market corrections in previous crises, such as real estate bubbles in advanced economies prior to the global financial crisis. In emerging economies, corporate solvency risks have been further exacerbated by a sharp increase in dollar-denominated debt over the past decade. Low interest rates in advanced economies over this period tempted firms to take on foreign rather than local currency debt.45 Since the beginning of the pandemic, the currencies of many emerging markets have come under pressure. This creates problems for firms that hold significant amounts of foreign currency–denominated debt, which is now more difficult to service because the value of the borrower’s local currency revenue has fallen. The exposure to currency risk is likely to become more acute if the recovery proceeds more quickly in advanced economies than in the rest of the world, which will lead to a further weakening of emerging market currencies.
Impacts on the financial sector In contrast to the immediate large impacts of the COVID-19 crisis on households and firms, the shortterm impacts of the crisis on the financial sector were relatively muted because of the large-scale emergency support and forbearance programs for borrowers aimed at preventing a spike in loan defaults.
Moderate initial impacts masking longer-term risks Although extensive income support and debt forbearance policies have helped to insulate the financial sector from a wave of loan defaults in the short run, few if any countries have the resources to keep these policies in place in the longer term. Therefore, financial institutions around the world are likely to come under significant stress as debt moratoria and other support policies for borrowers are scaled back. In some economies, these risks are already becoming apparent. Loan defaults have been on the rise in India, Kenya, the Philippines, and a growing number of other middle-income countries. These emerging credit risks are also reflected in the worsening outlooks of the main international rating agencies for financial institutions as forbearance policies are lifted. How well financial sectors around the world are prepared to confront this challenge varies considerably. Some economies that were hard-hit by the global financial crisis of 2007–09 initiated meaningful reforms and ensured that their banking systems were well capitalized. However, given that the global financial crisis affected primarily advanced economies, many emerging economies did not enact such reforms. As a result, their financial sectors are poorly prepared to withstand a crisis of the magnitude of the COVID-19 recession. For example, in emerging economies the average levels of regulatory capital holdings (the risk capital banks are required to hold to protect their balance sheets in the event of loan losses) have remained flat, albeit at a relatively high level, since the global financial crisis.46 Moreover, bank debt-to-asset ratios, indicating greater balance sheet risk, have increased for smaller banks generally, as well as for banks located in emerging economies.47 In many emerging economies, fragilities in the financial sector are compounded by extensive government ownership of banks, misallocation stemming from government-mandated lending programs, and financial repression policies such as the requirement that domestic financial institutions hold government debt, which links the asset quality of the financial sector to that of the government. In the years leading up to the COVID-19 crisis, the Financial Sector Assessment Program, a joint exercise carried out by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, highlighted problems in the resolution of nonperforming loans (especially in Sub-Saharan Africa and Eastern Europe), loan classification and provisioning, and bank exposure to the nonbanking sector.
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