JANUARY 2026/VOL 2
WGGS PRESENTS
THE SOCIAL SCIENCE
MAGAZINE
MASKING FOR MARKS
how students hide their true selves to ‘fit in’ with school expectations.
THE MOTIVES OF MURDER
SMILES VS STATS: WHAT IS THE TRUE MEASURE OF WEALTH?
CULTURE CAPITAL
WHY BACKGROUND STILL SHAPES OPPORTUNITY-EVEN TODAY
explore the psychology behind what drives people to commit unthinkable crimes
THE POWER OF MUSIC IN MENTAL HEALTH
INSIDE: REAL VOICES. REAL QUESTIONS Exploring psychology, sociology and economics from a student lens
EDITED BY: AALIYAH + BASIMA
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Table of
CONTENTS Psychology The motives of murder
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4-5
The Impact of Childhood on the Development of Adult Personality.
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The Long-Term Effects of Trauma on Adult Development
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Why eyewitness testimony isn’t always reliable: The neuroscience of memory distortions
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Sociology A challenge to the sociology of education Is the school system truly meritocratic?
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11-12 13
Masking for marks: Educational conformity in neurodivergent students 14-15 Cultural capital
16-17
Economics
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Income Inequality and the U.S. Labour Market
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How do electoral systems shape economic policy?
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How much money does the government want to borrow?
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Japan’s Negative Interest Rate Policy
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CHAPTER 1;
PSYCHOLOGY
THE MOTIVES OF MURDER THE IMPACT OF CHILDHOOD ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT PERSONALITY FEAR THE LONG TERM EFFECTS OF TRAUMA ON ADULT DEVELOPMENT WHY EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY ISN’T ALWAYS RELIABLE: THE NEUROSCIENCE OF MEMORY DISTORTIONS
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WGGS PRESENTS
THE MOTIVES OF MURDER
By: Armani
Crime, particularly homicide, is frequently the result of a complex interaction of economic and psychological factors. While economic theories highlight the importance of rational decision-making and socioeconomic factors, psychological insights delve deeper into the individual's mind, investigating how early experiences, emotions, and mental constructs contribute to violent behaviour. We can gain a more nuanced understanding of these dynamics by watching the Netflix mini-series Adolescence and researching the case of Jeffrey Dahmer. Economic pressure: According to economic theories, people make logical decisions based on expected results after weighing the advantages and disadvantages of engaging in criminal activity. Higher rates of violent behaviour may result from situations where the perceived advantages of crime outweigh the risks, such as poverty or social inequality. But this viewpoint frequently ignores the psychological bases that motivate criminal behaviour. surprisingly, some economists argue that crime may "benefit" society through indirect economic effects. Crime, for instance, raises demand for prison systems, security services, and law enforcement, which boosts employment and certain industries. Furthermore, some theorists claim that small-scale property crimes or black market operations have the potential to redistribute resources in ways that oddly boost consumption and economic activity. The existence of crime can reveal inefficiencies or gaps in the legal and economic system, leading to changes, according to classic economists like Gary Becker, who even framed crime in terms of cost-benefit analysis. These "benefits," however, are strongly contested. The majority of economists believe that crime is mostly detrimental to society rather than beneficial because the social and human costs—fear, trauma, diminished trust, and lost productivity—far exceed any indirect economic benefits. Psychological factors: Jamie Miller, a 13-year-old who is accused of killing his classmate Katie Leonard, is portrayed in the Netflix series Adolescence. Jamie's psychological growth is investigated throughout the series, demonstrating how his behaviour was impacted by his need for his emotionally distant father's approval. According to psychologists, teenagers like Jamie frequently look to the parent who gives them validation less frequently, suggesting that Jamie's choice was motivated more by psychological needs than by sound reasoning. In the same way, the case of Jeffrey Dahmer sheds light on the psychological elements that influence violent conduct. Because of his early experiences and psychological issues, Dahmer showed signs of extreme emotional isolation and a desire to control his victims. His behaviour stemmed from his psychological state and unfulfilled emotional needs rather than 4 just being the outcome of logical calculations.
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In terms of psychology, homicide frequently results from an interaction of trauma, unfulfilled psychological needs and poor emotional regulation, which can impair impulse control and cloud judgement. Studies in neuroscience and behaviour demonstrate that adolescent brain development, mental illness, and cognitive biases can all increase an individual's tendency to act violently under stress or frustration. Behavioural economics-decision making: The study of behavioural economics looks at how psychological factors and cognitive biases influence judgement, frequently causing people to act irrationally in the presence of obvious dangers. Attention from the media and intense public attention can skew perceptions of risk and reward in high-profile cases like the O.J. Simpson trial, increasing public scrutiny and expectations. Decisions may be influenced by hype, continual coverage, and the need to preserve one's status or public image. These factors can produce a brief satisfaction—control, reputation, or approval—that outweighs the need to think about long-term effects. According to behavioural economics, public scrutiny and media pressure can lead to irrational behaviour, even influencing well-known individuals to make startling and permanent choices. The convergence of economic pressures and psychological factors creates a complex environment where individuals may resort to violence as a coping mechanism or a means of achieving perceived benefits.
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THE IMPACT OF CHILDHOOD ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT PERSONALITY By: Basima The foundations of psychology of renowned Sigmund Freud’s theories are based on the belief that early childhood plays a critical role in shaping who we become. Why early bonds matter: Why early bonds matter is a question rooted into the depths of psychological research into attachment. According to Bowlby it is essential that our early attachments are secure, poor childhood attachments fail to provide a ‘secure base’ for forming and maintaining future adult relationships and can have negative consequences on emotions. The role of the father: In attachment research the father is anyone who takes on the role of the main male caregiver, this can be but is not necessarily the biological father. While a baby’s relationship with their primary attachment figure (assumed to be the mother), forms the basis of all later close emotional relationships, there is some evidence to show that when fathers do take on the role of the primary caregiver, they are able to adopt the emotional role more typically associated with mothers. According to some Longitudinal studies, the quality of a baby’s attachment with mothers but not fathers was related to attachments in adolescence, attachment to fathers is less important to attachment to mothers. However, Grossman et al found that the quality of fathers’ play with babies was related to the quality of adolescent attachments. This suggests that fathers have a different role from mothers, one that is more to do with play and stimulation, and less to do with emotional development. The role of the mother: Bowlby is known for his the monotropic theory of attachment, earlier in his career he also proposed the theory of maternal deprivation. Maternal deprivation refers to the emotional and intellectual consequences of separation between a child and his/her mother or mother-substitute. Bowlby proposed that continuous care from a mother is essential for normal psychological development, and that prolonged separation from this adult causes serious damage to emotional and intellectual development. Bowlby saw the first two-and-a-half years of life as a critical period for psychological development. If a child is separated from their mother in the absence of suitable care and so deprived of her emotional care for an extended duration during this critical period, then according to Bowlby psychological damage was inevitable. He also believed there was a continuing risk up to the age of five. 6
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THE LONG TERM EFFECTS OF TRAUNA ON ADULT DEVELOPMENT
By: Leah
When people hear the word trauma, they often think of extreme or obvious experiences; serious accidents, violence, or disasters. But trauma can also come from things that seem less visible: constant tension at home, emotional neglect, or growing up without feeling truly safe or supported. These experiences might fade from memory, but their effects often don’t. In fact, research shows that early trauma can shape the way we think, feel, and respond to the world long after childhood ends. Trauma is defined as a psychological and physiological response to distressing experiences that overwhelm an individual’s ability to cope. These experiences might include abuse, loss, or exposure to violence, but they can also stem from long-term emotional deprivation or inconsistency in care. One of the most significant studies in this field, the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study demonstrated a clear link between early trauma and a range of later-life difficulties. Higher ACE scores were associated with increased risks of mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, and substance abuse, as well as chronic illnesses like heart disease and diabetes. From a neurological perspective, trauma has measurable effects on brain development. Repeated exposure to stress can alter the functioning of key regions such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex. The amygdala becomes overly sensitive to perceived threats, leading to heightened fear responses. The hippocampus, which processes memory, can become less effective, making it harder to separate past experiences from present situations. Meanwhile, the prefrontal cortex, responsible for emotional control and decision-making, may struggle to regulate these intense reactions. Together, these changes can result in persistent anxiety, hypervigilance, or emotional instability in adulthood. The psychological effects are equally significant. Adults who experienced trauma early in life often struggle with low self-esteem, chronic guilt, or difficulties in trusting others. Many develop coping behaviours that were once adaptive in childhood but become harmful later on; such as emotional detachment, avoidance, or overdependence. These behaviours can interfere with relationships, work, and self-development, often without the individual realising the origins. Attachment theory helps explain why. Our earliest relationships with caregivers teach us what to expect from others: whether we can trust, whether we’ll be supported, or whether love feels uncertain. When those early experiences are unstable or unsafe, it can make it harder to build secure, lasting relationships later on. Trauma doesn’t just affect emotions or memory, it can influence the body too. Prolonged stress keeps the body’s “fight or flight” system active, increasing levels of hormones like cortisol. Over time, this can lead to inflammation, a weakened immune system, and a higher risk of chronic illnesses such as diabetes, heart disease, and digestive issues. Psychiatrist Dr. Bessel van der Kolk described this well when he said, “the body keeps the score.” Even if we consciously try to forget, the body always remembers. The positive news is that trauma does not have to determine a person’s future. Recovery is possible, and many people find ways to not only heal but also grow stronger. Trauma-informed therapy, such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR), helps people process painful memories and develop healthier coping strategies. Supportive relationships, selfawareness, and education about mental health also make a major difference. Healing can take time, but it is absolutely achievable. Recognising how trauma shapes behaviour and health isn’t just important for psychologists—it matters for everyone. Whether in school, work, or friendships, understanding that people’s reactions often stem from past experiences helps create more empathy and less judgement.
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WHY EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY ISN’T ALWAYS RELIABLE: THE NEUROSCIENCE OF MEMORY DISTORTIONS
By: Aaliyah
When a crime happens, you’d think the people who saw it would be the most reliable source of information. After all, they were there, right? But psychology has shown that eyewitness testimony is far from perfect- it can sometimes even lead innocent people being sent to prison. A famous example of this is the case of Ronald Cotton, who was confidently identified by Jennifer Thompson as the man who had sexually assaulted her. His convictions were based largely on flawed eyewitness identification procedures used by the police at the time. His case is not only unique- the Innocence Project has found that mistaken eyewitness identification played a significant role in 70% of wrongful convictions overturned through DNA testing. Psychologists in the cognitive approach see memory like a system that take information, stores it and brings it back when needed. The Multi-Store Model of Memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) is made up of three different stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM), each with different capacities and durations for holding information. How well we recall something often depends on how effectively it was processed and transferred between these stores- which is why in eyewitness situations, important details can be forgotten or distorted. Another way psychologists explain memory is through the working memory model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), which suggests that short-term memory is not a single, unitary store but rather a system with multiple components that actively process information. During a crime, witness have to process lots of information at once, which can overload their memory in which this makes it harder to remember details accurately later on. Psychologist Frederic Bartlett (1932) showed that memory is reconstructive- we don’t store events like in a movie or video but instead we rebuild our memories every time we want to recall them using parts of what we remember and then building up the rest with what makes sense to us. This leads to the idea of schemas; a cognitive framework or concept that helps us to organize and interpret information. However, this can lead to distortion by influencing how we interpret and remember information. They can cause us to misremember details, selectively attend to information that confirms our existing beliefs and even cause false memories.
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Neuroscience can help us to explain why these distortions happen. The hippocampus which is involved in memory, learning and emotion has the job to hold short-term memories and transfer them to the long-term storage in our brains, but stress can affect how well it works. The amygdala processes things you see or hear and uses that input to learn what’s dangerous so if you encounter something similar in the future, your amygdala will cause you to feel fear or similar emotions. Again, stress or adrenaline can sometimes make memories clearer, but stress usually makes them less accurate. Psychologists have therefore developed methods to improve eye-witness testimony accuracy. This has been done through the development of cognitive interviews a method used to enhance memory recall, particularly in eyewitness testimony involving techniques such as reporting, changing order of recall etc- all designed to reduce schema. In legal practice, the use of expert witnesses in court can educate the jury about the case to prevent unequal justice. Eyewitness testimony might seem like the strongest evidence however memory is heavy influenced by many factors. Understanding how our memory works and function helps us to prevent wrongful convictions by protecting innocent people from accusatory crimes.
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CHAPTER 2;
SOCIOLOGY
A CHALLENGE TO THE SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION MASKING FOR MARKS: EDUCATIONAL CONFORMITY IN NEURODIVERGENT STUDENTS CULTURAL CAPITAL IS THE SCHOOL SYSTEM TRULY MERITOCRATIC?
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A CHALLENGE TO THE SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION By: Sophia Imagine a school where lessons are optional. Imagine an education system where students possess the freedom to completely govern themselves. In this article I will uncover the unusual functions and the democratic community of Summerhill School; a real juxtaposition to the traditional school system we are used to. Acquiring the motto, ‘Freedom, not licence’, here's how it operates. Founded in 1921 in Leiston, Suffolk, and still running today, this school is inspired by Alexander Sutherland Neill’s beliefs, consisting of ideas criticising the unfair repression and dismissal of children's natural freedom and creativity. Summerhill obtains an order based on progressive educational principles, including intrinsic motivation and self-regulation. Such principles are seen to be valued over external discipline and exams. How does the school work? Firstly, the most significant, shocking factor remains to be the student's freedom and selfregulation, especially around attendance. Lessons are optional; daily, pupils decide themselves whether to attend school, and there is a full dismissal of compulsion. While certain children simply skip lessons for extensive periods of time with no sanction, others maintain regular attendance. This revolves around Neil's argument stating that forced learning is meaningless and students learn best when personally motivated. Secondly, the school mirrors a ‘democracy in action’ and holds weekly meetings which act as a legislative and judicial body. Such meetings put forward an allowance of every pupil and teacher to have an equal vote at each gathering. Meetings establish rules. What is the appropriate noise level? Or what should a sensible curfew be? Students cooperate to create and enforce these rules, as well as collectively judging and evaluating teacher behaviour - an extremely unique factor, rarely seen in education. Abnormally, students don’t find themselves too concerned about any unfamiliar consequences of discipline their behaviour may lead to. Summerhill holds no general authoritarian punishments. Students work along with the community to impose what they deem to be appropriate sanctions in the case of breaking or twisting their self-decided rules, and individual teachers don’t have any personal control. This is thought to be ideal for promoting accountability and responsibility, rather than a mandatory obedience to authority. Exams. Is the curriculum still supported? Yes, the subjects of the National Curriculum are available to all, however, the pupils determine themselves whether to study them or not. GCSEs and ALevels are available to everyone. But again, only with personal intent. Due to the extensive liberation accessible, this is often done with intensive last-minute preparation. Nevertheless, this point exists to put emphasis on self-directed learning instead of mandatory examinations. Lastly, it is important to understand the environment of Summerhill. A strong focus on creativity, music, art, expression is kept alive, and pupils are privileged with a large amount of free time for personal tasks like exploration, socialisation. External sociological connections: In the sociological perspective of functionalism, viewing society as a system consisting of interconnected parts and institutions collaborating to maintain social stability: Durkheim, claims that schools transmit shared norms and values. Along with Parsons, who stated that schools act as a metaphorical bridge between family and wider society, including the universalistic and particularistic standards dividing them. 11
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Yet, the Summerhill case study highly critiques and undermines this. Unlike their claims, in this school children are not put under any force or pressure to conform to anything or anyone. This can be easily used to weaken the scheme of functionalism and swiftly raise the question: Is a functionalising society possible without imbedding discipline and hierarchy into people at a minimal age? Another sociological perspective which is likewise contested with Summerhill: Marxism. An idea that analyses the success of societies based on class conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. In the borders of Marxism, Althusser expresses schools to be Ideological State Apparatuses, meaning they are designed to reproduce capitalism by instilling obedience. Including the propositions of Bowles and Gintis: correspondence principle, where school mirrors the workplace with its authority, timetables, and competitions. Correspondence principle is challenged entirely by Summerhill, since it possesses zero aspects of hierarchy or conformity training. Although, this could simply be perceived as an anti-capitalist system of education which is designed to produce autonomy rather than obedience, rejecting Marxism. Concluding criticisms and successes: One notable criticism is the lack of structure within the school, which can effortlessly place students in a position to fall behind with a single decision. Not all children can progress and grow or even understand the value of education without a sense of guidance. Moreover, a decline in real-world preparation and application in students is present. Employers and universities will expect individuals with a set understanding of the concepts of qualification and discipline. No matter how beneficial Neil’s ideas may appear, they don’t go hand in hand with the real-world capitalist workplaces and unfairly set up Summerhill children at a disadvantage compared to their peers. To build on this, Neil’s design has been confronted with a possible romanticization of childhood, and that his vision appears too idealistic. It is obvious that a child's underexperienced mind may naturally avoid challenges if constantly left to choose for themselves. Despite the numerous faults introduced, Summerhill does behold some successes and positive outcomes, nevertheless. For example, their 2007 Ofsted report found that pupils are in fact articulate and confident, understand emotional intellect and their personal social responsibility. It is even evident that former students frequently thrive in creative careers such as entrepreneurship, performance, and art, demonstrating a truth in Neil's opinions. Even the students personally claim that the Summerhill alumni values and beholds independence, critical thinking with self-assurance and confidence. This was made evident in 1999, when the UK government attempted to close the school for ‘failing to provide proper education’. Summerhill’s students chose to contest the notice in court, and sources describe pupils demanding their voices to be heard, leading the government to reconsider and back down. Overall, I would argue that an attempt to put a label on Summerhill school to be either good or bad is impossible, and somewhat controversial. Summerhill has established a democratic system, unusual for a school, as well as a relationship described as ‘tumultuous’ with the UK government. As much as it is undeniably intriguing to acknowledge the school's format, and watch it highlight the flaws of sociological perspectives, the traditional school system and even the government, all while remaining to stay running. I remain to believe that the criticisms outweigh the positives, and it is unjust to educate children in an undisciplined and unguided style, setting them back immensely and training them against the functions of wider society.
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IS THE SCHOOL SYSTEM TRULY MERITOCRATIC?
By: Dhyana
The definition of the word meritocratic means that individuals succeed on the basis of their talents and achievements. This underpins the modern education system’s ethos with high exam results being the defining factor. Naturally, we assume that students who have performed extremely well are the ones who are putting in the most effort and time in their work at school and at home. This contrasts with the students who unfortunately don’t achieve these results and are expected to “hopefully pass” as opposed to excel. The school system will present this as that every individual has an equal chance to succeed because they all start from the same baselineknowledge and skills. However is that truly the reality? Functionalists will agree that school is a meritocratic system and that everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed. Talcott Parsons described school as a bridge between family (which treat children as special) and wider society (which treats everyone equally). In school, children are judged by universalistic standards, meaning that every individuals status is dependent on their effort. One issue with the functionalist view is that it doesn’t consider privileges that middle-class students may have access to like private education, educational resources and cultural capital that working class children may not access. Nevertheless, this is extremely reasonable because they are objectively assessed on exam results, which is carried on to sort them into their appropriate work roles for the future. In short, it is the pupils ultimate responsibility to achieve their limits because they all have an equal opportunity to perform. However, Marxists would definitely disagree. They don’t consider the idea of school being a meritocratic institution but instead say that it reproduces and legitimises class inequality. This is because it serves the interests of the capitalist class (the bourgeoisie) by introducing norms and values that mirror a workplace. This is called the ‘correspondence principle’ by Bowles and Gintis. An example of this is that we must obey teachers similarly to in a workplace environment, you must obey your manager. The implementation of this hierarchy and these social norms are to ensure that working-class children are prepared to accept their future exploitation. Conversely, Marxists don’t factor that working-class students can change their social position and can gain an equal opportunity with modern help like scholarships and student bursary. Yet, these theorists even went as far to say that the idea of meritocracy is a myth and factors like social class define success opposed to actual effort and achievement. “Education disguises the fact that economic success is largely inherited”- Bowles and Gintis In conclusion, some people would argue that the school system is fair and provides equal opportunity for everybody to succeed. This may perhaps be the reality but we cant ignore the truth in how social class has defined our society for decades, not to mention the actual education system and will continue to do so. It doesn’t take away from our societies positive progression in attempting to provide people with a second chance but it’s no secret that the wealthier individuals manage to stay within the minority and excel. This raises the obvious question to people’s minds, Is the school system truly meritocratic? 13
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MASKING FOR MARKS: EDUCATIONAL CONFORMITY IN NEURODIVERGENT STUDENTS
By: Pratiksha
What is masking? Masking is a coping mechanism exhibited amongst neurodivergent individuals. It is an act of suppression of neurological conditions to adhere as more socially acceptable in a neurotypical world. Most commonly this is seen amongst autistic individuals however the term is applicable to anyone under the neurodiversity umbrella. How does education encourage ‘masking’ in neurodivergent students? Education is built around the social expectations of a neurotypical individual. These behaviours often reflect traits that are desirable within society in the context of employment, such as obedience and dedication. Schools are set to conform to workplace formalities hence many of the etiquettes learnt in school are carried out into social environments outside of school. The general expectation amongst students is to adhere to acceptable, rigid social norms in school environments. Classrooms encourage complacency with certain behavioural expectations as it is equated to performance. Differences in learning and communication styles amongst neurodivergent students are often dismissed as it does not align with expected behaviours and is seen as an ‘outlier’ case. The separation of ‘special needs’ students further creates a divide that establishes neurodivergent needs as secondary to the norm which further discourages the expression of this behaviour. For this purpose, conformity is expected in order to not cause disruption socially and within teaching. School, like many institutions is unfairly representative of a certain demographic of the population. The approach to social interactions taught by schools favours neurotypical expectations. This makes socialising a performative act for neurodivergent individuals in order to find a social group within school. Social conventions developed from a young age encourage neurodivergent students to ‘adapt’ to their social environment in the form of masking – the suppression of identifiable neurodivergent traits in order to be deemed as more socially acceptable. General school culture amongst peers often discourages openly ‘strange’ behaviour seen amongst pupils on the spectrum such as the act of ‘stimming’. Masking avoids social stigma and is a form of compensation to fit in socially. The suppression of neurodivergent behaviour is often rewarded in school contexts. Acts of eye contact, raising hands and sitting still are idealised as ‘respectful’ behaviour and is encouraged to be expressed in students in an act of politeness. For this, masking further becomes incentivised to live up to adult expectations of esteem. In other cases, other expressions that goes against the allistic ideals are actively punished and regarded as rude and unfavourable. It is important to note that masking is seen more amongst females as often they are better at mimicking social environments. This behaviour is further encouraged by schools as it is argued that education places value in typically more feminine traits and lines of thinking due to a perceived greater social maturity in girls. By this, neurodivergent females are not only encouraged to mask in order to please authority and social peers but also to fulfil gendered expectations. Furthermore, socially disruptive behaviour is more acceptable in male populations. This limitation of expression means that female neurodiversity expression is often silenced as they are taught conformity sooner which leads to a higher number of cases being undiagnosed. 14
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Why is this bad? In many cases, this leads to the neglect of neurodivergent needs within the classroom which result in worse academic performances. Research by the Institute for Public Policy Research comments that 40% of students with special education needs feel adequately supported by systems within school environment. This statistic is likely to be higher as the study does not account for students who exhibit ‘masking’ behaviour, nor does it represent misdiagnosed individuals. The encouragement to uphold certain social and academic standards is further reflected in the dropout rate of neurodivergent people within higher education. Studies from amongst the neurodivergent population of the University of Birmingham found that neurodivergent students were 10 times more likely to drop out and not complete university courses. The educational system makes itself known as a place unwelcoming for student who possess different behavioural and learning needs. The long-term consequences of this form of neglect can lead to further developing mental health issues. This system may also cause mental exhaustion for neurodivergent individuals as the act of masking is an active process in many cases. Masking acts as a barrier that prevents students who may have issues from accessing support. Masking may severely stunt a person’s ability to navigate social interactions as often times the illusion of social abilities is seen whilst in reality it is superficial. These factors creates isolation and alienation amongst neurodivergent people that leads to cases of depression, anxiety and a high suicide rate. In the case of many female students, it often leads to misdiagnosing of mental conditions or the potential to live completely undiagnosed. Supporting the needs of neurodivergent individuals can help create a more welcoming social environment for neurodivergent students. Dealing with the systematic issues found within education may provide more solace to neurodivergent students and prevent the increasing number of mental health issues experienced amongst these students. By developing a better understanding of forms of neurodivergent expression we can accommodate for the needs of neurodivergent individuals and promote better tolerance and acceptance of these conditions within society.
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CULTURAL CAPITAL
By:Acacia
What is cultural capital? Cultural capital is defined as the preset advantages children enter school with particularly upper-class children. This can range from diction, trips to museums & galleries, accent, confidence, and knowledge of the world. The concept of cultural capital was developed by the French Marxist Bourdieu, who, like other Marxists, believed that the education system was unfair and not based on merit. Privileged children having cultural capital and others having a lack of it means that even before school, children are placed on an uneven playing field. An opposing viewpoint to this would be that of functionalist theorists, who argue that the education system is a meritocracy, where hard work is rewarded and everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed. However, this view fails to examine the effects of gender, ethnicity and social class on success at school. Why is there such a huge gap between children of middle-class and working-class parents within state schools? As children grow up, the gap between the middle and working classes is seen to further expand. This is displayed in the statistic that Eton, a private school is sending 211 students to Oxbridge while over 1300 state schools have sent none. Why is this? Some sociologists attribute this to cultural deprivation. Cultural deprivation is created by the language parents use with their children from a young age, the parents’ education, and workingclass subcultures. Leon Feinstein (2008) discovered that working-class parents are less likely to produce children who are critical thinkers. In his view a key factor for this is language. When working class parents talk to their children, they are more likely to ask questions that require simple answers that don’t challenge the child’s thinking as opposed to middle-class parents, who are more likely to ask open-ended questions that push their child’s cognitive ability. Speech codes are an important factor in how well children settle into school when they first start. Speech codes were found, by Basil Bernstein (1975), to distinguish working-class and middleclass children even at a young age. Working-class children are more likely to use a restricted code, where sentences are disjointed and context-bound, meaning they assume their listener knows what they are talking about. Context-bound speech lacks clarity and often includes gestures as the young person struggles to express themselves through their limited vocabulary. On the other hand, middle-class students tend to use elaborated code, which isn’t context-bound and is more explicit, meaning the listener fully grasps what the speaker is talking about. So how does this translate into the context of education? In schools, elaborated code is the standard for textbooks and teachers to use, meaning that middle-class children are at an advantage, as they already hold the key to decoding the information. Unlike middle-class students, working-class children are unfamiliar with the speech code that is used within schools. However, the role of social class can often intertwine with the education of the parents. Although children of middle-class parents are more likely to have cultural capital than lower social classes, this isn’t the only pattern observed. It has been noted that the education of the parents is a more heavily influencing factor of whether a child is culturally deprived or possesses cultural capital. 16
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Another avenue to explore is private schools when considering the effects of wealth and social class on education. Private schools, unlike state schools, don’t have to follow the national curriculum. Does this put these children at a greater advantage? It could be argued that private schools follow a New Right and neoliberal concept of the marketisation of education. This is where the school behaves as a business would to attract its consumer–pupils and their parents. Is this an advantage or a disadvantage, and should state schools become marketized? Two New Right theorists, Chubb and Moe, proposed a system where every family was given a voucher with money attached to it, and whatever school the child attended would receive that money. The benefits of this system would be that schools would have to listen to their consumers more. Pupils and their parents would more directly affect their funding, just like parents at private schools. However, the concern is that schools would begin to spend more money on superficial things to promote themselves instead of improving the education they provide. Another dangerous aspect of the marketisation of state schools would be that low performing schools would become stuck in a vicious cycle where they don’t receive funding, so their grades remain low and their funding does as well. Children who start school with cultural capital and/or go to private school are at an advantage compared to those who go to state school and/or are culturally deprived. Children from private schools often enter higher-paying and higher-status jobs, and their socioeconomic status is often entwined with their success. Should the government introduce the voucher scheme to begin marketisation, or should private schools be abolished? The New Right would argue private schools should remain. In my opinion the marketisation of schools with the voucher scheme in theory sounds like a great opportunity that should be trialled and observed. If successful it should become a permeant part of our education system. I also believe that private schooling should be abolished. This would allow the culturally deprived and those that possess cultural capital to socialise each other. It would also mean an increased likelihood of wealthier parents donating to state schools leading to an improved education for all.
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CHAPTER 3;
ECONOMICS
INCOME INEQUALITY AND THE U.S. LABOUR MARKET HOW DO ELECTORAL SYSTEMS SHAPE ECONOMIC POLICY? HOW MUCH MONEY DOES THE GOVERNMENT WANT TO BORROW? JAPAN’S NEGATIVE INTEREST RATE POLICY
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INCOME INEQUALITY AND THE U.S. LABOUR MARKET: HOW EMPLOYMENT TRENDS AND FISCAL POLICY SHAPE NET HOUSEHOLD INCOMES
By: Hiya and Khelan
Income inequality in the United States has reached levels unseen since the early 20th century. According to the US Census Bureau, in 2022 the top 20% of households earned over half of total national income, while the bottom 20% earned just 3%. This growing disparity is not solely a result of differences in raw earnings; it reflects deeper structural changes in the labour market and the evolving role of the US tax and welfare system. Labour Market Changes and Pre-Tax Income Inequality The US labour market has undergone significant transformations over the last four decades. Since the 1980s, economic globalisation, technological advancement and a decline in unionisation have reshaped the nature of work, leading to a sharp rise in pre-tax income inequality. 1. Wage Polarisation: Middle skill jobs, especially in manufacturing and clerical work, has declined due to automation and offshoring. In contrast, demand for high skilled jobs in finance, technology and professional services has surged. This process is known as “job polarisation” which has hollowed out the middle class and led to a divided labour market where high earners see rapid income growth while lower wage workers remain stagnant. 2. Decline in Union Power: Union membership in the U.S. fell from over 20% in the 1980s to around 10% in 2023. Weaker bargaining power led to slower wage growth, particularly among blue-collar and service sector workers. This has worsened wage inequality and reduced protections for lower income earners. 3. Rise of Non Standard Employment: Gig economy workers, part-time jobs and contract-based employment has become more common. These roles often lack benefits like healthcare or paid leave, reducing job security and further constraining income growth for many households. The combined result is that market incomes (earned before taxes or transfers) have become increasingly concentrated at the top. From a microeconomic perspective, this shifts household labour supply incentives and reduces consumption potential among lower income families. From a macroeconomic view, it raises concerns about aggregate demand, social mobility and economic stability.
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The Role of Taxes and Transfers: While the labour market primarily determines gross income; the tax and welfare system plays a crucial role in determining net household income - the amount that families actually take home and use for consumption or saving. 1. Progressive Taxation: The federal income tax in the US is nominally progressive, with higher earners paying higher marginal tax rates. However, the taxation of capital gains and dividends at lower rates, combined with various deductions and loopholes limits its redistributive impact. High income households often earn a substantial portion of their income from capital, which is taxed more lightly than labour. 2. Social Transfers: Key welfare programs such as the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), SNAP (food stamps), Medicaid and housing assistance provide crucial support for low income households. These transfers increase effective disposable income and reduce poverty. For example, the EITC is known for boosting labour force participation among single mothers and reduce child poverty significantly. 3. Net Redistribution Effects: According to the Congressional Budget Office (2023), taxes and transfers reduce income inequality substantially. The Gini coefficient for market income was estimated at 0.51, but after taxes and transfers it fell to 0.44. Despite this reduction, US redistribution remains relatively limited compared to European countries, where stronger social safety nets and universal benefits achieve greater equality in post-tax income. Microeconomic and Macroeconomic Intersections The interaction between labour markets and fiscal policy creates important intersections between micro and macroeconomic outcomes: ·
Work Incentives: Programs like the EITC increase net income without reducing work
incentives. However, some benefits create "cliffs" were earning slightly more can cause a household to lose eligibility, potentially discouraging additional labour supply. ·
Aggregate Demand and Stability: High inequality can reduce aggregate demand, as
lower income households have higher MPC. This can dampen long term growth and increase the risk of macroeconomic instability. ·
Intergenerational Mobility: Labour market disparities along with unequal access to
education and healthcare, contribute to persistent inequality across generations. This reduces economic efficiency and long-term human capital development. Income inequality in the US is driven by deep-seated labour market trends, including technological change, globalisation and institutional shifts. While the tax and welfare system does play a redistributive role, it only partially offsets the growing concentration of pre-tax income. From a microeconomic side, policies must account for incentives and labour supply decisions. From a macroeconomic perspective, addressing inequality is critical for maintaining a stable, inclusive and productive economy.
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JANUARY 2026 /VOL 2
WGGS PRESENTS
HOW DO ELECTORAL SYSTEMS SHAPE ECONOMIC POLICY?
By: Heer
When examining economic policy, people often think in terms of ideology considering whether governments lean left or right by favouring free markets or state intervention. However, beyond ideology lies a more structural factor which affects policy: the electoral system. The rules dictating how votes are translated into political power can determine who gets elected as well as the kinds of fiscal and economic policies the government decides to implement once in office. Crucially, electoral systems can influence policy by shaping incentives. In majoritarian systems such as First Past the Post used by the UK and US, elections produce single party governments. These governments often place an emphasis on targeted spending to win over constituencies which can result in less income redistribution and a narrower focus on fiscal policy aimed at vote maximisation rather than long term efficiency. In contrast to this, proportional representation (PR) systems produce coalition governments and because they must satisfy a broader base of political support, they are more likely to implement welfare policies and engage in income redistribution. Research has shown that PR systems are associated with higher levels of public spending in areas like healthcare and education. This reflects an economic strategy that prioritises equity and social security over political gains. The use of redistributive fiscal policy is influenced by electoral systems as in PR systems the median voter is more likely to favour public goods and redistribution which may push policy in that direction. In majoritarian systems, parties may target the swing voter (often wealthier or more centrist) which reduces the incentive for redistribution. This may explain why countries like Sweden or Norway have more extensive welfare states and lower income inequality than majoritarian systems like the United Kingdom or US. Electoral systems can also affect time horizons. Therefore, majoritarian governments which face frequent shifts in power may give short term gains priority over long term planning. This can create the risk of political business cycles where governments manipulate fiscal policy just before elections to boost their popularity regardless of long-term economic sustainability. Whereas coalition governments under PR may be more consensus-driven leading to consistent economic policy over time. However, PR systems can lead to political gridlock especially when coalitions are ideologically fragmented as this can delay economic reforms and make it difficult to respond quickly during financial crises. Meanwhile, majoritarian systems allow for quick decision making which can be economically advantageous during periods requiring strong fiscal intervention. So, ultimately, the structure of electoral systems creates different economic trade-offs. Majoritarian systems can offer efficiency and responsiveness but often at the cost of greater inequality and less redistributive spending whilst PR systems may deliver more inclusive and equitable outcomes but can suffer from coordination problems and fiscal inefficiency due to competing coalition demands. Understanding these dynamics is essential for analysing how democratic institutions shape economic outcomes. Economic policy is not simply a matter of technical decision-making but is fundamentally shaped by the political incentives that electoral systems create. So, whether in debates about welfare spending or fiscal responsibility, the design of electoral institutions plays a critical role in determining whose interests economic policy ultimately serves.
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HOW MUCH MONEY DOES THE GOVERNMENT WANT TO BORROW? Why does the government borrow money?
By: Madalina
The UK government generally spends more than it raises in taxes like income tax and National Insurance. To fill this gap, the government can raise taxes, cut spending or borrow money. If the government was to raise taxes, people would have less money to spend, businesses make less profit which is bad for jobs and wages. This leads to lower profits and so businesses end up paying less tax. Therefore, the government often have to borrow to boost the economy and pay for big projects like new railways. How much is the government borrowing? It fluctuates from month to month due to different causes. In January the government tends to borrow less as many people pay a large amount of their annual tax bill in one go. Therefore, you typically look across a whole year. In the last full financial year to March 2025, the government borrowed £145.3 billion and so far from April 2025-August 2025, the government has borrowed £81.8 billion. The national debt for the UK is currently around £2.9 trillion. That is roughly the same value of all of the goods and services produced in the UK within a year. At this level, it is more than double seen from 1980-2008 when there was a global financial crisis. COVID pushed the UK’s debt up however, in comparison to the size of the economy, these figures are still relatively low. How does it borrow money? The government does this by selling bonds. A bond is a loan you make to a government or company and in return the issuer pays regular interest payments and promises to repay the initial investment. Government bonds in the UK are known as gilts and are considered very safe, with very little risk that the money will not be repaid. The government is able to sell short and long-term guilts to allow it to borrow money over different periods of time. How much money does the government have to pay in interest? The larger the debt, the more interest the government has to pay. When interest rates were low, this cost wasn’t as great. As the Bank of England started to raise interest rates in 2021, it became more noticeable. Why does this matter? When the government has to pay back more in interest, it has to set aside more money for the debts and interest it has to pay. This means it has less to spend on public services like education and public transport. This can worsen the quality of these services which has 22 great impacts on those that use these services.
JANUARY 2026 /VOL 2
WGGS PRESENTS
JAPAN’S NEGATIVE INTEREST RATE POLICY
By: Yasmin
A brief overview While many countries struggle with high inflation, Japan has struggled with persistent deflation since its 1989 stock market crash and banking crisis.
In
2016, the Bank of Japan (BoJ) implemented Negative Interest Rate Policy (NIRP), cutting interest rates to -0.1%, to prevent recession after traditional cuts constantly failed to increase inflation. The theory behind it NIRP aimed to increase inflation to prevent recession, by encouraging investment, consumption and exports. Firstly, NIRP ensured commercial banks were charged for keeping excess reserves with the BoJ, encouraging banks to lend more, which lowered borrowing costs so aimed to increase consumption and investment. This would increase aggregate demand(AD)
and therefore increase prices, stimulating inflation.
Similarly, NIRP aimed to disincentive saving and thus increase spending. Secondly, NIRP aimed to depreciate the Yen, making exports cheaper, further stimulating AD and inflation. Did it work? NIRP had limited success. While, the Yen did depreciate by 10%, NIRP failed to increase consumption and investment. This was due to its ageing population, with older consumers habitually saving despite lowered borrowing costs and the decreased incentive to save.
Moreover, having struggled with deflation since the 1990s,
low
confidence was rooted in Japan, so NIRP did not improve the confidence needed to significantly increase consumption and investment. Judgement NIRP slightly helped prevent further deflation and so a recession, but failed to meet its inflation target. NIRP boosted exports through Yen depreciation, but domestic consumption remained weak, showing the limits of monetary tools in addressing structural challenges. 23