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2.2 Isotopes and Atomic Weight 62
Determining Atomic Mass and Isotope
Abundance 62
Atomic Weight 63
Key Experiments: How Do We Know the Nature of the Atom and Its Components? 66
2.3 The Periodic Table 68
Features of the Periodic Table 68
A Brief Overview of the Periodic Table and the Chemical Elements 69
A Closer Look: Mendeleev and the Periodic Table 70
2.4 Molecules, Compounds, and Formulas 74
Formulas 75
Molecular Models 75
Naming Molecular Compounds 76
2.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Properties 77
Ions 78
Formulas of Ionic Compounds 81
Names of Ions 83
Properties of Ionic Compounds 84
A Closer Look: Hydrated Ionic Compounds 85
2.6 Atoms, Molecules, and the Mole 86
A Closer Look: Amedeo Avogadro and His Number 87
Atoms and Molar Mass 87
Molecules, Compounds, and Molar Mass 89
A Closer Look: The Mole, a Counting Unit 90
2.7 Chemical Analysis: Determining Compound Formulas 93
Percent Composition 93
Empirical and Molecular Formulas from Percent Composition 94
Determining a Formula from Mass Data 97
2.8 Instrumental Analysis: Determining Compound Formulas 99
Determining a Formula by Mass Spectrometry 99
Molar Mass and Isotopes in Mass Spectrometry 100
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 2.1: Using Isotopes: Ötzi, the Iceman of the Alps 102
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 2.2: Arsenic, Medicine, and the Formula of Compound 606 103
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 2.3: Argon—An Amazing Discovery 103
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 104
KEY EQUATIONS 106
STUDY QUESTIONS 106
3
3.1
Chemical Reactions 122
Introduction to Chemical Equations 123
A Closer Look: Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 1743–1794 124
3.2 Balancing Chemical Equations 125
3.3 Introduction to Chemical Equilibrium 128
3.4 Aqueous Solutions 131
Ions and Molecules in Aqueous Solutions 131
Solubility of Ionic Compounds in Water 133
3.5
Precipitation Reactions 135
Net Ionic Equations 137
3.6 Acids and Bases 139
Acids and Bases: The Arrhenius Definition 140
A Closer Look: Naming Common Acids 141
Acids and Bases: The Brønsted–Lowry Definition 142
Reactions of Acids and Bases 144
A Closer Look: Sulfuric Acid 145
Oxides of Nonmetals and Metals 146
3.7 Gas-Forming Reactions 147
3.8 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 149
Oxidation–Reduction Reactions and Electron Transfer 150
Oxidation Numbers 151
Recognizing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 153
A Closer Look: Are Oxidation Numbers “Real”? 153
3.9 Classifying Reactions in Aqueous Solution 155
A Closer Look: Alternative Organizations of Reaction Types 156
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 3.1: Superconductors 158
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 3.2: Sequestering Carbon Dioxide 159
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 3.3: Black Smokers and Volcanoes 159
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 160
STUDY QUESTIONS 162
8.5 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 369
Compounds in Which an Atom Has Fewer Than Eight Valence Electrons 369
Compounds in Which an Atom Has More Than Eight Valence Electrons 369
A Closer Look: A Scientific Controversy— Resonance, Formal Charges, and the Question of Double Bonds in Sulfate and Phosphate Ions 370
A Closer Look: Structure and Bonding for Hypervalent Molecules 372
Molecules with an Odd Number of Electrons 372
8.6 Molecular Shapes 373
Central Atoms Surrounded Only by Single-Bond Pairs 374
Central Atoms with Single-Bond Pairs and Lone Pairs 375
Multiple Bonds and Molecular Geometry 378
8.7 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 379
Charge Distribution: Combining Formal Charge and Electronegativity 381
8.8 Molecular Polarity 384
A Closer Look: Measuring Molecular Polarity 384
A Closer Look: Visualizing Charge Distributions and Molecular Polarity—Electrostatic Potential Surfaces and Partial Charge 387
8.9 Bond Properties: Order, Length, and Dissociation Enthalpy 389
Bond Order 389
Bond Length 390
Bond Dissociation Enthalpy 391
8.10 DNA, Revisited 395
A Closer Look: DNA—Watson, Crick, Wilkins, and Franklin 396
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 8.1: Ibuprofen, A Study in Green Chemistry 397
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 8.2: van Arkel Triangles and Bonding 397
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 8.3: Linus Pauling and the Origin of the Concept of Electronegativity 398
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 399
KEY EQUATIONS 401
STUDY QUESTIONS 401
9 Bonding and Molecular Structure: Orbital Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals 412
9.1 Valence Bond Theory 413
The Orbital Overlap Model of Bonding 413
Hybridization Using s and p Atomic Orbitals 415
Hybrid Orbitals for Molecules and Ions with TrigonalPlanar and Linear Electron-Pair Geometries 418
Valence Bond Theory and Multiple Bonds 421
Benzene: A Special Case of π Bonding 425
Hybridization: A Summary 426
9.2
Molecular Orbital Theory 427
Principles of Molecular Orbital Theory 427
A Closer Look: Molecular Orbitals for Molecules Formed from p-Block Elements 434
Electron Configurations for Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 434
Resonance and MO Theory 434
9.3 Theories of Chemical Bonding: A Summary 436
A Closer Look: Three-Center Bonds in HF2 , B2H6, and SF6 437
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 9.1: Probing Molecules with Photoelectron Spectroscopy 438
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 9.2: Green Chemistry, Safe Dyes, and Molecular Orbitals 439
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 440
KEY EQUATION 440
STUDY QUESTIONS 440
PART THREE STATES OF MATTER
10 Gases and Their Properties 450
10.1 Modeling a State of Matter: Gases and Gas Pressure 451
A Closer Look: Measuring Gas Pressure 452
10.2 Gas Laws: The Experimental Basis 453
Boyle’s Law: The Compressibility of Gases 453
The Effect of Temperature on Gas Volume: Charles’s Law 455
Combining Boyle’s and Charles’s Laws: The General Gas Law 457
Avogadro’s Hypothesis 458
A Closer Look: Studies on Gases—Robert Boyle and Jacques Charles 459
10.3 The Ideal Gas Law 460 The Density of Gases 461
Calculating the Molar Mass of a Gas from P, V, and T Data 462
10.4 Gas Laws and Chemical Reactions 464
10.5 Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures 465
10.6 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases 468
Molecular Speed and Kinetic Energy 468
Kinetic-Molecular Theory and the Gas Laws 471
10.7 Diffusion and Effusion 471
A Closer Look: Surface Science and the Need for Ultrahigh Vacuum Systems 474
10.8 Nonideal Behavior of Gases 474
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 10.1: The Atmosphere and Altitude Sickness 476
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 10.2: The Goodyear Blimp 477
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 10.3: The Chemistry of Airbags 477
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 478
KEY EQUATIONS 479
STUDY QUESTIONS 480
11
Intermolecular
Forces and Liquids 490
11.1 States of Matter and Intermolecular Forces 491
11.2 Interactions between Ions and Molecules with a Permanent Dipole 492
A Closer Look: Hydrated Salts: A Result of Ion–Dipole Bonding 494
11.3 Interactions between Molecules with a Permanent Dipole 495
Dipole–Dipole Forces 495
Hydrogen Bonding 497
Hydrogen Bonding and the Unusual Properties of Water 499
A Closer Look: Hydrogen Bonding in Biochemistry 500
11.4 Intermolecular Forces Involving Nonpolar Molecules 501
Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces: Debye Forces 501
Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces: London Dispersion Forces 502
11.5 A Summary of van der Waals Intermolecular Forces 504
A Closer Look: Geckos Can Climb Up der Waals 505
11.6
Properties of Liquids 506
Vaporization and Condensation 507
Vapor Pressure 510
Vapor Pressure, Enthalpy of Vaporization, and the Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 512
Boiling Point 513
Critical Temperature and Pressure 513
Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscosity 514
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 11.1: Chromatography 515
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 11.2: A Pet Food Catastrophe 516
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 517
KEY EQUATIONS 518
STUDY QUESTIONS 518
12 The Solid State 526
12.1 Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells 527
Cubic Unit Cells 529
A Closer Look: Packing Oranges, Marbles, and Atoms 533
12.2
Structures and Formulas of Ionic Solids 534
12.3 Bonding in Ionic Compounds: Lattice Energy 537
Calculating a Lattice Enthalpy from Thermodynamic Data 539
12.4
Bonding in Metals and Semiconductors 540
Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model 540
Bonding in Metals: Band Theory 541
Semiconductors 542
12.5 Other Types of Solid Materials 544
Molecular Solids 544
Network Solids 545
Amorphous Solids 546
Alloys: Mixtures of Metals 547
12.6 Phase Changes 549
Melting: Conversion of Solid into Liquid 549
Sublimation: Conversion of Solid into Vapor 551
Phase Diagrams 551
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 12.1:
Lithium and “Green Cars” 553
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 12.2:
Nanotubes and Graphene—The Hottest New Network Solids 554
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 12.3:
Tin Disease 555
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 556
STUDY QUESTIONS 557
Solutions and Their Behavior 564
13.1 Units of Concentration 565
13.2 The Solution Process 568
A Closer Look: Supersaturated Solutions 569
Liquids Dissolving in Liquids 569
Solids Dissolving in Liquids 570
Enthalpy of Solution 570
Enthalpy of Solution: Thermodynamic Data 573
13.3 Factors Affecting Solubility: Pressure and Temperature 574
Dissolving Gases in Liquids: Henry’s Law 574
Temperature Effects on Solubility: Le Chatelier’s
Principle 576
13.4 Colligative Properties 577
Changes in Vapor Pressure: Raoult’s Law 577
A Closer Look: Growing Crystals 578
Boiling Point Elevation 579
Freezing Point Depression 581
A Closer Look: Hardening of Trees 582
Osmotic Pressure 584
A Closer Look: Reverse Osmosis for Pure Water 585
A Closer Look: Osmosis and Medicine 587
Colligative Properties and Molar Mass Determination 588
Colligative Properties of Solutions Containing Ions 589
13.5 Colloids 591
Types of Colloids 593
Surfactants 594
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 13.1: Distillation 595
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 13.2: Henry’s Law and Exploding Lakes 596
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 13.3:
Narcosis and the Bends 597
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 598
KEY EQUATIONS 599
STUDY QUESTIONS 600
PART FOUR THE CONTROL OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
14 Chemical Kinetics: The Rates of Chemical Reactions 608
14.1 Rates of Chemical Reactions 609
Calculating a Rate 610
Relative Rates and Stoichiometry 612
14.2 Reaction Conditions and Rate 614
14.3 Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate 616
Rate Equations 616
The Order of a Reaction 617
The Rate Constant, k 617
Determining a Rate Equation 618
14.4 Concentration–Time Relationships: Integrated Rate Laws 622
First-Order Reactions 622
Second-Order Reactions 624
Zero-Order Reactions 625
Graphical Methods for Determining Reaction Order and the Rate Constant 626
Half-Life and First-Order Reactions 626
14.5 A Microscopic View of Reaction Rates 630
A Closer Look: Rate Laws, Rate Constants, and Reaction Stoichiometry 631
Collision Theory: Concentration and Reaction Rate 631
Collision Theory: Activation Energy 632
A Closer Look: More About Molecular Orientation and Reaction Coordinate Diagrams 633
Collision Theory: Activation Energy and Temperature 634
Collision Theory: Effect of Molecular Orientation on Reaction Rate 635
The Arrhenius Equation 635
14.6 Catalysts 638
Effect of Catalysts on Reaction Rate 638
A Closer Look: Thinking About Kinetics, Catalysis, and Bond Energies 638 Enzymes 641
Why Are Hydrated Metal Cations Brønsted Acids? 741
Why Are Anions Brønsted Bases? 742
16.10 The Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases 742
Coordination Complexes 743
Molecular Lewis Acids 745
Molecular Lewis Bases 745
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 16.1:
Would You Like Some Belladonna Juice in Your Drink? 746
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 16.2:
The Leveling Effect, Nonaqueous Solvents, and Superacids 746
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 747
KEY EQUATIONS 748
STUDY QUESTIONS 749
17 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Other Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria 760
17.1 The Common Ion Effect 761
17.2 Controlling pH: Buffer Solutions 763
General Expressions for Buffer Solutions 766
Preparing Buffer Solutions 768
How Does a Buffer Maintain pH? 770
17.3
Acid–Base Titrations 772
Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base 772
Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base 774
Titration of Weak Polyprotic Acids 777
Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid 778
pH Indicators 780
17.4 Solubility of Salts 782
The Solubility Product Constant, Ksp 783
Relating Solubility and Ksp 784
A Closer Look: Minerals and Gems—
The Importance of Solubility 787
Solubility and the Common Ion Effect 788
A Closer Look: Solubility Calculations 789
The Effect of Basic Anions on Salt Solubility 790
17.5 Precipitation Reactions 792
Ksp and the Reaction Quotient, Q 792
Ksp, the Reaction Quotient, and Precipitation
Reactions 794
17.6 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions 796
Solubility and Complex Ions 797
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 17.1:
Everything that Glitters. . . 799
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 17.2:
Take a Deep Breath 800
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 801
KEY EQUATIONS 802
STUDY QUESTIONS 803
18 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Entropy and Free Energy 814
18.1 Spontaneity and Dispersal of Energy: Entropy 815
18.2 Entropy: A Microscopic Understanding 817
Dispersal of Energy 817
A Closer Look: Reversible and Irreversible Processes 818
Dispersal of Matter: Dispersal of Energy
Revisited 820
A Summary: Entropy, Entropy Change, and Energy
Dispersal 821
18.3
Entropy Measurement and Values 821
Standard Entropy Values, S˚ 822
Determining Entropy Changes in Physical and Chemical Processes 824
18.4
Entropy Changes and Spontaneity 825
A Closer Look: Entropy and Spontaneity? 827
Spontaneous or Not? 828
How Temperature Affects ΔS˚ (universe) 829
18.5
Gibbs Free Energy 830
The Change in the Gibbs Free Energy, ΔG 830
Gibbs Free Energy, Spontaneity, and Chemical Equilibrium 830
A Summary: Gibbs Free Energy (ΔrG and ΔrG°), the Reaction Quotient (Q) and Equilibrium Constant (K), and Reaction Favorability 832 What Is “Free” Energy? 833
18.6 Calculating and Using Standard Free Energies, ��rG° 833
Standard Free Energy of Formation 833
Calculating ΔrG°, the Free Energy Change for a Reaction Under Standard Conditions 833 Free Energy and Temperature 835
Using the Relationship between ΔrG° and K 838
21.11 The Noble Gases, Group 8A 1005
A Closer Look: The Noble Gases—Not
So Inert 1006
Xenon Compounds 1007
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 21.1:
Lead in the Environment 1007
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 21.2:
Hydrogen Storage 1008
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 1008
STUDY QUESTIONS 1009
22 The Chemistry of the Transition Elements 1020
22.1 Overview of the Transition Elements 1021
22.2 Periodic Properties of the Transition Elements 1023
Electron Configurations 1023
Oxidation and Reduction 1023
Periodic Trends in the d Block: Size, Density, Melting Point 1025
22.3 Metallurgy 1026
Pyrometallurgy: Iron Production 1027
Hydrometallurgy: Copper Production 1028
22.4 Coordination Compounds 1029
Complexes and Ligands 1029
A Closer Look: Hemoglobin: A Molecule with a Tetradentate Ligand 1033
Formulas of Coordination Compounds 1033
Naming Coordination Compounds 1035
22.5 Structures of Coordination Compounds 1037
Common Coordination Geometries 1037
Isomerism 1037
22.6 Bonding in Coordination Compounds 1043
The d Orbitals: Ligand Field Theory 1043
Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties 1045
22.7 Colors of Coordination Compounds 1048
Color 1049
The Spectrochemical Series 1050
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 22.1: Life-Saving Copper 1052
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 22.2:
Cisplatin : Accidental Discovery of a Chemotherapy Agent 1053
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 22.3: The Rare Earths 1053
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 1054
STUDY QUESTIONS 1055
23 Carbon: Not Just Another Element 1064
23.1 Why Carbon? 1065
Structural Diversity 1065
Isomers 1066
A Closer Look: Writing Formulas and Drawing Structures 1067
Stability of Carbon Compounds 1068
23.2 Hydrocarbons 1069
Alkanes 1069
A Closer Look: Flexible Molecules 1074
Alkenes and Alkynes 1074
Aromatic Compounds 1079
23.3 Alcohols, Ethers, and Amines 1082
Alcohols and Ethers 1083
Amines 1086
23.4 Compounds with a Carbonyl Group 1087
Aldehydes and Ketones 1089
Carboxylic Acids 1090
Esters 1091
A Closer Look: Omega-3-Fatty Acids 1093
Amides 1094
23.5 Polymers 1095
Classifying Polymers 1095
Addition Polymers 1096
Condensation Polymers 1099
A Closer Look: Microplastics and Microfibers 1100
A Closer Look: Green Chemistry: Recycling PET 1101
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 23.1: An Awakening with l -DOPA 1103
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 23.2: Green Adhesives 1104
APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 23.3: Bisphenol A (BPA) 1104
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 1106
STUDY QUESTIONS 1106
Preface
The first edition of this book was conceived over 35 years ago. Since that time there have been nine editions, and over 1 million students worldwide have used the book to begin their study of chemistry. Over the years, and the many editions, our goals have remained the same: to provide a broad overview of the principles of chemistry, the reactivity of the chemical elements and their compounds, and the applications of chemistry. To reach these goals, we have tried to show the close relation between the observations chemists make of chemical and physical changes in the laboratory and in nature and the way these changes are viewed at the atomic and molecular levels.
We have also tried to convey a sense that chemistry not only has a lively history but is also dynamic, with important new developments occurring every year. Furthermore, we want to provide some insight into the chemical aspects of the world around us.
The authors of this text have collectively taught chemistry for over 100 years, and we have engaged in years of fundamental research. As with thousands of scientists before and now, our goal has been to satisfy our curiosity about areas of chemistry, to document what we found, and to convey that to students and other scientists. Our results, and many, many others, are put to use, perhaps only many years later, to make a better material or better pharmaceutical. Every person eventually benefits from the work of the worldwide community of scientists.
Recently, however, science has come under attack. Some distrust what the scientific community has done and dismiss results of carefully done research. Therefore, key among the objectives of this book and of a course in general chemistry is to describe basic chemical “facts”— chemical processes and principles, how chemists came to understand those principles, how they can be applied in industry, medicine, and the environment, and how to think about problems as a scientist. We have tried to provide the tools to help you become a chemically and scientifically literate citizen.
Audience for chemistry & chemicAl reActivity
This textbook (both as a printed book and digital version) is designed for students interested in further study in science, whether that science is chemistry, biology, engineering, geology, physics, or related subjects. Our assumption is that students in a course using this book have had some preparation in algebra and in general science. Although undeniably helpful, a previous exposure to chemistry is neither assumed nor required.
PhilosoPhy And APProAch of chemistry & chemicAl reActivity
We have had several major, but not independent, objectives since the first edition of the book. The first was to write a book that students would enjoy reading and that would offer, at a reasonable level of rigor, chemistry and chemical principles in a format and organization typical of college and university courses today. Second, we wanted to convey the utility and importance of chemistry by introducing the properties of the elements, their compounds, and their reactions.
The American Chemical Society has been urging educators to put “chemistry” back into introductory chemistry courses. We agree wholeheartedly. Therefore, we have tried to describe the elements, their compounds, and their reactions as early and as often as possible by:
• Bringing material on the properties of elements and compounds into the Examples and Study Questions.
• Using numerous photographs of the elements and common compounds, of chemical reactions, and of common laboratory operations and industrial processes.
• Using Applying Chemical Principles study questions in each chapter that delve into the applications of chemistry.
John C. Kotz
Hot air balloon. See Chapter 10 on the gas laws.
of organic chemistry with an emphasis on molecular structure, basic reaction types, and polymers. Chapter 24 is an introduction to biochemistry, and Chapter 25 is an overview of nuclear chemistry.
f e Atures of the Book
Some years ago a student of one of the authors, now an accountant, shared his perspective on finishing general chemistry. He said that, while chemistry was one of his hardest subjects, it was also the most useful course he had taken because it taught him how to solve problems. We were certainly pleased because we have always thought that, for many students, an important goal in general chemistry was not only to teach students chemistry but also to help them learn critical thinking and problemsolving skills. Many of the features of the book are meant to support those goals.
Problem-solving Approach: organization and strategy maps
Worked-out examples are an essential part of each chapter. To better help students to follow the logic of a solution, all Examples are organized around the following outline:
Problem: A statement of the problem.
What Do You Know?: The information given is outlined.
Strategy: The information available is combined with the objective, and we begin to devise a pathway to a solution.
Solution: We work through the steps, both logical and mathematical, to the answer.
Think About Your Answer: We ask if the answer is reasonable or what it means.
Check Your Understanding: This is a similar problem for the student to try. A solution to the problem is in Appendix N.
For many students, a visual strategy map can be a useful tool in problem solving (as on page 46). There are approximately 60 strategy maps in the book accompanying Example problems.
chapter Goals revisited
The learning goals for each section are listed at the top of the section. The goals are revisited on the last page of the chapter, and specific end-of-chapter Study Questions are
listed that can help students determine if they have met those goals.
end-of-chapter study Questions
There are 40 to over 150 Study Questions for each chapter, and answers to the odd-numbered questions are given in Appendix N. Questions are grouped as follows:
Practicing Skills: These questions are grouped by the topic covered by the questions.
General Questions: There is no indication regarding the pertinent section of the chapter. They generally cover several chapter sections.
In the Laboratory: These are problems that may be encountered in a laboratory experiment on the chapter material.
Summary and Conceptual Questions: These questions use concepts from the current chapter as well as preceding chapters.
Study Questions are available in the OWLv2 online learning system. OWLv2 now has over 1800 of the roughly 2500 Study Questions in the book.
Finally, note that some questions are marked with a small red triangle (▲). These are meant to be more challenging than other questions.
A
c loser l ook e ss Ays A nd Pro B lem s olvin G t i P s
As in the ninth edition, there are boxed essays titled A Closer Look that take a more in-depth look at relevant chemistry. A few examples are Mendeleev and the Periodic Table (Chapter 2), Amedeo Avogadro and His Number (Chapter 2), Measuring Molecular Polarity (Chapter 8), Hydrogen Bonding in Biochemistry (Chapter 11), and The Flint, Michigan Water Treatment Problem (Chapter 20).
From our teaching experience, we have learned some “tricks of the trade” and try to pass on some of those in Problem Solving Tips
Applying chemical Principles
At the end of each chapter there are two or three longer questions that use the principles learned in the chapter to study examples of forensic chemistry, environmental chemistry, a problem in medicinal chemistry, or some other area. Examples are Green Chemistry and Atom Economy (Chapter 4), What Makes the Colors in Fireworks (Chapter 6), A Pet Food Catastrophe (Chapter 11), and Lithium and “Green Cars” (Chapter 12).
Discovering Diverse Content Through Random Scribd Documents
She glanced up, apparently mystified. “A proof you will find here— in my house!”
“Yes, Madame; the papers your daughter brought here last night.”
“Oh!” She smiled again, the pathetic mirthless smile of baffled innocence. “If those papers are here, Monsieur, you have full liberty to find them.”
“Where did your daughter go to-day?” he asked abruptly.
“Which daughter?”
“Madame de Z——”
“I had no idea she had gone anywhere. Surely if she left the château she would come to see me! Her sister was here last night and said nothing of my daughter Amelia having left the country.”
“Her sister is Madame de R——, is she not?”
“Yes, Madame Charles de R——.”
“And she was here to see you last night?”
“She passed the night with me, as I was not well, and returned early this morning to her house on rue de Bellevue.”
The officer grunted and, for the first time, looked away from her, glancing thoughtfully about the room.
Madame de X—— noted the change in his face, and, after some moments of silence, said quietly: “Will you not be seated, Monsieur?” and indicated a chair near her.
He sat heavily, laying sword across his knees and remarked, after a pause: “This is a sad business, and very distasteful to me.”
“I can well imagine so, Monsieur,” she returned, with a touch of irony he did not notice.
The soldiers, at that moment, were busy replacing books in the bookcase; the other officer, at her desk, was putting together certain letters of wholly innocent character he thought might be of service later on.
“I should like to look into the table, if you please,” said the chief.
“Bien.” She lifted her work-basket and, handing it to him, said: “Will you kindly set that on the other table?”
As he, while examining the basket’s contents, turned to do this, she swept the table-cover with the papers under it into her lap. Scarcely was this done, when he turned; and quickly lifting the lid, she remarked, looking up innocently, with the smile now familiar to him: “Its contents are not likely to interest a soldier, I fear.”
He put his hand in and felt through the silks, then drew it out quickly, pierced by a needle!
“Good!” he said harshly, his face reddening. Then, when the pain passed: “Thank you, Madame. So far we have found nothing incriminating, but nevertheless you must come with me at once to the Military Governor.”
“Go with you!” she gasped, fearing to rise because of those papers in her lap; “but why, Monsieur? For what reason do you arrest a woman of my age, against whom you have no charge?”
He raised his shoulders. “Our reasons, Madame, are not usually given. You must be imprisoned until this matter is fully investigated; that is all I shall say. If you wish to go to your room to dress, you may do so; but I must ask you to be as quick as possible.”
The unyielding dryness of his tone told her argument would be futile, and, in a last desperate effort to save the situation, she gathered up her apron, in which lay embroidery, table-cover, and papers, and left the room in proud silence, determined to benefit by the moment of privacy allowed her, and destroy the papers. The officer, after ordering one of the soldiers to examine the chair she
had occupied, said something to the other, who, with him, followed her from the room.
As she mounted the stairs, Madame de X——, to her horror, perceived that the second soldier mounted close in her wake. This she knew meant ruin! It meant that the last possible chance to rid herself of the fatal documents was to be denied her; for, taught by the experience of others, she knew every inch of the apparel she wore or discarded would be minutely examined. Consequently, by some means or other, the soldier must be prevented from accompanying her to her room. A plea for consideration, however, was not likely to be granted, and rebellion would only incur greater severity. She paused and glanced back, thinking frantically what to do. Suddenly an idea came to her.
“Monsieur,” she said, with obvious embarrassment, “this man cannotaccompany me! You have examined every inch of my house; you have cross-questioned me and my servants, and read my intimate letters! Everything has been freely yielded to your investigation, therefore I must beg you to recall this man for a little moment. I am an old woman; I have urgent need of a moment of privacy.”
“Good!” was the colourless reply; “He will await you in the corridor and accompany you to your room.”
This being all she could hope for, and more than would have been accorded had her acting been less perfect or the slightest clue discovered, Madame de X , followed by the soldier, went on to the floor above. There the soldier, looking bored and miserable, awaited her by the door of a small compartment at the end of the corridor.
One moment later those documents which the enemy would have prized—which would have condemned Madame de X—— and her daughter to death—were driven, by a resounding rush of water, into oblivion down the drain-pipe!
But their contents she retained in her memory, and later found means of communicating them to those for whom they were destined—I believe during her imprisonment, but am not sure of this point.
The consequence of her heroic courage was the exoneration— after painful and lengthy imprisonment—of both women, as no proof could be found of their guilt. But it is doubtful whether condemnation to death could have caused more anguish than Madame de X—— suffered during those hours of desperate peril! Among the many great deeds of Belgian heroism few are more deserving of admiration than the brave and clever fidelity of these two daring women to the confidence reposed in them.
VII
LTHOUGH time passed somewhat less dully than later, the incidents that, during the winter and summer of 1915, relieved our otherwise monotonous days were of such distressing character that they only deepened the gloom. One by one our British friends were carried off to Rühleben, while their wives were left behind without sufficient means—in some cases absolutely destitute, since they could receive nothing from without, and were consequently worse off than the really impoverished Belgians, for whom charity provided. For months at a stretch, this monotony of misery was broken by nothing more encouraging than bad news from the front, and the tragic events at the Tir National, where citizens were shot for patriotic deeds, seldom graver than that of Miss Cavell, or the brave Belgian girl Gabrielle Petit, twenty-one years of age. She, however, was given a chance of having her punishment commuted to imprisonment, but declined this favour which had been denied the Englishwoman. The murder of Miss Cavell caused a pervading mood of mourning that seemed unlikely ever to diminish, even in those who did not know her personally. That crime, so pitilessly carried out, in secrecy and under cover of false promises, was perhaps most appalling to those in the vicinity whose hopes were stimulated by misleading assurances, until the post-mortem announcement proved them vain! Although a British subject has referred to the deed as rather a “blunder” than a crime,—she being proven guilty of having assisted young men across the frontier,—the fact that other women, not British, found guilty of the same humane, although forbidden, acts, were yet spared the extreme punishment reserved for spies and the worst of treason, takes all logic from the argument of this apparently prejudiced Irishman. Edith Cavell’s martyrdom impressed us in Brussels, as it must always impress history, not only as shortsighted stupidity—the very determination, secrecy, and haste
excited recounter to another. It was originally obtained, as stated above, from some unknown but trustworthy source. But later on we came to believe that these stories were, in great part, spread by the Germans in order to weaken and destroy what faith and hope still survived in the country. I heard soldiers, even at this time, express very gloomy views as to their nation’s prospects in the war. Once in a tram, just before the last temporarily successful onslaught of the Germans at Verdun, I heard one, who pretended he was drunk and had possibly been taught the words in French, cry out hysterically: “Our cause is lost! Noussommesfichus!Noussommesfichus!”
For some reason beyond the comprehension of civil minds the occupying Government appeared bent upon destroying every vestige of hope in Belgian hearts. Invariably on the eve of a German victory, exhilarating rumours of great Allied successes were set forth from unknown sources awakening joy in the prison city which often verged on an outburst of dangerous enthusiasm. Then, as invariably, the blazing blue affiche appeared, announcing an overwhelming defeat of the Allies in the very section where they were understood to have been successful.
The subtle trickery of such tactics might in time have attained its object; certainly there could be no better method of wearying and torturing a people into losing faith. And while it did not succeed with the better classes, it tired and broke the spirit of the suffering poor to such an extent that, even when positive proof of successes reached us, they would not believe; for they had come to the conviction that the Germans were invincible and would never give up an inch of Belgium.
We who had witnessed the easy and rapid advance of the enemy through Belgium and deep into France, cut off as we were from all reliable information, could not, during the first years, form any idea of the vastly differing conditions affecting the Allied armies. As the Germans, opposed only by hastily-mustered, unorganized, and infinitely weaker forces, had swept on so quickly, we looked for like speed from the Allies when once their strength was massed and
