trumpets fans make a lot of noise with?
4 What does Dan Magness do?
5 What ‘African warm-up’ do children do before the match?
6 Where do people play football and freestyle?
Percorsi interdisciplinari
Scienze Umane
La ricerca etnografica Italiano
Malinowski: il padre della moderna etnografia
Il tema dell’invecchiamento nella letteratura contemporanea
Non è un paese per vecchie di Loredana Lipperini Diritto
Carta europea dei diritti dell’anziano
Scienze Umane / Sociologia
Il ruolo degli anziani nella società contemporanea
Storia dell’arte
Dalla Maddalena di Donatello, passando per il Guercino e Michelangelo, fino al Novecento: come l’arte rappresenta la vecchiaia e la malattia
Narok, Masai Mara: Masai women in traditional dresses
WARM UP
1 Look at the picture and answer the questions. Then read the introduction and check your answers.
• Who can you see in the picture?
• What are the two people doing?
• How does this relate to anthropology?
LOOK CLOSER
Archaeology is sometimes considered a type of anthropology. Archeologists study the things that people made or used in the past to understand how they lived. Archeologists often specialise in a specific culture or period of history.
FACT CHECK
Anthropology studies all humans: past, present and future; not only remote or tribal groups.
1 behaviour: comportamento
2 entertainment: intrattenimento
3 environments: ambienti
4 customs: usanze
5 fieldwork: ricerca sul campo
6 beliefs: credo, convinzioni
READING COMPREHENSION
What is anthropology?
Anthropology comes from the Greek words ánthrōpos, ‘human’, and logos, ‘word’ or ‘thought’. It is the science of people, society and culture. Anthropology studies the history, lives, behaviour1 and interactions of people all over the world. It examines the physical side of being human: our genetics and what we look like. It also considers the social side of humans: our language, culture, politics, family and religion. Anthropologists help us understand more about ourselves and others by examining what is similar or different about each society, and what makes us think and act the way we do. They work in academic settings, but also in areas like education, health, business and entertainment2
The four main types of anthropology
Cultural or social anthropology studies the behaviour that groups learn in specific environments3. Cultural anthropologists examine how customs4 develop in different cultures through fieldwork5 and observation. They research subjects like technology, politics, religion, health, and social change.
Linguistic anthropology studies how language influences societies, social networks, cultural beliefs6, and our understanding of the world. Linguistic anthropologists interview and record people speaking in their everyday lives. They research topics such as how modern languages have evolved.
Biological or physical anthropology studies the physical evolution of humans. Biological anthropologists look at how physical changes in our skeleton or genes connects to our social and cultural behaviour through history. Research can focus on genetic diseases, or on monkeys, our closest living relatives, analysing how we are similar or different. Psychological anthropology studies people’s beliefs, feelings, and motivations within cultural contexts. Psychological anthropologists research topics such as emotion, memory, sexuality, or trauma; as well as how we develop psychologically in different societies.
2 Read the text about the main types of anthropology and answer the questions with C (cultural anthropology), L (linguistic anthropology), B (biological anthropology), or P (psychological anthropology). Which type of anthropology...
1 interviews and records people talking? L
2 investigates illnesses?
VOCABULARY
3 Complete the table with the missing words.
Subject
Anthropology
3 is interested in religion?
4 learns about customs?
Person
(1) anthropologist
(2) archeologist
Biology (3)
(4) diplomat
Economics (5)
(6) historian
Philosophy
5 looks at our emotional life?
6 studies monkeys?
(7)
(8) psychologist
YOUR VOICE
4 CREATIVE THINKING In pairs, discuss which type of anthropology you would like to study and why. I’d like to study cultural anthropology because I am interested in how societies work and…
▲ A traditional Maori greeting between two New Zealander rugby players
VOICES IN THE NEWS
5 Read the article about cultural anthropology and complete it with the words in the box.
where
out
How Anthropology Shapes the Way We See the World
Anybody can apply cultural anthropology to their life; in finance, business, journalism, or just observing everyday things (1) dogs, face masks, or chocolate. This might sound strange, but for former anthropologist Gillian Tett, who today works as a journalist for the Financial Times in New York, it is not. Anthropology teaches us two key lessons. First, understanding people with different perspectives helps make sense of the world. Second, stepping into another worldview helps people better understand (2) Tett believes that her background in anthropology helped her see things in the world of finance that others might miss. She has attended many investment banking conferences, which reminded her of Tajik weddings. Both are rituals (3) people reaffirm social ties and shared values: at the conference, through PowerPoint presentations, at the wedding, through dancing. But this anthropological perspective is not just for distant places or high finance. It can be applied to everyday life. Take, for instance, dogs. In many Western cultures, it is normal to say that a dog is part of the family. However, in places like Tajikistan, that idea seems bizarre. In most cultures throughout history, animals have been viewed as separate (4) humans. They may be close, but they certainly don’t sleep in the bed! What is different between these contexts isn’t the dog itself, but the idea of family. In the West, people live in a consumer-driven, individualistic society where they customise nearly everything – even their families. If someone wants to include a dog in their family, they can. That flexibility is liberating, but it can also be a bit disturbing.
Another example is cell phones, especially when it comes to teenagers. People often say teenagers are ‘addicted’ to their phones because of technology. However, years ago, teens roamed freely on their bikes or in the streets, exploring the world and pushing boundaries. Today, they (5) more restricted, and the only space where they can roam without anybody watching is online. Their attachment to cell phones is less about addiction and more about a need for independence. Face masks are also cultural objects. In recent years,
we have learned how masks stop germs, but they also signal cultural messages. They show respect for science and communities. Culture changes over time, and things like masks, which people once didn’t even think about, can quickly become part of everyday life.
Finally, (6) consider something as simple as a Kit Kat. Originally a British chocolate-covered biscuit, it was adopted in Japan as a good-luck charm for exams, flavoured with local ingredients like green tea and wasabi. In time, the Japanese Kit Kat was exported back to Britain. It’s a reminder that culture is like a river, always flowing and evolving.
The COVID-19 pandemic gave everyone a chance to experience culture shock – a shock that disrupted what was considered normal. It presented an opportunity to step (7) of our bubbles and see the world through fresh eyes. While this experience was uncomfortable, it also created a chance for us to grow.
So, whether it is looking at dogs, Kit Kats, face masks, or cell phones, Gillian Tett wants people to remember that culture shapes the world. And the beauty of it is that culture is not static. It can change and (8) can we.
Source: www.ted.com/talks
▼ An Indian Sikh wedding
WARM UP
1 What do you know about the Silk Road? Where was it? Who used it and when? Read the text and check your answers.
The history of anthropology
Like many academic subjects, anthropology originated in ancient Greece. In the 5th century BC, the Greek historian Herodotus described the customs of the people he met in the Persian Empire. He probably introduced the concept of white Western cultures as superior to non-white Eastern cultures. Trade routes1 also became important in expanding an interest in different societies and cultures. Chinese diplomat Zhang Qian negotiated trade agreements2 across Central Asia in the 2nd century BC. This led to the Silk Road3, which was a vital link, East to West, for thousands of years.
During the Middle Ages, Christian scholars4 dominated European thinking about human origins and cultural development, promoting the idea that God created all human existence and diversity. In the thirteenth century, Venetian merchant and adventurer Marco Polo travelled and wrote in detail about Central Asia. This increased Western awareness of Asian people and customs, however the observations of the explorers who followed were often superficial and disorganised.
Many people consider the Age of Enlightenment as the start of modern anthropology. Scholars wanted to understand human behaviour and society according to defined principles. Influential Enlightenment thinkers included French natural historian Georges Buffon, who studied humanity as one of many zoological species. Scottish philosopher, historian and economist David Hume, English and French philosophers John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau also based their work on philosophical reason not religion and asked important anthropological questions. For example, Locke questioned whether or not we should remove rulers who fail to protect the life, liberty and property of their citizens, while Rousseau wondered if society corrupts people, who are born good.
1 trade routes: rotte commerciali
2 trade agreements: accordi commerciali
3 Silk Road: Via della seta
4 scholars: studiosi
5 laws: leggi
READING COMPREHENSION
The nineteenth century saw the establishment of the first anthropology departments at universities such as in Göttingen, Vienna, at Harvard and the Sorbonne. Scholars described indigenous cultures they encountered in colonial territories as primitive or inferior, theories considered racist today. By the twentieth century anthropologists began to observe communities more closely, living with them for a long time, rather than comparing cultures and identifying universal laws5 of behaviour. Contemporary anthropology is able to analyse more complex information about people and cultures with technologies like X-rays, CT scanners, DNA tests and digital reconstruction using AI.
2 Read again and put these key anthropological moments in the correct chronological order (1-8).
A Anthropology departments open at universities
B Establishing trade routes
C Exploration of Asia
D Observing communities more closely from within
E The concept of Western cultures as superior to Eastern cultures
F The idea that God created all human existence and diversity
G Using new technologies as tools for anthropology
H Using reason not religion as a basis for anthropology
The Silk Road was an ancient trade and cultural route, taking silk and Buddhism west and wool, gold, silver and Christianity east. LOOK CLOSER
3 MEDIATING TEXTS & CONCEPTS Research online one of the anthropologists mentioned in the text, then give a presentation to the class. You should find out:
• where and when the person lived;
• what the person discovered or studied;
VOICES IN THE NEWS
• what the person believed;
• what the person wrote;
• why the person was important.
4 INVALSI Read the text about a new type of ancient human. Parts of the text have been removed. Choose the correct part (A-J) for each gap (1-8). There are two extra parts that you should not use.
A New Type of Ancient Human
Researchers working in Israel have identified a previously unknown type of ancient human that lived alongside our species (1) F. They believe the remains uncovered near the city of Ramla represent one of the ‘last survivors’ of a very ancient human group.
The finds consist of a partial skull and jaw from an individual who lived between 140,000 and 120,000 years ago. The team members think the individual descended from an earlier species that may have spread out of the region hundreds of thousands of years ago and given rise to (2)
The scientists have named the newly discovered lineage the ‘Nesher Ramla Homo type’.
Dr Hila May of Tel Aviv University said the discovery reshaped the story of human evolution, particularly our picture of how the Neanderthals emerged. The general picture of Neanderthal evolution had in the past (3)
The team thinks that early members of the Nesher Ramla Homo group were already present in the Near East some 400,000 years ago. The researchers have noticed resemblances between the new finds and ancient ‘pre-Neanderthal’ groups in Europe. There are several human fossils from the caves of Qesem, Zuttiyeh and Tabun that date back to that time that could not be attributed to any (4) . But comparing their shapes to those of the newly uncovered specimen from Nesher Ramla justify their inclusion within the (new human) group.
Dr May suggests that these humans were the ancestors of Neanderthals, saying that ‘the European Neanderthal actually began here in the Levant and migrated to Europe, while interbreeding with other groups of humans.’
Others travelled east to India and China, said Prof Israel
A as this may be dated back to a skull of a similar period
B and Neanderthals in Europe
C been linked closely with Europe
D frequented by prehistoric humans
Hershkovitz, suggesting a connection between East Asian archaic humans (5)
The researchers base their claims on similarities in features between the Israeli fossils and those found in Europe and Asia, though their assertion is controversial. Prof Chris Stringer, from the Natural History Museum in London, UK, (6) . ‘Nesher Ramla is important in confirming yet further that different species coexisted alongside each other in the region at the time and now we have the same story in western Asia,’ he said.
‘However, I think it’s a jump too far at the moment to link some of the older Israeli fossils to Neanderthals. I’m also puzzled at suggestions of any special link between the Nesher Ramla material and fossils in China.’
The Nesher Ramla remains themselves were found in what used to be a sinkhole, located in an area (7) . This may have been an area where they hunted for wild cattle, horses and deer, as indicated by thousands of stone tools and bones of hunted animals.
According to an analysis by Dr Yossi Zaidner at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, these tools were constructed in the same manner that modern humans of the time also made their implements.
This suggests that there were interactions between the two groups as it is only possible to learn how to make the tools through (8) . The findings suggest that human evolution is far from simple and involved many dispersals, contacts and interactions between different species of human.
Source: www.bbc.co.uk/news
E has recently been assessing Chinese human remains
F more than 100,000 years ago
G Neanderthals in Europe and their equivalents in Asia
H specific known group of humans
I visual or oral learning
J very occasionally this kind of link can be verified
WARM UP
1 Tick (3) the theories that you think belong to the field of anthropology. Then read the texts and check your answers.
Cultural relativism
Diffusionism
Evolutionism
Functionalism
Multiculturalism
Naturalism
Particularism
Realism
Prominent precursors of the study of anthropology include English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (15881679) who believed that we sacrifice our freedom to authority in order to feel safe. For fellow English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704), humans are more concerned with economics than with society. While Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1776) favoured empiricism, experience and experiments over theories. However Swiss-born, French philosopher Jean-Jaques Rousseau (1712-1778) was most famous for his idea of a ‘social contract’, which would give people real freedom in exchange for their obedience to a self-imposed law.
Eugenics is the study of how to improve the human race by carefully choosing parents, who will produce the strongest children. It became widely criticised after the Nazis used it to justify their plan to exterminate entire races during WWII.
Voices in anthropology (1)
1 survive: sopravvivono
2 die out: si estinguono
3 are spread: si trasmettono
4 on its own terms: in base alle proprie caratteristiche
5 kinship: parentela
Evolutionism
Evolution is the process of gradual change that takes place over many generations within different species of animals or plants. British naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) described the evolution of the biological organisms existing in the world in his work, On the Origin of Species (1859). British philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) then applied social Darwinism to the development of human societies, classes and individuals. He first referred to the ‘survival of the fittest’ in his book, Principles of Biology, after reading Darwin’s work. This principle, also known as natural selection, describes how some species of plants and animals adapt to their environment, survive1 and reproduce, while others die out2
Diffusionism
According to diffusion theory, ideas, customs, or practice are spread3 from one culture to another. British Egyptologist G. E. Smith (1871-1973) and British anthropologist W. J. Perry (1868-1949) suggested that all civilisation originated in Ancient Egypt, and then spread to other parts of the world. German anthropologists like Father Wilhelm Schmidt (1868-1954) agreed that humans borrow information and cultural elements from other cultures, but recognised several different cultural centres, in a theory known as Kulturkreise, or cultural circles. A group of American anthropologists, led by Clark Wissler (1870-1947) and Alfred Kroeber (18761960), believed diffusion always changes the receiving culture.
Particularism and cultural relativism
Particularists believed that each culture and society should be described and understood on its own terms4. German-born, American anthropologist Franz Boas (1858-1942) recognised that each culture is unique and its society develops in its own distinctive way. That is why Boas introduced the concept of ‘cultural relativism’ and invited anthropologists to ignore common ethnocentric views. Cultural relativism is the basis for modern anthropology: the idea that we should try to understand a person’s beliefs and behaviours from the perspective of their culture, not our own.
Functionalism
This is the theory that society’s institutions, positions and laws are interdependent and necessary for its survival. Based on the idea that society is like a living organism, its economic, social, political and religious institutions work together to keep it going. British anthropologist A. R. Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955) was interested in how kinship5 promotes order and solidarity within societies. Polish-born anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942), on the other hand, insisted on the need to observe culture first-hand in order to understand it.
LOOK CLOSER
Culture and personality
This approach applies psychology to anthropology in order to identify different personality types and their importance within a culture. It draws attention to symbols and emotions in anthropology, while also recognising that culture is part of perception, motivation and learning. The work of American anthropologists Ruth Benedict (1887-1948) and Margaret Mead (19011978), both followers of Boas, popularised this method in the 1930s and 1940s. Benedict, for example, compared the personality traits of the Zuni, a traditional, Native American tribe, with people from more modern American cultures. She observed that the Zuni had more contained emotions and were more communityfocused, while other Americans were more expressive and focused on the individual.
Structuralism
This is the theory of examining things not in isolation, but as part of a bigger structure. French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-2009) is best-known for his work on ‘structuralism’, reducing a lot of information about cultural systems to the essential relationships between their different elements. For example, he suggested that you cannot only look at a single-unit family consisting of father, mother and children, as it is part of a larger system of grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins, nephews, nieces and others. To truly understand kinship, you must analyse it in context.
READING COMPREHENSION
2 INVALSI Read again and answer the questions using no more than four words.
1 What theory did Herbert Spencer develop? Social Darwinism.
2 Where did civilisation come from according to Smith and Perry?
3 Why did Boas introduce cultural relativism?
4 How does society work in functionalism?
5 Which approach applies psychology to anthropology?
6 Who said that you should look at families in context?
VOCABULARY
3 Match the words (1-6) to the definitions (a-f).
1 evolution
2 natural selection
3 ethnocentric
4 diffusion
5 kinship
6 personality type
LISTENING COMPREHENSION
a a set of characteristics occurring together b based on the idea that one’s own race or nationality is superior c the relationship between members of the same family d the process of gradual change that takes place over time in different species e how only some species adapt to the environment f to spread ideas and customs from one culture to another 1
4 INVALSI Listen to a lecture about structuralism. While listening, complete the sentences (1-8) using no more than four words.
1 Structuralism was influenced by the German schools of
2 The aim of phenomenology was to make philosophy
phenomenology and Gestalt psychology
3 Gestalt psychology focused on the perception of experiences as
4 Between the 1920s and 1930s, Ferdinand de Saussure applied structuralism to
5 He argued that language is made up of rules that speakers know but
6 Lévi-Strauss believed anthropology should focus on patterns of human thought
7 He developed the idea of binary oppositions: hot and cold, male and female,
8 Lévi-Strauss proposed that cultures are also governed by
▲ Claude Lévi-Strauss
LOOK CLOSER
Infrastructure is how society serves the basic needs of its people in the local environment.
Structure is a society’s economic, social and political organisation.
Superstructure is a society’s ideology and symbolism.
Voices in anthropology (2)
Neo-evolutionism
Emerging after WWII, this theory asserts that cultural evolution and change occur when societies develop and use energy and technology efficiently. The more complex the use of technology, the more complex the cultural development. American anthropologists Leslie A. White (19001975) and Julian H. Steward (1902-1972) were influential in investigating this concept.
Marxist anthropology and cultural materialism
Marxist anthropology developed as a critique of the dominant Euro-American capitalism in the 1960s. It studies social class, conflict, economy, production and distribution, considering material factors as the main cause of social change in any culture or society. Based on the work of nineteenth century German philosophers, Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), it has been criticised for not being particularly interested in culture. Cultural materialism uses Marxist ideas to examine socio-cultural systems. It identifies three interrelated levels: infrastructure, structure and superstructure.
US anthropologist Marvin Harris (1927-2001) popularised this theory in his 1968 work
The Rise of Anthropological Theory. Critics argue that cultural materialism oversimplifies1 the relationship between culture and environment, and fails to see the complexity of human cultures.
Symbolic and interpretative anthropology
This theory analyses how people use established signs and symbols in their behaviour to give meaning to their experiences. Culture does not exist beyond individuals, but in their interpretations of events. It emerged from the work of Victor Turner (1920-1983), Clifford Geertz (1926-2006) and David Schneider (1918-1995) at the University of Chicago. They used tools from psychology, history and literature to analyse symbols in different cultures.
Unconscious bias
Do you think that your judgement, or the decisions you make, are influenced by a person’s gender, race, age, size, height, disability? We are all influenced by who and what we know, but it is vital to understand our own biases and ensure that they don’t affect our decision-making or relationships.
1 oversimplifies: semplifica eccessivamente
2 shape: modellano
3 bias: pregiudizio, preconcetto
Postmodernism
Mainly concentrating on language and power, postmodernists think that it is impossible to be objective about another culture because we interpret it through our language, cultural background, and personal experiences. This perspective became popular in the 1980s, in response to the Cold War and a period of social change. French philosopher and anthropologist Michel Foucault (1926-1984) helped to promote the idea that anthropology should focus on the power dynamics of a society – i.e. the relationships between people and organisations and how authority is distributed – and how they shape2 human behaviour.
French anthropologist Marc Augé (1935-2023), trained and influenced by Foucault, is renowned for his concept of ‘non-places’, such as airports, train stations, shopping centres and bus stations, which however elaborate and grandiose, do not give you a sense of place. This reflects the paradox of modern life in big cities, where we are surrounded by many people, but still feeling lonely.
Marco Aime (1956-) is an Italian anthropologist and writer, whose research has covered many areas, countries and cultures with particular interest in the concepts of identity and tourism. He also writes works of fiction that explore the everyday choices that we should make to ensure a fairer world and the survival of our planet.
Feminist anthropology
Concerned with women’s roles in societies around the world, feminist anthropology emerged in the 1970s in response to male prejudice. It often focuses on gender and how this makes us interpret the world. Famous feminist anthropologists include Louise Lamphere (1940-) and Gayle S. Rubin (1949-).
FACT CHECK
1 Read the texts and decide if the statements are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones.
1 In neo-evolutionism, the less technology, the more complex the cultural development.
F In neo-evolutionism, the more complex the technology, the more complex the cultural development.
2 Marxist anthropology is criticised for not being interested in culture.
3 Cultural materialism uses Marxist ideas to examine socio-cultural systems.
4 In symbolic and interpretative anthropology, culture goes beyond individuals.
5 Postmodernists think that it is possible to be objective about another culture.
6 Feminist anthropology is a response to male prejudice.
VOCABULARY
2 Match the words in the box to the definitions (1-6).
F
F
F
F
F
cultural evolution • power dynamics • symbols • cultural background • infrastructure • ideology
1 social change cultural evolution
2 a country’s transport, power, communication, etc.
3 a set of beliefs
4 they are typical of or represent society
5 the customs, language, traditions, religion, education, social, and economic factors that form an individual
6 the structure of authority
LISTENING COMPREHENSION
3 INVALSI Listen and answer the questions using no more than four words.
1 How many hours does the typical American use the Internet for every day? Seven hours a day.
2 Where do many people constantly look because of technology?
3 How do we get text claw?
4 What does ‘90-degree elbow’ cause?
5 Why might we have a second eyelid in future?
6 Who is especially vulnerable to this?
7 What can reduce human brain capacity?
8 What else might we be more vulnerable to in the future?
YOUR VOICE
4 CRITICAL THINKING make sure they don’t affect your decision-making or relationships. Use the useful language box to help you.
A I think I’m definitely biased against younger people. I never listen to my little brother and sister if they have something to say. What can I do about it?
B You should...
I think/I’m definitely biased against… because… I try not to be biased, but sometimes I feel… I tend to show bias in favour of/ against… although I know that I shouldn’t.
The best way to ensure good decision-making and relationship is to avoid/think about/put yourself in the situation of…
1 Look at the pictures and list the things that you think helped humans survive on Earth. Read the texts and check your answers.
Human beings, environment and society
Homo sapiens
AUSTRALOPITHECUS 2 and 3 milion years ago
000 years ago
SAPIENS
The beginning
To understand human evolution, we need to go back 14 billion years to when the universe began as a tiny, dense, fireball that exploded: the Big Bang. Scientists believe that life began around the volcanoes that rose above the ocean. These acted like chemical reactors, gradually creating proteins, which washed back into the sea and brought Earth alive.
For the first 3.5 billion years, animals developed a way of using the environmental temperature to regulate their body temperature. Cold-blooded amphibians and reptiles still do this. Then around 260 million years ago, warm-blooded animals like mammals1 and birds evolved. They could maintain a constant body temperature, which helped with digestion, moving faster and for longer, looking after young and fighting diseases. They spread all across the world as different species.
The most recent species in a long line of humans, homo sapiens, evolved over the course of 3 million years by learning to stand up, using tools with their hands, and developing larger brains to solve problems.
Our ancestors3 also developed the ability to produce melanin, the pigment that protects us from the sun. It was only after they started migrating from Africa that dark skin became a disadvantage. This is because it limited the sun exposure needed to produce vitamin D, so lighter skin evolved as people moved further away from the Equator
For humans still living in Africa, heat was a big problem, so they developed the ability to sweat4 , which cools the body quickly To make this more efficient, they lost much of their body hair. However, we still have a lot of hair on our heads to protect our sensitive brains from heat and keep them cool.
Hunter-gatherers
Humans became excellent hunters-gatherers5, thanks to their long legs and the fact of using their hands. They lived and worked together in large nomadic family groups, travelling long distances to find all the food they needed to survive6
The Hadza people of Tanzania are one of the last groups of huntergatherers to survive today.
LOOK CLOSER
Homo sapiens means rational human, the name for the modern species of humans evolving from apes
LOOK CLOSER
WARM UP
Civilisation
The first civilisations emerged in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley around 4000 BC. Based on large farming communities, they had food surpluses, that enabled people to work outside of agriculture. These early societies had complex systems of government, religion, and social hierarchy. They started building and trading10 , developed writing systems, and created laws to regulate people’s lives.
READING COMPREHENSION
Agriculture
Humans started to work the land about 12,000 years ago. Their lives changed dramatically when they could grow enough nutritious food to support large, settled communities. In the Middle East, they cultivated cereals, fruit and pulses7; in China, rice; while in South America, pumpkin, maize8 and potatoes. Gradually people also developed milling9 tools. During this period too, animals such as cows, pigs, goats and sheep became domesticated and people consumed their meat and milk.
FACT CHECK
Today over 90% of Europeans are lactose-tolerant, thanks to the migration of their farmer-ancestors
North and West 5,000 years ago. In parts of Africa and Asia, where cow’s milk has not been regularly consumed, this percentage can be only about 10% of the population.
1 mammals: mammiferi
2 apes: scimmie antropomorfe
3 ancestors: antenati
4 sweat: sudare
5 hunter-gatherers: cacciatori e raccoglitori
6 survive: sopravvivere
7 pulses: legumi
8 maize: granoturco
9 milling: macinatura
10 trading: commerciare
2 Read again and complete the sentences with facts from the text.
1 The began about 14 billion years ago.
universe
2 Animals became about 260 million years ago.
3 Humans evolved by learning to stand up and use with their
4 The pigment protects human skin from the sun.
5 Humans developed the ability to to cool their bodies quickly.
6 Hunters-gatherers lived in large
7 Agriculture allowed humans to grow enough for big, fixed communities.
8 The first civilisations created to regulate people’s lives.
VOCABULARY
3 Form collocations with the words from the box, then write sentences with them. Big • cold- • complex • homo • hunter- • Middle • Bang • blooded • East • gatherers • sapiens • systems
1 The Big Bang was a big hot explosion 14 billion years ago when the universe began.
YOUR VOICE
4 COMMUNICATION In pairs, discuss what you would like/dislike about the following lifestyles described in the text. Use the useful language box to help you. farming • hunter-gatherer • nomadic
A I like the idea of farming because you don’t have to depend on supermarkets for your food, but it is a hard way of life…
B Yes, I agree. I’d like a nomadic way of life because…
ONLINE RESEARCH & SPEAKING
USEFUL LANGUAGE
• I like/don’t like/prefer/I’d like the idea of… as you depend/don’t have to depend on…
• It is an easy/hard/interesting a physical/ challenging way of life because…
• Yes, I agree./No, I don’t agree./ Maybe, but…
• What about/How about...?
5 MEDIATING TEXTS & CONCEPTS Choose the three most important things about human evolution you learnt in this lesson and prepare a short presentation (3-5 minutes). You can do some additional research online.
▲ Gobeklitepe, Urfa/Turkey: archaeological excavation site – 12,000 years ago
▲ Blue Ishtar Gate of Babylon, Pergamon History Museum, Berlin
WARM UP
1 Put the stages of the human life cycle in order (1-6). Then read the text and check your answers.
old age
foetus
childhood
infancy
adulthood
adolescence
In psychology, Jean Piaget identifies four stages of life, relating to how we learn: sensorimotor (birth-two); preoperational (two to seven); concrete operational (seven to eleven); formal operational (twelve and older).
See p. 67
Daniel Levinson instead describes life stages in two types of periods: ‘stable periods’, when we make crucial life choices, or ‘transitional periods’, when one stage ends and another begins. Klaus Riegel tracks four interrelated dimensions of development: internal psychological; internal physical; external cultural-sociological; and external environmental.
1 self-awareness: consapevolezza di sé
2 gain: acquisiscono
3 deal with: affrontano
4 age: invecchiano
5 retire: andiamo in pensione
6 loss: perdita
READING COMPREHENSION
Human life cycle and ageing
The human life cycle
There are six basic stages in the human life cycle. Life begins as a foetus developing in the mother’s uterus (0-9 months). Although a baby is nearly fully-formed at birth, it continues to grow rapidly and develop its senses and basic functions through infancy (0-2 years).
Childhood is an important period for cognitive and social development (approx. 3-12 years) when we further explore our environment. There is also continued physical growth and an increase in social skills, personal habits and self-awareness1
Adolescence (approx. 13-19) is the stage between childhood and adulthood. This is when children become teenagers and they reach puberty. They gain2 more independence, form their identity and relationships, and deal with3 complex social, educational and emotional changes.
Adulthood (approx. 20-65) is when the body is fully developed and humans usually reproduce and have babies during the first half of this period. During this time, they are establishing careers, forming close relationships, and experiencing gradual physical and psychological changes as they age4
Old age (approx. 65+) is the final stage of the human life cycle before death. We retire5 and adapt to new roles in society and in our families. Some people may face health issues and a loss6 of independence. For many, it is a period in which they can relax and enjoy life.
2 Read again and answer the questions.
1 Where does a foetus remain for nine months?
2 What does a baby develop up to age two?
3 Why is childhood such an important period?
VOCABULARY
3 Choose the correct alternative to complete the sentences.
1 Life starts as a foetus developing / development in its mother’s uterus.
4 When do humans reach puberty?
5 How do adults change with age?
6 Who must adapt to new roles?
2 A baby develops its basic functioning / functions until around two years old.
3 In childhood, there is important developing / development: cognitive and social.
4 Teenagers gain independence / independent and form their identification / identity
5 Reproduction / Reproducing usually occurs in adulthood.
6 Some people have health / healthy issues as they get older.
LOOK CLOSER
Ageing
Average life expectancy is now over 73 years old, although this varies greatly from the poorest to the richest countries in the world. However, generally people are living longer in every country in the world. In fact, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), by 2050 there will be 2.1 billion people aged 60 or older, with, 426 million over 80 years old.
Older people are sometimes considered frail7 or a burden8 to society. However, there is no typical older person. As long as they have healthy, longer lives, this can bring opportunities, not only for their families, but for societies too. Older adults often provide financial assistance, care and support to all generations, yet this is not always recognised. A recent study of family roles and relationships across the globe found that two-thirds of those in their 60s and 70s in South Korea, and one-third in India and the Philippines regularly support or care for a member of their family.
In many cultures, older men and women are the primary caregivers9 for grandchildren. This has become particularly significant as poverty, migration and the loss of parents through war or illness have changed family structures and resources in developing countries. Far from being a burden on the local community, older people are providing necessary food, shelter and emotional support to younger generations and their extended families.
Although some variations in older people’s health are genetic, most are due to people’s physical and social environments: their homes, neighbourhoods10, and communities; as well as their sex, ethnicity, or socio-economic status. Globalisation, technology, urbanisation, migration and changing societies are influencing the lives of older people in direct and indirect ways. It is vital to recognise the role they may have in current and future societies and economies. Society should ensure that institutions and structures enable them to fully contribute to their families and communities.
READING COMPREHENSION
FACT CHECK
Blue Zones is a term used to describe the geographic areas with the oldest, healthiest populations in the world. They don’t only eat healthy, unprocessed food and do light physical activity, but prioritise family and community, and share a strong sense of purpose and belonging.
4 Read the text and decide if the information is true (T), false (F) or not given (NG).
1 People are living longer everywhere. T F NG
2 Most 80-year-olds will be healthier by 2050. T F NG
3 Generally older people are frail. T F NG
4 Genetic factors affecting health cannot be changed. T F NG
5 Socio-economics rarely affect health. T F NG
6 Older people are often the main caregivers in families. T F NG
YOUR VOICE
5 COMMUNICATION In pairs, discuss the questions.
• What is the experience of older people in your society?
• Does it make you happy or worried about the future?
• What can you do to help older people in your society?
• How should society treat them and integrate them?
I think most people treat older people well in our society. They are important members of families and communities…
6 MEDIATING TEXTS & CONCEPTS Research online the Blue Zones. Find out where they are, how people live and what makes it different to other parts of the world. Then present your findings to the class.
7 frail: fragili 8 burden: peso
9 caregivers: persone che si occupano di qualcuno 10 neighbourhoods: quartieri
WARM UP
1 List all the things that make up your identity. Compare your answers in pairs.
LOOK CLOSER
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was a German-born psychoanalyst who studied individual identity and psychosocial development. He was the first person to use the phrase ‘identity crisis’.
Identity and relationships
Individual
vs collective
identity
Identity is central to anthropology, as it explains who we are socially, culturally and biologically.
The word comes from the Latin idem, meaning ‘same’, but identity can be both individual and collective.
Erik Erikson believed that humans see their identity as stable and continuous, developing over time, while remaining essentially familiar. However, in times of rapid change, like puberty, humans can suffer from an identity crisis as they are not sure if they are the same person they were before. Criticised as a Western point of view, other societies see humans as part of a group, with shared values and rules.
For most anthropologists, identity is both: individual, differentiating a person from others by birth characteristics; and collective, as we socially construct most of those characteristics.
LOOK CLOSER
LGBTQ+ is an abbreviation for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (or questioning), plus other sexual and gender identities.
1 markers: indicatori
2 dual citizenship: doppia cittadinanza
3 queer: (qui) non eterosessuale
4 belonging: appartenenza
5 rights: diritti
6 blood ties: legami di sangue
Complex identities
Understanding the identity of a person or a group is complex because of the multiple elements involved. Gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, language, nationality, social class, physical ability, education, occupation and religion are all fundamental identity markers1
Many important identity markers are interrelated and can change, depending on the situation. You might emphasise that you are female, Jewish, Kurdish, or working class to identify with others. While a person cannot be both Italian and American, unless they have dual citizenship2, an Italian can identify as Sardinian, or European, or both.
Not everyone understands these identity categories equally. Outside the UK, people might not recognise the difference between the English, Scottish, or Welsh; or be aware of the religious differences between Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland. There is also little understanding of what being gay or queer3 means outside the LGBTQ+ community. Categories must challenge stereotypes to become a significant part of society.
Identity politics
In real life, people cannot choose their identity and sense of belonging4. Others treat them according to a set of categories they are attributed. Identity politics can mean affirming things, or granting rights5 to a specific category. The Black Lives Matter and #MeToo movements are examples of this. See p. 191 In 2013, three radical Black activists: Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi, created a Black-centred political movement called #BlackLivesMatter in response to the acquittal of George
Zimmerman, the man who shot a 17-year-old African-American in Sanford, Florida. The Black Lives Matter movement gained momentum after the release of a video of a white police officer killing George Floyd, an unarmed black man in Minneapolis on 25 May 2020. George Floyd’s death sparked protest marches in countries around the world, including the UK. The white police officer, Derek Chauvin, was later convicted of murder and sentenced to 22.5 years in prison. The #MeToo was founded in 2006 by survivor and activist Tarana Burke. It gained widespread attention in 2017 following the exposure of numerous sexual abuse allegations against film producer, Harvey Weinstein. It has become a global movement, bringing attention to sexual misconduct and the systemic abuse of power, particularly in workplaces.
Identity politics can also mean homogenising a national identity by excluding difference and diversity. An example of this is nationalism
READING COMPREHENSION
2 Read the text and answer the questions.
1 Why is identity so important in anthropology?
2 When and why can humans suffer an identity crisis?
3 What are vital identity markers?
4 Who can identify as both Sardinian and European?
5 How can identity categories become meaningful?
6 Which movements are examples of identity politics?
6 religion: VOCABULARY
3 Complete the identity categories with words from the text. Can you add any more?
1 gender: female
2 sexual orientation:
3 ethnicity:
4 nationality:
5 social class:
My best friend is one of the most significant people in my life. She feels like family, but we are not actually related… YOUR VOICE
4 CRITICAL THINKING Read the article, then list the ten most significant people in your life and describe your relationship with them. Tell your partner about them.
Relationships
Relationships show how we are related to each other biologically, legally or socially. It is a universal concept in human societies, but the rules about it can vary. Two cousins in one culture may not consider themselves related in another culture. While a romantic partner or an adopted child, without genetic relationship, are considered legally and culturally part of a family. Culture, rather than biology, defines our closest relationships and determines rights and obligations to other people. These connections contribute to how a society functions and resolves problems and help us interact with others. In some cultures, family terms like ‘aunty’ or ‘brother’ are used to show respect or for close relationships without any blood ties . Relationships are a socially accepted way of defining our identity. However, by embracing wider factors that contribute to our sense of self, we can build a more inclusive, understanding society.
5 MEDIATING TEXTS & CONCEPTS Research online one of the communities or movements in the box, then prepare a short presentation about it. You should find out:
• when and where it started;
• what triggered (= ha scatenato) it; • what its aims are;
what it has achieved;
what people think of it.
WARM UP
1 Write M (myth), R (religion), or B (both). Then read the text and check your answers. beliefs meditation morals offerings prayers rituals sacrifices sacred secular (secolare, laico) stories
supernatural
FACT CHECK
Although spirituality and religion are related, they are not entirely the same thing. You can express spirituality through religion, but it also has a wider sense of connecting to nature and to the universe. Spirituality is generally less rigid than organised religion, although it may also involve rituals such as meditation, mindfulness, yoga, dance, or self-sacrifice. Religion is often more formalised, and religious people typically identify themselves as belonging to a certain faith or having a particular set of beliefs.
LOOK CLOSER
Christianity is the world’s most widely practised monotheist religion. There are over two billion followers, who believe in the teachings of God and Jesus Christ, as written in the Bible. Second is Islam with about 1.8 billion followers, who believe in the teachings of God, known as Allah, written in the Quran. Next is Hinduism, one of the world’s oldest and polytheist religions, believing in many gods, with about 1.1 billion followers, mostly in India. This is followed by Buddhism, also polytheist, with about 500 million followers worldwide. Although based on the non-violent teachings of Buddha in India, over half of Buddhists are in China. Other major religions are: Shint , traditionally followed in Japan, by 104 million people. It is both polytheistic and animistic, believing that natural objects and the universe have feelings and intentions; Sikhism is polytheist and mostly followed in India by 25 million people; Judaism is monotheist, founded6 in the Middle East, with 14 million world followers.
Religion and myth
Religion is the beliefs and patterns of behaviour that people adopt to deal with big issues such as the meaning of life, death, suffering and loss, that they cannot understand in any other way. It reduces human anxieties by giving us comfort, explaining the unknown1, and telling us what is right and wrong. All human societies follow some form of religion. In fact, there are over 4,000 religions practiced around the world, each with its own set of stories that help interpret the world. The most widely practiced religions include: Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism, Shintō, Sikhism and Judaism.
Most cultures have religious specialists such as priests2, imams, gurus or shamans3, who are believed to have the power to mediate between the spiritual and human worlds. Religion presupposes the existence of supernatural beings, and for centuries humans have adopted many different religious rites to demonstrate their devotion to these divinities: prayer4 , meditation, song, dance, offerings and sacrifice.
Mythology is a collection of interconnected stories, told by a specific cultural group to explain the world they live in.
In Ancient Greece, myths could be sacred and secular (i.e. non-religious). In fact, myths often begin as sacred stories that offer supernatural explanations about life, death and the afterlife5 They express a culture’s worldview about our place in nature and the universe, and the limits and workings of the natural and spiritual world. Probably the easiest way to see the relationship between religion and mythology, it is to think of mythology as an element of religion. It is the collection of stories that hold significance and guide us in living a moral and spiritual life.
Religion and myth have become fused into the lives of people over time, forming traditions and customs. You need only consider the importance of religious festivals such as Christmas, Eid, Diwali, Wesak, or Passover; or processions and celebrations such as Carnival, Halloween or St. Patrick’s Day. They are an integral part of modern cultural life in every society.
