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A gendered experience of climate change and water management
SofĂa Ramos1
1 Directora de Luminario Education Strategies
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On September 20th 2019, around the world, interest in climate change exploded when an estimated 185 countries participated in the largest demonstration on record. The emerging presence of women and youth as purveyors of information and heightened advocacy became apparent. Across the world, millions of people demonstrated to demand urgent action to address global warming, spurred by a youth movement begun by 16-year-old Greta Thunberg (Laville and Watts, 2019). However, we know that power and representation are gendered experiences in most arenas and that women are generally underrepresented and lack voice. As the threat from climate change and water shortages continues to grow, differing opinions bombard us daily from different sources and vested interests. This paper examines research about how these effects disproportionately affect vulnerable populations including women and children. It examines the vital role women need to play in development of policies and solutions to the daunting problems affecting their communities. It suggests leveraging the emerging and increasing role women and youth are playing in advocacy, promoting action, information sharing and solutions around the world. Most people do not have the scientific background to weed through scientific journals and reports to figure out what they should believe, or act on. This paper summarizes key evidence to help debunk daily climate change misinformation and social media, which have increased information flow, along with misinformation and confusion.
Climate change is real At least 97% percent of climate scientist who publish in peer-reviewed scientific journals agree, climate-warming trends over the past century are due to human activities. They also agree that climate change is a real threat to our planet. Most importantly, unquestionable evidence shows the earth is heating up more each year. This is having real world consequences threatening our ecosystems (Cook et al., 2013). In a joint statement, the International Science Academies agreed: “Cli-
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mate change is real. There is now strong evidence that significant global warming is occurring. The evidence comes from direct measurements of rising surface air temperatures and subsurface ocean temperatures and from phenomena such as increases in average global sea levels, retreating glaciers, and changes to many physical and biological systems. It is likely most of the warming in recent decades can be attributed to human activities (Joint science academies’ statement: Global response to climate change, 2018).” 1.0 0.8 0.6
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Scientific Consensus: Earth’s Climate is Warming. (nasa, 2019).
This graphic appears on the nasa website. It shows changes in climate over time and as it is changing, it is being tracked in real time by the leading scientific organizations shown (A world of agreement: Temperatures are Rising. https://www.facebook.com/watch /?v=607479646485453 Retrieved October 10, 2019). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (ipcc), the United Nations body for assessing science related to climate change, estimates ice melting and sea water expansion from ocean warming will cause the global mean sea-level to rise by between 0.1 and 0.9 metres between
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1990 and 2100 (Joint science academies’ statement: Global response to climate change, 2018). These effects are seen in changing weather patterns. Increased flooding and changing water levels around the world are already taking a toll. The world’s poorest people suffer the most from climate change, according to the Joint science academies’ statement: Global response to climate change, 2018, in Bangladesh, a 0.5 metre sea-level rise will place 6 million people at risk from flooding. Additionally, greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are vital to life on Earth, without them temperatures would average about 30 centigrade degrees lower than today. Humans are causing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, methane, tropospheric ozone, and nitrous oxide to rise well above pre-industrial levels (Joint Science Academies, 2018). ipcc reports carbon dioxide levels have increased from 280 ppm in 1750 to over 375 ppm today. This is causing earth surface temperatures to rise by about 0.6 centigrade degrees over the twentieth century. ipcc projects average global surface temperatures will continue increasing to between 1.4 centigrade degrees and 5.8 centigrade degrees above 1990 levels by 2100 (Joint Science Academies, 2018).
Effects on vulnerable populations Every country has vulnerable populations, disproportionately affected by devastating climate events, water, food and shelter insecurity and health disparities. Much research and effort has been dedicated to identifying and adressing vulnerabilities and have found, women and children are disproportionately affected by climate events in most countries. Developing nations lacking resources infraestructure necessary to respond are also unequally affected. The ipcc defines vulnerability to climate change as the degree to which a system is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes, Effects include ecosystems, infrastructure, economic sectors, social groups, communities and regions (Giordano, 2014). This discussion
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of exposure, sensitivity, potential impact and adaptive capacity of humans, will focus on vulnerable populations. These effects are defined by the ipcc as follows: 1) Exposure: presence in places or settings that may be adversely affected, by people, livelihoods, species or ecosystems, environmental functions, services, resources, infrastructure, or economic, social or cultural assets; 2) Sensitivity: degree a system or species is affected, adversely or beneficially, by climate variability or change; 3) Potential impact: impacts resulting from projected change in climate, without considering adaptation, effects on natural (i.e. water resources, biodiversity, soil) and human systems (i.e. agriculture, health, tourism); 4) Adaptive capacity: ability to adjust to climate change, moderate potential damages, take advantages of opportunities, or cope with consequences (Giordano, 2014). For discussions of equity and proactive solutions, adaptive capacity is key. Identifying adaptive capacity or capacity to overcome negative effects helps conceptualize what needs to be addressed to help vulnerable populations survive water management issues and climate events. We know vulnerable populations are overburdened and more susceptible to climate events. Inequities coupled with health disparities have the effect of lowering adaptive capacity and leads to increased levels of disadvantage. Research shows existing inequalities such as lack of infrastructure or advocates, language and literacy skills cause disadvantaged groups to suffer disproportionately from the negative effects of climate change and results in greater subsequent inequality. How existing inequalities manifest during crisis events, and how they exacerbate the negative outcomes for vulnerable populations is important in developing ways to strengthen community response and resiliency during and after climate events and in water management planning. In an examination of multidimensional inequalities, Islam and Winkel (2017) emphasize the role of political and economic channels of influence in how climate change and crisis events unfold and affect different populations. They identified three main ways “within country inequalities” or “social inequalities” elevate climate change
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effects on vulnerable populations. They found inequality-aggravating effects are experienced through: 1) increased exposure of the disadvantaged groups to adverse effects of climate change; 2) increased susceptibility to damage caused by climate change; and 3) decreased ability to cope and recover from damage suffered. This framework can also be used for across countries analysis (Islam and Winkel, 2017). There are very real differences in how exposure affects people from different sides of the spectrum. Increased susceptibility depends on access to resources, education, employment, understanding and preparation to overcome changing conditions. Since vulnerable populations are already overburdened, they have a more difficult time coping with and recovering from climate events and water management challenges. While poverty is used as a proxy for disadvantage, the drivers of vulnerability are much more complicated. Inadequate resources including food and water, energy sources, access to healthcare are central to vulnerability. Income and type of employment are sources of vulnerability, but politics, power, and agency, drive privilege, inequity and vulnerability.
Women, climate change and water management The literature clearly shows gender plays a major role in compounding vulnerabilities during climate events and with water management issues. It shows women are drivers in their communities and in their homes. Yet, they continue to lack voice and representation in critical discussions that affect the families and communities they create and protect. Around the world, the roles of women are complicated. They play many roles layered on top of each other and face heavy expectations. Women in rural areas are generally responsible for ensuring the family has water, food and fuel. Every day, vulnerable populations in rural areas struggle from lack of potable water, food, and shelter. This is especially problematic for women and children, who may give up
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education to simply maintain the needs of the family (Halton, 2018). Regardless of the situation, during floods and droughts it falls on them to precure necessities. When scarcity for items needed for survival increases, women face greater challenges and stressors, since they are still responsible for child and elder care. All this adds to their vulnerability in crisis events. Overlapping roles and identities, without much power, make women particularly vulnerable. They are often seen as powerless victims due to inequity of the burdens they carry. It is important to acknowledge the opposite is true. Key roles women have in their communities and families give them nuanced understanding of local ecological, social and political factors and trusting relationships, making them an invaluable community resource. When their voice is absent, communities lose their nuanced knowledge of what is really needed by various communities during a crisis. Without women, discussions about vulnerabilities, building resiliency and policy development lack depth regarding, women’s experiences, their additional demands and challenges. Understanding intersectionality or the overlap of power dynamics on gender, age, ability, ethnicity, race caste, citizenship, immigration status, sexual orientation which lead to bias, segregation, and racism is critical. Yet it is often lost or minimized. The compounding effects of various identities, due to where they are situated in power structures or intersectionality are often lost (Kaijser & Kronsell, 2013). How politics and power dynamics affect vulnerability and adaptability is most often not considered. Women are more likely to be negatively affected by climate change and water management issues than men (Halton, 2018). Their social roles and overlapping identities without power, make women particularly vulnerable. Around the world, they are greatly affected by water scarcity and flooding, and gravely impacted by poor water management. Yet, continue to be underrepresented in governance and policy decision making roles. Community-based environmental education is needed to expand women’s role and equitable engagement in water-related, climate change adaptation activities and policy development. Worldwide, for
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many years, grassroots, non-governmental environment-conscious organizations, have been organizing and raising consciousness to help local activists create successful climate defense programs. The Climate Resiliency Research on Latin American Countries project explored gender dimensions of climate resiliency and provides valuable insights for policy and practice. Four distinct projects in different environments explored the effect of climate change as a gendered experience in Guerrero State, Mexico; Iquitos, Peru; Amazon Delta Region; and Cumbaza Basin, Peru. Researchers including Alexandra Vásquez et al. (2019) agreed that because Latin American women face pay and work insecurity, they also suffer from the feminization of poverty, and are particularly vulnerable to climate events and water management issues. Multiple countries collaborated to examine gender vulnerabilities in depth. Their report titled, Gender Perspective: A necessary consideration to understand and transform inequality structures in the context of climate change, provided many valuable insights (Vásquez et al., 2019). They found the following regarding gendered vulnerabilities: 1) women’s lack of voice in decision-making increases their vulnerability; 2) when climate disaster strikes, women are on the frontlines; and 3) inclusive civil society initiatives could help build resilience. They also found, limited access to education, literacy and employment in rural areas, adds to their vulnerability. Women and girls from indigenous or African heritage face prejudice and discrimination which adds yet another layer of burden and vulnerability (Vásquez et al., 2019). Women are responsible for water, but lack access to vital freshwater in the villages of Barra and El Bejuco and in Chicolandia they lack food during a crisis. Most importantly they lack information to help them navigate challenges. In Peru rural women must search for scarce fuelwood, but most ownership and control over irrigated rice plots, and land titles are held by men. Women spend whatever they earn on the family, but men tend to their own needs first and leftover money goes to family (Vásquez et al., 2019). Children suffer from malnutrition and diseases from con-
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taminated water. They have limited access to good education and face sexual violence and early pregnancy. In Iquitos, Peru, researchers found young women who relocated from a flood-plagued area, were far more likely to be illiterate and drop out of school due to teenage pregnancy (Vásquez et al., 2019). Women endure culturally-based subordination where the family’s needs always supersede the women. They are more vulnerable in crisis events and their safety and health seems to be the last consideration. Other efforts to find ways to empower vulnerable communities include, Sister Watersheds project with Brazilian and Canadian partners from 2002-2008 and in the Climate Change Adaptation in Africa project with partners in Canada, Kenya, Mozambique, and in plans for 2010-2012 in South Africa (Sister Watersheds Research Project, 2019). In Brazil, Canada initiatives and models for community-based environmental and climate change education focused on improving social equity and helped implement watershed-based governance structures to broaden grassroots participation, especially of women, in political processes. They increased participation by women in project communities as effective participants in local river basin committees. They helped deliver training programs in water resources management, established interdisciplinary activities, formed innovative partnerships with local community, University of São Paulo faculty and staff, representatives of government agencies. Most project beneficiaries were women. The casa project in Iquitos is working to co-develop productive enterprises for women in collaboration with local government. Women are becoming more engaged in citizen organizing and central guiding roles for sustainable development to address food insecurity through partnerships. In Coyuca, a participatory, gender sensitive, climate resilience strategy is in the works using a multi-actor platform. Climate events continue and need to be planned for. un researchers found that 80% of people displaced by climate change are women and in 2010, over 70% of those displaced by flooding in Pakistan were women and children (Halton, 2018). Women tend to suffer from pay inequity, they lack power, voice or agency in varying degrees depend-
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ing on where they live. They are vulnerable to climate events and poor water management since they are likely to already be overburdened (Halton, 2018). In Kenya and Nepal, two independent organizations, the Overseas Development Institute (odi), and the Building Resilience and Adaptation to Climate and Extreme and Disasters (braced), collaborated in flood-prone areas and those often hit by drought. Researchers assessed differences in how women and men are affected by climate change, and if exclusion or discrimination was faced due to their caste and or lack of political representation (Rowling, 2019). In Nepal’s Bardiya district, researchers found because men have control over finances, they are more resilient to natural disasters. Women’s lack of access to early warnings, official information sources, phones or radios make them less able to react as events occur and seem less able to cope (Rowling, 2019). They also found gender vulnerability differences in disadvantaged social groups are magnified. In Kenya, economic status and local infrastructure was more influential to how well local people cope with weather extremes (Rowling, 2019). Aware of the intergenerational toll climate events and water management issues cause, the World Bank is engaged is developing new investments in climate resilience projects focused on education, health and social resiliency programs. They report positive outcomes and lessons for scale-ups (World Bank, 2019). In the United States, vulnerable populations are also disproportionately affected. An estimated 1,200 people died as a direct result of Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Victims tended to be low income African Americans in disproportionate numbers (Gibbens, 2019). Fourteen years later, Katrina continues to haunt many, as a stark example of the damaging effects of inequity. It was evident in who had the most exposure, who had the most impact, and who had the most adaptive capacity. Looking back, we can see who was rescued, who had insurance, who lost everything, and who continues to suffer Katrina’s long-lasting effects. For the most vulnerable women and their children, their community support systems were displaced, and they have struggled to get back what they lost (Belkhir & Charlemaine, C. 2007). Their adap-
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tive capacity was tested to the limit and some continue to struggle to cope with distress caused by their Katrina experience. Research and hindsight provide lessons about how to improve adaptability, resilience and better serve women and other vulnerable populations. Exploring how power structures and compounding factors affect already vulnerable populations is important. Women generally have unequal access to available resources, information and support. They are also more likely to be burdened by child and elderly care and in some countries women’s lack of literacy of women is also a barrier for adaptability. Better outcomes in disaster relief and resiliency building come from thorough analysis of how being marginalized affects vulnerability or adaptability. A social analysis to assess how climate change effects are mediated through social, cultural, and economic structures and processes is also important (Kaijser & Kronsell, 2013). While recognizing how power structures and people’s various identities, needs, priorities and capacities are intertwined and affect people’s ability to prepare for, cope with and respond to natural hazards and climate variability is key (Chaplin, Twigg & Lovell, 2019). Intersectionality highlights how power structures reinforce vulnerabilities and brings attention to how racism, bias, segregation, poverty and social neglect thwart vulnerable populations’ adaptability and ability to overcome challenges of climate change and water shortage (Kaijser & Kronsell, 2013). Our understanding of women’s vulnerabilities is robust, the challenge is finding resources and commitment to enact gained knowledge to better serve them.
Effect on children Any discussion of climate events and water management must include effects on children. Research shows, children are disproportionately affected by climate change effects. The American Academy of Pediatrics (aap) reports and policy statement links climate change with the health of children, their development, wellbeing and nutrition (aap, 2015). They urge increased collaboration to protect children from nat-
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ural disasters, threats to water and food supplies, heat stress, lower air quality, increased infection. They categorize effects on children as either primary, secondary or tertiary, each with a different set of impacts and possible solutions. Primary Effects include: mental and physical illness, injury, and death attributable to heat waves and extreme weather events. Secondary Effects consist of: health effects mediated by ecological changes, including altered life cycle of infectious disease vectors and host animals, increased concentration of air pollutants and aeroallergens because of rising temperature or wildfires, altered crop yields, and rainfall patterns. Tertiary Effects are large-scale consequences of unchecked climate change, such as depletion of food and water, ecological loss, population displacement, failing communities, tensions and conflict (aap, 2015). aap researchers also report: 1) infants less than one year of age are uniquely vulnerable to heat-related mortality; 2) climate influences infectious diseases that affect children across the world, including malaria, dengue fever, West Nile virus, chikungunya, Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, diarrheal illness, amebic meningoencephalitis, coccidioidomycosis; 3) high rates of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms have been found in children after climate-related disasters, including hurricanes and floods; 4) children in poorest countries with disproportionately high disease burden are most affected by climate change; 5) in 2030, climate change is projected to cause additional 48,000 deaths attributable to diarrheal disease in children younger than 15 years old, mostly in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa; and 6) concern increased atmospheric CO2 impacts grain quality, lowering protein content of edible portions of wheat, rice and barley (aap, 2015). Severe weather events destroy or disrupt infrastructure critical to children’s well-being. Droughts and flooding destroy crops, disrupt water systems and contaminate water reserves. Schools and healthcare facilities may be destroyed. For our most vulnerable populations other support structures may not exist. For disadvantaged communities, rebuilding infrastructure is lengthy and difficult and education is often a casualty. Severe weather changes will disrupt and hurt the lives of our most vulnerable populations, especially children. Children, elderly
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and other vulnerable populations endure devastating harm, including loss of food, shelter, belongings, schools, and healthcare. unicef (Rees & Anthony, 2015) reports over half a billion children live in extremely high flood occurrence zones and nearly 160 million live in high or extremely high drought severity zones. They caution these children are now in harm’s way. unicef (2015) reports, slow-onset rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns will exacerbate the spread of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue. Water supplies will dwindle, food and resource scarcity will increase, and cause displacement and livelihood disruption to vulnerable families. Climate change threatens the entire planet and adaptability is key but is more feasible for some than others. Children are the least equipped physically, socially or emotionally to face disasters. “Unless We Act Now,” a report by unicef (Rees & Anthony, 2015) delineates threats climate change brings to children and their vulnerability to its effects. Research shows our most vulnerable populations face inequity and formidable threats. unicef (2015) stresses the need to acknowledge inequities exist for children and must be planned for accordingly. Families with the fewest resources, structures and mechanisms for coping in crisis are threatened by the most long-lasting impacts. For vulnerable populations, ongoing inequities are already manifested in inadequate water, sanitation, or food supplies even before a crisis. Inequities are magnified during emergencies and must be prominent in planning process. As work to restore basic needs, such as water, food and shelter, are priorities, the need to educate children is obscured and vital education is often derailed.
Current challenges, threats and opportunities This paper provides evidence that women’s roles and vulnerabilities must be considered as climate and water management policies are developed and adopted. Much dramatic change is occurring as this is being written, the latest actions by young women to organize climate
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strikes around the world have catapulted the conversation forward. However, there is still much work to be done as not everyone is on the same page regarding climate change, policies for climate change and water management. Ninety-seven percent of climate scientists believe climate is changing and humans are the primary cause (Cook, 2016). But the politicization of climate change presents formidable challenges for change. Political agendas and money-making incentives use misinformation campaigns to discredit climate science. Only four in ten Americans talk about climate change with their family and friends and most are reluctant to take substantive action (Leiserowitz, Seth & Matthew, 2019). Progress has been made in recognizing the knowledge and value women bring to solution-finding and policy development, but it is not the norm. Around the world, women are marginalized, as they play central roles in their families and communities and ensure their families have necessities. Researchers agree, women best understand family and community needs best, they understand scarcity of resources and are focused on implementing proactive and beneficial practices. When they are included in planning, policy development and decision making everyone wins.
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