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Michaelmas 2025

Wellington College Science Magazine

Science Behind Entertainment

In Collaboration with Wellington College International Schools

Contents Physics essays: Page 1 Astrophysics in Interstellar The sciences behind Top Gun’s manouvers Page 3 Page 5 Artificial Gravity in Films Page 8 Could Spider-Man actually stick to walls

Chemistry essays: Why a sword of pure energy is impossible The Martian: Sci-Fi... Or is it?

Page 9 Page 11

Biology essays: The Thrill of the Terrifying The Biology of the Earworm The Genetics behind Jurassic Park Mermaids: Do They Exist? How Artificial Worlds Reshape us Puzzles

Page 13 Page 14 Page 16 Page 18 Page 20 Page 22

Arlo W (R) Wellington College UK

Astrophysics in Interstellar A journey through the wormhole After travelling through a wormhole, Cooper’s ship from Interstellar emerges into an unknown solar system, orbiting a monstrous black hole — Gargantua. The crew’s mission is to explore each world for signs that it could replace a dying Earth and become the birth of a new human civilisation. Their first stop is Miller’s Planet. Despite spending what seems like only a couple of hours on its surface, they return to their ship and find that their crewmate has aged more than twenty years since they had been gone. But this isn’t just science fiction — it’s based in real physics. Miller’s planet orbits at a dangerous proximity to the black hole, where gravity is so intense that time itself bends. Gravitational time dilation is a phenomenon predicted by Einstein’s theory of general relativity, where proximity to supermassive objects can warp spacetime itself. Despite Interstellar being science fiction, its depiction of time dilation near a black hole is surprisingly grounded in real physics. Thanks to the involvement of Nobel Prize–winning physicist Kip Thorne, who worked closely with the film’s directors and producers, Interstellar delivers a dramatic and emotional moment while remaining within the realm of scientific possibility.

The science of time and gravity Time is not absolute; it can flow differently depending on gravity and velocity. In Interstellar, it is gravity which changes the course of time. Near supermassive objects - such as black holes – gravity can warp spacetime, making time run slower than in regions farther away. Think of it like placing a bowling ball (black hole) on a rubber sheet (spacetime). The bowling ball will sink into the rubber, causing a warp which slows time the nearer you get to the centre.

In making the movie, the producers wanted the black hole Gargantua to be as realistic as possible, so they worked with physicist Kip Thorne to ensure accuracy. Thorne agreed on the condition that nothing could violate established physical laws, all speculation had to be grounded in science, and faster-than-light travel was off-limits. With these rules in place, Thorne created the supermassive, rapidly spinning black hole – a kind that could have planets existing in a region where time dilation is extreme but survivable.

The possibility of Time Dilation Interstellar claims that one hour on Miller’s planet equates to seven years elsewhere in the universe – for example on the ship or on earth. This is theoretically possible, but there must be some specific factors that would have to occur for this to happen in real life. The planet: Must orbit extremely close to the black hole Be orbiting a spinning Black hole, reducing tidal forces Orbit a black hole with the mass necessary for the extent of the time dilation

Explaining the Equation Kip Thorne calculated the parameters and concluded that the case of Gargantua is extreme – but well within the realm of possibility. To describe the time dilation literally, we can use the equation:

Arlo W (R) Wellington College UK

The equation looks intimidating at first, but it’s easier to understand when you unpack what each term means. t far = The rate at which time is experienced far from the supermassive object t near = The rate at which time is experienced close to the supermassive object G = The universal gravitational constant M = The mass of the supermassive object r = How far you are from the centre of that object c = the speed of light The equation tells us how intense gravity is at that distance. As you get closer to the centre of the object, the bigger the overall ratio of t far /t near becomes. When you input the situation of Miller’s planet into the equation, you would get:

Explaining the Equation Which means for each one second that goes by on the Miller’s planet, 61,000 seconds go by on earth. On the scale of hours to years that’s roughly seven years for every hour, aligning perfectly with the film’s claim. Despite being within the realm of possibility, the film still takes measured creative licenses. Finding a stable planet that close to a black hole is extremely unlikely. The exact 61,000 to 1 ratio is very finely tuned and real circumstances would have to be near-perfect for this scenario to exist. This considered, Interstellar still does an exceptional job as staying within the laws of physics compared to most sci-fi films – using real physics to create one of its most memorable and emotional moments.

Odhran F (Bn) Wellington College UK

The Science Behind Top Gun Maverick’s manoeuvres When Top Gun Maverick roared onto screens in summer 2022, everyone left the cinema thinking the same thing: flying fighter jets looks absolutely insane! Behind all the slow motion shots and questionable tactics, the film hides some seriously cool physics. Every barrel roll, high G turn, and vertical climb obeys the exact same laws of motion you learn in physics class. I’m going to go on a (very) simplified deep dive into some of the science that underpins how these machines work!

The basics: Four Forces That Keep You in the Air Every aircraft is able to fly by a balance of the forces LIFT, DRAG, THRUST and WEIGHT. Lift pulls the plane upward which is created by the wings, thrust drives it forward, drag holds it back, and weight drags it down. In level flight, they cancel out pretty neatly. But we all know nothing was neat about Top Gun, It’s about bending those forces until the jet looks like it’s breaking all the rules you were taught in physics! If we take a look at Maverick’s signature HIGH G TURN during the training scene where he rolls the jet hard (this is done by the deflection of air off the ailerons on the wings), the lift force tilts sideways to produce a centripetal acceleration for the turn. To avoid losing altitude, he needs pull even more lift to and this is where the G forces come in! At 9 G, his body “weighs” nine times more than normal. Blood rushes downwards, threatening to knock him out cold. 9 G Is very close to the max amount of G force that a human can take for a short time before passing out, however fighter pilots train for this stuff…

Fighter jets like the F/A-18 Super Hornet seen in the film manage this with special systems called variable camber wings and leading-edge flaps that adjust shape in the air to squeeze out more lift and also angle the airflow to a preferable direction in certain manoeuvres. Push the angle too far, though, and the airflow over the wing separates and creates a stall. A stall is used when the wing stops producing lift and drag increases quickly. This often happens when the AoA (angle created between a straight line drawn down the wing straight on and the oncoming airflow) is too high, causing airflow over the wing to split. This causes a huge increase in drag and drop in lift which basically causes the aircraft to fall out of the sky. Modern jets often have a multitude of components working together to keep the aircraft in the air. The British operated Eurofighter Typhoon for example would drop straight out of the sky if it wasn’t for its 3 flight control computers which do all the calculations mid-air!

The Famous Cobra Manoeuvre

Pilots use a cool piece of kit called a G-suit, which inflates around the legs and torso to keep blood near the brain, they also use the Anti G Straining manoeuvre which is why you hear all those quick and heavy breaths to get as much oxygen to the brain as possible, they will also clench their muscles which increases blood pressure in the chest and causes blood to be able to reach the brain to stop the pilot from entering GLOC (passing out). Those strained grunts you hear in the cockpit? That’s not acting; that’s survival.

In Top Gun: Maverick, the mysterious fifthgeneration enemy fighter performs a Cobra-like manoeuvre in the canyon dogfight. The nose snaps up and the jet practically floats before dropping behind Maverick which is actually a real life manouver often performed by Russian jets such as the SU-27 family and the SU-57 Felon (very similar looking to the enemy jet in the film!). It’s pure Hollywood dramatization, but rooted in genuine flight control technology that lets real aircraft dance at the edge of a stall without spinning out.

Odhran F (Bn) Wellington College UK

The way it works is through a precise combination of aerodynamics, thrust vectoring, and computer control. The pilot rapidly pulls the nose up, forcing the jet to exceed 100° angle of attack so the wings stall and lift becomes obsolete, but the aircraft’s forward momentum keeps it moving. Thrust vectoring nozzles (TVC) redirect engine exhaust to control pitch and yaw even when there’s no airflow over the control surfaces, while the fly-by-wire system stops the jet from tumbling. The result is a controlled “post-stall” moment where the aircraft almost hangs in the air before recovering which serves as an extreme but very real feat of flight physics even though it is far more suitable for an airshow than a high stakes, low altitude dogfight.

Breaking the Sound Barrier One of the most famous moments at the very start of the film is Mavericks mach-10 flight with the secretive Darkstar aircraft, whilst this is (as far as we know) not a realistic capability that any military has today. The aerospace giant Lockheed Martin and its famous Advanced Development Program team (dubbed Skunk Works) actually helped to design the full scale model used in the film which can only leave us wondering what they are cooking up to be unveiled within the next decade! Now, you may think that it would be easy to just go faster and faster, however as speed increases so does the force of drag, especially past supersonic (Mach 1) speeds. Whilst Top Gun: Maverick is clearly meant to be a testosterone-filled, every boys dream type of movie, it surprisingly (for the most part!) demonstrates the principles of flight and how real aircraft that feature in the film. Especially in regards to the Super Hornet and how they perform in day to day tasks. It fulfils it role in the sense that it serves as a thrilling sequel to the original film which in its own right is a masterpiece too and kickstarted many viewers passions into the fields of military aviation.

Chung H-K (L) Wellington College UK

Artificial gravity in films What is artificial gravity? Have you ever wondered why, or how, in films such as Interstellar, the Martian, or even 2001: A Space Odyssey, humans are able to walk normally as if they were on Earth, despite you having seen countless videos of astronauts floating carefree without gravity in space? That is the result of artificial gravity.

But why do we need gravity in space? As it turns out, we have a biological need for gravity! Without it, or with weak gravity, our planet could not have an atmosphere, resulting in no oxygen for us, no water cycle, etc. But also, humans are adapted to living in weighted environments (Weight is your mass x gravity) – Your legs, neck, and back keep your body upright the whole time. Take that weight away, and suddenly, your body’s structures are redundant – nothing to support, no gravity to fight, etc. Over time, your body starts to lose muscle mass (atrophy), bone density, and your spine gets elongated (which sounds like a good thing, until you return to Earth.) Essentially, you start evolving to become a jellyfish – think how well a jellyfish fares on a land (weighted) environment. So therefore, if us, as humans want to become truly interplanetary, or even an interstellar species, in order to be able to travel without becoming mush, we need to somehow generate gravity in space. (Or travel absurdly quick, for short periods)

What actually is gravity? As is taught in GCSE physics, gravity is not a force, but creates an acceleration when two masses are present, creating the force of weight (W = mg). Hence, if the effect of gravity is simply our weight, our weight doesn’t need to come from the mass of the Earth to feel like gravity, we simply need an acceleration that creates the same acceleration (=, i.e. W = ma). So if you’re in a car, and the driver floors it, your body is immediately pushed into your seat. There’s your acceleration, and therefore ‘artificial gravity’ – something holding down your seat. There’s your acceleration, and hence your gravity which combines with the mass of your body to force you back into your seat. *As a note, there IS gravity in space, otherwise the ISS wouldn’t still be above us. The correct way to say it is actually weightlessness, but that sounds much more fancy... However, it doesn’t make sense to constantly accelerate in one direction – it would be incredibly expensive, and impossible with today’s rockets, due to the sheer amount of fuel required for such a manoeuvre. Therefore, how do you make something constantly accelerate without expending vast amounts of fuel? Velocity is a vector. This means a change in direction at the same SPEED results in a changing VELOCITY, resulting in acceleration. And it just so happens, due to the geometry of a circle, if you were to follow its perimeter, your direction would constantly change, and hence your velocity, creating acceleration.

Chung H-K (L) Wellington College UK

However, due to inertia, while you’re accelerating around this circle, since you want to keep going forward, lengthwise, rather than circularly. But your circular trajectory doesn’t allow this. It keeps you spinning, creating a tension between the outside and midpoint of the circle. This phenomenon is known as centrifugal force. You can notice this effect if you spin something upside down quickly – if you’ve tried spinning a bag of groceries upside down and noticed, despite being upside down, due to the rotation of the bag, the groceries stay in the bag. That’s the effect of centrifugal force, acting outwards on the contents of the bag. So if we take this principle, and apply it to reality, with a circular structure (known general architecture as a ring), artists, filmmakers, e.g. the Martian, directed by Matt Damon, the centre of the “Hermes” spacecraft, has a massive spinning wheel, allowing the crew to use the treadmill, drink coffee, or build improvised explosives (if you know you know). Or in Interstellar, directed by Christopher Nolan, where the entire spacecraft is essentially a spinning donut, so Matthew McConaughey could have a comfortable journey to another galaxy… but more importantly, so Nolan could direct the infamous docking scene later in the film. In essence, your theoretical spacecraft ends up having some sort of spinning ring, known as a centrifuge, where the outside experiences gravity whilst the fixed midpoint doesn’t.

The sickening maths... There are two factors into determining the actual ‘gravity’ of a centrifuge: 1. RPM 2. Radius of centrifuge. RPM is just how quickly the centrifuge spins, measured in revolutions (full circles) per minute. Radius of the centrifuge is the distance between the perimeter of the centrifuge to the centre. These two factors go into the equation: a = ω2 × r where a is the acceleration (our “gravity”), and omega is the angular velocity (Radians/second), and r is the radius from centre of rotation. For example, the Endurance from Interstellar, has a radius of 32 m. To generate a force of 1G (where g = 9.81 m/s2), the spacecraft would need to be rotating at 0.55 radians per second, or 5.25 RPM. Quickly, Matthew McConaughey, Anne Hathaway and crew would be motion sick – imagine living in a Ferris wheel for months, but goes 150× faster than your traditional Ferris wheel (Think of the London Eye, for example). Of course, you could put less gravity on the craft – even small amounts of gravity would be better than nothing, but inevitably, you’d be sick from the motion!

The Endurance Spacecraft from Interstellar

Chung H-K (L) Wellington College UK

We can also do a guesstimation from the Martian to get roughly what the G value of their craft. From the trailer, we can get a speed of roughly 2.27rpm (0.23 radians per second), and a centrifuge radius of 19m, giving us an acceleration of 1m/s^2, or 0.1g. This value is low, but compared to the generation long travel of Interstellar, it would likely be sufficient for the 2–5 year journey depicted in the Martian. While you probably wouldn’t be able to play sports in this, you’d be able to have your morning coffee, a comforting prospect for Matt Damon and his crew, albeit feeling 1/10 of your actual weight.

Conclusion I hope, that you’ve now got a better understanding of this niche, area of aerospace design, and some of the maths behind it. While the technology is purely theoretical currently, the only true limit is cost, so keep a mindful eye on the news – perhaps you’ll see something like this soon!

Francesca W (O) Wellington College UK

The Science of Superheroes: Could Spider-Man actually stick to walls? Spider-Man’s gravity-defying ability has always amazed fans, but what if it wasn’t science fiction anymore? Scientists have been studying the Spider-Man of nature —geckos —and this research has been revealing the secrets of adhesion that could one day make Spider-Man’s climbing a reality. Animals like geckos and some insects can cling to walls and ceilings thanks to millions of microscopic hairs, called setae, on their feet. Each seta splits into even smaller spatula-shaped tips which then creates a huge surface area for the gecko or insect to cling to the wall. This allows them to use ‘van der Waals forces’, which are weak molecular attractions between surfaces, so they stick strongly even to surfaces such as glass. Although van der Waals forces are very weak on their own, geckos have so many points of contact that the combined force is very powerful. The result is a strong adhesion without any glue, suction, or residue. Unfortunately, geckos are the limit when it comes to the van der Waals forces. Research shows that geckos are about the largest animals that can climb like this. If humans wanted to do the same, around 40% of their skin would need to be covered in adhesive pads, making moving around very difficult. As the body size increases, so does weight, but adhesive power doesn’t scale up equally. Creating force for a human-sized climber would require huge amounts of energy.

A close-up of a gecko’s foot

Spider-Man can control when he sticks and when he releases, which is much more advanced than real-life geckos. Still, scientists are getting closer to recreating his powers. Engineers at Stanford University, supported by DARPA, developed gecko-inspired ‘adhesive gloves’ made using silicon pads. These gloves allow a person of 70 kilograms or less to climb a glass wall using only a few pads. This innovative technology works, but not perfectly. The pads lose grip when dusty or used on uneven surfaces. This research has inspired robots, medical adhesives, and space technologies. Gecko-like robots can climb walls for search and rescue missions, while scientists are exploring similar principles for surgical tools and spacecraft repairs. Spider-Man’s abilities are a perfect example of how science fiction can spark real-world innovation. By imagining what seems impossible, these made-up stories motivate scientists to explore the limits of physics, biology, and chemistry. The line between entertainment and science continues to mix, and one day the technology inspired by Spider-Man could let us climb walls ourselves.

SuMin C Wellington College International Tianjin

Why a sword of pure energy is impossible Introduction A lightsaber as shown in Star Wars is usually depicted as a straight, solid-looking blade of light or energy that stops at a fixed length and behaves like a metal sword when it strikes things. There are a few fundamental physics reasons this doesn’t work which are: A plasma globe

Light does not stop mid air Light keeps traveling until it hits something. A flashlight beam does not end at a fixed distance; it keeps going. So a blade made only of light cannot suddenly stop after one meter. Light beams cannot hit each other. Two lasers crossing will not crash or block each other. They simply pass through. But in Star Wars, lightsabers hit, push, and clash — something real lasers cannot do. Solid-like behavior matters matter or confined plasma. To behave like a sword, the blade must exert lateral force and resist penetration. That requires a medium with substantial mass or confined charged particles (plasma) whose shape is constrained so it appears rigid.

Plasma: the closest real-world idea Some people think a lightsaber could be made of plasma, which is hot, glowing gas. What is plasma? Plasma is gas that has been heated so much that the atoms break apart into charged particles. Examples are lightning, the sun, or the inside of a plasma cutter. Why can plasma cut metal Plasma is extremely hot, so it can melt metal fast. This is why real plasma cutters can slice steel. The big problem: plasma won’t stay in a straight shape. Plasma spreads out. It cannot stay as a long straight blade unless something holds it in place. To shape it like a sword, we would need a strong magnetic field to trap it.

Disney and Lucas Films LTD

SuMin C Wellington College International Tianjin

Plasma: the closest real-world idea One idea to create lightsaber-like blades is to use a magnetic field to hold hot plasma in place. This is called magnetic confinement.

The way self-contained works Plasma consists of charged particles, which follow magnetic field lines. If you make the right shape of the magnetic field, the plasma stays in one area. Some machines use this idea in real life. It’s a huge device used in fusion research that uses a very strong magnetic field to maintain plasma. That’s Tokamak

Energy Storage: The Biggest Challenge Even if plasma blades can be made, it is impossible to supply energy because: It takes a lot of strength. Keeping plasma hot enough to melt metal requires a huge amount of energy, much more than a cell phone battery or laptop battery can store. There is a shortage of current battery loans. Even state-of-the-art batteries cannot hold enough energy to power the light saver for minutes, or even seconds. Too much heat. The actual plasma blade will get very hot. Without an advanced cooling system, the handle could overheat or explode.

Conclusion © aapsky - stock.adobe.com

Why it’s hard to make it small The Tokamak is very big because it needs, which are: A huge magnetic coil Strong electricity Cooling system Lots of space. To put all of this into a small lightsaber handle, we need superstrong magnets and advanced superconductors that we don’t have yet. Magnets of today cannot make such a strong field in such a small space.

While Lightsaber is one of the most exciting ideas in science fiction, real science shows that it is impossible to build with today’s technology. Blade made from pure energy cannot be stopped at a fixed length, and plasma requires a very strong magnetic field to maintain its shape. Also, there is no battery small and strong enough to power a portable plasma blade. While real lightsaber is not possible at the moment, this concept inspires people to learn about physics, energy, and new technologies. Lightsaber reminds us that imagination can lead to scientific discoveries, and creative ideas in movies and stories can prompt us to explore the real science behind them.

Celeste Y Wellington College International Pune

The Martian: Sci-Fi.... Or is it? Introduction Directed by Ridley Scott, The Martian is a sci-fi movie that was released in 2015. Starring Matt Damon, this film is based on the book by Andy Weir. Weir was a software engineer for 20 years before he decided to become an author, giving him an encyclopedic knowledge of subjects like astrophysics and space travel. Science plays a major role in The Martian, including fields like chemistry, botany, and physics. A lot of the situations in the movie, although hypothetical, are combated with plausible solutions that are backed up by science. In the movie, the stranded astronaut Mark Watney must learn how to survive on Mars with limited supplies. One of his most pressing dilemmas is the need for water. In order to do this, he utilizes hydrazine from the decomposing rocket fuel for the two hydrogen molecules and oxygen from his oxygenator.

He uses his knowledge of chemistry to burn the highly toxic hydrazine to isolate the hydrogen. Although there is an explosion because of the risky process, he is eventually able to create water. Watney then uses this precious liquid to water his potato farm. Because he would starve long before NASA sends more supplies, he is forced to grow his own food. Because he majored in botany, he is able to grow potatoes in the Habitat (Hab), which he converts into a food production space because it provides shelter from harmful radiation, frigid temperatures, and unbreathable air of Mars's atmosphere. Watney is able to grow potatoes through the use of the water he makes, the Martian soil, and his own feces as fertilizer. Because of his determination and biological expertise, Watney manages to produce his own food on a planet where nothing grows.

A picture from the the movie “The Martian”

Celeste Y Wellington College Intern Pune

Examples of physics in the movie By doing this, they conserve muchPhysics also plays a major role in the film. needed fuel and set their course back to The movie mostly retains scientific Mars to find their stranded friend. accuracy with regards to the Martian Something similar to this maneuver was environment. The gravity on Mars is 40% executed in real life. On the Apollo 13 of Earth's gravity, so Watney is able to mission, the astronauts had to slingshot easily move cumbersome equipment.' around the moon to get back to Earth However, there is a significant scientific because of some damage to the ship. inaccuracy regarding the dust storm that Even though The Martian is science strands Watney in the first place. The fiction, some of the events can be traced powerful winds cause the crew's rocket to back to true stories and are backed up by tip past 12 degrees. They must quickly physics. escape, but Watney is hit by an antennae Conclusion and is presumed dead, setting the Overall, The Martian is a fun movie that dramatic stage for The Martian. amalgamates scientific fields into a Interestingly, Mars does truly have dust splendid film. It highlights Watney's storms that can reach up to 60 mph, but resourcefulness as a key means to his they would only feel like a 5 mph gust of survival. Even though the story is a work wind because of the thin air.' Therefore, of imagination, a lot of the science there is an inaccuracy in The Martian that checks out. Although the movie consists does not follow the principles of physics. of several fictitious elements, it still Another example of physics in The makes for a fun, entertaining movie about Martian is when the Ares crew decides to determination, perseverance, and science. pull off the "Rich Purnell Maneuver" Perhaps one day, we will be able to grow where they slingshot around the Earth food on Mars. Perhaps one day, The Martian could become a reality. using its gravity. Hopefully, no one would get stranded.

Daniel E (R) Wellington College UK

The Thrill of The Terrifying Out of all the strange things that humans do, enjoying horror media must be one of the strangest. Steven King has sold over 350 million books worldwide, the horror industry makes 9.3 billion dollars annually and there are around 27,000 horror movies today 1 , that’s approximately 45,090 hours of horror. So, why do we enjoy experiencing something that makes us feel dread, terror and anxiety? If fear is something that we run from in reality, why do we chase it in fiction? Why does fear unify us? And why do we always come back for more? The reality is, experiencing horror media exploits ancient, evolutionary fear systems that where useful in a primitive world of survival and danger. For this reason, our ancestors who survived developed responses triggered by fear. For example, being scared can initiate a fight or flight response, to aid with these actions our brains release adrenaline which temporarily heightens ones pain threshold, dilates your pupils temporarily improving vision, the hormone also increases your heart rate and blood pressure, which allows for more blood to be pumped to your muscles, and it impairs some systems, like critical thought. All these responses aid in the ‘fight’ or the ‘flight’. An increase of energy and resources to the muscles, all brain-power in the present and a heightened vision. It is clear that we enjoy horror, in the USA 1,200-8,200 people aged 18-64 where surveyed and it was found that 46% said that they enjoyed horror movies. But why does the thrill of danger only excite us when we aren’t in it? It starts again with our ancestors. In his award winning book ‘Thinking Fast and Slow’ author Daniel Kahneman outlines two systems in our brain, ‘system 1’ and ‘system 2’ system 1 ‘thinks fast’ while system 2 ‘thinks slow’. When we are faced with ‘scary’ stimuli our amygdala reacts almost instantaneously, it sends signals to the hypothalamus which activates the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), signalling to the adrenal glands to secrete the hormone into the bloodstream. Here system 1 took the wheel, as mentioned earlier one function of our fear system is that it shuts down our critical thought which is our system 2.

System 2, the prefrontal cortex, later realises roughly 0.5-1.0 seconds later that the situation isn’t real and we are not in danger. "We make up horrors to help us cope with the real ones." – Stephen King This is an evolutionary trait because logically, the ancient mammals that where given adrenaline quickly first and ran away regardless of the danger survived, compared to the ancient mammals that stopped for a second to think. This, is labelled a safety net by Michael J Apter in his book, ‘The Dangerous Edge’. So why do we enjoy it when system 1 takes the wheel? As recognised by Dr. Margee Kerr the answer is simple, any chance to feel painless, energised, have almost no worry about the future, and to be fixed in the present experience is something many people will be drawn to in today’s world of work/school stress and procrastination. Not only does the short-term high of horror excite us. But after, the pre-frontal cortex takes control and confirms safety, dopamine and endorphins are released. This is another evolutionary trait as dopamine reinforces memory function aiding us in knowing why the danger arose, what the danger was, how we dealt with it. Our ancestors who remembered these critical details, stayed out of danger and survived. However, dopamine is also referred to as a ‘feel-good’ hormone. Allowing for a natural, satisfactory high afterwards also. Why do we enjoy horror more when we are in a group? Again, the answer is linked to our evolution. Ancient humans had to rely on group cohesion. Therefore we evolved to mirror each other’s emotions. Located in the premotor cortex and inferior parietal lobule, mirror neurons fire both when you perform an action and when you observe someone else doing it. For example, if we hear our friend screaming, we may release dopamine in response, and so heightening the experience further. So in summary, fear is something important to us as humans as it is linked closely to danger. Evolutionarily, we have learned to not forget danger and fear. However, ultimately, if our vivid memory of watching a horror movie with our friends was satisfactory and euphoric. We are bound to watch hours more.

Mila Wang Wellington College International Tianjin

The Repeated Chorus: The Biology of the Earworm Introduction Imagine you’re in the middle of a crucial exam, your focus absolute, when it starts: a faint, internal playback of the chorus from that pop song you heard on the way to school. It comes up into your brain, and it loops, grows louder and louder. Subtly refuses to leave, not just a distraction. This is known as a ‘earworm’. The official, scientific name for this phenomenon is Involuntary Musical Imagery (INMI), where a section of music repeats in person’s mind.

The Auditory Cortex At the heart of every earworm is your auditory cortex, located in the temporal lobes on both sides of your brain. When you listen to music, the auditory cortex creates a memory of it. When the melody comes back to your mind, it’s your brain that tells the cortex to replay back the music. It is like your brain turning on the play button! From Brain scan studies show that during an earworm, the auditory cortex is active almost as if you were hearing the song for real, as if your mind is singing to itself.

Procedural memory and default mode network Have you noticed melodies often appear in our mind non consciously? Or melodies appearing when you are really bored? This happens because a catchy chorus is a short and simple well practiced action for your brain. As if you write or ride a bike. This is a procedural memory, where it is simple for your mind to catch the melody and learn it. It is learn so well that it could simply replay it anytime in your mind without additional effort. This reply often happens when you’re not focused or even when you are daydreaming. This happens because of the Default Mode Network (DMN). The DMN is your brain’s “idle mode.” The mode activates when you are sitting in a car, daydreaming or showering when you are doing a boring task. When your focused mind quiets down, the DMN takes over, and the automatic, procedural memory of that song loop has a chance to bubble up and play on repeat, creating the stubborn earworm.

Mila Wang Wellington College International Tianjin

The Dopamine Connection

The Zeigarnik Effect

Another reason why the chorus of a song gets stuck in your head is because of a chemical in your brain called dopamine. Think of dopamine as your brain’s “reward” signal, a great chorus is the perfect mix of familiar and surprising. Your brain learns the pattern and predicts what comes next. When it’s right—when the chorus resolves exactly as you expected, you get a little satisfying hit of dopamine. It feels good. This tiny reward makes your brain want to relive that moment. This makes your brain remember this chorus, so it replays the chorus to trigger that pleasant feeling again, creating a mental loop of the music stuck in your brain. The more you hear it in your head, the more your brain gets that reward. Leading to our brain constantly playing one single bit of melody.

Finally, there’s a key psychological principle causing loops of music in your mind: the Zeigarnik Effect. This effect states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. A short, repetitive chorus is perfectly short and easy for your mind to remember. It often ends abruptly in our minds, leaving our pattern-seeking brain craving resolution. In the hippocampus, which is a seahorse shaped region vital for memory, it keeps this unresolved loop active, bringing it back to your mind which attempts to reach a conclusion, wanting to complete the incomplete melody. Eventually, the loop never truly finishes, and so the cycle continues. So, the next time a chorus invades your train of thought, don’t blame a lack of willpower, or not being focused. Instead, it is a complex biology working at the back. A simple musical phrase has successfully entered your auditory cortex, tickled your dopamine which then driven your brain’s reward system, and trapped your memory in an unfinished loop. The earworm is not a bug in our mental software; it’s a way of how our brain finds pleasure and patterns in the soundscape around us!

SuHyeon C Wellington College International Tianjin

The Genetics behind Jurassic Park Amber preserves shape, not DNA

Introduction The idea of Jurassic Park is that scientists extract dinosaur DNA from mosquitoes trapped in amber and use it to clone dinosaurs. While this concept is exciting and creative, it is scientifically impossible for a few reasons. The limitations come from the chemical instability of DNA, the timescale involved, the nature of amber preservation, and the biological requirements for cloning a complete organism.

Amber can preserve the outside of insects, which means we can clearly see wings, legs, and tiny details after millions of years. But that doesn’t mean that the DNA inside the insect is safe. The animal inside the amber still decays before the resin hardens completely. Microorganisms break down what remains, and the DNA continues to fall apart chemically over time. Another issue is contamination. When researchers have tried to extract DNA from amber in the past, many of the results turned out to be modern DNA from bacteria, fungi, or even people who handled the samples. This tells us that amber keeps shapes, not genetic information.

DNA Cannot Survive for Tens of Millions of Years DNA is a fragile molecule that constantly breaks down over time. Chemical processes such as hydrolysis cause DNA strands to split, and depurination removes bases like adenine and guanine altogether. Oxidation and natural radiation degrade the molecule even further. These processes continue even if the DNA is trapped inside amber. Even in the best possible conditions like very low temperatures, extreme dryness, and no oxygen, DNA has a maximum survival limit of a few hundred thousand to a few million years. However, dinosaurs became extinct about 66 million years ago. As a result, all dinosaur DNA would have broken into microscopic fragments which means too small to reconstruct.

Cloning needs more than a few fragments Even if we got some bits of dinosaur DNA, it still wouldn’t be enough to clone one. Cloning requires a complete genome which means they need every gene, in the correct order. Scientists also need an intact nucleus or a fully built synthetic genome and the epigenetic instructions that control how the genes turn on during development. And even if all of that were possible, researchers would still need a living species close enough to dinosaurs to act as surrogate mothers. But the problem is nowadays there is no such animal that exists. Birds are related to dinosaurs, but their embryos and bodies are far too different.

SuHyeon C Wellington College International Tianjin

What scientists actually can do

Why the movie’s “Frog DNA” solution doesn’t work In the film, missing parts of the dinosaur genome are replaced with frog DNA. This wouldn’t work in real life. Frogs and dinosaurs are not closely related, so as a result mixing their DNA would make a genetic mess that couldn’t lead to a developing embryo. The idea that dinosaurs suddenly change gender like some frog species do is also unrealistic

Even though cloning dinosaurs is off the table, scientists are still doing interesting research. They compare ancient DNA fragments from other species with modern birds and some researchers experiment with CRISPR to bring out ancestral traits in chickens. These experiments won’t bring back a real dinosaur, but they help us understand what ancient species might have looked like or how certain traits evolved.

Conclusion The idea of cloning dinosaurs from amber might seem possible in first glance, but it isn’t scientifically possible. Because DNA doesn’t last long enough, amber doesn’t protect genetic material the way people imagine, and cloning requires biological systems that disappeared millions of years ago.

Kefei Z Wellington College International Tianjin

Mermaids: Do they exist? Introduction Throughout human literary history, mermaids have predominantly been depicted with feminine features, renowned for their beauty and allure, and imbued with elements of purity and romantic love. This image embodies centuries of human fantasy regarding such creatures. If we delve more into mermaids, could they be real? What exactly did they look like? From ancient Greece to modern China, how much of our beloved mermaid lore is true, and how much is fiction?

What if they are cousins of human instead of mythological?

From a realistic standpoint, the traditional "mermaid" is not real entity but purely fictional creation because it is idealized and personified. A biologically reliable mermaid would likely differ significantly from humans. The companion book Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them from the Harry Potter universe, as a children's publication, offered one of the first realistic depictions of mermaid. They exhibit gender differentiation equivalent to humans. Their habitats are the depths of oceans and lakes, possessing physiological adaptations for cold weather. They construct simple shelters on the seabed, create weapons for defense, and have a broad dietary range. Mermaids possess their own simple language. Female mermaids can surface and communicate with humans.

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Physically, they are slate-grey overall, with sparse hair on their heads, protruding eyes, flat noses, and sharp teeth. Their upper bodies have smooth skin, while from the waist down, they feature a scaleless fish-like tail, and their fingers are webbed.

Origins of Mermaid Physiology, Habits, and Characteristics Water resistance necessitates powerful muscles for rapid swimming in fish. Hair increases drag and reduce swimming efficiency, hence the sparse hair of mermaids, allowing their bodies more suitable for swimming. Smooth skin further aids in minimizing water resistance. Webbed fingers, like many fish, aid their swift swimming. Inhabiting dimly lit depths, their protruding eyes and absent eyelids enhance lightgathering capacity, facilitating navigation, their eyes would work almost like deep-sea camera lenses, gathering every bit of light and expanding their visual field for more precise prey capture.

Their sharp teeth are likewise an adaptation, as the underwater environment is unsuitable for traditional cooking, including a refined diet

Kefei Z Wellington College International Tianjin

Regarding their advanced intelligence yet simplistic architecture: the underwater environment, particularly seawater, is highly corrosive, leading to shorter structural lifespans. Furthermore, logistical challenges in transporting materials limit the potential for architectural development.

Major Organ Systems and Physiological Functions of Mermaids Judging by their body shape and appearance, mermaids would most likely hatching in the form of eggs in the mother’s womb, similar to some sharks. This form can protect the offsprings from dangers.

Mermaids likely possess a nervous system analogous to humans, featuring a spinal cord extending to the waist and a brain, albeit with the nerves for legs adapted to innervate the tail. However, their reproductive and digestive systems would more closely follow piscine structures. They possess a caudal fin, with the anus and genital opening located in the mid-to-lower section of the tail. Mermaids have gills; consequently, the positioning of the heart, lungs, and aorta would align with piscine anatomy. The ventricle would be situated below the throat. The relationship between gills and lungs could be analogous to the African lungfish: gills on the cheeks extract dissolved oxygen from water, while lungs, located in the chest cavity like a highly developed swim bladder, efficiently extract atmospheric oxygen. However, due to limited use, their lungs might be somewhat vestigial, potentially resulting in a comparatively narrower chest cavity than humans. The position of the heart would also influence rib morphology and placement, possibly leading to the evolution of protective throat bones or a narrower sternum.

Conjectures on Mermaid Evolution

From a biological perspective, mermaids could represent a case of mammals returning to the sea (similar to ancestors or whales). They would retain some marine body structure traits while evolving characteristics better suited for aquatic life. They might share a common ancestor with humans. Perhaps, living near the coastlines during the dawn of their civilization, they were driven into the sea by various factors. Initially can live on both land and underwater.

Their legs may have gradually losing its usefulness and turned into fishtails. As they became fully aquatic, their hind limbs likely broadened and elongated, enhancing swimming capability, while their hands were retained due to continued use in toolmaking and manipulation. Their tail would have evolved powerful musculature, acting as a primary means of propulsion and a rudder, ultimately cementing their status as an aquatic branch of the human lineage.

Ruiqi S Wellington College International Tianjin

Inside OASIS: How Artificial Worlds Reshape Us If you have seen the movie Ready Player One, you must be fascinated by the incredible scenes of the virtual reality world of OASIS. It is a virtual universe so immersive that it becomes preferred to the real world. But what neurological mechanisms make such a digital existence not only convincing but also irresistible? To find out, let’s dive into the brain and see how virtual worlds hijack our perception.

The science of immersion The feeling of ‘being there’ in a virtual world is a carefully engineered neurological illusion. It begins with sensory integration. Our brains always construct the ‘world’ around us from messages from our eyes, sounds, and balance cues. When the information from the different systems isn’t identical, the brain get confused. This is called the mismatch effect, which is exactly why people experience motion sickness when they are travelling. However, as technology improves, a highquality VR system like OASIS would perfectly synchronize high-resolution visuals, 3D audio, and haptic feedback, creating a scene the brain perceives as real.

Furthermore, immersion is deepened by mirror neurons. There is a famous experiment called the ‘rubber hand il| When both the visible rubber hand and the unseen real hand are simultaneously brushed, the brain, integrating the visual and tactile signals, begins to accept the fake hand as its own. When the experimenter strikes the rubber hand with a hammer, the subject instinctively flinches and withdraws their real hand, as if it were truly under attack. This shows that our sense of self is not fixed but is a dynamic construct built from sensory input. In OASIS, this mechanism is exploited fully. When a player sees their avatar being punched or hugging another character, these brain cells fire as if they were experiencing the action themselves, blurring the line between observed and lived experience.

The Biology of reward

While immersion convinces the brain that the world is real, it is the dopamine system that makes us stay. Dopamine is the key neurotransmitter of reward, reinforcing critical behaviors such as eating. No wonder OASIS is a carefully designed dopamine generator. For instance, leveling up triggers a potent dopamine release, creating a sense of pleasure. This is amplified by variable reward schedules — the unpredictable nature of finding an Easter egg or winning a race — which is the same psychological principle that makes gambling so addictive.

Ruiqi S Wellington College International Tianjin

And then, addiction kicks in. Continuous high dopamine release reduces neuron sensitivity, so the same event produces less pleasure, driving the player to seek stronger stimulation. Continuous high dopamine release reduces neuron sensitivity, so the same event produces less pleasure, driving the player to seek stronger stimulation. This phenomenon is known as tolerance. Meanwhile, everyday real-world achievements, which generate subtler dopamine responses, feel increasingly dull and unsatisfying. This neurochemical hijacking enhances a dangerous cycle of escapism, where the brain becomes chemically dependent on the virtual environment for motivation and satisfaction. The consequence is, of course, anhedonia, or the inability to experience joy in real life.

The merging of immersion and reward

In the end, science is clear: VR's immersion exploits our sensory biology, while its rewards hijack our dopamine system. Together, they hold the power not just to simulate worlds, but to alter our perception of value and reality itself. As we stand on the edge of such immersive futures, the most critical question is not what technology can do, but what we should allow it to do to the human brain. More realistically speaking, why don’t we reflect on ourselves and put down our phones for a while?

The original ending of the movie is like this: We closed the OASIS on Tuesdays and Thursdays. I know it sounds like a weird move, but people need to spend more time in the real world because, like Halliday said, reality is the only thing that's real. (Ready Player One, 2018)

The true power of a system like OASIS lies in the death loop of immersion and reward. Sensory realism not only tells you that what you are experiencing is believable but also acts as a force multiplier for the brain's chemical responses. The more lifelike and emotionally engaging the virtual world feels, the more the brain values the experiences within it. The scary part is that this is not sci-fi but a real thing happening around us: modern social media and video games already exploit these mechanisms in a more primitive form. OASIS represents its ultimate state, dragging the whole society into the valley of addiction.

References: Downey LE, et al., 2014. Altered body schema processing in frontotemporal dementia with C9ORF72 mutations. Journal of Neurology, Volume 85, pp. 1016-1023. Ready Player One. 2018. [Film] Directed by Steven Spielberg. UK: Warner Bros. Pictures et al.

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