TEST BANK for Social Psychology, 7th Canadian Edition. by Elliot Aronson, Timothy D. Wilson and Robi by welldoneassistant

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Chap 01_3e Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. 1. What is the most general term for the type of research in which two or more variables are measured and compared to determine the extent to which they are associated? a. the experimental method b. the correlational method c. quasi-experimental design d. random assignment 2. Researchers are interested in whether the amount of violent video games played as a child is related to aggression in adulthood. To answer this question, they collected data on a group of 200 people each year from the ages of 9–25. This study is BEST considered an example of a(n): a. longitudinal design. b. correlational design. c. experimental design. d. quasi-experiment. 3. _____ refers to the judgment that for a particular experiment, it is possible to conclude that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable. a. Internal validity b. Operationalization c. Construct validity d. External validity 4. Which of the following is NOT an official ethical requirement for research with human subjects? a. Participants must be given the chance for informed consent and be free to withdraw at any time. b. Projects must be approved by an institutional review board. c. The full purpose of a study must be explained to participants before they begin. d. Participants should be assured that efforts will be taken to protect the confidentiality and anonymity of their data. 5. Carol and Dean are moving to a new state and trying to decide between three cities to live in. As a child, Carol knew someone from one of these cities whom she did not like, and thinks negatively about this city as a result. When visiting this city, Carol only notices things such as potholes in the road, rundown buildings, and litter in the street. Which psychological concept best explains Carol's behavior? a. reverse causality b. causal attributions c. confirmation bias d. stereotype threat

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Chap 01_3e 6. An if-then statement that specifies what the relationships between variables should be like if a theory is correct is called a: a. correlation coefficient. b. hypothesis. c. research question. d. causal attribution. 7. Which of the following techniques of measurement is NOT considered a tool of the neuroscience perspective in social psychology? a. brain imaging b. assessing cardiovascular functioning c. assessing people's behaviors d. measuring brain waves 8. Lord and colleagues had psychology students read about two studies on the social impact of capital punishment. One study seemed to confirm that the death penalty is effective as a crime deterrent, while the other study suggested that it is not effective. Students on both sides of the debate came away holding their initial positions even more strongly than before. This finding is evidence of: a. social comparison. b. confirmation bias. c. causal attribution. d. hypocrisy. 9. Which of the following events had a major influence on the history of social psychology? a. the economic crisis of the 1970s b. World War II c. the Cold War d. the development of institutional care for people with severe personality disorders 10. Simon is a very extraverted person. However, at school he rarely talks to his classmates. What is the best explanation of Simon's behavior in this case? a. his personality b. the situation c. his habits d. the interaction of the situation and his personality

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Chap 01_3e 11. Which of the following instances is an example of the way we use social comparisons to self-evaluate? a. An instructor provides personal feedback on a test. b. A person shooting rolled-up paper balls into a wastebasket is able to make three baskets. c. A child thinks about how tall she is by looking around at the other children in her classroom. d. A mother decides that her son is her favorite person in the world. 12. Which of the following sequences BEST demonstrates the cycle of theory and research in science? a. Hypothesis → Theory→ Revised Theory → Research Outcome b. Theory → Hypothesis → Revised Theory → Research Outcome c. Hypothesis → Theory → Research Outcome → Revised Theory d. Theory → Hypothesis → Research Outcome → Revised Theory 13. When we randomly assign participants to different conditions of a variable, we are creating a(n): a. independent variable. b. dependent variable. c. independent and a dependent variable. d. correlation coefficient. 14. A researcher counts the number of people who look both ways before crossing the street. She finds that people are more likely to do so when by themselves rather than in groups. This is an example of: a. experimental research. b. field research. c. a case study. d. pilot research. 15. Which of the following is NOT a form of validity which social psychologists are interested in obtaining? a. construct b. reverse causality c. external d. internal 16. A positive or negative value that shows the strength and direction of the association between two variables is referred to as a: a. point estimate. b. dependent variable. c. conceptual replication. d. correlation coefficient.

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Chap 01_3e 17. A developmental psychologist wants to understand how people's religious beliefs develop through adolescence and early adulthood. Which of the following research approaches is best suited for answering this question? a. correlational b. experimental c. field d. longitudinal 18. Which of the following statements is MOST true regarding scientific theories? a. If the methods do not exist to test hypotheses derived from the theory, the theory is useless. b. A scientific theory should be designed to match the methods and techniques currently available for scientific testing. c. Even if the methods do not currently exist for fully testing its hypotheses, a theory may still ultimately be shown to be an accurate representation of reality. d. A theory should be able to show how the methods that have been used to test previous theories are inadequate and out of date. 19. A researcher is able to replicate her study results using the same operational definitions in three countries other than the country where she originally conducted the research. By doing so, she has primarily increased the _____ of her finding. a. conceptual replicability b. construct validity c. internal validity d. external validity 20. What does it mean to say that humans are cultural animals? a. Humans create their own symbolic conception of reality. b. Humans tend to live socially in groups. c. Humans in different groups around the world are hostile toward members of other groups. d. Humans are actually driven by instincts. 21. The _____ method can be used to make researchers more confident about likely causal order. a. correlational b. experimental c. field study d. quasi-experiment

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Chap 01_3e 22. A health psychologist wants to understand whether self-esteem is related to healthy eating. Which of the following research approaches is best suited for answering this question? a. correlational b. experimental c. field d. longitudinal 23. The belief that social behavior is shaped by experiences is reflective of: a. psychoanalytic theory. b. evolutionary theory. c. the social cognitive perspective. d. behaviorism. 24. Which of the following terms best describes the human tendency to avoid strenuous mental effort? a. cognitive misers b. cognitive conservatives c. confirmation bias d. cultural knowledge 25. Lucas has never seen a germ, and he also hasn't read any of the medical research supporting germ theory. However, Lucas believes that if he catches a cold, it is because of a germ. Lucas is relying on _____ to understand how colds happen. a. an existential perspective b. confirmation bias c. cultural knowledge d. the scientific method 26. The concept of adaptation is most central for which influential perspective in contemporary social psychology? a. the existential perspective b. the evolutionary perspective c. the neuroscience perspective d. the cultural perspective 27. Power analysis is used to: a. define independent and dependent variables. b. establish internal validity. c. establish external validity. d. determine appropriate sample size.

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Chap 01_3e 28. What is the definition of cultural knowledge? a. a store of information accumulated in a culture, about how the world works b. our understanding of a given culture using the scientific method c. the way in which people understand themselves through comparison with others d. people's consistent preferences and ways of thinking that are consistent across situations and time 29. If in an experiment the independent variable is in fact a manipulation of what was intended and the dependent variable is in fact a measure of what was intended, then the experiment can be said to be high in: a. construct validity. b. external validity. c. significance. d. practical value. 30. Research demonstrates that when Black and White students are reminded of their race (or not) before taking a test, Black students, but not White students, show lowered performance in the condition where they are reminded of their race. This result shows: a. a general effect of race on test performance. b. a general effect of the extent to which people are thinking about their race on test performance. c. an interaction between the race of participant and the extent to which people are thinking about their race before a test. d. a correlation between racial identity and the extent to which one is thinking about their race prior to a test. 31. Taylor is writing his doctoral dissertation on the relationship between musical and mathematical ability. To do so, he analyzes a large number of previously conducted studies, in order to understand the nature of this relationship. What is Taylor conducting? a. power analysis. b. meta-analysis. c. direct replication. d. conceptual replication. 32. Which of the following statements is true regarding the finding that there is a negative correlation among stigmatized group members between stigma consciousness and GPA? a. It allows us to conclude that stigma consciousness and GPA are completely unrelated variables. b. It is consistent with a hypothesis that can be derived from the theory of stereotype threat. c. It strongly suggests that a person's level of stigma consciousness causally determines their GPA. d. It suggests that if we know a person's level of stigma consciousness, we can predict with near-perfect accuracy what their GPA will be.

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Chap 01_3e 33. Researchers find that attendance at horror movies is associated with neuroticism. They conclude that attending horror movies causes people to be more neurotic. Which of the following statements does NOT describe a problem with their claim? a. It's possible that instead neurotic people like horror movies more than other people do. b. It's possible that watching horror films reminds people of their real-life problems, and this in turn makes them more neurotic. c. People who are lonely may be both more neurotic and more likely to attend horror movies. d. Horror movies may be marketed in ways designed to be more appealing for neurotic individuals, causing them to attend such movies at a higher rate. 34. A researcher believes that receiving a self-esteem threat will make participants more depressed. She conducts a study in which participants are randomly assigned to receive negative feedback on a personality test, and she then measures their level of depression. She tells participants that the study is about validation of personality measures. In this example, validation of personality measures is: a. an operational definition. b. a cover story. c. a conceptual variable. d. internal validity. 35. Morgan believes that her mom is ignoring her because of a recent argument over her curfew, even though her mom says that she is fine. Morgan is making a: a. random assignment. b. causal attribution. c. third variable assumption. d. social comparison. 36. Which of the following is TRUE? a. Correlation implies causation. b. Correlation means that there is no causal relationship. c. Correlation may indicate causation, but further research is needed to make that claim. d. We can only understand correlation, but not causation. 37. Which one of the following statements is FALSE? a. Some hypotheses can be effectively tested using a correlational approach. b. A correlation between two variables may be primarily driven by a third variable that is associated with both. c. Correlation does not imply causation. d. Two variables do not need to be correlated with each other for one to have a causal influence on the other.

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Chap 01_3e 38. The earliest treatments of social psychology (such as the theories of Spencer and McDougall) tended to emphasize: a. a view of humans as driven by unconscious motivation. b. an instinct-based view of human behavior. c. a view of humans as machinelike information processors. d. a reinforcement-centered view of humans as learning from experience. 39. Dr. R is replicating a study on stereotype threat. Dr. R repeats the methods and procedures used in Dr. Steele's original study. Dr. R is engaging in: a. conceptual replication. b. meta-analysis. c. indirect replication. d. direct replication. 40. A researcher finds that self-esteem is positively correlated with academic performance. What can the researcher conclude from this fact about the causal relationship between these variables? a. High self-esteem causes people to perform better academically. b. People who perform better academically have higher self-esteem as a result. c. High self-esteem and academic performance both have causal influence on each other. d. It is impossible to conclude anything about the causal relationship between these variables based on the given data. 41. In an experiment, the measured variable is also known as the _____ variable. a. independent b. dependent c. extraneous d. confounding 42. Random assignment refers to a procedure through which: a. participants are assigned to experimental conditions in such a way that they have an equal chance of being in any condition. b. participants are recruited from a broader population such that any member of the population has an equal chance of being in the study. c. participants are kept unaware of the purpose of the study until they are suddenly made aware of it after the independent variable has been administered. d. quasi-experiments can be made to approximate true experiments.

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Chap 01_3e 43. Jacob is a male blue-collar worker attending a group therapy session. He knows that people from his background are thought of as not being in touch with their feelings and having quick tempers. During the session, he worries about how he will appear, and he ends up getting angry and losing his temper as a result of this anxiety. Jacob's case is an example of: a. a cognitive miser. b. stereotype threat. c. demand characteristics. d. confirmation bias. 44. The third variable problem refers to the fact that: a. experiments allow researchers to assess relationships between independent variables, dependent variables, and third variables. b. almost all phenomena in social psychology are driven by the interaction between three identifiable variables. c. a correlation between two variables may be driven by their mutual association with another variable. d. researchers in social psychology tend to statistically investigate the relationships between only three variables at a time. 45. What phenomena were behaviorists primarily interested in measuring? a. mental states b. observable behaviors c. neurological reflexes d. unconscious drives 46. A group of social psychologists found that making people perform a difficult task in a short period of time leads them to recall less information about the task after the fact. The researchers conclude that stress impairs memory. Which of the following best represents a conceptual replication of this finding? a. an identical study as was first conducted b. a study that is very similar to the original study, except the independent variable is changed from the difficult task to an easy task c. a study that is very similar to the original study, except the dependent variable is changed from memory to mood d. a study that substitutes the difficult task for a different stressful one 47. Which theory suggests that people are like intuitive scientists, using reasoning and observation to understand the nature of the social world? a. social cognition theory b. social comparison theory c. behaviorism d. attribution theory Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 01_3e 48. A specific, concrete method of measuring or manipulating a conceptual variable is referred to as a(n): a. operational definition. b. independent variable. c. dependent variable. d. correlation coefficient. 49. In science, _____ are the content of the observations that have been made and replicated by scientists, while _____ are the explanations given by scientists for that content. a. studies; hypotheses b. hypotheses; studies c. facts; theories d. theories; facts 50. The process whereby scientists observe events, look for patterns, and evaluate theories proposed to explain those patterns is referred to as: a. research. b. a priori causal theory. c. intuitive knowledge. d. causal attribution. 51. What is the best research method for determining whether one variable has a causal influence on another? a. a longitudinal study b. an experiment c. a correlational study d. a quasi-experiment 52. Emiliano believes that dogs are better than cats. One day, he decides to search the Internet to see if his opinion is rooted in fact. He reads several articles that consider all sides of the matter, presenting a rather blurry picture of whether humans should prefer the company of dogs or cats. What does research suggest Emiliano is most likely to conclude based on reading all this new information? a. Dogs are better than cats. b. Cats are better than dogs. c. Both animals should be loved equally. d. There is no way to answer the question definitively.

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Chap 01_3e 53. A researcher finds that the number of swimming pools in an area is correlated with the number of people that die from heatstroke. However, the researcher realizes that there is a third variable problem related to this finding. What might this problem be? a. It is possible that swimming causes people to die from heatstroke. b. Places that regularly have high temperatures are more likely to both have a lot of swimming pools and heatstroke deaths. c. People dying from heatstroke causes others to want to go swimming more. d. It is impossible to say. 54. A quasi-experiment is a: a. study in which naturally occurring groups of participants are compared on a dependent variable without random assignment. b. study in which only half of the participants can be randomly assigned to a condition. c. set of studies that include both experimental and correlational components. d. study in which two independent variables interact to produce changes in the dependent variable. 55. Which of the following is true of the very first social psychology textbook? a. It was inspired by Herbert Spencer's extensions of Darwin's ideas about evolution. b. It was inspired by the events of World War II. c. It ignored the role of experience in behavior. d. It ignored the role of instinct in behavior. 56. A study demonstrated that if a participant is being interviewed by a person who taps her feet, the participant is also more likely to tap his feet; and if he is being interviewed by a person who scratches her head, the participant is also more likely to scratch his head. Which principle does this finding BEST demonstrate? a. People are biased toward trying to confirm what they already know. b. The act of observing behavior can change that behavior. c. People develop a priori causal theories to explain their behavior. d. People are cognitive misers. 57. The reverse causality problem refers to what phenomenon? a. the fact that when a correlation is found between two variables, it may be impossible to determine which variable causes the other b. the fact that people's thoughts about the future can influence their present behaviors c. the fact that people will explain their own behavior by relying on culturally common theories or factors that happen to be salient at the moment d. the fact that there are many situations in which variables influence each other in a reciprocal fashion

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Chap 01_3e 58. The chief weakness of a field study is that: a. it captures social behavior as it naturally occurs instead of in the laboratory. b. the researchers have too much control over the variables in the study. c. the researchers lose control over the variables in the study. d. there are too many choices of independent variables. 59. Which of the following is the best example of the power of the situation? a. U.S. citizens vary in the extent to which they conform to the norms of their culture. b. Everyone in a library tends to be quiet. c. Extraverted people are more likely than introverted people to talk at a party. d. A person tends to have a stable identity that is constant through different environments. 60. What is the ultimate function of a good theory in social psychology? a. to control the variables b. to be useful c. to show relationships among the variables d. to reduce the number of unanswered questions 61. Which of the following is NOT one of the major perspectives that provide an integrated view of human social behavior in contemporary social psychology? a. the existential perspective b. the evolutionary perspective c. the instinct-based perspective d. the cognitive perspective 62. While social psychology in the first half of the 20th century tended to stress _____, social psychology from the second half of the 20th century to the present stresses _____. a. an instinct-based approach; a behaviorist approach b. a behaviorist approach; an instinct-based approach c. specific, topic-based theories; broad views of human sociality d. broad views of human social behavior; specific, topic-based theories 63. A social psychologists states that "If people become more politically conservative as they age, then younger people are likely to react to news stories differently than older people." Which type of scientific statement is this? a. theory b. research c. fact d. hypothesis

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Chap 01_3e 64. A researcher assesses anxiety by measuring heart rate. In this study, anxiety is the _____ and rapid heart rate is the _____. a. abstract conceptual variable; operational definition b. operational definition; abstract conceptual variable c. independent variable; dependent variable d. dependent variable; independent variable 65. Which of the following is NOT a reason why people are often limited in their ability to explain the causes of others' behavior? a. The act of observing behavior might change it. b. People are biased toward trying to confirm what they already believe and expect. c. People's observations come from a limited, idiosyncratic perspective. d. People spend as much cognitive energy as possible trying to uncover why a given situation happened. 66. What is social psychology? a. the scientific study of society as a psychological entity (i.e., society as a motivated agent) b. the scientific study of how individual differences in social-emotional functioning drive a person's behavior across a variety of situations c. the scientific study of the causes and consequences of people's thoughts, feelings, and actions regarding themselves and other people d. the scientific study of the relationships between, and development of, different societies 67. Which of these is NOT a reason why deception is commonly used in social psychological experiments? a. to determine if participants can guess how they are being deceived b. to reduce the potential influence of demand characteristics c. to create the conditions necessary to test a hypothesis d. to create an artificial situation that is psychologically involving and convincing for the participants 68. Ezekiel is often motivated to work hard because he feels that his life is very meaningful. Which of the following perspectives psychology is BEST able to help us understand Ezekiel's experience? a. the existential perspective b. the evolutionary perspective c. the social cognition perspective d. the neuroscience perspective

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Chap 01_3e 69. Which aspect of social psychology MOST distinguishes it from many other ways of understanding the causes and consequences of people's social behavior, such as philosophy or general cultural knowledge? a. the idea that humans are inherently social b. an emphasis on the scientific method c. a sense that people's dispositions play a major role in determining their behavior d. the use of observations from the real world to form assumptions 70. A researcher randomly assigns a group of male and female college students to either gossip about their friends or to play a game of basketball. Afterward, the researcher administers the students a measure of happiness. The finding is that students who played basketball are happier than those who gossiped. What is the MOST likely cause of this outcome? a. Men were happier overall than women. b. Students who like to play sports were happier than students who don't like to play sports. c. Playing basketball made students happier than gossiping did. d. The people in the basketball-playing condition were already happier to begin with. 71. _____ methods are preferable for determining causal relationships between variables, but _____ methods are preferable for determining the influence of personality or dispositional variables. a. Correlational; longitudinal b. Longitudinal; correlational c. Correlational; experimental d. Experimental; correlational 72. What does it mean to say that a theory is parsimonious? a. It is good at parsing large observations into sets of smaller observations. b. It explains a large number of diverse observations with many and complex principles. c. It generates a very large number of hypotheses. d. It explains a large number of diverse observations with relatively few and simple principles. 73. A pattern of results in which the effect of one independent variable on a dependent variable depends on the level of another independent variable is referred to as: a. a main effect. b. a correlation. c. a correlation coefficient. d. an interaction.

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Chap 01_3e 74. Behaviorists emphasize that human behavior is driven primarily by: a. unconscious motivation. b. instinct. c. cognitive processes. d. learning from past experiences. 75. The notion that much of human social behavior is driven by forces outside of conscious awareness is critical to which perspective? a. the psychoanalytic perspective b. the behaviorist perspective c. the social cognition perspective d. the evolutionary perspective 76. In their research on stereotype threat, Pinel and colleagues found a negative correlation among stigmatized group members between stigma consciousness and GPA. This study was designed as a test of which of the following hypotheses? a. The more a person is conscious of the negative stereotype of his or her group, the worse that person will perform in areas related to the stereotype. b. Situations that make a negative stereotype of a person's group prominent in the person's mind will lead to worse performance than situations that do not. c. People who belong to a stereotyped group will be more likely than those who don't to have a low GPA. d. Being aware of stigmatization of one's group generally leads to an inflated sense of GPA. 77. Researchers Nisbett and Wilson found that when shoppers were asked to choose among different silk stockings, the primary factor influencing their decision was the positioning of the stockings on the table. However, when asked why they chose the stockings they chose, the shoppers generated a variety of different reasons but never mentioned the positioning of the stockings. This finding is evidence that: a. a behaviorist perspective provides the most insight into psychology. b. people rely on a priori causal theories to explain their behavior. c. people are the best sources of information about their own behavior. d. cultural knowledge is generally accurate. 78. Which of the following is NOT a reason why researchers are often skeptical about people's self-reported accounts and explanations of their own behavior? a. People often don't tell the truth. b. People sometimes repress unpleasant information. c. People often rely on a priori causal theories to explain their behavior. d. People have internal access to the processes that lead to their thoughts, judgments, and preferences.

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Chap 01_3e 79. A social psychologist wants to understand whether reading about natural disasters influences people's intentions to travel internationally. To test this possibility, the researcher randomly assigns people to read about either a natural disaster or a control topic, and then asks about their travel intentions. This study design is best described as _____. a. correlational b. experimental c. field d. longitudinal 80. Within the scientific method, a theory is: a. a narrative about the origin of some psychological trait. b. an explanation (potentially false) that people give for their own behavior. c. an explanation for how and why variables are related to each other. d. a prediction about what will occur given certain specified conditions. 81. Which of the following is NOT a reason why experiments help researchers determine causality? a. In an experiment, the researcher can control the temporal sequence of two variables. b. Because they take place in a controlled laboratory setting, experiments have greater external validity. c. Participants can be randomly assigned to different conditions of the independent variable. d. The experimenter can hold everything constant except for the variable being manipulated. 82. What is the term for the way an individual understands his or her social world? a. social cognition b. the existential perspective c. embodied cognition d. a priori causal theory 83. Which of the following questions cannot be answered by the scientific method? a. What is the effect of religious participation on health? b. Which is the correct religion? c. How do religious beliefs develop over the life span? d. How do cognitive styles influence religious beliefs? 84. A researcher believes that the more neurotic a person is, the more that person will tend to experience negative emotions. This is an example of a(n): a. third variable problem. b. experimental/causal hypothesis. c. correlational hypothesis. d. theory.

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Chap 01_3e 85. In the scientific method, _____ are derived from _____, in order to test the accuracy of the latter. a. hypotheses; theories b. theories; hypotheses c. experiments; correlations d. hypotheses; experiments 86. Which of the following problems is not primarily solved by random assignment to a condition? a. the third variable problem b. the causal sequence problem c. the fact that participants might differ in their level of the dependent variable prior to the study d. the fact that random factors experienced by different participants the day of the study might contribute to their scores on the dependent variable 87. Laura just participated in a psychological experiment that asked her to recount a painful experience. Afterward, the researchers tell Laura about the purpose of the experiment and invite her to ask any questions about her participation in it. What part of the research process is this? a. informed consent b. debriefing c. unethical research d. experimenter biasing 88. A researcher conducts a study in which Native Americans and White people are asked about their attitudes toward the environment. The researcher hypothesizes that Native Americans will generally be more protective of the environment. This study is best characterized as: a. a correlational design. b. an experiment. c. a quasi-experiment. d. field research. 89. From the social cognitive perspective, what is the primary metaphor for understanding human beings? a. a tumultuous storm of conflicting drives b. a blank slate c. an information processor d. a social animal

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Chap 01_3e 90. What is the definition of a confound? a. an individual difference between participants that may be contributing to their scores in an experiment b. a problem with the temporal order of a study which leaves open the question of reverse causality c. a variable other than the variable intended to be manipulated that may be responsible for an observed effect d. any source of random error contributing to the outcome of a study 91. Which of the following procedures is a major ethical safeguard against any negative feelings that might be induced by deception in a study? a. informed consent b. a thorough debriefing c. a guarantee of anonymity d. payment of participants 92. Akira got in a car accident recently. After assessing the situation, he believes that the accident was the other driver's fault. Akira now pays close attention to the behavior of other drivers, trying to anticipate how their mistakes might cause an accident. What does this example BEST demonstrate? a. the importance of an evolutionary perspective b. our reliance on social comparison c. the power of the situation d. the powerful influence of social cognition 93. Which of the following potential problems with research on human subjects is NOT considered an important ethical issue? a. the possibility that participants might experience more stress during a study than they would in their everyday life b. the use of deception in experiments c. the fact that college students often participate in studies as part of their education d. the possibility of long-term physical or psychological damage from a study 94. What is a reason posited by stereotype threat theory for shortfalls in performance by members of stigmatized groups? a. Members of stigmatized groups are threatening to members of majority groups, who then stereotype the stigmatized group members. b. Because of constant exposure to stereotypes, members of stigmatized groups have stopped caring about their performance. c. Members of stigmatized groups experience more threats on a day-to-day basis. d. Situations that remind stigmatized group members of negative stereotypes about their group cause them to worry about their performance.

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Chap 01_3e 95. Walton and Cohen conducted a study in which they intervened in freshman college students' experience by having them read either an essay about how stress is a normal part of the college transition or a control essay. What did the researchers find when they tracked the students' GPAs over the course of the next three years? a. The treatment had no effect. b. All students who read an essay about stress being normal had higher GPAs than those who did not. c. Black students who read an essay about stress being normal had higher GPAs than Black students who did not. d. White students who read an essay about stress being normal had lower GPAs than Black students who read the same essay. 96. The fact that people tend to latch onto quick and easy answers to questions, rather than expending much mental effort, has led researchers to conclude that people are: a. social cognizers. b. introspective. c. cognitive misers. d. intuitive scientists. 97. One of the primary potential problems in the research process is: a. lack of random assignment. b. experimenter bias. c. lack of construct validity. d. moderator variables. 98. A researcher believes that thinking about clowns will make people more aggressive. He randomly assigns some people to see pictures of clowns and other people to read a description of a calm forest. He finds that people who looked at pictures of clowns behaved more aggressively. However, there is at least one confound in this study. What is that confound? a. The researcher has no theoretical basis for this effect. b. Not all people will become aggressive when they think about clowns. c. Some people looked at pictures, while others read text. d. Looking at pictures of clowns may not have been a good operational definition of thinking about clowns. 99. A researcher finds a substantial negative correlation between a measure of anxiety and a measure of life satisfaction. How should we interpret the relationship between these variables? a. There is no relationship between anxiety and life satisfaction. b. The higher a person scores on anxiety, the higher they score on life satisfaction. c. The higher a person scores on anxiety, the lower they score on life satisfaction. d. Anxiety reduces life satisfaction.

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Chap 01_3e 100. Scientists propose that the evolution of species occurs through the process of natural selection. If this is correct, then it should follow that if two groups of fruit flies from the same species are kept in radically different environments, genetic differences will emerge between the two groups over successive generations. In this example, the statement about how members of the same fruit fly species will begin to differ can be referred to as: a. a theory. b. an a priori causal theory. c. a hypothesis. d. research. 101. A study in which a researcher takes active control of an independent variable, manipulates it, and observes its effect on a dependent variable is called a(n): a. correlational study. b. longitudinal study. c. experiment. d. quasi-experiment. 102. According to stereotype threat theory, why will a member of a group that is negatively stereotyped for performance on a task feel threatened when he or she is performing that task? a. The group member will worry that their performance might reflect on the whole group. b. The group member will desire to confirm the stereotype. c. The group member will encounter direct stereotypes from members of other groups while performing the task. d. It is objectively more difficult for members of that group to perform well on such a task. 103. A social psychologist wants to understand whether people with more expensive cars are more or less likely to stop at stop signs than are people with less expensive cars. Which of the following research approaches is best suited for answering this question? a. theory b. experimental c. field d. longitudinal 104. Which of the following is NOT something that a good theory in social psychology should be required to do? a. generate new questions b. provide direction for research c. show how a correlation explains causation d. explain observations

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Chap 01_3e 105. Keeping researchers blind to a condition primarily deals with what problem? a. experimenter bias b. external validity c. the third variable problem d. random error 106. What is one of the ultimate conclusions to be drawn from Nisbett and Wilson's research demonstrating people's limitations in explaining their own behavior? a. While people have access to the products of their thought processes, they have little access to those processes themselves. b. Dispositional factors are more important than situational factors in determining how people behave. c. Situational factors are more important than dispositional factors in determining the explanations people give for their own behavior. d. Most people have surprisingly strong powers of introspection. 107. In experimental research, the _____ is what we believe is being affected by the _____, which we believe to be the cause. a. interaction; correlation coefficient b. correlation coefficient; interaction c. independent variable; dependent variable d. dependent variable; independent variable 108. Which of the following statements is most accurate? a. A given theory should generate multiple hypotheses. b. A given hypothesis should only generate one theory. c. If a hypothesis derived from a theory is disproven, then the theory itself should be discarded. d. Theories cannot be revised once they have been used. 109. Which of these statements does NOT capture a limitation of science? a. Through competition between scientists, many hypotheses are disproven and theories eventually discarded. b. There are aspects of reality that humans cannot know. c. Human values exert an influence on the way science is conducted. d. Because scientists are human, they often apply the scientific method in a biased way. 110. When deception is used in research, participants should receive _____ after their participation. a. an apology b. extra compensation c. a debriefing d. demand characteristics Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 01_3e 111. In an experiment, participants are randomly assigned to different levels of the: a. independent variable. b. dependent variable. c. independent and dependent variables. d. third variable. 112. Which of the following tactics does NOT help eliminate confounds from research? a. random assignment to conditions b. making sure to get a random sample from the population of interest c. anticipating alternate explanations and including variables relevant to these explanations as control conditions d. performing conceptual replications 113. If two psychological variables are correlated at r = +1.0, this probably means that: a. the two variables are measuring the same underlying construct. b. the two variables are completely independent of one another. c. the two variables are moderately related. d. the higher you score on one variable, the lower you score on the other. 114. Which of the following assumptions is NOT one of the four core assumptions of social psychology? a. Behavior is determined exclusively by situations. b. Virtually all human thought is social in nature. c. Social cognition has a strong influence on social behavior. d. The scientific method is essential for understanding the roots of social behavior. 115. Researchers are interested in studying whether intelligence is related to agreeableness. To examine this, they conduct a correlational study that compares GPA to the number of followers that a person has on social media. This study has weak _____ validity. a. construct b. interaction c. external d. replicating

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Chap 01_3e 116. In a famous study, participants were told they were teachers in an experiment who were going to give instructions to a learner. When the learner failed to do well, the participants were ordered to give the learner electric shocks. The learner was actually an actor working for the study organizers, and not a real participant. The learner in this study was what is called: a. a confederate. b. a research assistant. c. an experimenter. d. an ersatz participant. 117. The content of research observations that have been repeatedly found by many researchers is called a(n): a. fact. b. theory. c. hypothesis. d. explanation. 118. Researchers are interested in the amount of time that people spend socializing. To examine this, they survey a group of college students and conclude that people spend roughly half of their time socializing. This study has weak _____ validity. a. construct b. internal c. external d. replicating 119. A researcher believes that people who have thought about times when others helped them in the past will be more likely to help someone else. To test this, she brings participants to the lab for what they are told is a study called Being Good Citizens. Participants are randomly assigned to think about a time when someone helped them or to think about a different topic; then they are given the opportunity to donate money to a charity. In this example, the study title Being Good Citizens is likely an example of: a. an extraneous variable. b. a demand characteristic. c. a confound. d. a debriefing. 120. Confirmation bias is: a. the tendency to be more positive than negative when processing social input. b. the tendency to process information in a manner that conforms to what we desire and expect. c. a form of prejudice based on familiarity with outgroup members. d. an automatically higher level of agreement with everything that is being said to one at the moment.

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Chap 01_3e 121. Consistent preferences, ways of thinking, and behavioral tendencies that manifest across different situations and over time are referred to as: a. dispositions. b. situational influences. c. selves. d. core attitudes. 122. Which of the following statements about scientific ethics is FALSE? a. In the U.S., all experimentation using human subjects must be approved by a review board. b. It is sometimes considered appropriate to deceive participants. c. Scientists have always abided by ethical principles. d. Potential benefits should outweigh potential risks. 123. According to social psychology, behavior is influenced by both the _____ and the _____. a. person; situation b. person; disposition c. rules; choices d. disposition; perception 124. A study that is repeated with the major conceptual variables operationalized differently, but yielding similar results, is said to have been: a. externally validated. b. internally validated. c. conceptually replicated. d. directly replicated. 125. Leo thinks that his brother is acting strangely because he ate too much sugar. What is Leo making? a. correlational observation b. causal attribution c. third variable assumption d. social comparison 126. Identify and briefly discuss three conditions that must be satisfied in order for a study to be a true experiment. Identify the types of variables involved in an experiment and how they are administered.

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Chap 01_3e 127. Define an interaction between two variables. Give an example of an interaction, one that is either hypothetical or taken from research.

128. Discuss some of the reasons why people are not very accurate when it comes to explaining their own behavior, and the behaviors of others, in their day-to-day lives. Inform your answer with your understanding of confirmation bias, mental effort, and the shaping influence of motives on the way people think. What are some examples from your own life that support the idea that people often don't understand the true causes of their behavior?

129. Do you believe that the use of deception is justified in social psychological experiments? Or do you think that deception is never necessary or justified? Provide supporting arguments for your position.

130. How do true experimental designs eliminate the reverse causality and third variable problems?

131. Discuss at least two of the four limitations of science. Do you agree that science truly has these limits? What is an example of an important phenomenon that science and social psychology in particular may not be able to address? Why is science important in spite of these limits?

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Chap 01_3e 132. List and briefly discuss four of the five functions that a good theory in social psychology should be able to serve.

133. Explain the two primary reasons for why a correlation between two variables does not confirm that the first variable causes the second.

134. Define external validity. Why is this form of validity important? What might be a threat to this form of validity in standard social psychological research?

135. Describe the three major perspectives on human behavior that were prominent prior to the rise of social psychology. What did each of these perspectives primarily emphasize as the explanatory force driving social behavior?

136. List and briefly characterize three of the five perspectives that have emerged in the last few decades of social psychology to contribute to a more integrative perspective on human behavior.

137. What are the four core assumptions of social psychology? Apply at least three of these assumptions to illuminate a recent social event, such as a conflict between two groups, a famous individual's achievement, or a popular television show.

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Chap 01_3e 138. What is the essence of attribution theory? What are causal attributions, and what is one of their primary sources?

139. Give an example of a study design that would have to be a quasi-experiment rather than a true experiment.

140. Define and discuss the concept of confounds. How are the concepts of internal validity and confounds related to each other?

141. Consider the abstract conceptual variable of happiness. Discuss two ways in which this conceptual variable could be operationally defined in a study. Then, for one of the two ways described, indicate a possible confound that might problematize that particular operational definition.

142. Describe the limitations of science for understanding human behavior.

143. Define and discuss the concept of internal validity.

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Chap 01_3e 144. Summarize some of the research suggesting that people aren't really able to accurately describe the causes of much of their own behavior. Why do people have difficulty with this kind of understanding?

145. Discuss the three safeguards that the Code of Ethics dictates all psychological research must abide by. Why do you think these safeguards are important? Do you think that there is any area of research where the safeguards can be disregarded? Why or why not? What is debriefing, and what should debriefing accomplish?

146. Define random assignment. Describe why random assignment is a major component of all experiments when participants are put into different conditions.

147. Define confounds. Describe how researchers try to deal with confounding variables in their studies.

148. Summarize two studies from the literature on stereotype threat that employed different methodologies (e.g., correlational, experimental, field research). What were the findings of these studies, and how did they support stereotype threat theory?

149. Define and discuss the concepts of operational definition and construct validity. How are these concepts related to each other?

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Chap 01_3e 150. In an experimental study, what are demand characteristics, and what is one way in which they might arise?

151. Describe the cycle of theory and research.

152. What is confirmation bias, and how does it affect information processing?

153. What is a debriefing, and why is it important?

154. Discuss at least two reasons why people often have difficulty explaining the behavior of others, and provide supporting examples from research findings. What aspects of psychology make us poor judges of the causes of others' behavior?

155. Describe the three classical perspectives in psychology that influenced modern social psychology. How did these explanations play a role in the formation of modern social psychology?

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Chap 01_3e 156. Define and discuss the concepts of internal and external validity. How are we best able to determine if a study has either or both of these two types of validity? Is there a trade-off in studies between internal and external validity, or can a study achieve equal levels of both? Which form of validity do you think is most important?

157. What is the correlational method, and what is a correlation coefficient? What information does a correlation coefficient give us?

158. What is the essence of stereotype threat theory? What are two hypotheses that can be derived from this theory?

159. Briefly define the five major perspectives that have emerged in social psychology in the past few decades to form an integrative perspective on social thought and behavior. Do you believe that any one of these perspectives is more valuable or accurate than the others? What are some ways they complement one another?

160. List and briefly explain the four core assumptions of social psychology. What does each assumption explain about human behavior?

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Chap 01_3e Answer Key 1. b 2. a 3. a 4. c 5. c 6. b 7. c 8. b 9. b 10. d 11. c 12. d 13. a 14. b 15. b 16. d 17. d 18. c 19. d 20. a 21. b 22. a 23. d 24. a 25. c 26. b Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 01_3e 27. d 28. a 29. a 30. c 31. b 32. b 33. b 34. b 35. b 36. c 37. d 38. b 39. d 40. d 41. b 42. a 43. b 44. c 45. b 46. d 47. d 48. a 49. c 50. a 51. b 52. a 53. b 54. a Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 01_3e 55. a 56. b 57. a 58. c 59. b 60. b 61. c 62. d 63. d 64. a 65. d 66. c 67. a 68. a 69. b 70. c 71. d 72. d 73. d 74. d 75. a 76. a 77. b 78. d 79. b 80. c 81. b 82. a Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 01_3e 83. b 84. c 85. a 86. b 87. b 88. c 89. c 90. c 91. b 92. d 93. c 94. d 95. c 96. c 97. c 98. c 99. c 100. c 101. c 102. a 103. c 104. c 105. a 106. a 107. d 108. a 109. a 110. c Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 01_3e 111. a 112. b 113. a 114. a 115. a 116. a 117. a 118. c 119. b 120. b 121. a 122. c 123. a 124. c 125. b 126. The experimenters must manipulate the level of exposure of participants to the independent variable, or the variable that they think is having some kind of causal impact. Participants should be randomly assigned to conditions or levels of the independent variable. The experimenters must then measure scores on a second variable (the dependent variable) that they believe will be affected by the manipulated variable (the independent variable). Finally, the experimenters must hold everything else constant in the situation, besides the independent variable. 127. An interaction is a pattern of results in which the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable depends on the level of a second independent variable. An example of an interaction comes from stereotype threat research: black students primed with their race prior to a test do poorly compared with black students not primed with their race, but race priming has no effect on white students. In other words, the effect of the race priming variable on performance depends on the race of the participant.

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Chap 01_3e 128. Individuals assume they would be aware of the reasons for their behaviors. Individuals, however, are sometimes not the best judges of their own motivations. There are several reasons for the inaccuracy. For one thing, people may not be honest about why they engaged in certain behaviors. This may especially be true where people believe they are being judged by others (e.g., regarding their weight). Also, individuals might be sincerely mistaken about why they feel a particular way or why they do certain things. People may latch onto explanations that protect their self-esteem. They may accept preexisting causal explanations provided by their culture. In short, people may not be very good at introspection. In addition to being mistake-prone when explaining their own behavior, some people may not be very good at explaining the behavior of others. One broad lesson of social psychology is that we are all, to varying extents, cognitive misers who tend to conserve our mental energy. This means that, all things being equal, we prefer familiar and simple interpretations of social stimuli, such as familiar stereotypes about social groups, over complex or ambiguous interpretations. It is sometimes easier to accept things at face value. People's perspectives may also be limited when making judgments of others. In other words, people may not see the entire picture of what is going on and just see a slice of behavior. People are sometimes prone to confirmation bias, the tendency to view events and people in ways that fit expectations. Confirmation bias can guide the thinking process at several stages. It can focus attention on certain aspects of a person or situation, it can bias the interpretation of ambiguous stimuli, and it can make it easier to remember social events in ways that fit with one's preferred interpretation. Motivational factors also play a big role in accounting for why people are not normally perfectly accurate when making sense of other people and themselves. People often have motives to reach certain conclusions (e.g., that their romantic partner is a good person) or broad beliefs about how the world works (e.g., good people do not suffer unnecessarily). These motives can significantly alter how information is attended to, processed, remembered, and acted on. Student examples will vary.

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Chap 01_3e 129. Student answers will vary on this question. Still, feedback can/should emphasize the trade-off between deception and progress in science. Deception typically involves withholding from participants certain details of the study, or giving them a cover story that portrays the study's purpose in a way that is different from the true purpose. In such cases, participants are not told the full truth. Still, if the study is conducted in accordance with proper ethical protocols, there are two major safeguards in place to protect subjects from harm. The first is that the informed consent disclosure must always specify whether the study involves any tasks that participants might reasonably find embarrassing, self-incriminating, or otherwise unpleasant. The disclosure will specify what those tasks might be, if there are any. Hence, participants are never expected to perform objectionable tasks they were not initially informed of. The second major safeguard of an ethically well-conducted study is that all participants receive a full debriefing at the conclusion of the study that explains the details and study rationale that was originally withheld from them. Indeed, it is recommended that participants be given the opportunity after receiving the debriefing to withdraw their responses from the study. With these two safeguards in mind, students should weigh the justification for deception in light of the advances in scientific understanding that can be gained from conducting studies that involve deception. In many cases, deception is useful for assessing people's spontaneous, natural responses to tasks. Put differently, when participants are not deceived and instead given a complete account of the study's details and purpose prior to participating, they often do not give their genuine, honest responses, instead responding how they think they ought to respond. In these cases, it can be difficult for researchers to assess how people respond to these tasks in the real world. Deception is a tool for assessing how people think, feel, and act when they are responding spontaneously to the social situation. Students should consider this benefit of deception when weighing the justification for the practice overall. 130. Experiments eliminate the reverse causality problem because the experimenter administers the independent variable prior to the dependent variable in a temporal sequence. This allows one to isolate the causal effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable (and it can't be the other way around). Experiments address the third variable problem because (a) the experimenter can try to hold all variables besides the independent variable constant, and (b) through random assignment to a condition, the experimenter randomly distributes all sources of variation between participants across conditions of the independent variable, meaning no unmeasured variables can account for systematic differences between conditions. 131. While science serves an incredibly important purpose, it does have some limitations. One limitation of science is that there are some aspects of reality that we just can't know. For example, we get our information via our sense organs, but our sense organs are limited (e.g., hearing is limited to a certain range of sound frequencies). Another limitation is that humans are not always objective. In other words, experimenter bias can skew results. A third limitation is that not all questions can be answered scientifically. Often these questions involve value judgments, or judgments about what is good or bad, or right or wrong in a moral sense. For example, research can shed light on how people resolve moral dilemmas, such as whether it is right or wrong to steal food for a starving child. But research cannot definitively identify the right way to resolve such dilemmas. More generally, social psychology can make headway studying what people do, but it is not designed to prescribe what people should do. A final limitation is that human values can have a powerful influence on the way science is actually conducted. For example, the subject matter that is chosen or how the questions are asked are determined by a wide range of factors. Student answers may vary on the rest of the question.

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Chap 01_3e 132. (1) A theory should organize the disparate facts that are revealed by research. (2) A theory should be logically consistent in explaining how different variables are related to each other. (3) A theory should provide direction and insight for research, including the development of novel research methods and technologies. (4) A theory should be generative, leading to new questions about phenomena that go beyond what the theory was originally designed to explain. (5) A theory should also have practical applications, helping to solve social problems and improve quality of life. 133. The first reason is the reverse causality problem: when variables are assessed simultaneously in a correlational study, it is impossible to determine if one variable precedes the other in a causal sequence. The second reason is the third variable problem: even if two variables are related to each other, it's possible that this relationship is due to the mutual impact of an unmeasured third variable on both of the measured variables. 134. External validity is the researcher's confidence that their findings would generalize across different settings and different groups of people at different times. External validity is important in order to determine the applicability of experimental findings to real-world situations. External validity is threatened in much of social psychological research when studies are primarily conducted with convenience samples of college students in Western cultures, which have certain unique characteristics. 135. The instinct-based view of behavior, represented by Spencer and McDougall, suggested that all of human behavior was the result of evolutionarily acquired, specific instincts. Psychoanalytic theory, developed by Freud, suggested that human behavior is primarily driven by unconscious desires for sex and aggression. Behaviorism, championed by John Watson, claimed that behavior was learned over time and was solely the result of experiences of punishment and reward. 136. The social cognition perspective focuses on how people perceive, remember, and interpret events and individuals, including themselves, in their social world. The evolutionary perspective seeks to identify how and why social behavior develops as a consequence of evolved adaptations. The cultural perspective focuses on the influence of culture and broader societal norms on thought, feeling, and behavior. The existential perspective attempts to identify core human motivations to understand oneself and find meaning in the face of broader concerns about human mortality. The neuroscience perspective is the study of the neural processes that occur during social judgment and behavior.

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Chap 01_3e 137. There are four core assumptions in modern social psychology. The first assumption is basically an interactionist view, according to which social thought and behavior are the joint product of both the person and the situation. The second assumption is that an individual's view of reality is influenced by other people, and, thus, behavior depends on a socially constructed view of reality. The third assumption is that our behavior is strongly influenced by social cognition, the set of mental processes by which people make sense of the social world and themselves. The final assumption is that the best way to understand social behavior is to investigate it using the scientific method. Applications of these assumptions will vary. Still, students should be encouraged to use this as an opportunity to appreciate how social psychology approaches social thought and behavior from a different angle than closely related fields, such as personality psychology. Perhaps the most important point in this regard is that, in our efforts to explain human behavior, it helps to interpret a person's actions as influenced by what is happening in his or her situation, past or present, while also appreciating that different people respond differently to the same kinds of situations. It is important that students learn to appreciate how aspects of the person (such as personality traits) interact with aspects of the situation to produce a pattern in thought or behavior. The reason is that many students, especially those who have taken classes in clinical, personality, or abnormal psychology, will be familiar with analyzing a person's behavior as a sole function of that person's stable, dispositional attributes (or what the students presume these attributes to be). Students should be encouraged to appreciate that although those views have merit, a major advantage of social psychology is that it gives us a unique window into how the person interacts with the situation at hand, and how changing situations can make a major difference in how a person thinks and acts in everyday life. 138. Attribution theory posits that people try to understand the social world by acting like intuitive scientists, observing others' behavior and inferring explanations. In order to do so, people make causal attributions: explanations for why an individual engages in a particular action. A common source of causal attributions is our cultural knowledge, a store of knowledge accumulated from our culture about how the world works and why people act the way they do. 139. A quasi-experiment is any study in which participants are compared based on naturally occurring groups that could not be experimentally manipulated. Examples of quasi-experiments would include any study in which the hypothesis involves differences between groups based on gender, ethnicity, or culture, or on a dependent variable. For instance, most stereotype threat studies have quasi-experimental elements, since they compare the experience of a stereotyped group to that of a non-stereotyped group. 140. In an experiment with internal validity, the conditions that make up the independent variable differ in only one way. When two (or more) conditions vary in more than one way, the experiment has a confound. A confound, then, is a variable other than the independent variable that may be responsible for any effect observed on the dependent variable. Confounds in an experiment make alternative explanations possible and present a threat to internal validity.

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Chap 01_3e 141. One way to operationalize happiness is to ask people to fill out questionnaires about their levels of happiness. This could include their mood at the moment or their overall happiness with their life as a whole. A second way to operationalize happiness is to look at physical behaviors such as smiling. If we think that happy people smile more than unhappy people, then researchers could count the number of times that someone smiles in order to measure their level of happiness. A confound may be other reasons for smiling instead of happiness. People sometimes smile when they feel uncomfortable or awkward. Students should also be encouraged to appreciate two important points about operational definitions. The first is that there is no absolute right way to operationally define a conceptual variable. Some operational definitions may provide a more valid or reliable window into the conceptual variable, but the choice of which operational definition to employ in a given experiment will depend on several other factors, including practical and ethical constraints. The second point is that a benefit of conducting several studies using different operational definitions of the same conceptual variable is that researchers can see whether the results converge on a common pattern. For example, if two studies test whether similarity increases romantic love, and one study operationalizes love in terms of self-report while the other does so in terms of heart rate, researchers can test their hypotheses with more confidence than if they had relied on one operational definition alone. 142. Science is a rigorous and reliable method for identifying the causes and consequences of human thought, behavior, and action. There are, however, limitations in what science can tell us. First, there are some things that humans can't know, due, for instance, to the limitations of our senses. Second, human beings are fallible and prone to bias in applying the scientific method. Third, some questions cannot be answered scientifically, notably questions of values and ethics. Fourth, the choice of which scientific questions to investigate is often shaped by nonscientific factors or influences. 143. Internal validity is the judgment that for a particular experiment it is possible to conclude that the manipulated independent variable caused the change observed in the measured dependent variable. 144. Sometimes people aren't honest about the motives for their actions, but often they truly aren't able to correctly identify why they do what they do. Research by Nisbett and Wilson suggests that people have difficulty identifying the causes of their behavior. Their work shows that people often rely on theories to explain their behavior; rather than identifying the correct cause, people cite factors that are in their minds at the moment, or that are culturally common explanations for behavior. These researchers posit that although people can introspect about what they think, feel, and do, they typically have very little mental access to the processes that lead to thought, feelings, and behavior. 145. The Code of Ethics was established by the American Psychological Association. The first safeguard is research approval by the ethical review board. This board will judge whether the benefits of the research outweigh the ethical costs. Next, informed consent is obtained from the study participants. Informed consent is given after the participants are told about the procedures and potential risks (if any) and that they can ask questions and withdraw from the study at any point in time. Finally, participants are assured of confidentiality of their identities and responses. Student answers will vary with the next two parts of the question. Debriefing is given at the end of the study. The participants are given an explanation of the study if deception was involved. Debriefing is designed to be informative, educational, and comforting, and to alleviate misconceptions the participants had about the study.

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Chap 01_3e 146. Random assignment places participants into assigned conditions in a way that gives all participants the same chance of being in any given level of the independent variable. Random assignment is an essential component of all experiments where participants are going to be put into different conditions. Random assignment controls for individual differences and helps to eliminate the third variable problem. 147. A confound is a variable other than the independent variable that may be responsible for the effect on the dependent variable. Confounds make alternative explanations possible. Researchers try to avoid the problem of confounding by: (1) considering potential confounds and alternative explanations when planning a study; (2) including control groups that only expose participants to the potential confounding variable, to test whether it alone has a similar effect on the dependent variable; and (3) using conceptual replication or repeating the study with different operationalizations of the causal variable. 148. Pinel et al. (2005) used a correlational method to test the hypothesis that the more a person is conscious of a negative stereotype of his or her group, the worse their performance will be in areas related to that stereotype. First the researchers measured stigma consciousness, the tendency to be highly conscious of one's stereotyped status. This was measured in academically stigmatized students (e.g., Hispanic Americans) and non-stigmatized students (e.g., Asian Americans). Data were obtained about their GPAs. Correlation coefficients calculated between stigma consciousness and GPA indicated a moderate negative correlation. In other words, the more concerned individuals were about being stigmatized by their stereotype, the lower their GPA. This finding fits with the idea that awareness of a negative stereotype that applies to one's own group negatively impacts performance. An experiment was conducted by Steele and Aronson (1995) to test the hypothesis that situations that make a negative group stereotype prominent in the person's mind will lead to worse performance compared with situations that do not. White and Black college students were given a test of verbal ability using items from the GRE. Stereotype threat was manipulated by having half the participants indicate their race on an information sheet, while the other half took the test without first indicating their race. Mentioning race or not was the independent variable, and performance on the test was the dependent variable. Among Black participants, those who were reminded of their race tended to have worse performances on the test of verbal ability than those who were not. The same pattern was not detected among White students. This finding is consistent with stereotype threat theory, because it suggests that even subtle reminders of a negative group-based expectancy can interfere with performance. 149. An operational definition is a specific, concrete method of measuring or manipulating a conceptual variable. Construct validity refers to the confidence a researcher can have that they successfully measured or manipulated the variable they intended to. Construct validity is essentially the extent to which an operational definition has been successful. 150. Demand characteristics are aspects of a study that give away its purpose or hint at how the participant is expected to behave. One way in which demand characteristics can arise is through experimenter bias. When the experimenter is aware of the hypothesis and the conditions to which participants have been assigned, he or she may (even unconsciously) influence the participants to behave in ways that are suggested by the hypothesis. 151. Theories lead to hypotheses. A theory can generate many hypotheses. A hypothesis is an if-then statement that follows from a theory. The hypothesis is tested through research. The research may be correlational (identifying associations) or experimental (identifying cause and effect). The outcome of this research can lead to the theory being revised and then retested through new hypotheses, thus continuing the cycle. Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 01_3e 152. Confirmation bias refers to the tendency to seek out information and view events in ways that fit our expectations. Because of this, two people can see identical information and draw opposite conclusions that are in line with their preexisting beliefs. 153. A debriefing is a procedure that occurs at the end of a study, during which the true nature of the study is explained to participants in a manner that counteracts any negative effects of the study experience. Debriefings are especially important if participants have been deceived during the study in order to make sure they understand the reasons for this deception and that they do not have any negative feelings about participating in the study. Debriefings also educate research participants about the nature of scientific discovery in social psychology. 154. First, people are cognitive misers: they look for the simplest explanations, which are not always the most accurate. Second, people's reasoning processes are biased by what they want to find out is true, a phenomenon referred to as confirmation bias. For instance, a study showed that people opposed to capital punishment and people supporting it read the same information about capital punishment, and both sides found that it supported their view! Finally, there is also evidence that the very act of observing social behavior has the potential to change that behavior; for example, studies suggest that people who are interacting with others are very likely to unconsciously mimic the behavior of the other person. 155. The three broad perspectives influencing modern social psychology include (1) an instinct-based view, (2) psychoanalytic theory, and (3) behaviorism. McDougall strongly believed in the instinct-based view of human behavior. Extrapolating from Spencer's evolutionary view of human behavior, McDougall proposed that instincts determine the vast majority of human behavior. The psychoanalytic school led by Freud, however, believed that unconscious forces are what determine social behavior. Freud believed that these forces were sexual and aggressive in nature. Watson and other behaviorists, however, disagreed. The behaviorists believed that the unconscious forces and instincts could not be measured. They strongly believed that behaviors were learned through experiences, and that the proper study of psychology was that of outward behavior and reinforcement, not the internal life of the mind. Student answers will vary on the rest of the question.

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Chap 01_3e 156. In the context of an experiment, internal validity is the extent to which the independent variable or variables caused the observed change in the dependent variable. Internal validity cannot be directly assessed; rather, it is inferred based on how well-designed the experiment is. It depends on the strength of the manipulation, the validity and reliability of the dependent variable assessment, and control over extraneous variables (which includes, most importantly, random assignment to conditions). For example, internal validity is not guaranteed simply because one observed the predicted difference between two groups on the dependent variable. Rather, the difference may be due to a confound, or alternative cause, that was inadvertently introduced when manipulating the independent variable. Internal validity is also suspect if the dependent variable assessment is capturing change in another variable that is related to, but distinct from, the dependent variable under investigation. For example, if one measures hope for the future with a five-item self-report measure, but responses to the items reflect respondents' general feelings of self-esteem rather than hope per se, then one can observe a difference and yet still have low internal validity. External validity applies when the research result can be generalized in a variety of ways, such as to other people, other settings, and other times. If a study has high internal validity, the criterion of a good experiment has been met. If a study has good external validity, then the results of that study can be generalized to other people or settings. In other words, external validity means generalizability in an experiment. If a study has good external validity, then the research can be replicated under a variety of other situations and with different groups. Opinions will vary. 157. In the correlational method, two or more variables are measured to determine the extent to which they are associated. A correlation coefficient is a numerical value ranging from –1 to +1 that assesses the relationship between two variables. The coefficient tells us the direction of the relationship between two variables (if positive, higher scores on one variable are associated with higher scores on the other; if negative, higher scores on one variable are associated with lower scores on the other). It also tells us the strength of the relationship; values closer to –1 or +1 indicate a strong relationship, while values near zero indicate a weak or nonexistent relationship. 158. Stereotype threat theory posits that, for members of a group negatively stereotyped on a given domain, performance in that domain can be undermined by concerns about possibly confirming the stereotype of their group. One hypothesis that follows is that the more a person is conscious of the negative stereotype of his or her group, the worse that person will perform on tasks related to the stereotype. Another hypothesis is that situations that make a negative stereotype of a person's group prominent in the person's mind will lead to worse performance than situations that do not bring that stereotype to mind.

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Chap 01_3e 159. The major perspectives of modern social psychology are (1) cognitive, (2) evolutionary, (3) cultural, (4) neuroscience, and (5) existential. The cognitive perspective focuses on how people remember, perceive, and interpret social stimuli, including events and other individuals, as well as themselves. The evolutionary perspective views people and their social behaviors as a result of evolved adaptations. The cultural perspective focuses on the influence of culture on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. The neuroscience perspective focuses on the biological basis of social thought and behavior, examining how the brain and other parts of the body respond to social stimuli. Finally, the existential perspective focuses on how people come to terms with the big questions about their existence, such as the meaning and value of life, and how those efforts to make sense of the world influence how they think and act in their everyday lives. Opinions on these perspectives will vary. Still, students should be encouraged to appreciate that, although unique, all five perspectives fit together at a broad level. Brains (neuroscience) evolved (evolutionary) to process information from the social world (social cognition), but that entailed a built-in responsiveness to local cultural conditions (culture) and a uniquely human awareness of the self in the grand scheme of things (existential). All five perspectives build on one another, despite pointing to competing answers on specific questions about the mechanisms behind social behavior. 160. (1) Behavior is a joint product of the person and the situation: situations exert a strong influence on behavior, but people's individual differences also shape what they do. (2) Behavior depends on a socially constructed view of reality: people compare themselves to others and constantly think about the beliefs, attitudes, and actions of others as they move about in the world. (3) Behavior is strongly influenced by our social cognition: our understanding of others and our explanations for their behavior. Finally, (4) the best way to understand social behavior is to use the scientific method: people's explanations for their own behavior can be fallible, whereas empirical testing of hypotheses about behavior is more rigorous and accurate.

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Chap 02_3e Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. 1. The fact that one function of culture is to adapt people to the metaphysical environment suggests that cultures: a. sometimes distort reality. b. almost always provide accurate information. c. only last a few generations. d. are inevitably negative in their consequences. 2. Which of the following is NOT a piece of evidence supporting the universality of basic emotions? a. Basic emotions appear to be triggered by similar stimuli in diverse settings around the world. b. People in more collectivist cultures tend to experience higher levels of guilt. c. People from isolated cultures can recognize expressions associated with basic emotions from people of a different culture. d. Basic emotions are associated with activation of brain regions that emerged early in human evolution. 3. What is an adaptation? a. a particular way in which an environment is changed as a result of organismal influence b. an attribute that increases an organism's likelihood of survival and reproduction c. a behavioral tendency that an organism acquires after years of living in the same environment d. an attribute that decreases an individual's fitness index 4. People who want to be themselves and do their own thing are exhibiting: a. an interdependent self-construal. b. a personal self-construal. c. an other-focused self-construal. d. an independent self-construal. 5. A cultural trauma is: a. a mental disorder which is only found within a particular culture, also known as a culture-bound syndrome. b. a disruption, such as a forced migration or colonization, which causes members of a culture to lose the sense of meaning and security formerly provided by that culture. c. the painful experience of socialization into a culture. d. an experience of trauma that occurs when one person is traveling temporarily in a foreign culture.

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Chap 02_3e 6. Research shows that in Japan, people tend to _____ their emotions, while people in the U.S. tend to _____ their emotions. a. inhibit; display b. display; inhibit c. lie about; be honest about d. be honest about; lie about 7. In cultural transmission: a. cultural changes are based on the extent to which new beliefs and behaviors contribute to a culture's success. b. members of a culture are instructed in the beliefs and behaviors of their culture. c. one culture influences another. d. a person is separated from their culture by a ritual of expulsion. 8. _____ activates an area of the brain that is also activated during physical pain. a. Contact with other cultures b. Social exclusion c. Failure to successfully complete a task d. Cultural initiation 9. Having recently moved to Missouri from Colorado, Ayn hears a loud tornado siren go off around noon. She immediately begins to worry and experiences an increased heart rate. Then she remembers that her new city tests the tornado siren once a month, and she realizes that the alarm is merely a test. She feels relieved. According to Lazarus's theory of emotions, how should we categorize Ayn's memory of the tornado siren test? a. a primary appraisal b. a secondary appraisal c. a background emotion d. a secondary emotion 10. After thinking he was alone, Artur sees a stranger waiting for the subway late at night. According to research on the evolution of human sociability, what will Artur attempt to understand about the stranger? a. the stranger's gender and age b. the stranger's height and weight c. the stranger's group and status d. the stranger's hair and eye color

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Chap 02_3e 11. What is the definition of a social role? a. a set of strong norms for behavior within a particular setting b. a position within a group that determines particular ways of acting and dividing responsibility and resources c. an individual's level of security compared with another individual's within the same culture d. a pattern of action that is only performed in particular contexts to reinforce cultural beliefs 12. Action identification theory suggests that as a person experiences difficulty completing a task, that person will tend to reconceptualize their activity in more _____ terms. a. automatic b. future-oriented c. abstract d. concrete 13. Mario is traveling abroad after graduating from college. During his travels, he visits a country in central Asia where everyone looks, speaks, and acts differently from him. To his surprise, everyone is still very friendly to him and no one treats him differently than anyone else. The way Mario is treated by the locals suggests that he is in a(n) _____ country. a. collectivistic b. individualistic c. democratic d. authoritarian 14. Julia believes that, after she dies, she will be reborn as a new person. This is an example of the way in which culture adapts people to the: a. metaphysical environment. b. physical environment. c. unconscious environment. d. social environment. 15. Which of the following beliefs was NOT described as a form of symbolic immortality by the psychohistorian Robert Jay Lifton? a. biosocial immortality b. creative immortality c. heavenly immortality d. experiential immortality

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Chap 02_3e 16. According to terror management theory, a person's _____ provides standards for being a valuable contributor to the universe, while a person's _____ is their sense that they are meeting those standards. a. hierarchy of goals; self-direction b. self-direction; hierarchy of goals c. self-esteem; cultural worldview d. cultural worldview; self-esteem 17. All of the following are true about cultural diffusion EXCEPT which statement? a. Most cultures are typically hybrids of many cultures. b. A culture has to depend solely on the ingenuity of its own members. c. Influences of one culture get adapted for another culture's own purposes. d. Communication and learning make cultural diffusion possible. 18. Hector has long dreamed of traveling to Los Angeles to pursue an acting career. However, after receiving an opportunity to do so, he decides to remain with his family in Illinois and continue in his career in data analysis. According to Rank's theory of fundamental psychological motivations, Hector has prioritized his motive for: a. satisfaction. b. growth. c. security. d. competence. 19. In _____ cultures a person's initiative, creativity, and achievement are highly rewarded, while in _____ cultures interdependence and the group's welfare are prioritized. a. divinity; community b. collectivistic; individualistic c. individualistic; collectivistic d. divinity; autonomy 20. Studies derived from Hogg's (2007) uncertainty-identity theory suggest that people are especially likely to identify with groups if they: a. come from a collectivist culture, and the group makes them feel valued. b. come from an individualist culture, and the group makes them feel valued. c. are uncertain about themselves, and the group has clear boundaries. d. are uncertain about themselves, and the group has open, flexible boundaries.

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Chap 02_3e 21. In a study among Hong Kong participants, those who were first shown typically Western symbols were subsequently more likely to explain the behavior of an isolated fish in an image as caused by that fish itself. Those who were first shown typically Eastern symbols were subsequently more likely to explain the behavior of the fish in the image: a. as dangerous and deranged. b. as innovative and independent. c. as caused by the fish itself. d. as caused by the situation the fish was in. 22. A researcher is interested in determining whether there is a social function to sadness. Which of the following study designs might BEST determine if this is the case? a. asking participants to open an e-mail containing sad news either alone or in the presence of others and recording their facial expressions b. asking participants to complete measures of extraversion and emotionality c. asking participants to open an e-mail containing either sad news or happy news and then measuring their level of sadness d. asking participants to go to a party and then measuring how sad they are 23. _____ are accepted ideas about reality, and _____ are preferences or opinions about what is good and bad. a. Attitudes; values b. Values; beliefs c. Beliefs; attitudes d. Morals; norms 24. Angelo is trying to learn how to speak French in order to audition for a spot in a local production of the play Huis Clos. In this example, what is Angelo's attempt to learn French? a. an abstract goal b. a concrete goal c. a dream d. a desire 25. Which of the following is NOT one of Fiske's four basic patterns of social relations? a. authority ranking b. vertical collectivism c. equality matching d. community sharing

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Chap 02_3e 26. Which of the following values is NOT primarily related to the basic growth motive? a. self-direction b. achievement c. conformity d. stimulation 27. The idea that specific emotional experiences are shaped by a two-step process, initial general arousal and general perception of harm or benefit, followed by the influence of higher-order cognitive processes, is called: a. action identification theory. b. the secondary appraisal process. c. cognitive appraisal theory. d. two-system cognition theory. 28. In Nisbett's account of East-West differences, all of the following is true about holistic thinking EXCEPT which statement? a. It emphasizes relational thinking. b. It emphasizes dialectical thinking. c. It emphasizes categorical thinking. d. It emphasizes attention to context. 29. If a person is presented with the words panda, monkey, and banana, and asked which words go together, a person who thinks more analytically will say: a. panda and banana. b. monkey and banana. c. panda and monkey. d. all three words go together. 30. Victor's culture very highly values that everyone has access to the same amount of resources. What is the best way of characterizing this culture? a. authority ranking b. market pricing c. equality matching d. community sharing 31. Ji is thinking that next week he should study for his economics exam. He is thinking about studying: a. as satisfying his need for autonomy. b. as satisfying his need for relatedness. c. in relatively low-level, concrete terms. d. in relatively high-level, abstract terms. Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 02_3e 32. The part of the brain that is the most involved in primary appraisal is the: a. hippocampus. b. hypothalamus. c. amygdala. d. thalamus. 33. All of the following are true about culture EXCEPT which statement? a. It is fairly static. b. It limits the ways in which people think about themselves. c. It creates divides between people. d. It imposes preferred beliefs. 34. Which of the following factors does NOT help the process of cultural diffusion? a. advances in modes of transportation b. communication technology c. geographic isolation d. the extent to which a belief or practice contributes to the material success of a culture 35. Izeta immigrated to the United States from Bosnia when she was 8 years old. Now that Izeta is 18, she is almost totally Americanized in both her behaviors and beliefs. Izeta is demonstrating: a. integration. b. biculturalism. c. assimilation. d. cultural trauma. 36. Marie is studying for her astrophysics final exam. She is thinking about studying: a. as satisfying her need for autonomy. b. as satisfying her need for relatedness. c. in relatively low-level, concrete terms. d. in relatively high-level, abstract terms. 37. The fact that eggs, which were originally symbols in pagan fertility rites, are now associated with the Christian holiday of Easter is an example of what concept? a. cultural diffusion b. cultural transmission c. values d. the moral foundation of divinity

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Chap 02_3e 38. Jiao was raised to believe that it is perfectly acceptable to act and feel like a different person in different contexts. Li, however, was raised to believe that a person is fundamentally the same regardless of the social role they are playing in a given situation. This suggests that Jiao is from a(n) _____ culture and Li is from a(n) _____ culture. a. collectivistic; individualistic b. strong-situational; weak-situational c. weak-situational; strong-situational d. individualistic; collectivistic 39. Data from Germany suggest that the people there tend to cognitively separate parts of scenes out from the whole. They pay attention to the differences between objects and how they contrast with and are separate from one another and from the background. This suggests that Germany is a(n) _____ culture. a. land-based b. water-based c. collectivistic d. individualistic 40. Compared with biological evolution, cultural evolution is: a. faster. b. slower. c. inefficient. d. purposeless. 41. Thoughts or actions that occur without conscious attention are called _____, while those that occur through conscious, deliberative effort are called _____. a. controlled; automatic b. automatic; controlled c. domain-specific; domain-general d. domain-general; domain-specific 42. What is the general consensus in the area of research on emotions? a. Cognition and emotion are unrelated. b. Cognitions primarily influence emotions. c. Emotions primarily influence cognitions. d. Cognition and emotion influence each other.

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Chap 02_3e 43. While a melting-pot view of culture tends to encourage _____, a multicultural view tends to encourage _____. a. acculturation; socialization b. socialization; acculturation c. integration; assimilation d. assimilation; integration 44. Svetlana is watching the news and sees a story about someone who was murdered while walking around town at night. She thinks that this person deserved it for acting so irresponsibly. This line of thinking is evidence of what? a. collectivism b. the moral foundation of fairness/equality. c. just world beliefs d. self-esteem 45. The rational system of thought is associated with _____ processes. a. controlled b. automatic c. domain-specific d. domain-general 46. In research across cultures by Schwartz and colleagues, which of the following values ranked as most important? a. benevolence b. security c. achievement d. tradition 47. A person's evaluation of their own self-worth is called: a. self-concept. b. self-esteem. c. self-awareness. d. self-evaluation. 48. The fact that Americans refuse to eat horses is MOST clearly an example of: a. differences in values. b. cultural imperialism. c. irrational behavior. d. the metaphysical aspects of food consumption.

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Chap 02_3e 49. According to Triandis, traditional and ethnically homogenous cultures stress community sharing and: a. market pricing. b. authority ranking. c. equality matching. d. benevolence. 50. Which of the following is NOT one of the aspects of our environment that, according to the anthropologist W. Lloyd Warner, culture helps us adapt to? a. the metaphysical environment b. the physical environment c. the unconscious environment d. the social environment 51. _____ are specific patterns or styles of dress, speech, and behavior deemed appropriate in a particular context, while _____ are patterns of action performed in particular contexts to reinforce cultural beliefs, values, and morals. a. Rituals; customs b. Symbols; norms c. Norms; symbols d. Customs; rituals 52. All of the following are true about the hierarchy of goals EXCEPT which statement? a. Goals serve a single purpose. b. A single action can serve multiple purposes. c. Observers can interpret an action at multiple levels. d. There is a temporal factor in whether goals are concrete or abstract. 53. Rey works long hours in her art studio every day. She hopes to someday be remembered for her great artistic contributions. Which of the following, according to terror management theory, is Rey pursuing? a. symbolic immortality b. literal immortality c. cultural worldview d. existential anxiety 54. Jayla is not very good at recognizing her own emotions. For example, she cannot tell whether she is sad, depressed, or worried. What is Jayla failing to do? a. primary appraisal b. secondary appraisal c. emotion differentiation d. domain-general adaptations Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 02_3e 55. Mao was originally born in China, but he lived in many countries in his life, including Vietnam, France, Brazil, and the United States. According to research, what is Mao likely to think of himself as? a. as an independent person b. as a citizen of China c. as deeply obligated and connected to his friends and family d. as being a completely different person in each of the different role contexts he encounters 56. All of the following are true about cultural worldviews EXCEPT which statement? a. They must be continually reinforced. b. They must be passed from generation to generation. c. They must demonstrate the transient nature of life. d. They create an enduring significance for the self. 57. Which of the following is NOT one of the 10 cross-culturally accepted universal values identified by Schwartz and colleagues? a. hedonism b. chastity c. power d. self-direction 58. Winning an Academy Award is an example of _____ immortality. a. experiential b. natural c. biosocial d. creative 59. Another word for cultural pluralism is: a. assimilation. b. integration. c. multiculturalism. d. acculturation. 60. The socialization process is particularly important to humans because: a. humans are the only known social animal. b. humans are relatively immature when they are born. c. humans can only learn by directly imitating the behavior of others. d. humans are naturally independent but gradually learn to be social as they grow older.

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Chap 02_3e 61. If the self tends to be defined in relation to others, rather than being evaluated separately from others, this is referred to as: a. an interdependent self-construal. b. an independent self-construal. c. market pricing. d. equality matching. 62. Which of the following statements is NOT accurate? a. Variability and competition are essential elements for natural selection. b. The human species evolved as the end goal of a series of progressive stages during which life became increasingly complex and better adapted. c. Human bipedalism brought with it both advantages and disadvantages. d. The process of evolution through natural selection does not necessarily have any ultimate purpose. 63. _____ is/are the human preference for pleasure over pain. a. Goals b. Motivation c. Hedonism d. Experiential thinking 64. _____ and _____ are the two primary sources of the variability necessary for natural selection. a. Competition; fission b. Competition; heritability c. Heritability; sexual recombination d. Mutation; sexual recombination 65. _____ is the evolutionary process by which nature chooses traits that enable organisms to survive and reproduce. a. Adaptation b. Natural selection c. Sexual recombination d. The naturalistic fallacy 66. Terror management research shows that Iranian participants who previously thought about their own death are more _____ toward people praising Iran and more _____ toward people criticizing Iran. a. positive; negative b. attentive; inattentive c. inattentive; attentive d. negative; positive

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Chap 02_3e 67. Tonio tells his friend that he is in a really good mood today. Tonio's statement describes his _____ emotions. a. background b. primary c. secondary d. appraisal 68. The capacity for symbolic thought is most directly involved in which aspect of human experience? a. imitation b. the senses c. movement d. language 69. As we move down the hierarchy of goals, goals become increasingly _____; as we move up the hierarchy of goals, they become increasingly _____. a. concrete; abstract b. abstract; concrete c. relational; personal d. personal; relational 70. Which of the following is NOT a consequence of the human capacity for symbolic consciousness? a. People can be afraid of things that don't even exist. b. People can imagine who they want to be in future times of their lives. c. Unlike other organisms, all human behavior occurs as a result of conscious control. d. People can ask why? and what if? questions. 71. According to cognitive appraisal theory, emotions consist of a primary appraisal that involves _____ and a secondary appraisal that involves _____. a. security motivation; growth motivation b. growth motivation; security motivation c. high-level cognition and the rational system; physiological arousal and the experiential system d. physiological arousal and the experiential system; high-level cognition and the rational system 72. _____ is/are the process whereby inventions and ideas transfer from one culture to another, while _____ is/are the process whereby cultures develop, through beliefs and behaviors that contribute to their success. a. Cultural evolution; cultural diffusion b. Cultural diffusion; cultural evolution c. Cultural transmission; cultural symbols d. Cultural symbols; cultural transmission

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Chap 02_3e 73. Which of the following statements BEST summarizes terror management theory? a. People from individualist cultures tend to be more concerned about the possibility of dying alone. b. The majority of people's activities are designed to distract them from thinking about death and other sources of anxiety. c. The anxiety that people feel in everyday life is repressed by unconscious mechanisms that prevent terror from ever entering into conscious awareness. d. To protect against fears of mortality, humans try to see themselves as valuable contributors to a meaningful world. 74. Studies suggest that individuals who have an interdependent self-construal tend to answer the question I am . . . with descriptions of their: a. personal traits. b. social relationships. c. ritualistic duties. d. relative financial status. 75. Our _____ gives us control over the environment as we shape it to fit our vision of how the world should be. a. sense of self b. intelligence c. imagination d. awareness of others 76. In a study in which some Asian Americans were told that they didn't look very American, what were these participants more likely to do than those who had not been told this? a. choose a typically American meal b. eat food that was less rich in calories c. choose a typically Asian meal d. defend their national identity on a patriotism test 77. Which of the following is the MOST evolutionarily unique quality of human beings? a. culture b. the ability to make vocal sounds c. bipedalism d. a high brain-to-body-mass ratio 78. Contemporary emotion researchers distinguish between which kinds of emotions? a. feelings, moods, and affects b. background, primary, and secondary emotions c. innate, secondary, and tertiary emotions d. cognitive emotions and motivational emotions Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 02_3e 79. Simeon is Catholic. At a museum for a class trip, he sees a piece of satirical art criticizing the Catholic Church. According to terror management theory, Simeon should: a. feel a sense of uncertainty about his future. b. be more likely to think about death. c. begin to feel depressed. d. decide that he wants to become an artist in order to respond to offensive art. 80. All of the following are true about a worldview defense EXCEPT which statement? a. It is the tendency to think negatively about those who violate important cultural ideals. b. It is the tendency to think positively about those who uphold cultural ideals. c. It can influence people's judgments and behaviors. d. Only people low in self-esteem use the worldview defense. 81. Research suggests that positive emotions are associated with _____ motivation, while negative emotions are associated with _____ motivation. a. security; growth b. avoidance; approach c. approach; avoidance d. controlled; automatic 82. People from hunter-gatherer cultures are typically distinguished by their abilities in which cognitive domains? a. abstract reasoning b. complex and long-term planning c. numeric and verbal problem-solving d. the visual and spatial domains 83. Arlyssa grew up in the desert. Her culture lives in small, clay homes which keep cool even during extreme heat. This is an example of the way culture adapts people to the: a. metaphysical environment. b. physical environment. c. unconscious environment. d. social environment. 84. Hakim has always wanted to feel good about himself and the things he has accomplished. Hakim is studying to become a sommelier—an expert in wine tasting. If he passes the test, he will feel very proud. In this case, Hakim has a _____ to feel good about himself, and a _____ to pass the sommelier test. a. goal; need b. need; goal c. motive; drive d. urge; desire Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 02_3e 85. The idea that what is evolved or observed in the biological world is inherently good is referred to as: a. the naturalistic fallacy. b. survival of the fittest. c. the theory of adaptation. d. Lamarckian evolution. 86. According to research on the cognitive impacts of mood, people who have been put into a generally bad mood tend to do which of the following? a. make more quick but rational judgments b. rely on preexisting knowledge rather than analyzing information carefully c. make more external attributions for any difficulties they experience d. pay careful, critical attention to information about themselves and their environments 87. Violations of autonomy morals elicit reactions of _____, while violations of divinity morals elicit reactions of _____. a. disgust; anger b. anger; disgust c. legality; religiosity d. religiosity; legality 88. The process of expending energy to achieve or avoid a particular outcome is generally referred to as: a. motivation. b. symbolism. c. hedonism. d. adaptation. 89. The _____ theory explains how people who are not sure of how to act in a situation identify with culturally defined groups that have clear guidelines for behavior. a. cultural transmission b. social norms c. uncertainty-identity d. cognitive-appraisal 90. Chee has lived in the New Mexico all of his life. Chee's grandmother taught him to speak Navajo, so he would understand the Navajo way of life. Chee's grandmother has passed on a(n) _____ to him. a. attitude b. social role c. self-esteem d. culture

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Chap 02_3e 91. According to research on cognition and mood, people who are in a good mood generally tend to do which of the following? a. rely on preexisting knowledge rather than carefully analyzing information b. make more positive judgments about others c. make more external attributions for their difficulties d. make careful analysis of information about themselves and their environments 92. While individualistic cultures tend to emphasize _____, collectivistic cultures tend to emphasize _____. a. authority ranking; equality matching b. equality matching; authority ranking c. community sharing; authority ranking d. authority ranking; community sharing 93. Research suggests that people from an individualistic (as opposed to a collectivistic) culture are relatively: a. less likely to have strong emotional reactions in private. b. more likely to have strong emotional reactions in private. c. more likely to inhibit strong emotional reactions in front of others. d. less likely to inhibit strong emotional reactions in front of others. 94. When people experience a social emotion, all of the following apply EXCEPT which statement? a. They pay closer attention to inappropriate behavior. b. They try to maintain appropriate behavior. c. They avoid particular objects in their environment. d. They try to repair disrupted relationships. 95. Which of the following emotions is NOT a social emotion? a. surprise b. sympathy c. guilt d. pride 96. _____ is the process by which initially difficult, complex, or multistep tasks come to no longer require conscious attention. a. Socialization b. Primary appraisal c. Automatization d. Adaptation

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Chap 02_3e 97. Terror management theory specifies all of the following important functions of cultural worldviews EXCEPT which function? a. providing people with a sense of the origin and meaning of the universe b. convincing people that death is only an illusion c. offering clear standards for what it means to be a valuable person d. giving people the promise of actual or symbolic immortality 98. North Sentinel Island, off the coast of India, is home to the traditional culture of Sentinelese. Which of the following types of morals is Sentinelese culture MOST likely to hold? a. divinity b. benevolence c. autonomy d. community 99. _____ are shared beliefs about appropriate or expected behaviors in particular situations. a. Norms b. Values c. Ideas d. Attitudes 100. A culture that places a strong emphasis on the sacredness of marriage is demonstrating a(n) _____ moral. a. autonomy b. community c. divinity d. benevolent 101. In a strong situation, there are _____ norms for appropriate behavior, whereas in a weak situation there are _____ norms for appropriate behavior. a. security; growth b. growth; security c. clear; unclear d. unclear; clear 102. Which of the following entities is NOT an example of a cultural symbol in the United States? a. an American flag b. the State of Liberty c. the U.S. Constitution d. a railroad

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Chap 02_3e 103. In the Müller-Lyer visual illusion, a line with two open-angle ends appears longer than a line with two closedangle arrowhead ends, even though the lines are in fact the same length. This illusion is more common in cultures where: a. carpentry is prominent, due to the prevalence of right angles. b. people are highly mobile, due to exposure to differing environments. c. there are many deserts, due to the frequency of rounded lines. d. archery is a common mode of hunting and defense, due to the prevalence of arrowheads. 104. The experiential system of decision making is associated with _____ processes. a. controlled b. automatic c. domain-specific d. domain-general 105. After graduation, seniors at a university walk from one end of campus to the other, where groups of friends and families wait to celebrate. What is the most precise social psychological description of what these graduating seniors do? a. develop a new set of customs by learning about a set of cultural attitudes b. enact the cultural value of benevolence c. fulfill motives for security and growth d. participate in a ritual celebrating entrance into a new social role 106. Which of the following is NOT a secondary emotion? a. delight b. misery c. anxiety d. anger 107. Which of the following statements is NOT accurate? a. A fairly random mixture of circumstances determines which attributes are adaptive. b. Survival of the fittest means that the strongest will survive. c. What is fittest depends on the organism's natural environment. d. Over time attributes that were once adaptive may become less so. 108. The two primary components of the process of natural selection are: a. variability and competition. b. competition and survival of the fittest. c. variability and genetic recombination. d. sexuality and mortality.

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Chap 02_3e 109. Socialization is defined as: a. the process of learning from parents and others what is desirable behavior in a culture. b. the experience of being accepted into an exclusive group. c. the evolution of social instincts across different species. d. the developmental process through which the brain acquires the ability to recognize social cues in the environment. 110. What was the term Rank used to describe how people develop unique personalities as a function of their growth motivation? a. individuation b. self-determination c. socialization d. hedonism 111. Sensitivity to _____ is important in avoiding interpersonal conflicts. a. the possibility of possibilities b. social rejection c. social exclusion d. status hierarchies 112. Rita has the capacity for self-awareness and believes that she is an argumentative person. What is one consequence of this belief? a. Rita wants to be close to others. b. Rita's vision of future situations includes decisions to be either argumentative or agreeable. c. Rita can recognize whether another person is argumentative or not. d. Rita has an independent self-construal. 113. _____ involves internalizing aspects of a new culture while retaining aspects of one's former culture; _____ involves almost completely embracing a new culture and leaving one's former culture behind. a. Acculturation; socialization b. Socialization; acculturation c. Integration; assimilation d. Assimilation; integration 114. In Rank's conception of the two fundamental psychological motives, _____ can be thought of as a form of approach motivation, and _____ can be thought of as a form of avoidance motivation. a. sexuality; hedonism b. hedonism; sexuality c. growth; security d. security; growth Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 02_3e 115. A _____ sets the stage for more specific affective reactions. a. primary appraisal b. background emotion c. primary emotion d. secondary emotion 116. According to self-determination theory, which of the following is NOT a basic human need? a. autonomy b. competence c. symbolic immortality d. relatedness 117. Which is NOT one of the three basic moral domains, according to Shweder et al.? a. community morals b. competence morals c. divinity morals d. autonomy morals 118. Which of the following statements is the BEST summary of evolution? a. All organisms fit together in a harmonious ecosystem. b. Children develop in a way that parallels the development of the human species. c. Species change over time and are descended from common ancestors. d. Change in a species can occur within a generation. 119. Hedonistic avoidance and approach correspond to two basic motivational orientations that guide human behavior. These are _____ and _____. a. sexuality; self-determination b. sexuality; growth c. security; growth d. self-determination; security 120. The human capacity for learning is best considered an example of: a. a domain-specific adaptation. b. a genetically determined personality trait. c. a domain-general adaptation. d. a mutation.

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Chap 02_3e 121. Francine walks into her first social psychology exam with the goal of doing well in her social psychology course. As she begins to fill in the multiple-choice options on the exam, she realizes that her pencil tip keeps breaking and she is not able to successfully fill out the answer sheet. Based on research, how is Francine thinking about her actions in the middle of the exam? a. She is trying to do well in the social psychology course. b. She is trying to do well on the first social psychology exam. c. She is trying to bubble in answers on an answer sheet. d. She is trying to finish the test on time. 122. Biologists discover that in a certain species of lizard, the males tend to have orange tails. These biologists are also aware that (a) there is vegetation in the area that can make animals' skin orange; (b) females of the same lizard species are attracted to the color orange; and (c) predators in the area have difficulty seeing the color orange. Based on what we know about evolutionary processes, which statement best describes the likely cause of the lizards' orange tails? a. Female lizards are attracted to orange-tailed males. b. Predators have difficulty seeing the color orange. c. No factor explains the inheritance of the color orange; it is simply a random mutation. d. The color orange likely results from a combination of factors, including the vegetation, female preference, and predator characteristics. 123. The _____ system of thought is generally associated with automatic processes, while the _____ system of thought generally supports controlled processes. a. abstract action; concrete action b. concrete action; abstract action c. rational; experiential d. experiential; rational 124. All of the following are psychological dimensions of the individual EXCEPT which one? a. the collective b. the universal c. the individual d. the cultural 125. A set of beliefs, attitudes, values, norms, morals, customs, roles, statuses, symbols, and rituals shared by members of a group who see themselves as a group is referred to as: a. social identity. b. group perspective. c. culture. d. reality.

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Chap 02_3e 126. _____ are attributes that help the organism cope with a wide variety of challenges encountered in different environments, while _____ are attributes that help the organism cope directly with particular challenges. a. Domain-specific adaptations; domain-general adaptations b. Domain-general adaptations; domain-specific adaptations c. Genotypes; phenotypes d. Phenotypes; genotypes 127. List and define two of the four forms of symbolic immortality described by Robert Jay Lifton.

128. Discuss the ways the human brain has evolved to help individuals belong in their social world.

129. Summarize the basic elements of cognitive appraisal theory. What does this theory say about the relationship between cognition and emotion?

130. Define and differentiate between cultural diffusion and cultural transmission.

131. Explain the concept of just world beliefs, and explain how they influence the phenomenon of "victim blaming".

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Chap 02_3e 132. Describe the moral domains proposed by Shweder and colleagues. How does moral foundations theory distinguish community morals from autonomy morals?

133. Briefly discuss the idea of a hierarchy of goals and what research suggests about how people conceptualize their goals when they encounter difficulty with a task.

134. What is the mortality salience hypothesis? Describe how support for this hypothesis supports terror management theory. Give an example of how this hypothesis has been tested in research.

135. Briefly describe the difference between an independent and an interdependent self-construal.

136. Define the naturalistic fallacy, and identify a reason why it is false.

137. What is a cultural trauma? Discuss a detailed example of cultural trauma that you believe to have occurred in history. Why do you think the case you are discussing qualifies as an instance of cultural trauma? What were the consequences of this event for the people involved?

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Chap 02_3e 138. What is the process of socialization? Why is it so important for humans?

139. List and briefly define three of the nine basic elements of culture.

140. Discuss the concepts of cultural transmission and cultural diffusion. Which is important for the study of cultural evolution and depends on the concept of variability?

141. Provide at least two examples of the influence of the natural environment on cultural-psychological processes.

142. Define and contrast the melting-pot and multicultural views of acculturation. Do you believe that one form of acculturation is preferable to the other? Provide examples from contemporary society to support your argument.

143. Describe human sociability. Discuss the ways in which the human brain evolved to help individuals react to and get along with others.

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Chap 02_3e 144. Identify the differences between automatic and controlled processes, and how they relate to the two systems of thought in humans.

145. Describe the general process of evolution by means of natural selection. What elements are required for natural selection to occur?

146. Describe both collectivistic and individualistic cultures. Include in your answer the characteristics of both types of culture and the predominant social relationship patterns of each culture. How do you think each type of culture promotes cultural survival? What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of each type of culture? Illustrate your points with concrete examples.

147. Describe what is meant by the universality of emotion. List the primary emotions that are universal, and describe research supporting the conclusion that these emotions are basically innate.

148. Describe cognitive appraisal theory and its two-step processes. Recall a time from your life that you can understand using this theory.

149. Define cultural evolution, and discuss how it differs from biological evolution.

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Chap 02_3e 150. Name some negative aspects of culture.

151. What does the current research literature (cited in the text) say about the relationship between cognition and emotion? Does one of these variables primarily drive the other? Or do they both influence each other reciprocally? Use some examples from research to support your analysis.

152. Discuss the distinction between symbolic and literal immortality according to terror management theory. Give an example of each type of immortality.

153. Discuss some of the ways in which culture adapts individuals to the physical, social, and metaphysical environments. Give examples from your knowledge of your own and/or other cultures of each form of adaptation.

154. Discuss how collectivistic and individualistic cultures relate to the four basic patterns of social relations that were described by Alan Fiske.

155. What are some ways in which cultures are good for individuals? What are some ways in which cultures are potentially bad for individuals?

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Chap 02_3e 156. Summarize the concept of cultural trauma. How might this explain contemporary issues faced by Native Americans?

157. What are the two fundamental psychological motives, as identified by psychologist Otto Rank? Please describe each.

158. Describe at least two ways in which modernization processes have affected cultures around the world. Present examples from research.

159. Summarize the melting-pot and multicultural views of the acculturation process. What are the major differences between these views?

160. Provide a brief summary of terror management theory.

161. Describe what survival of the fittest really means. Identify what really determines fitness.

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Chap 02_3e Answer Key 1. a 2. b 3. b 4. d 5. b 6. a 7. b 8. b 9. b 10. c 11. b 12. d 13. b 14. a 15. c 16. d 17. b 18. c 19. c 20. c 21. d 22. a 23. c 24. b 25. b 26. c Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 02_3e 27. c 28. c 29. c 30. c 31. d 32. d 33. a 34. c 35. c 36. c 37. a 38. a 39. d 40. a 41. b 42. d 43. d 44. c 45. a 46. a 47. b 48. d 49. b 50. c 51. d 52. a 53. a 54. c Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 02_3e 55. a 56. c 57. b 58. d 59. c 60. b 61. a 62. b 63. c 64. d 65. b 66. a 67. a 68. d 69. a 70. c 71. d 72. b 73. d 74. b 75. c 76. a 77. a 78. b 79. b 80. d 81. c 82. d Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 02_3e 83. b 84. b 85. a 86. d 87. b 88. a 89. c 90. d 91. b 92. b 93. d 94. c 95. a 96. c 97. b 98. a 99. a 100. c 101. c 102. d 103. a 104. b 105. d 106. d 107. b 108. a 109. a 110. a Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 02_3e 111. d 112. b 113. c 114. c 115. b 116. c 117. b 118. c 119. c 120. c 121. c 122. d 123. d 124. a 125. c 126. b 127. (1) Biosocial immortality is obtained by having children and by identifying with larger social collectives (e.g., nations) that outlast the individual. (2) Creative immortality is obtained by making personally significant contributions to one's culture, such as creative or heroic acts. (3) Natural immortality is obtained by identifying with the natural world or surrounding universe and perceiving that one's body is part of a material world that will continue to exist after one's death. Finally, (4) experiential immortality is obtained by participating in peak experiences, such as transcendental feelings of wonder and awe in religion, love, and other life domains. 128. Being sensitive to others in our social world is a very important skill. The brain plays a role in sociability. The fusiform face area is a part of the brain that functions to recognize faces. This allows people to relay the information that is conveyed via the face. Some of that information may be essential to survival. For example, is this person a friend, whom I can safely approach? Second, the brain is quick to assess social rejection. When a strong rejection stimulus is transmitted to the brain, it activates the area that generates physical pain. Thus, people often conform socially to avoid these experiences. The brain also performs categorizations according to status hierarchies, which further facilitates social interactions.

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Chap 02_3e 129. Cognitive appraisal theory asserts that emotion involves a two-step process. The primary appraisal, which usually occurs very quickly, takes place largely outside of conscious awareness and involves a general assessment of whether a stimulus is good or bad for the individual. The secondary appraisal, which occurs after a short delay, is a more thoughtful and conscious interpretation of one's initial reaction to a stimulus that involves memories and cultural scripts. The cognitive appraisal theory asserts that cognition plays an important role during the secondary appraisal in how we experience emotion. 130. Cultural diffusion is the transfer of ideas, inventions, and knowledge from one culture to another. Cultural transmission is the process through which members of a culture learn to imitate the beliefs and behaviors of other, typically more senior, members of that culture. Cultural diffusion is a process that occurs between cultures and generally leads to cultural change, whereas cultural transmission is a within-culture process that usually leads to the conservation of cultures. 131. Just world beliefs refer to the idea that good things happen to good people, while bad things happen to bad people. People are highly motivated to maintain faith in these beliefs. In the case of victim blaming, which refers to attributing blame to a person who has been harmed, just world beliefs make this more likely in order to keep believing that bad things only happen to those who deserve them. 132. Shweder and colleagues propose three moral domains. The moral domains are (1) community morals, which concern the obligations of social roles, respecting authority, and group loyalty; (2) autonomy morals, which deal with infringing on the rights and freedoms of individuals; and (3) divinity morals, which deal with what is sacred and pure in a culture. Moral foundations theory makes a further distinction between community morals and autonomy morals. Community morals deal with ingroup loyalty and respect for authority, while autonomy morals are those reflecting harm/care and fairness/reciprocity. 133. The notion of a hierarchy of goals refers to the idea that goals are hierarchically organized from very concrete to very abstract. People typically complete more concrete goals in the service of higher-order, abstract goals. Ordinarily, people think about their activities at a reasonably high level of abstraction. However, if people encounter difficulties in a task, they will typically shift toward reconceptualizing their performance in more concrete, lower-order terms. 134. The mortality salience hypothesis states that if cultural worldviews function to alleviate death-related anxiety, then reminding people of their own death should increase their need for the protection provided by such beliefs. More specifically, thinking about death should lead people to show especially strong support for those who support their cultural beliefs, and especially strong dislike for those who violate their cultural beliefs, a tendency referred to as worldview defense. Examples of worldview defense after mortality salience include municipal judges becoming more punitive toward prostitutes; U.S. citizens becoming more supportive of individuals praising their country and more derogatory toward those criticizing it; and people being more generous in deciding on the reward for someone who has behaved in conventionally heroic fashion. 135. People living in collectivistic cultures tend to have an interdependent self-construal. They define themselves primarily in terms of group and relational identities. People with an interdependent self-construal tend to value social harmony over personal expression. People living in individualistic cultures tend to have an independent selfconstrual. They define themselves as unique individuals. People with an independent self-construal tend to value personal expression over maintaining social harmony. Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 02_3e 136. The naturalistic fallacy is the tendency to incorrectly believe the way things are is how they ought to be. This belief is incorrect because evolution is not a goal-oriented process. There is no higher purpose to natural selection, and there is no sense in which species or organisms are improving progressively over the course of evolution. Evolution via natural selection simply happens; that doesn't mean the adaptations it produces are perfect, ideal, or normative. 137. Cultural traumas are tragic historical examples of cultural disruptions, which may lead to complete cultural disintegration. Cultural traumas provide evidence of the psychological importance of culture. A striking example of cultural trauma was caused by the evacuation of Bikini Island to make room for the U.S. government to test atomic weapons. The Bikinians and their descendants suffered lasting demoralization and psychological stress, not just because of the physical hardship of relocating but because of the loss of much of their cultural heritage. Student answers will vary in examples given and the rest of the question. 138. Socialization is the lifelong process of learning from others what is desirable and undesirable in a particular culture. Socialization occurs primarily through our parents, family, and teachers, but it also occurs through any individuals with whom we have close relationships over the course of our lives. It is a very important process in humans because (a) culture is quite complex and (b) when we are born, we are not very developed and are incapable of self-support; infants, toddlers, and children rely on the process of socialization to learn how to behave in the world. 139. Culture consists of: (1) beliefs, which are accepted ideas about some aspect of reality; (2) attitudes, which are preferences, likes and dislikes, and opinions about what is good and bad; (3) values, which reflect a culture's guiding principles and shared goals; (4) norms, which are shared beliefs about what is appropriate or expected behavior in particular situations; (5) morals, which are beliefs about what constitutes good and bad behavior; (6) customs, which are specific patterns or styles of dress, speech, and behavior that are deemed appropriate in particular contexts; (7) social roles, which are positions within a group that entail specific ways of acting and dividing labor, responsibility, and resources; (8) cultural symbols, which represent either the culture as a whole or beliefs or values prevalent in the culture; and (9) rituals, which are patterns of actions performed in particular contexts that reinforce cultural beliefs, values, and morals, and that often signal a transitional or historically significant event. 140. Cultural transmission is the process whereby members of a culture learn to imitate the beliefs and behaviors of others in that culture. The learning can be either explicit or implicit. Cultural diffusion is the transfer of inventions, knowledge, and ideas from one culture to another. Cultural diffusion is important in the study of cultural evolution, the process whereby cultures develop and propagate according to the systems of belief or behavior that contribute to the success of a society. Cultural diffusion leads to variability, because in the culture on the receiving end, diffusion produces a kind of competition between old and new ways of doing things. If the new way improves people's lives, it becomes a permanent adaptation that replaces the old way. 141. People from hunter-gatherer cultures are especially strong in visual and spatial cognitive abilities. By contrast, people from sedentary agricultural backgrounds are less strong in the visual/spatial areas but typically perform better on quantitative reasoning tasks. Perceptual illusions are also influenced by the natural environment; for example, the Müller-Lyer visual illusion is more prominent in cultures with extensive use of carpentry, straight lines, and sharp angles. Note: student answers may vary. Copyright Macmillan Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 02_3e 142. According to the melting-pot view, ideally immigrants will fully assimilate into the mainstream culture they are joining. In this view, diversity is not highly valued. On the other hand, according to the multicultural view, cultural diversity is valuable, and diverse people within a society should retain elements of their original cultures while integrating into their new host culture. Student answers will vary on the rest of the question. As students reflect on this question, it is hoped that issues of ethnocentrism and prejudice will arise. 143. Humans are indeed social beings. Human sociability is the need that individuals have to be around others. In fact, humans can't survive without being around others. The brain has evolved in several ways to help individuals both react to others and get along with them in the social world. The fusiform face area of the brain recognizes human faces and enables us to interpret others' thoughts and feelings. The brain can also recognize social rejection or exclusion. The brain's response is activation of the part of the brain responsible for physical pain. Individuals may conform socially to avoid these feelings. Finally, the brain plays a role in categorizing others as approachable, or not, based on social rankings. Students should use this as an opportunity to appreciate how both biology and environment are crucial for human behavior and to see the interaction between the two. 144. Automatic processes are thoughts or actions that occur quickly, usually without any involvement of conscious awareness. Controlled processes are thoughts or actions that occur more slowly and involve conscious awareness and deliberation. Automatic processes are related to the experiential system of thought, which is connected to the limbic system and regions of the brain that evolved earlier. Controlled processes are related to the rational system of thought, which is connected to the more recently evolved cerebral cortex. 145. Natural selection is the process through which certain attributes become more represented in future generations because they are more successful (at promoting the survival and reproduction of individuals) in a given environment. Variability is the first element necessary for natural selection, and it comes primarily from gene mutation and sexual recombination. The second necessary element is competition between individuals and groups for survival in an environment.

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Chap 02_3e 146. An individualistic culture is a culture where the focus is on the individual person. Individual achievement and initiative are highly valued in this type of culture. Individualistic cultures value independence, autonomy, and uniqueness. An individualistic culture encourages the expression of one's personal views and fosters a more independent self-construal, which views the self as a unique being focusing on one's own goals. There is not a clear distinction between the ingroup and the outgroup, since people are viewed as individuals and not group members. In an individualistic culture, there is an analytical cognitive style that looks for parts of the whole, and not the whole itself. In social relations, individualistic cultures emphasize equality matching and market pricing. A collectivistic culture is a culture that has the group as the focus. Interdependence, cooperation, and the welfare of the group are highly valued. A collectivistic culture values group harmony and fosters a more interdependent self-construal, which views the self in terms of how the individual relates to others and contributes to the greater whole. There is a clear demarcation between the ingroup and the outgroup, and members show preference for those in the ingroup. The cognitive style is more holistic, looking for relationships between the parts. In social relations, collectivistic cultures emphasize community sharing and authority ranking. Student answers will vary on the rest of the question. Students may use this as an opportunity to discuss the importance of norms, values, social status, and hierarchies. Students may also begin to see that culture can be both good and bad. 147. Certain emotions are experienced across all cultures. These emotions include (1) happiness, (2) sadness, (3) fear, (4) anger, (5) surprise, and (6) disgust. All individuals, across all cultures, experience these primary emotions. Research supporting the universality of emotions was conducted by Ekman and other researchers; they found the same emotions in different cultures, triggered by similar physical and social stimuli. These researchers demonstrated that people in isolated villages could accurately recognize emotions in the faces of Americans, when the villagers had never even encountered an American. Research on the neurology of emotions has revealed that the experience of emotions is associated with certain parts of the brain, such as the amygdala and the anterior cingulate cortex. 148. According to cognitive appraisal theory, the subjective experience of our emotions is determined by a two-step process. First, a primary appraisal takes place before people are aware of it. This consists of general autonomic arousal experienced as a racing heart or sweaty palms. In order to explain these physiological changes, people make secondary appraisals that interpret the purported stimuli. This can involve prior experiences, personality traits, contextual clues, and other high-level thinking processes. This theory shows that emotions are not purely experiential or rational, but a combination of the two. 149. Cultural evolution is the process through which cultures develop and propagate on the basis of beliefs or behaviors that contribute to the success of a society. Cultural evolution is distinguished from biological evolution in that it typically happens much more quickly. Culture can evolve horizontally, within a single generation, while biological evolution only takes place vertically, across multiple generations. 150. Cultures limit the ways that people think, divides people (ingroup vs. outgroup), and imposes upon people beliefs, attitudes, and values before they are able to consider these things.

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Chap 02_3e 151. According to Lazarus's cognitive appraisal theory, emotion is the product of a two-step process. First, primary appraisal occurs. Primary appraisal is the experience of arousal and an initial physiological and emotional response. The second step is secondary appraisal. In secondary appraisal the environment is assessed for further information, leading to a possible modification or change in the emotion that is being experienced. For example, the awareness of being followed by a stranger triggers general autonomic arousal, including an elevated heart rate. In the secondary appraisal, confirmation of the stranger's presence may produce a sense of danger, whereas recognition that the supposed stranger is actually an acquaintance will produce a feeling of relief. Cognition and emotions can indeed have a reciprocal effect. Emotions can also affect cognitions. Your mood can affect the judgments that you make about others and yourself. Emotions can affect whether you are optimistic or pessimistic in your predictions about the future and can also affect your memory. Emotions can influence cognition by focusing attention and memory on the self (e.g., possibly depression). Emotions can also affect decision making. Anger may make it very difficult to evaluate the facts of a situation. Thus, it is no surprise that both cognition and emotion affect each other in various ways. 152. Literal immortality is a shared cultural belief that there is some form of afterlife. Examples would include any religious belief in an afterlife for individuals who have met the standards of morality set by that religion. Symbolic immortality is a shared cultural belief that individuals can contribute to an aspect of their culture that will survive after their deaths. Examples would include any scientific, artistic/cultural, or business institution that strives to preserve the works of individuals for posterity. 153. Culture helps people adapt to their physical environment by producing technologies such as those used for shelter and for tools and toolmaking. Culture also shapes people's perceptions and thought processes, so that, for example, people in hunter-gatherer societies are unusually skilled, compared with other people, at tasks involving visual perception and spatial navigation. Culture also plays a role in the social environment. Individuals need each other in order to survive. Culture gives people social direction on what they should do and what they are allowed to do. Furthermore, culture adapts people to the social world by providing a framework for social relationships (e.g., authority ranking versus equality matching). Finally, culture also helps individuals adapt to their metaphysical environment by providing answers to questions about life's ultimate meaning and what a well-lived life consists of, and by helping them come to terms with their mortality. Student answers will vary on the rest of the question. Students may use this as an opportunity to discuss the reciprocal nature of culture and the interaction of the person and the situation. 154. Collectivistic cultures emphasize authority ranking and community sharing, thus stressing interdependence and cooperation and prioritizing the well-being of the group over that of the individual. Individualistic cultures emphasize equality matching and market pricing, thus stressing individual achievement and initiative. Furthermore, in individualistic cultures people primarily look after their own interests and those of their immediate families.

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Chap 06_3e 127. Describe the trait of self-monitoring. Discuss some of the differences between high and low self-monitors.

128. Discuss either the hypocrisy paradigm or the idea of minimal deterrence. How does research in these areas relate to real-world issues?

129. Describe the basic premise of symbolic self-completion theory. Give a hypothetical example of a situation that is explained by this theory.

130. Describe the anxiety-buffer perspective on why people need self-esteem. Discuss some examples of research supporting this perspective.

131. Discuss four strategies supported by research that people use to protect and enhance their self-esteem. Describe some of the problems with these strategies. Do you think that any of them are healthier than any others?

132. Describe the concept of basking in reflected glory. Explain how it can help bolster self-esteem.

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Chap 06_3e 133. Describe the basic idea behind cognitive dissonance theory. Explain when dissonance is particularly disturbing. List the three most common ways to reduce dissonance.

134. Describe compensation. Discuss how self-affirmation theory builds on this basic idea.

135. Define self-esteem. Distinguish between state and trait self-esteem. Describe the factors that influence selfesteem.

136. Describe the basic principles of self-determination theory. Describe the overjustification effect. Do you believe that most people in our society are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated most of the time? Why would that be the case?

137. List and briefly discuss three of the five primary factors that research shows affect the magnitude of cognitive dissonance.

138. Discuss at least two of the four primary implications of the body of research on self-esteem.

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Chap 06_3e 139. Discuss self-concept clarity and self-complexity. Describe the benefits of having either of these qualities.

140. Describe the status-maximizing theory of self-esteem and the sociometer model of self-esteem. Discuss the similarities and differences of these perspectives.

141. Define self-narrative. Describe two of the most common self-narratives.

142. Define self-esteem. Distinguish between state and trait self-esteem.

143. Define self-handicapping. Describe the circumstances where people are most likely to use this strategy.

144. Describe self-narratives and why they are important. Discuss some of the most common kinds of selfnarrative themes. Describe how nostalgia plays a role in self-narratives. If you were to tell your own life story up to this point, what would be the most prominent theme?

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Chap 06_3e 145. Explain self-esteem stability and the consequences of high or low stability. Discuss how self-esteem can be both a conscious and an unconscious attitude.

146. Describe the dramaturgical perspective and the types of performances. Discuss the concepts of selfmonitoring and the spotlight effect. Describe the goals of self-presentation.

147. Define the spotlight effect and the illusion of transparency.

148. Define self-compassion. List the three elements of self-compassion.

149. Describe the concept of possible selves. Describe how possible selves help motivate and guide behavior. Give one example of how researchers have used the concept of possible selves to improve real-world outcomes.

150. Describe self-concept clarity. How is self-concept clarity related to self-esteem? Describe the ways that people sustain their self-concepts.

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Chap 06_3e 151. Describe the concept of flow. List the factors that need to be satisfied for individuals to be in flow. Describe the negative emotions that can result when the individual is not in a state of flow.

152. Define self-verification. Describe the consequences of self-verification.

153. Discuss the functions of self-esteem as an anxiety buffer and cite research to support this view. Compare and contrast the social functions of self-esteem. Reflecting on your own life, what function does self-esteem serve?

154. Describe the overjustification effect. Provide a research finding demonstrating this effect.

155. Discuss self-determination theory. Describe the three basic needs posited by this theory.

156. Discuss cognitive dissonance, incorporating the primary ways to reduce dissonance and providing an example. Describe two dissonance paradigms along with an example of each. Describe effort justification, providing an example, and explain how this concept relates to cognitive dissonance.

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Chap 06_3e 157. Identify and briefly describe the two most common experimental paradigms used to examine dissonance.

158. Describe effort justification. Provide two real-world applications of effort justification.

159. Describe how people can grow and even benefit from difficult or traumatic experiences. Cite research to support your answer. Do you think this would this always be the case, or only under certain circumstances?

160. Describe the dramaturgical perspective. Discuss the difference between a sincere and a cynical performance.

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