APR
EARLY LIFE MANAGEMENT OF LAYERS DYNAMICS AND STRUCTURE OF MEAT PRODUCTION AND MEAT TRADE IN THE USA BETWEEN 2019 AND 2023 FEEDING THE COMMERCIAL TURKEY
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➤ Marianna Caterino The crisis in the U.S. egg market presents a valuable opportunity for reflection. The outbreak of avian influenza and the resulting decline in domestic production have compelled the United States to look abroad for supplies, turning to countries like Turkey and South Korea. For Europe, which has not been directly involved in these exports, the situation underscores the critical importance of strengthening and investing in its own supply chains. Europe’s high health standards, strong emphasis on biosecurity, and integrated system approach are key strengths that allow us to face the future with confidence. While the American episode highlights the vulnerability of any market under pressure, it also underscores the strategic importance of maintaining a strong focus on quality, safety, and adaptability. Europe can—and must—uphold its role as a global benchmark, while further reinforcing its position on the international stage.
APRIL 2025
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NEWS
8
DOSSIER
16 18
INTERVIEW Health prevention through electromagnetic waves: a technological solution against avian influenza
Photocatalytic Gate® Innovative technology for the protection of hatchery and farms against bacteria and viruses
FOCUS Early-life management of layers
MARKETING Dynamics and structure of meat production and meat trade in the USA between 2019 and 2023. Part 1 - Meat production
24 30
MANAGEMENT
38
VETERINARY
44 47 48
MARKET GUIDE
Feeding the commercial turkey
NUTRITION A synergistic herbal alternative combination: curcumshield vs poultry infections – A broadspectrum study
Pathological manifestations of highly pathogenic and predominant Eimeria species in turkeys
UPCOMING EVENTS
INTERNET GUIDE
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SUMMARY
◗ NEWS
VIV ASIA 2025 WRAPS UP: A LANDMARK EVENT SHOWCASING INDUSTRY EXCELLENCE AND MARKET LEADERSHIP The 17th edition of the complete feed-to-food global trade show in Asia concludes with a massive success VIV Asia 2025 successfully reaffirmed its position as the leading and most trusted B2B platform for the feed-tofood industry in Asia, convening over 51,000 professional visitors from 129 countries, with products and services from 1,500 exhibitors across 63 countries. Held from March 12-14, 2025 at IMPACT Exhibition Center, Bangkok, the event delivered an electrifying showcase of innovation, expertise, and global collaboration, and drew top industry leaders, innovators, and key decision-makers from around the world. Over three action-packed days, attendees engaged in highlevel networking, groundbreaking knowledge exchange, and immersive product displays, reinforcing VIV Asia’s unrivaled influence in the sector.
A world-class marketplace for the global animal protein industry VIV Asia 2025 featured an extensive international marketplace showcasing the latest advancements in animal protein production, processing, and packaging. It also gathered around 700 industry leaders from 55 countries, continuing the momentum of previous editions and demonstrating the industry’s resilience and commitment to working in synergy. For three days, the industry leaders participated in a series of tailored and exclusive networking events which provided the perfect setting to be attuned with the industry trends and access the right knowledge, technology, and people.
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"As a cornerstone of the animal protein industry, VIV Asia is where professionals converge to drive progress and capitalize on new market opportunities," says Birgit Horn, Managing Director at VNU Europe/VIV Worldwide. "Our ongoing commitment is to support industry growth, enhance collaboration, and cement VIV Asia’s role as the sector’s leading global event." For VIV Asia 2025, it is also worth noting how sustainability was embedded as a core strategy. Panadda Kongma, Vice President - Business at VNU Asia Pacific highlights, “We have taken concrete steps towards sustainability, including using soy-based ink for printed materials, deploying EV tractors in partnership with DB Schenker, reducing printed materials, and promoting digital applications. Our goal is to support green initiatives and lower the carbon footprint of our trade fair as much as possible”. As a hub for cutting-edge developments, VIV Asia 2025 spotlighted advancements in animal disease prevention, regenerative agriculture, and precision livestock farming among many others. Attendees also engaged in a comprehensive program of over 150 knowledge-packed sessions led by 300 thought leaders and industry pioneers.
A successful conclusion to VIV Asia 2025 With a strong track record of success and a commitment to delivering value-driven experiences, VIV Asia 2025 marked another milestone in the VIV worldwide portfolio. The organizers, in collaboration with over 25 media partners and 52 global associations, see this result
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as another step in supporting the industries’ continuous growth and development. Dr. Myoe Win, importer and distributor of animal medicines in Myanmar and an avid VIV Asia attendee, enthusiastically relays his experience. “I’ve been attending VIV Asia in Bangkok since 2001 and it has certainly grown bigger and bigger over the last two decades that I attended. It serves as the bridge between buyer and seller, and where you learn about international medicines, equipment, hatchery, breeding, covering the entire livestock field all over the world. VIV Asia certainly adds value as it enables me to connect with new suppliers and at the same time build stronger ties with existing partners, both of which are essential to any business.” The VIV worldwide team and its partners extend their gratitude to the exhibitors, attendees, and supporters who contributed to making VIV Asia 2025 a massive success, and look forward to the next edition of VIV Asia scheduled to take place from March 10-12, 2027.
ZOOTECNICA ◆ April 2025
With a strong track record of success and a commitment to delivering value-driven experiences, VIV Asia 2025 marked another milestone in the VIV worldwide portfolio p. 5
◗ INTERVIEW
HEALTH PREVENTION THROUGH ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES: A TECHNOLOGICAL SOLUTION AGAINST AVIAN INFLUENZA The Italian biotechnology company e4life has introduced e4life Farm - advanced devices that use electromagnetic waves to inactivate the avian influenza virus within poultry houses, achieving up to 95% efficiency. This innovative technology is also available in devices designed for human use, proven effective against seasonal influenza, RSV, and COVID-19 - including the KP3 variant. We discussed this innovative approach with CEO Vincenzo Pompa. ➤ Daria Domenici, journalist Elettronica, an Italian company holding a 51% stake in e4life, operates in the defence sector, specialising in the production of electronic warfare systems. How did your focus shift toward protecting against respiratory viruses? Vincenzo Pompa - It all began during the pandemic, when a Taiwanese medical team published an article in Nature Scientific Reports, suggesting that airborne respiratory viruses could be morphologically affected by electromagnetic fields. Since the management of electromagnetic fields is at the core of Elettronica’s expertise, we began exploring whether it was possible to go beyond the findings presented in the Nature article. This led us to develop a scientific model demonstrating that a specific power level could induce a resonance phenomenon capable of disrupting the virus. Essentially, when the virus is exposed to electromagnetic waves generated with specific parameters, it triggers a selfsustaining oscillatory motion that leads to a “resonance” phenomenon - ultimately breaking down the capsid, the virus’s outer protective shell. At this point, the spike proteins lose their stable anchoring structure and can no longer function as hooks to penetrate target cells. In this way, the virus's pathogenicity and transmission ability are effectively suppressed. From an engineering model to reality: what steps were taken to develop an effective device? V.P. - Once we determined that the resonance principle could be applied for the first time to air sanitisation, we moved forward with experimentation. Elettronica collaborated
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with the Scientific Department of the Military Polyclinic of Rome, where the initial liquid tests were conducted, as the laboratory lacked an aerosol nebuliser. The liquid tests showed a 60% inactivation rate, a promising result considering that liquids absorb the wave energy, thereby reducing its effectiveness. Encouraged by these results, we sought a private partner to advance the research. We found one in the American pharmaceutical company ViroStatics, whose laboratories in Alghero conducted aerosol tests on COVID-19 and its variants, achieving an inactivation rate of approximately 90%. At that point, we began a process of validating the scientific rigour of the protocols used. At the University of Milan, within the Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences led by Prof. Biasin, we validated the process by replicating the tests conducted in Alghero. The results demonstrated 100% replicability, yielding the same inactivation values. Not satisfied with just that, we replicated the tests once more at the University of Genoa under the guidance of Prof. Alberto Izzotti, Professor of Hygiene, and achieved results that were not only consistent with the previous ones but even better. During these tests, we expanded the scope of effectiveness, first from SARS-CoV-2 to seasonal human influenza, and then to the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). The transition from protecting human health to safeguarding animal health was a natural and swift progression. V.P. - With efficacy rates exceeding 95% against the human influenza virus, we expanded our focus to the animal sector, conducting tests on the avian influenza virus and the one responsible for swine fever. For both,
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we achieved an inactivation efficiency of over 90% (more precisely: 95% for avian, 90% for swine fever). Following the success of e4life Human, e4life Farm was created, specifically designed for companies that raise chickens, turkeys, and pigs. How does e4life Farm operate, and what advantages does it offer over more traditional systems? V.P. The e4life Farm device is specially designed for poultry houses, featuring an IP65 protection rating that ensures full protection against moisture, liquids, and dust. It is designed for ceiling installation and operates efficiently at ground level. Each device covers about 5060 sqm. The strength of the device lies in its ability to stay continuously updated. Each unit can emit different frequencies sequentially, not in parallel. This allows us, through ongoing research, to identify new frequencypower combinations effective against specific viruses, which can then be remotely uploaded to devices already in operation. This applies to devices intended for human use as well as those designed for animal use. Low-frequency electromagnetic waves pose no harm to either humans or animals. For instance, the e4life Personal device, designed for human wear, is both CE and SAR certified. The SAR certification is required for all electronic devices and indicates the recommended distance at which the device should be kept from the human body. Consider this: while common smartphones have a SAR of 30 cm, our device is certified with a SAR of 0 cm. Considering an estimated lifespan of at least 10 years, these devices consume minimal energy, contain no chemical products, and require no filters or other replaceable parts. Once installed, they operate continuously, sanitizing both the air and surfaces. While the surface sanitization effectiveness is somewhat lower, it still achieves up to 75% virus inactivation. Sanitisation is also immediate: unlike HEPA filters, which need regular replacement and extended operation to be effective, electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, providing instant results. Installation is straightforward: e4life Farm is suitable for any farm. After an inspection, we can strategically place the devices to maximise their effectiveness, considering factors such as any metal structures within the sheds that may affect the wave frequencies. The One health approach seems to be a perfect fit for e4life. V.P. - The first device was created to combat Covid, then we expanded its focus to human well-being, and ultimately, to animal welfare. When we began exploring the animal sector, we realized that focusing on this area also means indirectly safeguarding human health. We recently had a meeting with a plant pathologist from the University of Turin. Plants, too, are vulnerable to viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Fungi spread through spores, whose outer membrane could resonate similarly to that of viruses. If we could protect the plant environment within enclosed spaces like greenhouses, we would achieve comprehensive coverage across the plant, animal, and human worlds,
ZOOTECNICA ◆ April 2025
Vincenzo Pompa, CEO, e4life ★ reaching the goal of holistic well-being. In developing cuttingedge health prevention solutions, you are backed by an Advisory Board composed of esteemed scholars. V.P. - The company's credibility is reinforced not only by scientific articles and reports such as the technology's inclusion in indoor sanitation practices published by the ISS and its positive evaluation in the latest report from the Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission, which provides scientific support to the EU in shaping future guidelines to enhance quality of life - but also by its prestigious scientific Advisory Board. It includes Prof. Silvio Brusaferro, Professor at the Department of Medicine at the University of Udine and former president of the Italian National Health Institute, and Prof. Gaetano Privitera, Professor Emeritus of Hygiene at the University of Pisa and expert in national and international organizations. Both play a pivotal role in guiding scientific research, identifying emerging technological advancements, and proposing innovations in health prevention. What are your plans for the future? V.P. - We are currently facing some very important challenges. One example is swine fever: we are working with the Institute of Experimental Zootechnics in Perugia, the only facility in Italy that handles the ASF virus, where we have already conducted tests in both liquid and aerosol forms. If the results, expected by the end of March, show that electromagnetic waves are effective against swine fever, it would provide a significant tool in helping to contain the outbreak. Another challenge focuses on bacteria: in collaboration with Prof. Andrea Piana of the University of Sassari, we have already conducted tests in both liquid and aerosol forms, and have now moved on to surface testing, achieving excellent results. The next step is to fine-tune the frequency-power combination. So far, we’ve tested the devices at maximum power in the lab, which isn't suitable for human presence. Therefore, we need to gradually reduce the power to identify the optimal balance between efficacy, power levels, and safe coexistence with humans and animals. Finally, an even greater challenge lies ahead: exploring the potential effectiveness of electromagnetic waves against tuberculosis, a disease that still affects a third of the global population.
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◗ DOSSIER
PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE® - INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR THE PROTECTION OF HATCHERY AND FARMS AGAINST BACTERIA AND VIRUSES The PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE is a unique and effective system for air and surface disinfection in livestock facilities. This technology has been thoroughly tested in laboratory settings and real-life conditions at poultry hatcheries. ➤ Eng. Piotr Czech, www.dezynfekcjapowietrzem.pl Dr Joanna Macyk, www.inphocat.pl Prof. dr hab. Wojciech Macyk, Jagiellonian University in Kraków Assoc. Prof. Eng. Marcin Lis, University of Agriculture in Kraków A major problem in poultry production is the presence of pathogenic bacteria and viruses in the air. Unfortunately, hatcheries and poultry farms are particularly vulnerable to contamination by bacteria, viruses, and fungi, which can cause serious infectious diseases: • Salmonella – a bacterium that causes salmonellosis, a serious digestive tract infection,
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• Escherichia coli – a bacterium that causes colibacillosis, leading to intestinal infections and sepsis. • Influenza A virus – responsible for avian influenza (HPAI), an acute systemic disease with a mortality rate of up to 100%, • Orthoavulovirus javaense (OAV-J) – the causative agent of Newcastle disease (ND), a highly contagious illness, • Aspergillus – a mould that can cause aspergillosis, a lung disease in chicks. Pathogens threaten poultry production throughout the cycle, from breeding flocks and hatcheries to broiler farms and slaughterhouses. Poultry infections result in significant financial losses for farmers and pose a consumer risk. Salmonella bacteria naturally live in the intestines of healthy birds. They multiply quickly in the digestive tract, even in so-called asymptomatic carriers. The risk of infection increases when factors that weaken the animals’
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immunity arise, such as excessively high bird density in the henhouse, insufficient air ventilation, or damp litter. The spread of viruses and bacteria can also occur through contaminated feed, water, fertiliser, excrements, equipment, and transport, as well as through humans – contaminated clothing, footwear, or tools can lead to mass infections of poultry and eggs. The use of antibiotics in poultry farming is permitted only for treatment and under the strict supervision of a veterinarian.
The PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE operates based on photocatalysis, in which two key elements – the appropriate photocatalyst and the proper light source – enable the decomposition of organic and microbiological contaminants (Figure 2). ▲ Figure 2 - Factors determining the efficiency of the photocatalysis process
After completing antibiotic therapy, a withdrawal period applies – the time required for the drug’s components to break down to a level safe for human health. Another significant issue, particularly on farms, is the emission of unpleasant odours into the environment. Complaints and protests from nearby residents often delay the planning, construction, and operation of farms. The issue of odour nuisance undeniably damages the reputation of the entire agricultural industry, including poultry farming. Therefore, innovative solutions are needed to address the challenges of profitable and sustainable poultry production. These solutions should reduce pharmacological treatments, minimise odour emissions, and water and air pollution, and align with sustainable development principles. Additionally, they should ensure food safety, protect workers, and safeguard the environment. The PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE is a unique and effective system for air and surface disinfection in livestock facilities (Figure 1). This technology has been thoroughly tested in laboratory settings and real-life conditions at poultry hatcheries.
▲ Figure 1 - PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE
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The active element of the technology is a photocatalyst – titanium dioxide (TiO2) absorbs UV light when exposed to it and in the presence of oxygen and moisture leads to the formation of reactive oxygen compounds (ROS), such as the hydroperoxide radical (HO2•), the hydroxyl radical (HO•) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (Figure 3). ▲ Figure 3 - Schematic diagram of the photocatalyst (TiO2), photocatalysis process
The key to the PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE’s effectiveness is selecting the appropriate UV light source, which initiates the oxidation reaction and generates small amounts of ozone. Due to the strong oxidising properties of ROS molecules, all organic and microbiological pollutants are decomposed (oxidised) into simple substances like carbon dioxide and water. When polluted air comes into contact with the photoactive TiO₂ coating, it is purified of allergens, bacteria, moulds, yeasts, viruses, and toxic pollutants. The photocatalytic coating has been enhanced with copper compounds to improve its effectiveness in purifying air from various pollutants in livestock facilities. This includes reducing unpleasant odours caused by the decomposition of litter and manure, as well as inhibiting the growth of mould and fungi, particularly in damp and poorly ventilated areas. The addition of copper compounds further boosts the TiO₂ photocatalyst’s ability to deactivate mould and fungi. The efficiency of the PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE is not accidental. Many years of laboratory research on understanding the mechanism of photocatalysis and the impact of various factors on its efficiency were conducted by a team of experienced scientists under the supervision of Professor Wojciech Macyk from the Faculty of Chemistry at Jagiellonian University. The author of PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE technology, which combines photocatalysis with a small dose of ozone and introduces many innovative solutions, is Eng. Piotr Czech (dezynfekcjapowietrzem. pl), a specialist in ventilation and air conditioning
ZOOTECNICA ◆ April 2025
technologies. His prototype installation at a poultry hatchery led to the elimination of pathogens, including Salmonella spp. The PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE technology was optimised and tested at InPhoCat by Dr. Joanna Macyk and Prof. Wojciech Macyk for nearly four years. It has been confirmed that the appropriate combination of photocatalyst (TiO₂), UV light with a minimal dose of
ozone (UV/O3), and copper compounds (Cu2+) delivered excellent results in durability tests, decomposition of organic compounds, and, most importantly, the decomposition of microbiological contaminants. This is evidenced by microbiological tests conducted on air and surfaces in many independent laboratories, including: • Microbiological tests for Salmonella enterica, Enterococcus faecalis, and Staphylococcus aureus tested in the accredited Laboratory of the Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology – State Research Institute in Łódź. • Microbiological tests for enveloped viruses such as coronaviruses (including SARS-CoV-2), measles virus, varicella virus, influenza virus, herpes simplex virus, HIV, hepatitis C, hepatitis B, hepatitis D, EBOLA, and Marburg (tests on the model strain Vaccinia Virus) conducted by the MEDISEPT Sp. z o.o., Research and Development Center. • Tests against gram-positive (+) and gram-negative (-) bacteria for antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains: Klebsiella pneumoniae NDM-1, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus MRSA, Clostridium difficile, Escherichia coli and Enterococcus hirae - conducted by the MEDISEPT Sp. z o.o., Research and Development Center. Studies conducted under real conditions at a poultry hatchery confirmed that the issue of Salmonella presence persisted despite the use of standard biosecurity procedures. In 28% of the tested samples, Salmonella was detected before the installation of the PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE
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technology (red bars in Figure 4). Since the implementation of the PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE technology alongside biosecurity measures, Salmonella has been reduced (blue bars in Figure 4) and finally eliminated (value 0% in
Figure 4). The results of these studies confirm the high efficacy of the photocatalytic system. The microbiological effectiveness under real conditions has been confirmed through scientific research conducted by a team of zoohygienists and microbiologists, supervised by Prof. Eng. Marcin Lis, from the Agriculture University of Kraków at the Poultry Hatching Department. Following the installation of PHOTOCATALYTIC GATES, a reduction in the population of aerobic mesophilic microorganisms was observed at the following measurement points: the incubator ventilation unit (a decrease of 0.7 log cfu/25 cm²) and the hatcher ventilation unit (a decrease of 0.3 log cfu/25 cm²). The PHOTOCATALYTIC GATES effectively reduced the number of Enteric Bacilli, Staphylococcus, and fungi in the incubator ventilation unit. They also limited the number of fungi in the hatcher ventilation unit (see Table 1).
▲ Figure 4 - The percentage of Salmonella occurrence before and after the installation of the PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE in the hatchery (results of the examination of chicken fluff from hatchers and surface swabs)
Moreover, using the Koch sedimentation method, it was shown that the installation of PHOTOCATALYTIC GATES resulted in a complete reduction of the microbial population in the air (to zero) on surfaces particularly
■ Table 1 - Microbial counts [log cfu/25 cm²] on the surface of key points in the poultry hatchery, measured before and after 30 days of using the PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE
Sample collection location
hatcher ventilation unit
before the gate behind the gate
Hatcher
hatcher ventilation unit
Total number of microorganisms
Enteric bacilli
Staphylococci
before
before
before
2.49
after
2.48 1.78
1.00
after
0.78 0
1.80
after
0.90 0.60
3rd day of incubation
0
0
0
0
0
0
17th day of incubation
0
0
0
0
0
0
before the gate behind the gate
1.58
1.25 0.90
0
0 0
0
0 0
hatcher after hatching is complete
2.49
1.90
0
0
0
0
chick storage after emptying of chicks
2.32
1.08
0
0
1.53
0.30
chick storage ventilation
ZOOTECNICA ◆ April 2025
before the gate behind the gate
2.48
1.78 1.78
0
0 0
0
0 0
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air inside the devices or on the supply duct (Figure 5). It is also recommended to install the system at the air outlets. This would significantly reduce the unpleasant odour nuisance of livestock buildings in the local environment. For the disinfection of semi-trailers (with isothermal or refrigerated/heated trucks used for transporting), it is possible to install a PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE in the space where the fans of the ventilation, heating, and cooling systems of the semi-trailer are located. The PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE technology can be ■ Table 2 - Microbiological contamination of air at key effectively implemented in poultry farms for all types points of the poultry hatchery of mechanical ventilation systems: cross, chimney, or tunnel, whether overpressure Total number of or underpressure, as long as all ventilation Measurement point in the poultry hatchery microorganisms air inlets are protected. It is also possible [cfu/100 cm3] to use monoblock devices with their own Incubator ventilation unit – inlet 236 fans, operating on recirculating air, which Incubator ventilation unit – outlet 158 significantly reduces investment and operating costs. However, this solution will Hatcher - 3rd day of incubation 158 be less efficient. Hatcher - 17th day of incubation 79 exposed to microbiological contamination, such as the flat surfaces of the ventilation units in the chick warehouse, the hatchers, and the incubators. The number of 49005000 cfu/100 cm³, found in the hatcher after hatching was completed and in the ventilation unit of the warehouse before the installation of the PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE, is characteristic of dusty rooms with increased air humidity (Table 2).
Hatcher ventilation unit – inlet
551
Hatcher ventilation unit – outlet
0
Hatcher aft er completion of hatching
5030
Chick storage aft er emptying
0
Chick storage ventilation unit – inlet
4952
Chick storage ventilation unit – outlet
0
▲ Figure 5 - PHOTOCATALYTIC GATES® installed inside the ventilation unit in a poultry hatchery on the supply air side
During the tests, it was not found that the use of the PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE affected air parameters such as temperature, relative humidity, and movement. The photocatalytic decomposition of pollutants into carbon dioxide does not affect the increase of CO2 in the air and therefore does not deteriorate our air quality. Since the concentration of harmful gaseous admixtures (NH3 and H2S) in the Poultry Hatching Plant (PHP) rooms remained below the detection limit level of the devices, it cannot be determined whether the device could have affected these parameters. The PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE, although not effective against dust with diameters between 2.0-10 µm, significantly reduced the concentration of the most harmful, smallest respirable dust particles in the range 8-31%. Interestingly, the effect of this dust fraction seemed to persist in rooms where air purified by the PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE was injected. The concentration of nanodusts in these hatching devices and sorting rooms was approximately 8692% of the value measured in the air directly behind the working PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE, and even 19% in the chick warehouse. This effect on the larger diameter dust fraction was not observed. In hatcheries equipped with ventilation units, PHOTOCATALYTIC GATES are mounted on the supply
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▲ Figure 6 - Devices with forced air flow, PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE and innovative UVC filter and their arrangement on poultry farms
The benefits of installing a PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE in the mechanical supply and exhaust ventilation system in a poultry hatchery are as follows: • disinfects the flowing air at a level of 90 to 99% thanks to the appropriate power of UV light • disinfects ventilation ducts and air and surfaces in rooms with an efficiency of over 99% thanks to the use of a TiO2/ Cu photocatalytic coating, • 100% effectiveness against Salmonella enterica (Salmonellosis), • significant reduction in chick mortality rates, • elimination of costly antibiotic treatments, • protection against antibiotic withdrawal, • maintenance of a safe, bacteria-free, virus-free, fungifree, and mould-free ventilation system,
The PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE technology can be effectively implemented in poultry farms for all types of mechanical ventilation systems
• improvement in air quality circulation, leading to better livestock welfare, • reduction in respirable dust with a diameter of <0.3 μm by 9.3 to 20.6% and <0.5 μm by 8 - 31%, • enhanced biosecurity against cross-infections, • strengthened biosecurity in preventing infections transmitted by personnel, • improved working conditions, • reduction of bacterial and spore spread on the premises, • decreased emission of harmful pollutants to the external environment. • guarantees efficiency and protection for about 2 years, after which a service inspection should be carried out and the catalytic matrix should be replaced. The patented solutions used in the PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE consist of: • securing the entire cross-section of the airflow in the supply duct or the cross-section of the ventilation unit, • universal design - the possibility of using several rows of photocatalytic matrices, which provides the most effective protection while maintaining the recommended ventilation efficiency of the facility, • easy servicing - the entire device is pulled out on special rails outside the ventilation unit section, which facilitates the replacement of UV lamps, ballasts and photocatalytic filters. In the era of global threats of diseases such as Salmonellosis, Avian Influenza (HPAI) and Newcastle Disease (ND), the PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE Technology is an excellent complement to biosecurity in breeding facilities. It is also the right solution for safe poultry production, allowing for a reduction in the amount of pharmaceuticals used and noninvasive protection of animals and personnel as well as the environment surrounding the farms.
Patents, certificates, awards PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE® has obtained the safety conformity certificate, including a test of nano-object emissions conducted by the Central Institute for Labor Protection - National Research Institute (CIOP), which confirms that particles of the TiO2/Cu coating do not penetrate the room with the ventilation air. In addition, the Ozone-free solution has a Certificate of National Institute of Public Health no.: B.BK.60112.0130.2023 valid until: 06.07.2028 for use in livestock facilities. The entire technology is protected by a patent of the Patent Office of the Republic of Poland no. P.4441199 and an international patent application - World Intellectual Property Organization WIPO PCT no. PCT/ IB2023/053731 and European Patent Office no. 23807114.6 -1014 PTC/IB2023053731, as well as numerous EU industrial designs. PHOTOCATALYTIC GATE® received the “QUALITY & INNOVATION” award in the Innovation category at the POULTRY TECH and BIOAGRO POLSKA 2024 Fairs.
We invite you to visit our stand at FIERAVICOLA INTERNATIONAL POULTRY EXHIBITION, 6-8 May, Rimini - Expo Centre, Italy
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◗ FOCUS
EARLY LIFE MANAGEMENT OF LAYERS Successful egg production in tableegg laying hens relies on proper caretaking during the lay phase, yet early rearing is also paramount to achieve performance objectives. ➤ Aitor Arrazola, Research biologist, Ph.D. in Animal Behaviour & Welfare During the first months of age, chicks and pullets develop core skills to navigate complex laying housing systems as well as proper body condition for optimal laying rate.
Need for greater resilience Moving cage-reared chicks and pullets into multi-tier aviaries is stressful for the birds and can jeopardize production traits such as undesirable mortality during the first days, growth check or poor body weight uniformity, and elevated number of floor eggs during the peak of production. In this scenario, majority of hens spend high proportion of their time in the ground area as they are not accustomed to three-dimensional environments. Also, naïve hens are totally clueless about the location of essential resources and will take them time to figure out that water lines and feed troughs are on the top tiers. Thus, matching rearing and lay environments smoothens the brooder-to-layer housing transition as it helps chicks and pullets acquire crucial, mental and physical skills they will need later during lay. Early rearing is a sensitive phase for skeletal development in which environmental traits play a crucial role supporting proper frame formation. For example, brooding compartments for layer chicks enriched with elevated perches, wide platforms, and long terraces positively impact their physical health and performance in the long run. Certainly, environments that allow chicks and pullets to engage in physical activities like running, jumping, and wing-flapping not only help birds cope with potential on-going stressors and enhance their wellbeing but also facilitate muscle development and bone formation. These physical activities are often referred to as bone-loading exercises due to their benefits for frame development and bone anatomy. Indeed, research in layer and broiler
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chicks has shown that allowing birds to perform boneloading exercise strengthens their bones by the time of sexual maturation. This improvement in bone formation has been reported in terms of greater bone size, thickness, and density which, in return, yields higher resistance to breakage compared to bones of birds raised in small, conventional cages. All of these translate into greater resilience against bone fractures and malformations due to weak frame and help support the high nutrient and calcium demand for egg production, particularly by the end of lay. Maintaining a laying rate close to one egg daily is definitely costly, and hens depend on calcium reserves for eggshell formation. Although calcium supplementation in layer diets aids at satisfying the high nutrient of egg laying and lowers the incidence of soft eggshells, most of the demand for calcium comes in exchange of bone strength and health. As frame weakens as table-egg laying hens age, this raises health and welfare concerns because of higher susceptibility to bone fractures and deviations. Indeed, the high prevalence and severity of keel bone fractures, lameness, or other-related disorders are also a productivity problem due to laying rate decline and greater percentage of culls. For this reason, seeking opportunities to support bone formation through rearing environments that enable the performance of boneloading exercise can improve the performance of laying hens all the way to the end of the production cycle.
Benefits beyond enhanced physical health The benefits of increasing rearing environment complexity go beyond promoting good physical health. Introducing chicks and young pullets to relatively-complex, rearing environments (such as elevated perches and platforms) help them nurture three-dimensional navigation skills and train their locomotory system. Although this may be trivial to grown-ups and often overlooked by farmers, chicks need to learn how to access cautiously raised resources (like mastering wing assisted flapping) and descend safely from perches and top tiers in one piece. Acquiring this agility and locomotory skills often require a step-by-step learning curve for musculoskeletal and neuromuscular development starting as soon as they hatch. Chicks are indeed eager to explore perches, ramps, and
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platforms as soon as one week of age (heavier strains may take them a bit more time), and this early-life training help them learn to move around structural hazards wisely without harm. Acquiring these skills is not only valuable so pullets feel comfortable exploring their layer barn but also to prevent collisions during lay. Recent studies have indicated that pullets and hens seem to prefer using gentle (not too steep) ramps to move downwards from top tiers, and previous experience during rearing is crucial to assure proper use of resources during laying and reduce the number of falls and collisions that result in bone fractures. Even with previous learning opportunities, some birds never manage to develop these navigation or locomotory skills (like climbing steep ramps) neither as chicks nor hens. Therefore, housing design should also accommodate facilities so laying hens do not have to rely on over-exertion (e.g., flying and flapping) to access essential resources such as laying boxes, feeder troughs, and drinker lines. Indeed, high risk of collisions due to poor maneuver skills and suboptimal housing design plus high susceptibility to bone fractures because of weak frame are causal factors of physical problems and elevated culling rates in commercial laying barns.
Introducing chicks and young pullets to relativelycomplex, rearing environments (such as elevated perches and platforms) help them nurture three-dimensional navigation skills and train their locomotory system ZOOTECNICA ◆ April 2025
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◗ MARKETING
DYNAMICS AND STRUCTURE OF MEAT PRODUCTION AND MEAT TRADE IN THE USA BETWEEN 2019 AND 2023 Part 1 - Meat production This article series aims to document the dynamics in meat production and meat trade between 2019 and 2023 and trace them back to the driving factors. Particular attention will be given to the impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic. The first article will analyse the role of the USA in global meat production and its key regional production centers. The second article will examine the development of the U.S. foreign trade in meat and document the most important trading partners for exports and imports.
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➤ Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst Professor Emeritus, University of Vechta, Germany The USA occupied leading positions in both global meat production and meat trade. They ranked first in the production of cattle meat and broiler meat, and second behind China in pig meat production. However, they have not been able to maintain their leading position in meat trade. In broiler meat, as in cattle meat, they were replaced by Brazil, and in pig meat by Spain.
The role of the USA in the global context In 2023, 360.6 million tons of meat were produced worldwide. China accounted for 25.8%, the USA for 13.2%, followed by Brazil, Russia and India, which together contributed 14.8%. Figure 1 shows that the USA ranked
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first for both cattle and broiler meat, and second, although with great distance to China, for pig meat. It is obvious that China’s dominant role in world meat production was mainly due to its large production volume of pig meat.
Different trends for the various meat types A more detailed analysis of the development of meat production between 2019 and 2023, broken down by meat type, reveals some interesting differences and similarities. Figure 2 compares the development of the production volume and the per capita consumption for the four most important meat types.
▲ Figure 1 – Meat production of the USA in comparison with the share of the five leading countries in global production in 2023; by meat type (design: A.S. Kauer, based on USDA NASS data).
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▲ Figure 2 – The development of meat production and the per capita consumption in the USA between 2019 and 2023; by meat type (design: A.S. Kauer, based on USDA NASS and National Chicken Council data).
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production grew until 2021. There are obviously close interrelations with the Covid-19 pandemic. In the USA, the first infections occurred in April 2020, reached their peak between November 2021 and March 2022 and then levelled off again. The closure of restaurants, school and university canteens during the pandemic and the decline in tourism resulted in more food being prepared in private households. As a result, sales of beef in the food retail sector increased. At the same time, exports grew as demand for beef rose due to disruptions in the supply chains in some countries. When the restrictions were lifted and consumer behaviour returned to normal, consumption and production decreased again. As only a comparatively small amount of pig meat was prepared in private households, per capita consumption fell during the pandemic. As exports decreased at the same time because demand on the global markets declined, production fell. Production volumes only rose again with the significant recovery in exports in 2023, which will be discussed in more detail in the second article. Production and consumption of broiler meat showed an upward trend over the entire period which is analysed here, apart from a small dip in 2021 during the peak of the coronavirus infections. The slight decline was mainly due to the temporary closure of fast-food restaurants. Exports remained at a stable level. As there are indications that the already very high per capita consumption will continue to grow in the coming years, even though at a slower rate, and exports can be maintained at the current level, a further increase in production can be expected1.
High regional concentration in meat production ▲ Figure 3 – The share of the ten leading states in USA’s total meat production in 2023, by meat type (design: A.S. Kauer, based on USDA NASS
It is worth noting that the consumption of broiler meat showed a continuous upward trend, while that of pork declined steadily, apart from a plateau in 2021 and 2022. In contrast to broiler meat, turkey meat was unable to benefit from the shift from red towards white meat that has been evident for years, especially among younger consumers (Windhorst 2021). The trend for cattle meat is interesting. Per capita consumption rose until 2022, only to fall back to the level of 2019 and 2020 in the following year. At the same time,
https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2024/august/ long-term-growth-projected-as-u-s-poultry-and-egg-sectorrecovers 1
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The following part analyses the question why the USA is the leader in the production of broiler and cattle meat and also rank second after China in pig meat production. Figure 3 shows the shares of the top 10 states in the total production of each of these three meat types. The high degree of regional concentration is obvious. Texas and Nebraska were in the two leading positions in cattle meat production. Together, they accounted for over a quarter of the total production in 2023. Other states with a share in the grasslands of the Great Plains (Kansas, South Dakota, Oklahoma, Colorado) were also represented in the top group. A special situation was to be found in California. There, a secondary centre emerged which supplied the population agglomeration on the Pacific. Cattle farming in the vast grasslands of the West can be traced back to the early decades of development. They were initially extensively used. From the middle of the 19th century the cattle herds were driven from the grazed areas in southern Texas to the end points of the railway lines advancing westwards (Abilene, Dodge City,
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Wichita). From there, the cattle was then transported to the slaughterhouses in the east. Kansas City and Chicago played an exceptional role in this process (Lavender 1988, p. 351 ff.). Today, cattle meat is predominantly produced in large feedlots2. In some cases, they reach sizes of more than 100,000 head of cattle. Intensive fattening is carried out with feed that is mainly supplied by rail from the centres of corn and soybean production in the Midwest. Where groundwater for irrigation is available, corn and sorghum are also grown in the Great Plains. Very efficient systems of extensive grazing (production of calves in cowcalf operations), intensive fattening in feedlots and large slaughterhouses have developed. One centre is located in the Texas Panhandle, where several large feedlots and slaughterhouses form a cluster. Other centres are Dodge City (Kansas) and Greeley (Colorado). Only four companies control cattle meat production in the USA: Tyson (25%), Cargill (21%), JBS (18.5%) and National Beef (10.5%)3. There is a similar spatial concentration in pig meat
production. Here, fattening on the basis of available feed components (corn, soybeans) are the decisive location factor. States in the region formerly known as the Corn Belt achieved high shares in pig meat production. Iowa was the undisputed leader with one third; Iowa, Minnesota and Illinois together achieved 52%. Outside of this agglomeration, a secondary centre has emerged in Virginia. Here, the headquarter of Smithfield Foods is located, the largest pig meat producing company in the USA, named after the town. It owns several hundred thousand breeding sows and has built up a vertically integrated production system by integrating around 2,000 contract farms. Smithfield Foods was acquired by the Chinese WH Group in 2013. The company operates the largest pig slaughterhouse in the world in Tar Heel (North Carolina). Similar integrated systems have also been established in other states, such as Kansas, Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois and Oklahoma., 4 5They not only play a decisive role in supplying the population, but are also dominating in the export of pork. The second article will show which role the
A feedlot is a large animal farming operation in which cattle is fed intensively prior to slaughtering.3 https://www.hcn.org/issues/43-5/the-big-four-meatpackers-1. 4 A list of the leading companies can be found under:: https://static.onecms.io/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/sites/58/2023/06/16/29771-Pork-Powerhouse-2022-Rankings.pdf 5 The huge companies, called CAFO (Confined Animal Feeding Operations) are not undisputed. See: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Concentrated_animal_feeding_operation. See also: Imhoff, D. (Ed): The CAFO reader: the tragedy of industrial animal factories. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, 2010. 2 3
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USA played in supplying China with pork when massive outbreaks of African swine fever caused supply problems (see also Windhorst 2024). At first glance, the regional concentration of broiler growing in the Southeast of the USA and the Mid-Atlantic is surprising. As they are no centres of feed crop production, other location factors must have been decisive (Windhorst 2002). The development of broiler meat production in these areas is closely interrelated to the abandonment of cotton cultivation (former Cotton Belt) in the southeastern USA, following the spread of a disease, the cotton boll weevil. In the first decades of the 20th century, it led to a shift of cotton cultivation to the West. This deprived the small farms of their economic basis. If the mostly coloured tenants were unable to find a new income source, their only option was to emigrate to northern states. This is where the poultry meat production companies came in, which had previously been located in the corn and grain producing states of the Midwest. As they were unable to meet the rapidly increasing demand for broiler meat in the 1950s with the production system that had prevailed until then, because the farmers there were not willing to enter into long-term growing contracts with them, they decided to relocate to the Southeast. There was a sufficient labour force available which was not unionised. Although it did not have a high level of education, this was no problem as it was not necessary for the work in the slaughterhouses. The initiative of one entrepreneur played a decisive role. Frank Perdue (Salisbury, Maryland) realised in the 1950s that he would only be successful in the long term if he could offer food retailers a high-quality broiler meat at an acceptable price all year round. He had the idea of creating an integrated production system that brought together the supply of broiler chicks from his own hatcheries, compound feed plants, contract farmers to grow the broilers and the slaughtering and processing under one company roof. Vertical integration was born. In order to establish his product on the market, he broke new ground in advertising. He personally appeared in advertisements and tv spots and his slogan “it takes a tough man to produce a tender chicken” quickly became popular with consumers6. His idea spread in the following decades and numerous vertically integrated companies emerged in the Mid-Atlantic and the Southeast and also in other regions of the USA7. As can be seen in Figure 3, the four leading states alone accounted for half of total broiler meat production. A secondary centre emerged in California, similar to cattle meat production. For data protection reasons, however, no production data is available. The leading companies
in broiler slaughter in 2023 were Tyson Foods (1.9 billion head per year), Pilgrim’s Pride (1.5 billion) and WayneSanderson Farms (1.1 billion)8. A comparison of regional production centres and production systems reveals similarities and differences. The formation of the centres in the production of cattle and pig meat can be explained by natural location advantages. In contrast, the centre of broiler meat production can be traced back to socio-economic conditions in the former Cotton Belt, following the abandonment of cotton cultivation. The production systems that emerged in the second half of the 20th century are consistent. Vertically integrated systems prevailed, initiated and controlled by the slaughterhouses and processing plants.
Summary and outlook The preceding analysis has highlighted the outstanding role of the USA in global meat production. It was the undisputed leader in the production of cattle and broiler meat, ranking second only to China in pig meat. The dynamics in production between 2019 and 2023 were strongly influenced by changes in the consumer behaviour, but also by the Covid-19 pandemic. While the production of broiler meat was only slightly affected, pig meat production declined considerably. There was a high regional concentration in the production of all three meat types, which could be attributed to different location factors. The production system of vertical integration and the formation of large meat companies, which were not only responsible for supplying the domestic population but also for exports, characterised meat production in the USA. In its long-term forecast, the USDA predicts an increase in the production of broiler meat of 15%, pig meat of 18% and cattle meat of 5% by 2033. The expected development
Perdue, M.: Tough Man, Tender Chicken. 2024. An interactive map with the location of their headquarters and their production facilities as well as links to their websites is available under: https://www.wattagnet.com/broilers-turkeys/turkey/article/15535098/interactive-top-poultry-maps. 8 A list if the leading broiler companies is available under: https://www.wattagnet.com/top-poultry-companies. 6 7
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of foreign trade with meat will be discussed in the following article.
Data sources and additional literature Cavaleski, A.: The ten largest poultry companies in the USA. In: Zippia April 2023. https://www.zippia.com/ advice/largest-poultry-companies. FAO Data: https://www.fao.org/ faostat/en/#home. Lavender, D.: The Great West. New York 1988. National Chicken Council: https:// www.nationalchickencouncil.org/industry/statistics. USDA, NASS: Meat Animals Production and Value (various editions). https://de.search.yahoo. com/yhs/search?hspart=trp&hsimp=yhs-005&type=Y149_ F163_202167_012724&p=USDA+NASS+Meat+animals+production+and+value. USDA: Agricultural Projections to 2033. https://www.usda.gov/sites/ default/files/documents/USDAAgricultural-Projections-to-2033. pdf. USDA, NASS: Poultry Production and Value. Annual Summary (various editions). https://www.nass.usda. gov/Publications/Todays_Reports/ reports/plva0421.pdf. USDA, FAS GATS: Global Agricultural Trade System. https:// apps.fas.usda.gov/gats/default. aspx?publish=1. Windhorst, H.-W.: The Old South goes poultry and pigs – Neuausrichtung der Agrarproduktion im Alten Süden. In: Klohn, W. u. H.-W. Windhorst: Die Land- und Forstwirtschaft im Alten Süden der USA (= Vechtaer Studien zur Angewandten Geographie und Regionalwissenschaft, Band 23). Vechta 2002, S. 113-150. Windhorst, H.-W.: Geflügel auf der Überholspur. Die RotWeiß-Verschiebung in der globalen Fleischerzeugung (1). In: Fleischwirtschaft 101 (2021), Nr. 2, S. 24-27.
Windhorst, H.-W. In the country of chicken meat. Part 1: The dynamics of the U. S. broiler industry. In: Fleischwirtschaft international 2021, no. 4, p. 16-18. Windhorst, H.-W.: The dynamics of the U. S. broiler industry. Part 2: US profits from the rising demand of white meat. In: Fleischwirtschaft international 2022, no. 2, p. 52-54. Windhorst, H.-W.: Meat production and consumption in the USA between 1970 and 2020. In: Meatingpoint 44 (2023), issue 52, p. 30-34.
◗ MANAGEMENT
FEEDING THE COMMERCIAL TURKEY Choosing the most effective feeding programme has never been more important given the unpredictability of the raw material market and lack of consistent supply of materials. ➤ Marcus Kenny, Company Nutritionist. Aviagen Turkeys Ltd, Chowley Five, Chowley Oak Business Park, Tattenhall, Cheshire, CH3 9GA, UK The current raw material market appears to be more settled however, given recent events, the future is far from predictable. This also needs to be considered within the context of an ever-changing growing environment where the turkey’s response to a given feeding regime is influenced by enteric challenges, increased removal of antibiotics and in some cases removal of coccidiostats. In such situations, it is critical that nutritionists can make
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informed decisions in order to choose the most efficient feeding programme for different circumstances.
Biological response to nutrient density Identifying the most efficient feeding programme starts with an understanding of the birds response to nutrient density. Energy and protein are the two main contributors to diet cost and therefore are the principle nutrients to consider from an economic point of view. Aviagen Turkeys Ltd, in collaboration with Moorgut Kartzfehn GmbH, conducted a series of trials examining the impact of various energy and amino acid densities on BUT6 male turkey performance. Each of these trials assessed different nutrient levels, Table 1 shows the amino acid and energy levels assessed, nutrient levels are expressed as a percentage of a commercial standard.
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■ Table 1 - A summary of energy and amino acid response trials.
Trial Number
A summary of the ‘commercial standard’ feeding programme and nutrient levels are shown in Table 2.
Treatments
Age
(% of standard) Weeks
Days
Amino Acids
Energy
1
21
147
90, 120
95, 105
2
20
140
90, 100, 110, 120
100
3
21
144
90, 105
97.5, 102.5
4
20
140
90, 100, 100, 120
100
■ Table 2 - A summary of the commercial standard (100%) nutrient levels.
Feeding Period Unit
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
Age Fed
weeks
0-3
3-6
7 - 10
11 - 13
14 - 15
16 - 18
18 - 20
Digestible Lysine
%
1.59
1.46
1.32
1.14
1.09
1.00
0.91
Energy
MJ/kg
11.5
11.8
12.2
12.5
12.6
13.0
13.2
Energy
Kcals/kg
2749
2820
2916
2988
3011
3107
3155
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Performance data from these trials were collated to assess the response of turkeys to a range of nutrient densities. The surface plot graph (Figure 1A, 1B) shows liveweight and feed conversion ratio (FCR) responses to altering nutrient density. Both liveweight and FCR are responsive to both amino acid and energy density (expressed as percentage relative to the 100% control), the response for both traits was optimised at the highest energy and amino acid density. The surface plot graphs also shows that energy density appears to impact positively on the response to increasing amino acid concentration suggesting that diet energy density should be considered when feeding higher amino acid densities.
response to increasing amino acid density. However, BMY continued to respond to increasing amino acid concentration at intermediate and higher energy densities, again, this reinforces the importance of considering both nutrients particularly when optimising processing yield. ▲ Figure 2 - BUT6 20.5 week breast meat yield (%) response to a range of amino acid and energy densities (% relative to standard).
▲ Figure 1A, B - 20.5 week liveweight (1A) and FCR (1B) responses to a range of amino acid and energy densities.
In summary, the data demonstrates the ability of the modern bird to respond to a wide range of nutrient levels. Liveweight, FCR and portion traits are responsive to nutrient density and show optimal responses on or above the commercial standard. Having established performance responses to different nutrient densities, economic responses can also be derived. Feed cost per bird was calculated for each nutrient density fed, as expected feed cost increased consistently with increased nutrient density (Figure 3). ▲ Figure 3 - Feed cost (€/bird) at altering nutrient density (% of standard).
Processing traits were also assessed, as with liveweight and FCR responses, increasing nutrient density had a positive impact on breast meat yield (Figure 2). At lower energy densities, breast meat yield (BMY) showed a curvilinear
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Revenue per bird was also estimated across all nutrient densities (Figure 4), revenue increased with increasing nutrient density.
▲ Figure 4 - Revenue (€/bird) at altering nutrient density (% of standard).
Margin (after feed cost) was calculated by estimating the difference between revenue and feed cost per bird at each nutrient density. By examining the profile of the surface plot graph the effect of nutrient density on farm margin can be established (Figure 5). ▲ Figure 5 - Farm margin (€/bird after feed cost) at altering amino acid and energy densities (% of standard).
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Based on existing raw material costs, higher margin (after feed cost) is achieved at higher amino acid density and a lower energy density than the existing standard. Optimal farm margin is achieved at an amino acid density above the standard (105% of standard) and at the lowest energy density (95% of standard). The lowest farm margin was at the highest energy (105%) and lowest amino acid concentration (90%). Higher energy densities may achieve higher biological performance however this is outweighed by an increased feed cost (€/bird) relative to lower energy density levels.
▲ Figure 7 - Processing margin (€/bird) at altering amino acid and energy densities (% of standard).
The same approach can be taken to derive an estimate of margin for processed products, margin was estimated at each nutrient density based on revenue (the value of breast meat yield) minus feed cost per bird. Processing revenue is highly responsive to nutrient density, as nutrient density increases so too does revenue (Figure 6). Contrary to farm margin optimal processing margin was achieved at both the highest amino acid and energy density (Figure 7). This reflects the response of breast meat yield to both nutrients and the higher revenue associated with processed products relative to liveweight. Increasing amino acid density without a concomitant increase in energy results in lower margin, lowest margin was at the lower amino acid densities. ▲ Figure 6 - Processing revenue (€/bird) at altering amino acid and energy densities (% of standard).
Conclusions In summary, the data demonstrates the ability of the modern bird to respond to a wide range of nutrient levels. Liveweight, FCR and breast meat yield are responsive to nutrient density and show optimal responses on or above the commercial standard. Optimal economic performance is realised at different nutrient densities and are dependent on the objectives of the business, for example farm or processing margin. Feed prices have a significant impact on the optimal diet nutrient density and highlights the importance of nutritionists reviewing feeding programmes especially during periods of volatile raw material prices.
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◗ NUTRITION
A SYNERGISTIC HERBAL ALTERNATIVE COMBINATION: CURCUMSHIELD VS POULTRY INFECTIONS – A BROAD-SPECTRUM STUDY Disease, especially when contagious, is a major concern in commercial poultry farming, as in any other livestock industry. At the commercial level, the poultry industry continuously seeks new techniques to combat this challenge. ➤ Dr. Sujani Gudipati, Head R & D, Advance Aqua Bio Technologies India Private Limited research@aabt.in; dr.vasu@aabtgroup.com
Introduction In the case of bacterial infections, various categories of antibiotics – especially synthetic ones – are widely used as broad-spectrum bacteriostatic and bactericidal agents. However, these antibiotics leave residues, have withdrawal effects, and contribute to increasing antimicrobial resistance, highlighting the urgent need for alternative solutions. Herbs and their essential oils have emerged as promising alternatives. Their dietary incorporation has shown excellent antimicrobial properties due to their phytochemical components, which offer beneficial effects on poultry health and performance. One such herbal combination is CURCUMSHIELD, a synergistic blend of essential oils that acts as a natural antibiotic substitute, handles the respiratory infections and acts as a nonantibiotic growth promoter for the health and nutrition of poultry. Its composition includes turmeric oil and eucalyptus oil as the main active ingredients, while thyme oil, lemon oil, clove oil, and tea tree oil in an aqueous base support and encourage the effective working for optimal results.
Turmeric oil Turmeric oil is a combination of curcuminoids like curcumin, resin oleoresin, and a combination of
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sesquiterpenoids. It is a natural growth promoter that enhances intestinal morphology and nutrient absorption. The major constituents of turmeric essential oil are turmerone, zingiberene, curlone, curcumene, santalene, santalenone, sesquiphellandrene, ocimene, bisabolene, caryophyllene, phellandrene, 1,8-cineole, α-thujene, α-phellandrene, limonene and oleoresin is the orange-red curcuminoid. Turmeric oil is an effective adjuvant, mainly used for controlling respiratory disorders. It exhibits antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, antihepatotoxic, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, insecticidal, and antiaflatoxigenic properties. Additionally, it helps prevent oxidative stress. Turmeric oil improves feed intake and lowers cholesterol in poultry products. It is useful for treating wounds, gastrointestinal, liver disorders, and respiratory diseases. Turmeric contains antioxidants, immunomodulatory and digestion-enhancing substances. It has the capability to ameliorate the harmful effects of aflatoxin on the immune system. Its antibacterial action works by disrupting the bacterial membrane and inhibiting the production of bacterial virulence factors. It is insecticidal and insect repelling and has also shown anti-hyperlipidemic, antioxidative and radical scavenging activity. It prevents oxidative stress by reducing the synthesis and release of cortisol, increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes, and thereby protecting the formation of reactive oxygen species. It has also shown neuroprotective effects by inhibiting free radical generation. Additionally, it has demonstrated strong antifungal and anti-aflatoxigenic activities. A significant increase in body weight gain is attributed to the strong antioxidant activity of turmeric oil, which stimulates protein synthesis by the enzymatic system.
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Curcumin’s bright yellow color is due to fat-soluble polyphenolic pigments known as curcuminoids, including demethoxycurcumin and bis-demethoxycurcumin. Curcumin (diferuloylmethane), the primary curcuminoid, has anti-inflammatory, wound-healing, antioxidant, and broad anti-microbial properties, capable of limiting the replication of many different fungi, bacteria, and viruses. It shows antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, hypocholesterolemic properties and is also an effective insect repellent. Curcumin has been identified as the major bioactive compound with a multitude of effects, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, gastroprotective, antiproliferative, and neuroprotective activities. In addition, turmeric oil is another source of bioactive molecules, including ar-turmerone, curlone, and ar-curcumene, which are rich in antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antihyperlipidemic, and wound healing properties. Curcumin inhibits the production of bacterial virulence factors and biofilm formation. It also induces oxidative stress in bacteria. ▲ Figure 1 - Chemical structure of curcumin.
Curcumin can damage the permeability and integrity of bacterial cell membranes in both Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria. It reduces inflammation by lowering histamine levels and possibly increasing the production of natural cortisone. Curcumin’s lipophilic structure allows it to insert into bacterial cell membranes, damaging their integrity and permeability. This leads to bacterial cell death. Curcumin can inhibit viral replication by affecting the function of several viral proteins, including viral integrase, protease, and the trans-activator of transcription (Tat) protein. Curcumin can inhibit the activation of inflammatory cytokines. It also has a direct ability to inactivate viruses or inhibit their attachment to cells. Incubation with curcumin has been shown to reduce virus binding to cells and inhibit viral protease activity. Curcumin treatment also led to actin filament disorganization and defects in polymerization, a process that is naturally important for viral entry and replication. Curcumin may alter the conformation of viral surface glycoproteins, thus preventing viral attachment. Curcumin also inhibits NF-κB signalling, which is required for viral replication. It inhibits the nuclear export of the viral nucleoprotein, thus preventing viral assembly, including entry, replication, and exit. Curcumin reduces the ability of viruses to infect cells, which is thought to be due to its ability to bind to and
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inhibit the action of surface glycoproteins on the virus. It also reduces viral genome copy numbers within infected cells, indicating that it can inhibit virus replicationby reducing viral RNA expression, protein synthesis, and virus titer.
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Curcumin exerts antiviral activity against enveloped viruses through multiple mechanisms, such as direct interaction with viral membrane proteins, disruption of the viral envelope, inhibition of viral proteases, and modulation of host factors, including the NF-κB, NRF2, and HMGB1 pathways.
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Ar-turmerone is also a potent anti-inflammatory agent; it inhibits the production of inflammatory cytokines. Xanthorrhizol possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumoral, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, nephroprotective, estrogenic, and antibacterial properties. Another component of turmeric oil consists mainly of sesquiterpenes, which have a wide range of bioactivities, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antifungal, and antimicrobial properties. Significantly heavier bursa and higher spleen weights are observed; these are primary lymphoid organs that play a key role in enzymatic maturation and the acquisition of immunological competence.
Eucalyptus oil Eucalyptus contains volatile essential oils, including 1,8-cineole, p-cymene, α- and β-pinene, limonene, citronellal, citral, eudesmol, terpinen-4-ol, terpineol, α–phellanderene and 9β-sitosterol. Among these compounds, 1,8-cineole is the most active. Monoterpenes (p-cymene, a-pinene, a-limonene) and the sesquiterpene aromadendrene are also present. Others components include citronellol, citronellyl acetate, eucamalol, linalool, γ-terpinene, and α-terpineol, all of which have specific
functional activities, as well as hydrocyanic acid. The flavonoids and phenolic compounds exhibit strong antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties. Meanwhile, secondary metabolites such as terpenoids, alkaloids, and saponins contribute to the defense mechanism and also possess antibacterial properties. Eucalyptus oil’s antibacterial activity is predominantly due to eucalyptol (1,8-cineole), which demonstrates strong antimicrobial activity against many pathogens, making eucalyptus a natural antiseptic and an effective antibacterial agent against respiratory tract infections. Phenolic compounds exert protective effects against oxidative stress and inflammation, playing a critical role in both illness prevention and treatment. An imbalance between free radical generation and insufficient antioxidant defenses leads to oxidative stress, resulting in DNA or tissue damage. Eucalyptus oil has a stronger antioxidant effect than ascorbic acid. Unlike ascorbic acid, which contains only one molecule, essential oils include several significant terpenoids in addition to phenolic compounds. Eucalyptus oil is effective against a wide range of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative species. It also possesses anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, and spasmolytic properties. It can be used to reduce pain, swelling, and inflammation and serves as an adjuvant for controlling respiratory problems such as influenza and
coryza. Additionally, eucalyptus oil has broad-spectrum insecticidal effects. Eucalyptus oil’s antibacterial properties stem from its ability to disrupt cell walls and membranes, which lead to bacterial cell leakage. Its hydrophobic nature increases cell permeability, further contributing to bacterial cell leakage. This interaction between the oil’s hydrophobic components and the lipids in the microorganism’s cell membrane results in metabolic damage and cell death. Meanwhile, 1,8-cineole shows anti-inflammatory properties by reducing cytokines that cause inflammation. Hydrocyanic acid contributes to pain and swelling reduction, has anti-inflammatory effects, and also acts as an immune modulator.
Thyme oil Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) improves the health and nutrition of poultry and serves as an alternative to antibiotics, acting as a non-antibiotic growth promoter with antimicrobial properties. The phytochemicals in thyme include geraniol, linalool, γ(gamma)-terpineol, carvacrol, thymol, and trans-thujan-4-ol/terpinen-4-ol. The major components are p-cymene, γ-terpinene, thymol, and carvacrol. Its medicinal properties are mainly attributed to its essential oil content, particularly thymol, p-cymene, and carvacrol. Thymol and carvacrol significantly inhibit both Grampositive and Gram-negative bacteria, viruses, and fungi. They are effective in treating respiratory pathogens such as Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pyogenes, and show strong inhibitory activity against strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus saprophyticus. Additionally, they can be used to treat biofilm infections. Thymol and carvacrol are bioactive compounds with antioxidant properties. They can help with growth performance, feed intake, and weight gain while strengthening the immune system. Furthermore, they improve digestive health by enhancing the secretion of digestive enzymes and reducing the prevalence of harmful pathogens like Salmonella and E. coli.
Lemongrass oil Lemongrass (Cymbopogon) can be used as a natural growth promoter instead of antibiotics. It contains compounds such as flavonoids, phenolic compounds, terpenoids, and essential oils, which provide antibacterial, antidiarrheal, antifungal, and antioxidant properties. It has been shown to improve weight gain, feed conversion ratio, blood parameters, immunity, and gut health in poultry. The phytochemical composition of Cymbopogon oil includes monoterpenes such as citral, citronellal, citronellol, geraniol, limonene, linalool, elemol, b-carophyllene, 1,8 cineole, methylheptenone, geranylformate, and geranyl
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A significant increase in body weight gain is attributed to the strong antioxidant activity of turmeric oil, which stimulates protein synthesis by the enzymatic system acetic acid derivatives. Other compounds include alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, and phenolic compounds. Cymbopogon oil has many potential therapeutic applications, including anti-amoebic, antibacterial, antidiarrheal, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimycobacterial, and antioxidant effects. It is also used as an antispasmodic, hypotensive, anticonvulsant, analgesic, antiemetic, antitussive, antirheumatic, and antiseptic as an antispasmodic, hypotensive, anticonvulsant, analgesic, antiemetic, antitussive, antirheumatic, and antiseptic. Additionally, it is beneficial in the treatment of nervous and gastrointestinal disorders and fevers. It inhibits bacterial growth and possesses strong antimicrobial efficacy against pathogenic bacteria and fungi.
Clove oil Syzygium aromaticum (clove) contains a variety of phytochemicals, including flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, terpenoids, phenols, anthocyanins, gallic acid, ellagic acid, glycosides, isoquercetin, kaempferol, myricetin, saponins, cardiac glycosides, phytosterols, steroids, sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, hydrocarbons, and phenolic compounds. Eugenol, the main compound in clove oil, has numerous biological activities, including antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory properties. As a natural growth promoter, it can be used as an oral antibiotic to preserve poultry meat, control eggshell contamination, and sanitize hatching eggs. It also enhance digestive secretions and nutrient absorption, reduces pathogenic stress in the gut, and boosts the animal’s immune system. Clove oil has antiseptic properties and can stimulate appetite and digestion. It exhibits strong antibacterial properties
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and has been shown to improve the feed conversion ratio. Additionally, it acts as topical analgesic. Clove oil can inhibit the synthesis of extracellular polysaccharides in biofilms, which can destroy the biofilm barrier and cause the loss of bacterial metabolic activity. Clove oil and its main component, eugenol, can inhibit Gram-negative bacteria like E. coli, Salmonella, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as well as Staphylococcus aureus. Clove extract increases oxidative stress and membrane permeability in these bacteria.
Tea tree oil Tea tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia) is a broad spectrum antimicrobial agent that helps reduce exposure to pathogens and stress during poultry production. It has acaricidal properties, improves antioxidant status, and mitigates oxidative damage. Tea tree oil contains several compounds, including a mixture of terpenes, aldehydes, esters, alcohols, and other chemical molecules such as terpinen-4-ol, that can destroy certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Tea tree oil’s germ-fighting properties make it a valuable natural remedy for treating bacterial and fungal conditions, preventing infection, and promoting healing. It alters the permeability and integrity of the bacterial cell membranes, leading to a loss of chemiosmotic control and inhibition of respiration. Tea tree oil can alleviate inflammation, improve nutrient utilization, promote broiler growth, increase daily weight gain, enhance intestinal morphology, and regulate immunity. Its ability to inhibit respiration and induce physical and morphological changes in the cell membranes and walls of E. coli increases membrane permeability, suggesting that its lethal effects primarily result from disrupting membrane-located metabolic events and chemiosmotic control. Additionally, tea tree oil stimulates autolysis in E. coli cells, causes potassium ion leakage, inhibits respiration, and leads to cytoplasmic coagulation.
Conclusion This natural, non-antibiotic, growth promoter and enhancer of health and nutrition of poultry acts as an important agent that inhibits various infections without causing side effects or resistance, thanks to its interaction with gut microbiota. It stimulates feed intake, ensures good growth and production, and effectively controls many zoonotic pathogens. The synergistic herbal alternative mix as CURCUMSHIELD has proven to be a broad-spectrum alternative to synthetic antibiotics. It operates through a multifaceted mechanism: first, it interferes with the pathogenic cell wall and nucleic acid synthesis. It also inhibits protein synthesis, nucleic acid synthesis, membrane function, ATP and complete metabolic pathways. While these herbal compounds have a positive effect on poultry, their bioactive components efficiently enhance feed utilization, improve digestive enzymes secretion, and stimulate gut immunity, with antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Strengthening immunity helps deter pathogenic organisms, leading to faster recovery, increased resistance, and overall disease prevention.
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◗ VETERINARY
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS OF HIGHLY PATHOGENIC AND PREDOMINANT EIMERIA SPECIES IN TURKEYS Coccidiosis is caused by intra-cellular enteric protozoan parasites of the genus Eimeria. Eimeria is a gastrointestinal parasite with a complex life cycle involving an endogenous phase occurring in the intestinal tract of the turkeys and an exogenous phase occurring outside the host. Turkeys infected with Eimeria shed oocysts that are unsporulated and non-infections. Sporulation occurs in the environment under optimum temperature, moisture, and oxygen. Sporulated oocysts are infectious and when ingested by naïve turkeys they adversely affect the intestinal health resulting in subclinical or clinical coccidiosis. ➤ Vijay Durairaj and Ryan Vander Veen Huvepharma, Inc., Lincoln, Nebraska, USA. Corresponding Author: Vijay.Durairaj@huvepharma.us Coccidiosis is a highly important enteric disease in turkeys causing significant economic impact. During the endogenous phase, Eimeria replicates in the intestinal epithelium and compromises the integrity of the intestine. It causes malabsorption, dehydration, decreased feed intake and compromises growth and production. Economic losses are from decreased production, poor feed conversion, retarded growth rate and increased mortalities. Indirect economic losses include the cost of coccidiosis treatment. Affected birds may exhibit non-specific clinical signs of coccidiosis such as anorexia, unthrifty appearance, listlessness, huddling, ruffled feathers, droopy wings, and enteritis. Wet litter can be easily noticed in flocks with clinical coccidiosis. Severe infection results in mortalities and production losses attributable to clinical coccidiosis. The severity and the outcome of coccidiosis depends on various factors such as the virulence of the Eimeria isolate, age of the birds, flock density, oocyst load in the barn, health and immune status of the birds and concurrent enteric infections in the barn. Each Eimeria species affects a specific region in the intestine. In mild and subclinical infections, the gross lesions are not very well pronounced and are indistinct. Additionally, the gross lesions of turkey Eimeria species should be differentiated from nonspecific lesions such
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as hyperemia and congestion. In field conditions, not all turkeys are infected or exposed to Eimeria species at the same time. Generally, the lesions induced by Eimeria species during the endogenous replication phase can be determined by dissecting and evaluating the intestine. In some instances, the severity of the infection might result in mortalities before the birds are evaluated for intestinal lesions. In the case of mild infections, the intestinal lesions may not be outstanding. In some instances where the intestines are evaluated after the prepatent period, there are more chances for the intestinal lesions to resolve. The prepatent period varies between the different Eimeria species. Thus, the time frame for performing the necropsy and evaluating the intestine is crucial, as the intestinal lesions are usually a result of the damage incurred by the endogenous replication cycle. Eimeria species are ubiquitous in turkey raising facilities due to prolific replication in the intestine and the resistance of oocysts to harsh environmental conditions. Seven Eimeria species have been documented in turkeys which includes E. meleagrimitis, E. adenoeides, E. gallopavonis, E. dispersa, E. innocua, E. meleagridis, and E. subrotunda. Among these Eimeria species, E. meleagrimitis, E. adenoeides and E. gallopavonis are highly pathogenic (1,4) and identified as predominant (2). This paper elaborates the pathological manifestation of the highly pathogenic and predominant Eimeria species of turkeys.
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▲ Figure 1 – Microscopic visualization of turkey Eimeria oocysts. A. Eimeria meleagrimitis, B. Eimeria gallopavonis, C. Eimeria adenoeides.
E. meleagrimitis The clinical signs of E. meleagrimitis can be noticed four days after infection. E. meleagrimitis causes non-specific clinical signs such as listlessness, dullness, depression, ▲ Figure 2 – Gross lesions induced by E. meleagrimitis in the duodenum. No normal contents were observed in the duodenum. A. Watery, yellow and orange mucoid contents. B. Watery contents with yellow fibrin stands. C. Yellow mucoid contents with few blood clots. D. Brown watery contents with yellow mucoid contents. E. Yellow and green watery mucoid contents with fibrin and few blood clots. F. Yellow and orange mucoid contents along with diphtheritic membrane covering the intestinal mucosa. G. Orange, yellow, and green (due to bile) mucoid contents. H. Thickened duodenal wall with numerous petechiae and ulcerations, edematous, extensive hemorrhage and necrosis.
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huddling, unthrifty appearance and ruffled feathers. The feces may be watery with mucus, orange or brown colored with blood flecks. The intestinal lesions are evident at 5 days after challenge (3). In severe cases, mortalities may occur between 6-8 days after infection. E. meleagrimitis affects the upper small intestine, targeting the duodenum and proximal jejunum. In severe infections, the lesions may extend to the lower intestine. E. meleagrimitis results in an accumulation of mucus in the affected regions of the intestine. E. meleagrimitis oocysts penetrate deep and cause severe damage to the intestinal epithelium resulting in sloughing and enteritis. Pathological manifestations in the duodenum may include watery, yellow and mucoid contents (Figure 2A), watery contents with yellow fibrin strands (Figure 2B), yellow mucoid contents with few blood clots (Figure 2C), brown watery contents with yellow mucoid contents (Figure 2D), yellow and green watery mucoid contents with fibrin and few blood clots (Figure 2E), yellow and orange mucoid contents along with diphtheritic membrane covering the intestinal mucosa (Figure 2F), orange, yellow and greenish (bile stained) mucoid contents (Figure 2G), and thickened duodenal wall with numerous petechiae and ulcerations, edematous, extensive hemorrhage and necrosis (Figure 2H). Pathological manifestations in the jejunum may include watery and orange mucoid contents (Figure 3A), watery contents with fibrin and presence of few petechiae on the mucosa (Figure 3B), watery contents with yellowish and greenish (bile stained) fibrinous material (Figure 3C), thickened intestinal wall along with watery, white mucoid contents with numerous petechiae (Figure 3D), yellow and orange mucoid contents filling the intestinal lumen (Figure 3E), and thickened intestinal wall with extensive hemorrhage and watery, mucoid contents with fibrinous material (Figure 3F).
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▲ Figure 3 – Gross lesions induced by E. meleagrimitis in the jejunum. No normal contents were observed in the jejunum. A. Watery and orange mucoid contents. B. Watery contents with fibrin and presence of few petechiae on the mucosa. C. Watery contents with yellowish and greenish fibrinous material. D. Thickened intestinal wall along with watery, white mucoid contents with numerous petechiae. E. Yellow and orange mucoid contents filling the intestinal lumen F. Thickened intestinal wall with extensive hemorrhage and watery, mucoid contents with fibrinous material.
E. gallopavonis The clinical signs of E. gallopavonis may be noticed five days after infection. E. gallopavonis causes non-specific clinical signs such as listlessness, loss of appetite, unthrifty appearance, huddling and ruffled feathers. E. gallopavonis affects and induces lesions in the ileum, cecal neck and rectum. The severity of lesions varies between field isolates. The intestinal lesions are evident at 6 days after challenge (3). In severe cases, mortality may occur between 6-9 days after infection. Pathological manifestations in the ileum include petechiae on the mucosa (Figure 4A), white round spots with numerous petechiae on the mucosa (Figure 4B), numerous petechiae on the mucosa with orange mucoid contents and blood streaks (Figure 4C), watery and orange mucoid contents with few caseous clots and blood streaks (Figure 4D), watery, yellow, and
▲ Figure 4 – Gross lesions induced by E. gallopavonis in the ileum. No normal contents were observed in the ileum. A. Petechiae on the mucosa. B. White round spots with numerous petechiae on the mucosa. C. Numerous petechiae on the mucosa along with orange mucoid contents and blood streaks. D. Watery and orange mucoid contents with few caseous clots and blood streaks. E. Watery, yellow, and orange contents with numerous caseous clots and blood streaks. F. Ileum clogged with caseous exudate.
▲ Figure 5 – Gross lesions induced by E. gallopavonis in the ileum and ceca. No normal contents were observed in the ileum. A. Accumulation of caseous exudate in the ileum, cecal neck and proximal one-third of the ceca can be visualized from the serosa. B. Presence of caseous exudate in ileum, cecal neck and proximal one-third of the ceca. C. Accumulation of caseous exudate in the proximal onethird of ceca can be visualized from the serosa. D. Presence of caseous exudate in the proximal one-third of ceca and normal contents present in the remaining two-third ceca.
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orange contents with numerous caseous clots and blood streaks (Figure 4E), and ileum clogged with caseous exudate (Figure 4F). The caseous clots in the ileum may extend to the anterior ceca. The ileum, cecal neck (Figure 5A) and proximal one-third of ceca stuffed with caseous exudate (Figure 5A, 5C) can be visible outside the serosa. Presence of caseous exudate in the ileum, cecal neck (Figure 5B) and proximal onethird of ceca (Figure 5B, 5D) can be seen on dissecting the intestine. The rectum may have numerous petechiae on the mucosa (Figure 6A), edematous mucosa and presence of blood clots and mucoid contents (Figure 6B) and caseous clots (Figure 6C). In severe cases, the caseous exudate may extend from Meckel’s diverticulum to the rectum (Figure 7).
▲ Figure 7 – Gross lesions induced by E. gallopavonis in the intestine. No normal contents were observed in intestine and was filled with caseous exudate extending from rectum to Meckel’s diverticulum.
E. adenoeides The clinical signs of E. adenoeides can be noticed 4 days after infection. Non-specific clinical signs such as dullness, depression, anorexia, ruffled feathers and listlessness may be noticed. The feces may be watery, orange mucoid and contain solid caseous casts and few blood specks. Unlike cecal coccidiosis in chickens, cecal coccidiosis in turkeys
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C ▲ Figure 6 – Gross lesions induced by E. gallopavonis in the rectum. No normal contents were observed in the ileum. A. Numerous petechiae on the mucosa. B. Edematous mucosa and presence of blood clots and mucoid contents. C. Presence of caseous clots.
doesn’t cause severe blood loss. The intestinal lesions are evident at 5 days after challenge (3). In severe cases, mortalities may occur between 5-7 days after infection. E. adenoeides is one of the highly pathogenic Eimeria species affecting the ceca of turkeys. On external examination of the ceca, the gross lesions may be outstanding in severe cases. Healthy ceca appear as pouches filled with dark green contents (Figure 8A). E. adenoeides infected ceca results in caseous materials (Figure 8B) and corrugated cecal core (Figure 8C) which could be visualized before dissecting the ceca. E. adenoeides causes sloughing of the mucosal epithelium and induces necrosis in the ceca. The pathological manifestation of E. adenoeides includes watery cecal contents with grains and clots (Figure 9A), watery cecal contents with caseous flakes (Figure 9B), watery cecal contents with clots and clumps of caseous materials (Figure 9C), partially formed cecal core with watery contents (Figure 9D), accumulation of caseous materials in the ceca (Figure 9E), partially formed cecal core (Figure 9F), corrugated cecal core (Figure 9G), and blood stained corrugated cecal core and presence of petechiae on the mucosa (Figure 9H). The cecal core is formed by sloughed cecal epithelium, cecal contents, dead cells, gamonts and oocysts of E. adenoeides. Turkey coccidiosis does not induce any specific clinical signs. The non-specific clinical signs of coccidiosis can easily be confused with the clinical signs of other enteric diseases in turkeys. Thus, gross lesions in the intestines and microscopic examination of oocysts are helpful in detecting the Eimeria species. Notably in field cases of turkey coccidiosis the gross lesions are not as outstanding as in chickens. In cases of concurrent infections with
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other enteric pathogens, diagnosis of coccidiosis based only on the gross lesions can be difficult in turkeys. In mixed and subclinical infections without any distinct gross lesions in the intestine, molecular tools such as PCR and sequencing can aid in confirming the Eimeria species.
▲ Figure 8 – Visualization of cecal contents outside the serosa A. Healthy ceca filled with dark green contents. B. Presence of caseous cecal contents. C. Presence of corrugated cecal core.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
References 1. Chapman HD. Coccidiosis in the turkey. Avian Pathol. 2008 Jun;37(3):205-23. 2. Duff AF, Briggs WN, Bielke JC, McGovern KE, Trombetta M, Abdullah H, Bielke LR, Chasser KM. PCR identification and prevalence of Eimeria species in commercial turkey flocks of the Midwestern United States. Poult Sci. 2022 Sep;101(9):101995.
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▲ Figure 9 – Gross lesions induced by E. adenoeides in ceca. A. Watery cecal contents with grains and clots. B. Watery cecal contents with caseous flakes. C. Watery cecal contents with clots and clumps of caseous materials. D. Partially formed cecal core with watery contents. E. Accumulation of caseous materials in the ceca. F. Partially formed cecal core. G. Corrugated cecal core. H. Blood stained corrugated cecal core and presence of petechiae on the mucosa.
3. Gadde UD, Rathinam T, Finklin MN, Chapman HD. Pathology caused by three species of Eimeria that infect the turkey with a description of a scoring system for intestinal lesions. Avian Pathol. 2020. Feb;49(1):80-86. 4. Lund, E.E. & Farr, M.M. (1965). Coccidiosis of the turkey. In H.E. Biester & L.H. Schwarte (Eds.), Diseases of Poultry 5th edn (pp. 1088-1093). Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
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