VOL. 1 (2025-26) - WINTER TERM
CAFÉ SCIENTIFIQUE ~CONNECTED~
CONTENTS 1 Introductions
Café Scientifique News & Events
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Student And CST Articles: Biology Chemistry Physics Mathematics Computer science Engineering Psychology Economics
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Graphical content: Memes Comic
20 Media: Artists inspired by science Book recommendations Film recommendations
24 Acknowledgements
A MESSAGE FROM THE CAFÉ SCIENTIFIQUE TEAM
The New Team: We are all very excited to be taking on our roles for this year and we really hope that you enjoy this first release. Firstly, before we dive into the science, our Team wants to take this opportunity to introduce ourselves as we take on this responsibility to bring you termly Newsletters. Taking on the role of Café Scientifique newsletter editor is Rebecca and aiding in this feat is Simran the Society’s chair.
This Terms Theme: This year the New Café Scientifique team has decided to centre our themes around the core values of our school: collaboration, curiosity and imagination. Within these themes we have coinciding Newsletter titles, this term’s of which is ‘Connected’. The relevance of the theme “connection” is especially important during this period of extreme technological interconnectivity which we are all affected by daily. Within STEM it is incredibly vital we acknowledge that by drawing together different areas and forging connections between them we can reveal a whole array of new possibilities.
We have all appreciated the previous newsletters and we want to maintain that same standard entering this school year and aim to make our predecessors proud. A large thank you to Cherrie, Karine and Sahana for all the hard work you put into it last year and for making it the staple that it is today. Thank you to every student who submitted an article. Curating and compiling this Newsletter wouldn’t have been possible without your entries. We really appreciate every one! 1
This Term’s Events AWIS Donut Sale For our first charity sale this year, we raised £130.60 for the Association for Women in Science Charity (AWIS). We chose this charity as it reflect the values of the Café Scientifique team and our goals this year. AWIS was established in 1971 and, over the past 50 years, they have worked towards promoting their 4 main aims: Advocacy (fighting for a safe and inclusive space for women in STEM), belonging (creating a community of support to inspire and build confidence), career resources (fostering personal growth and career advancements by providing new opportunities) and recognition (highlighting women’s achievements to make women feel valued and break down stereotypes). For each objective, they provide information and resources on how to achieve each for organisations. Our donation has helped AWIS’s efforts to working towards a more equal society through dealing with women’s disproportionate barriers to success and frequent harassment in the workspace.
KS3 WINNER
KS4 -KS5 WINNER
AASHAGA
RHIANNON
Slime Making Activity This term, the Café Scientifique team hosted a slime making activity for KS3 students. On Friday 7th, around 20 students joined the Café Scientifique team for a lunchtime of fun, where students had an exciting opportunity to collaborate with their peers to create customed slime. Students followed a set of instructions and experimented with different textures and colours. It was a great chance to see students helping each other and problem solve when their slime wasn’t going to plan! This was a great success where both our team and the students had fun. We are excited for future Café Scientifique events, and we hope you are too, so keep your eye out for upcoming opportunities!
Written by: Simran 2
Physics
~Connected~
HOW DOES THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION REMAIN CONNECTED TO THE EARTH?
Written by: Zoe
The International Space Station is primarily a laboratory for study of various scientific fields and acts as a testing ground for new technology, also providing a unique vantage point for monitoring the earth. It has been in orbit for 25 years and welcomed over 250 astronauts - so how does it remain in stable orbit? Isaac Newton's Cannonball Thought Experiment: Newton asks us to imagine a cannonball fired horizontally from a tall mountain. He deduced that as the cannonball travels, it's path curves towards the earth due to the force of gravity, however, if the velocity is high enough the curve of the cannonball would be identical to the earth's curve. This means that it would not hit the ground, rather following the earth's curvature without reaching the surface. The ISS follows a similar idea. As scary as it sounds, the Space Station is constantly falling towards earth but has enough velocity that it never hits the Earth, continuing its journey in a stable orbit.
Source of image: Nasa.Gov/International-SpaceStation/ this picture was taken by expedition 56 crew members from a Soyuz Spacecraft.
Key Factors: Height and Velocity: The ISS must stay at an altitude of 402 kilometres above Earth and travel at a speed of 7.6km/s. This velocity keeps the ISS from falling into our atmosphere. While the altitude could be increased, this would also require the velocity to be decreased to stay in orbit. Additionally, the ISS's orbital velocity is in perfect balance with the centripetal force (the force that acts toward the centre of a circular path, keeping the object maintaining circular motion), ensuring stable orbit of the Earth. Will the ISS ever fall? Yes - despite its stability, the ISS will eventually be deteriorated. However, as it reaches the end of its useful life, rather than being left to uncontrollably burn up, the ISS will be brought down in 2031. Something known as a 'space tug' will gradually reduce the Space Station's orbit, directing it to a remote part of the Pacific Ocean where it can safely re-enter the Earth's atmosphere. This area is known as the 'Spacecraft Cemetery'. The ISS stays in perfect orbit thanks to the principles of physics discovered by Sir Isaac Newton. While the station is constantly falling towards the Earth, velocity and altitude are kept in a perfect balance - allowing the ISS to stay connected to the Earth for 25 years. 3
Physics
~CONNECTED~
THE COSMIC WEB THE UNIVERSE’S GREAT Scientists have investigated CONNECTION
During moments when we allow our minds to contemplate what might lie One of the first projects to explore the beyond our planet, most of cosmic structure was led by astronomer us will think about an endless Marc Davis. He, alongside three other darkness dotted with planets scientists mapped galaxies to make models and stars. However, scientists of the universe. Their goal was to figure out have discovered something what caused galaxies to form this web-like far more complex; a hidden pattern.
We know that the visible universe, including the planets, other stars and galaxies, is made up of protons, neutrons and electrons which are bundled together to make atoms. In the 20th century scientists discovered that this makes up less than 5% of the universe’s total mass. The rest of the Since the mid-20th century, universe consists of dark matter (25%) and dark energy (70%). Dark matter is a crucial we have known that the substance, so named because it does not universe is approximately 14 billion years old and continues emit any light. Areas with more dark matter have been found to pull in extra material, to expand. However, in the creating denser areas such as galaxies. 1980s scientists discovered that galaxies are not simply However, areas with less gravity are weaker, scattered randomly across and so the space became an empty void the universe; instead, they known as a black hole. Over billions of form long filaments (strands) years, this process has formed the with large voids between filamentary pattern seen in maps – the them. Some scientists use an cosmic web. Yet this web was not formed analogy of this being like a randomly; it has been shaped by gravity huge cobweb covered in dew acting on dark matter. drops, with each of these representing an individual galaxy. Galaxies forming part of a cosmic web has changed how scientists have understood the structure of our universe.
structure which connects everything we see. Named the Cosmic Web, this structure represents an extensive network of galaxies and matter, laced together by gravity.
the possibility that tiny, near massless particles - called Neutrinos - that rarely interact with matter, passing through almost everything could be dark matter. However, simulations demonstrated that this theory didn’t hold true, as neutrinos move too quickly to form clumps (they move close to the speed of light) which led to the idea of something called cold dark matter – slow moving, heavy particles that let gravity pull matter into dense, weblike structures. Without this dark matter, the cosmic web would not be the way it is today as galaxies would be entirely different. The cosmic web shows that our universe is deeply connected – through invisible matter, gravity, and shared origins. So, the next time you let your mind consider what looks like vast empty space, think instead about the fact it is part of a vast, interconnected and invisible structure.
Written By: Charlotta 4
Physics
Chemistry
Connections within atoms Why do protons seem to ignore the repulsion of electrostatics forces?
How can subatomic particles exist alongside each other to form atoms as we know them?
Why don’t Electrons hurtle straight into the nucleus?
The Electromagnetic Force: As we know the electromagnetic force works by creating a pull between oppositely charged particles (electromagnetic force of attraction) and a push between similarly charged particles (electromagnetic force of repulsion). The electrostatic force acts on particles through the exchange of virtual photons ( this is known as the exchange particle). All of the fundamental forces are exerted through exchange particles. As if particle physics wasn’t already complicated enough we have to add more particles into the mix when figuring out how forces work! However, to try and explain the need for these particles to be present think of forces as causing a change in momentum and this change in momentum occurs due to the exchange of particles. Imagine your friend throws you a ball, when you catch it you will experience a small push backwards as you catch the ball. This push away is comparable to the repulsive electromagnetic force between two protons where the ball acts as the virtual photon. This analogy becomes slightly more tenuous when explaining attractive forces. So instead, a common, preferred analogy would be the throwing of a boomerang. When the boomerang is thrown it loops around and comes at you from behind thus when you catch it you experience a push towards your friend. This electromagnetic force of attraction holds the electrons around the nucleus. The existence of electrons within atoms introduces a range of interesting yet headache inducing complexities. A basic planetary model paints a picture where the electrons are constantly circling the nucleus. However, whilst this proposed structure seems tangible if sub atomic particles acted like celestial bodies akin to the planets in our solar system this idea can be deemed illogical when it is taken into consideration that the electron is a charged particle. When accelerated charged particles emit radiation. When in orbit the particle is constantly accelerated (in orbit the direction is constantly changing by small fractions, this change in direction means there is a change in velocity, therefore acceleration). Hence if in orbit the electron would be constantly radiating energy and would spiral into the nucleus. Thus it can be deduced that the electrons do not circle the nucleus in the same way that planets orbit the stars. These Issues with the positioning and movement of electrons in atoms can be explained through quantum mechanics. To keep this relatively simple an electrons exact position cannot be exactly predicted, instead there are regions within an atom where the probability of an electron being found is high, orbitals. Whilst this may not be the most satisfying conclusion as to the positions of electrons, a full explanation would require a very convoluted and complicated explanation of quantum mechanics. A planetary model representing a lithium atom showing the electrons in orbits circling a dense positively charge nucleus.
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The Strong Nuclear Force: Strong repulsive forces between the protons in the nucleus mean that a second force (the strong nuclear force) must be present in order for a stable nucleus to be obtained. This Strong Nuclear Force isn’t always attractive, depending on the distance between the subatomic particles the repulsive & attractive nature of the force will change. At 1 fentometre the attraction of the Strong Nuclear Force begins to decrease and by 3 fentometres it is negligible. However, closer than 0.5 fentometres the strong nuclear force is actually repulsive. The exchange particles in the Strong Nuclear Force are gluons or pions. In the case of Protons and Neutrons (which are hadrons) the exchange particle would be pions. Whilst this Strong Nuclear Force effects the nucleons in the nucleus it will have no effect on the electrons.
References: Simon Fraser, ‘Atomic Theory’: Why do electrons not fall into the nucleus?, LibreTexts
Written By: Rebecca
Edited By: Benjamin
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Biology ~Connected~
Written By: Abby
“When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it hitched to everything else in the Universe.” “When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it hitched to everything else in the Universe.” From water currents and coral reefs to blue whales and whale sharks, everything within the ocean is interlinked. Each and every part of the oceanic community is vital to each other’s existence. For instance, the health of a distant reef can depend on larvae from a more sheltered area, mangrove forests can support fish populations in offshore reefs by providing nurseries, and ocean currents act like conveyor belts, distributing nutrients that feed plankton blooms hundreds of miles away. However, the very network that sustains ocean life is breaking down, so what are the consequences?
Overfishing is a recurring issue that contributes to the disruption of food chains and decreasing population of multiple species; it removes key species faster than they can reproduce. For example, when too many sharks are caught, their usual prey such as rays multiply and consume more shellfish, leading to a reduction in shellfish populations which are vital to coastal communities. Some fishing methods also destroy the ocean’s environment. Take bottom trawling as an example; this method includes dragging heavy nets across the seabed. This act destroys coral reefs, seagrass meadows, and sponge beds that are crucial for breeding and feeding grounds for marine life. On top of that, these natural habitats take decades or even centuries to recover. Overfishing not only affects marine life it also affects human communities. As fish stocks decline, coastal economies suffer, and food insecurity grows! The diversity of life within the ocean allows it to be Earth’s largest carbon sink, mainly through the activity of tiny marine organisms. The ocean absorbs about a quarter of human produced carbon dioxide and produces over half of the world’s oxygen! Phytoplankton are microscopic, plant-like organisms that form the base of marine food webs and are critical for the global ecosystem. These plankton alone are responsible for producing roughly every second breath we take. However, their populations depend on nutrient cycles driven by ocean currents and the waste of larger animals. If warming waters or pollution disrupt those cycles, phytoplankton will decline and the entire carbon absorption system will weaken. Whales feed in the depths and release nutrient rich waste near the surface, which promotes plankton growth! When whales die, their bodies sink to the seafloor, they take tons of carbon with them and lock it away for centuries. It is essential that we remember that each life and death is part of a cycle that stabilises our atmosphere and sustains our planet’s climate.
The ocean is not just a romanticized backdrop to our lives! It is an active ecosystem that sustains us. Every creature, from the smallest plankton to the largest whale, plays a role in keeping the system in balance. When we protect the ocean, we are protecting our own future. It is a reminder that nothing exists in isolation, and everything exists in connection!
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Biology
JANE GOODALL
Written By: Abi
After the sad passing away of Jane Goodall, Café Scientific has decided to do a tributary article towards her and the legacy that she left behind. Jane Goodall was an ethologist and conservationist; she redefined what it meant to be human. She was born in Bournemouth, England on April the 3rd 1934, at a young age it could be seen that she was very passionate about the outdoors and animals. Around the age of eight Jane Goodall read the Tarzan and Dolittle series, this influenced her dream of traveling to work with the animals featured in her favourite books. She was unable to afford to go to Africa so took on a few jobs in waitressing and working for a documentary film company. At the age of 23 she went over to Africa to visit a friend. Whilst on her journey to Africa Jane met a famed paleoanthropologist, Dr. Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey who offered her a job at the local natural history museum. She worked there for some time until Leakey decided to send her to the Gombe Stream Game Reserve in Tanzania to study wild chimpanzees. He felt her passion for and knowledge of nature and animals, her high energy and fortitude made her a great candidate to study the chimpanzees. During the many years that she studied at Gombe Stream National Park she made three major observations on chimps, they are omnivores, they use tools and chimps make their own tools (this was a trait that was used to define humans.) Beyond this Jane Goodall’s high standard for methods and ethics in behavioural studies might have had the greatest impact in the scientific community. In 1962 she wrote her first book named ‘My Friends, the Wild Chimpanzees,’ this was published by National Geographic and was aimed towards the general public. Her book became very popular. She earnt her Ph.D. on February 9th, 1966 and continued to work at Gombe for twenty years.
In 1986, Jane shifted from a scientist to a conservationist and activist after she attended a primatology conference. She noticed that all the presenters mentioned deforestation at their worldwide study sites. In 1990 she flew in a small plane to Gombe Stream National Park and was shocked to see large-scale deforestation on the other side of the park. At that moment Jane knew that she had to take action in protecting the forest to preserve the habitat of the chimpanzees. First she improved conditions for the chimpanzees, by helping set up several refuges for chimps freed from medical research facilities or chimps orphaned by the bushmeat trade. In 1977 she established the Jane Goodall Institute which was a global community-centered conservation organisation. She also established the JGI’s program Roots and Shoots in 1991, this encourages young people around the world to become an agent of change by participating in projects that help protect the environment, wildlife, or their communities. She travelled about 300 days a year giving speeches, talking to government officials, and business people around the world encouraging them to support wildlife conservation and protect critical habitats.
“The least I can do is speak out for those who cannot speak for themselves.” – Jane Goodall. 8
Physics
Connected to the Cosmos When we say that humans are “made of stardust,” it can sound poetic, but behind the phrase lies a straightforward scientific truth. Every atom that makes up our world, including the ones in our bodies, originated from processes that began long before Earth existed. Understanding this connection requires looking back to the earliest moments of the universe, to the birth, life, and death of stars, and to the dispersal of the elements that eventually formed planets and living organisms. The story of the cosmos is not separate from the story of life on Earth; it is its foundation. The beginning of this story is the Big Bang, which occurred approximately 13.8 billion years ago. Contrary to the everyday meaning of the word “explosion,” the Big Bang was not an event that sent matter outward into empty space. Instead, it was the rapid expansion of space itself from an extremely hot, dense initial state. For a brief period after this expansion began, the universe consisted of a seething mixture of energy and elementary particles. As space continued to stretch and cool, conditions changed enough to allow simple nuclei to form. This period, known as primordial nucleosynthesis, lasted only a few minutes, yet it produced almost all the hydrogen and helium that exist today, with only trace amounts of lithium. These were the first chemical ingredients of the cosmos. Although they are simple, they provided the raw material that would eventually form stars, galaxies, and everything within them. In its early stages, the universe was dark, without stars to shine or planets to orbit. Over hundreds of millions of years, gravity began pulling together clumps of hydrogen and helium gas. As these clumps grew more massive, their cores heated up under the pressure of their own weight. Once the temperature became high enough, a remarkable process began, nuclear fusion. This is the reaction in which lighter atoms combine to form heavier ones, releasing energy in the process. A star is essentially a natural fusion reactor held together by gravity.
Fusion is central to the cosmos because it gradually creates heavier elements that did not form in the Big Bang. In the core of an ordinary star like the Sun, hydrogen fuses into helium for most of the star’s life. Over time, as hydrogen becomes scarce, the star’s internal structure changes, allowing helium to fuse into carbon and oxygen. These medium-mass stars do not reach temperatures high enough to create the full range of elements we find on Earth, but they contribute essential ones such as carbon and nitrogen, both crucial for life as we know it. Stars more massive than the Sun follow a different path. Their greater mass leads to much higher core temperatures, which allows them to fuse elements beyond carbon and oxygen. Over the course of their relatively short lives, these stars synthesize neon, magnesium, silicon, and ultimately iron. Fusion reactions that produce elements lighter than iron release energy and help stabilize the star. However, once the core accumulates iron, fusion no longer yields energy. Without this energy to counteract the inward pull of gravity, the core collapses suddenly. This collapse triggers one of the most dramatic events in the universe: a supernova. A supernova is not simply the end of a massive star but also the beginning of many of the heavier elements found throughout the cosmos. During the explosion, conditions become extreme enough to forge elements heavier than iron, such as gold, iodine, and uranium. These new atoms, along with the elements formed earlier in the star’s life, are hurled into space at tremendous speeds. The explosion scatters them across the galaxy, where they mix with interstellar gas and dust. Although individual stars eventually fade from existence, the material they produce becomes part of the cosmic environment that will give rise to new generations of stars and planets.
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The space between stars is not empty. It contains vast clouds of gas and dust, much of it enriched by previous generations of stars. Over time, gravity pulls these materials together again, continuing the cycle. Roughly 4.6 billion years ago, one such cloud collapsed to form our Sun. Around the newly formed star, leftover gas and dust collected into a rotating disc from which the planets formed. Earth arose from this mixture of ancient stellar material. The rocks beneath our feet, the water in our oceans, and the air we breathe all contain atoms that once resided in earlier stars. Even the elements most essential to our biology (carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium, and iron) were forged in processes that occurred long before the Earth existed.
Recognizing this connection does not require abandoning the everyday perspective through which we normally view our lives. Instead, it adds a broader scientific context. Simple activities like breathing, eating, thinking, depend on atoms whose histories stretch back to the earliest eras of the universe. The calcium that strengthens bones and teeth was formed inside an ancient star. The phosphorus that helps store energy in cells came from stellar explosions. The water that fills our oceans contains hydrogen that has existed since the universe was less than an hour old. The chain of events linking these atoms to our lives is long, but the connection is direct.
The origins of the atoms in the human body illustrate this connection in an especially direct way. The hydrogen atoms in our cells are the oldest, formed minutes after the Big Bang. The carbon in our DNA and the oxygen we breathe were created inside stars that lived and died billions of years before our solar system formed. The iron in our blood, responsible for carrying oxygen, was produced in the core of a massive star and dispersed by a supernova. Trace elements we require in small amounts, such as copper, zinc, and iodine, are products of the most extreme cosmic events. These atoms passed through many environments, from stellar interiors to interstellar clouds, before becoming part of a planet capable of supporting life.
In this sense, being connected to the cosmos is not a matter of symbolism or imagination. It is a matter of physical origin. The universe’s expansion, the birth and death of stars, and the dispersal of elements have all contributed to the environment that made life possible. The atoms that form the world today will continue to move through the cosmos long after we are gone, eventually becoming part of new structures and perhaps new forms of life. Understanding our place in this long chain of cosmic processes offers a clearer picture of how deeply we are linked to the universe around us.
To say that humans are made of stardust is not a figurative statement. It is a straightforward description of the chemical path that matter has taken over billions of years. When astronomers analyse the composition of stars and compare it to the composition of Earth, they find a clear match: the same processes that enrich the galaxy with elements have directly shaped the environment from which life arose. The atoms in our bodies are part of a continuous cosmic cycle that began with the Big Bang, progressed through generations of stars, and eventually assembled into the molecules that make up living cells.
Written by: Shahmeen
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Biology
~Connected~
ECOSYSTEM INDEPENDENCE HOW DO CHANGES IN ONE SPECIES AFFECT AN ENTIRE ECOSYSTEM? The interdependence of an ecosystem is made when all organisms depend upon one another. If the population of one organism rises or drops, the this affects the rest of the ecosystem. An example of interdependence in the UK could be grass -> rabbit > fox. If foxes were killed then the population of rabbits will increase, this is as there are not as many predators around keeping their numbers at bay. However, the amount of grass would decrease. A stable community is where the size of the population of all species remains constant over time. Ecosystems with a lot of biodiversity are generally stronger and more resistant to disease than those with fewer species. For example some diseases only kill certain types of trees. In the 1900s, a disease killed most of the chestnut trees in North America, however due to the diversity of the forest ecosystem the ecosystem could continue to thrive as other kinds of trees grew there. Biodiversity is important in helping us for instance, trees provide us with oxygen, food, shade, medicines and more. A keystone species is an organism that helps define an entire ecosystem, an ecosystem without its keystone species would be incredibly different or even cease to exist. Keystone species have low functional redundancy – if the species disappeared from the ecosystem no other organisms could fill in its place. This would force the ecosystem to rapidly change which will allow for new and sometimes invasive species to populate the habitat. Any organism can be a keystone species however most keystone species are animals that have a huge influence on food webs. Keystone species are often predators as they can control the distribution and population of large numbers of prey species. An example of a predator keystone species could be a grey wolf. Elk, bison, rabbits, and bird species are all partly controlled by the presence of wolves. Scavenger species are also controlled by the wolves activities. When the government worked to eradicate wolves in the 19th century; killing the last wolf pups in 1924, it started a top-down trophic cascade. This is a change that results in the removal of an ecosystem’s top predator. Lacking an apex predator meant that the elk populations in Yellowstone rapidly increased, elk herds competed for food resources such as grasses, sedges and reeds.
These plants did not have time or space to grow, the overgrazing influenced the populations of other species such as fish, beavers and songbirds. These animals had to then rely on plants and their products – seeds, flowers, wood, roots – for their survival. The physical geography also was impacted on, the stream banks eroded as wetland plants failed anchoring valuable soil and sediments. Lake and river temperatures increased due to the lack of shaded areas provided by plants. Since this disaster the U.S government began reintroducing wolves back into the ecosystem. Now plant heights have increased, elk populations have decreased in size and beaver and song bird populations have recovered. Herbivores can also be a keystone species, by consuming plants they help to control the physical and biological aspects of an ecosystem. In Africa savannas, elephants are a keystone species, they eat shrubs and small trees such as acacia. Their feeding keeps the savanna a grassland instead of a forest or woodland. When elephants control the tree population, grasses thrive and grazing is sustained for antelopes, wildebeest, zebras and many more. Lastly keystone mutualists are two or more species that engage in beneficial interactions. For example bees are pollinators and maintain gene flow and dispersal throughout widespread ecosystems. An example of a keystone mutualist would be a species of hummingbird and indigenous plants found in Patagonia. Trees, shrubs and flowering plants have evolved to only be pollinated by green-backed fire crown (species of hummingbird). The hummingbirds pollinate 20% of local plant species and in return are provided with nectar which makes up a large part of their diet. Areas of the Patagonian habitat would collapse without the green-backed firecrowns as no other pollinator is adapted to pollinate these plants.
There are many other key roles in maintaining ecosystems for example umbrella species (have a large habitat needs, and the requirements of that habitat effect many other species living there.) Foundation species (role is to create or maintain habitats), ecosystem engineers (contribute to the physical geography of their habitat) and more.
Written by: Abi 11
Engineering
Physics
NEW DIAMOND QUANTUM SENSORS Researchers in the University of California – Santa Barbara state that they have discovered that ‘Entangled Spins give Diamond a Quantum Advantage’, ... but what does this mean? Well, in the center of certain particles (like electrons) there are what’s called a spin in the centre. This acts like a ‘compass needle’ as it behaves as it haves a tiny magnetic north and south pole. This spin can point up , down or even in a quantum superposition meaning it can be up and down at the same time.
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A diamond is primarily a carbon-structure; however, you can create special spots inside a diamond when a carbon atom is missing so can be replaced by a nitrogen atom. These are called NV centres (Nitrogen-Vacancy centres). Each NV centre traps and electron whose spin can be precisely controlled by lasers and microwaves, the electromagnetic kind that is, (please do not start putting diamonds in microwaves).
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Why are these NV centres important and exciting? NV centres are special because they can work at room temperatures, meaning that extreme conditions like vacuum chambers and crazy hot and cold temperatures are no longer needed, the diamonds that house the NV centres make very few vibrations, very little noise meaning the atoms in diamond stay exactly where they are supposed to. Quantum states (which are fragile) can last longer in this environment, so the sensors can take better measurements.
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Written by: Arabella
12
Economics
Computer science
BIG DATA AND AI: THE NEW SCIENCE OF ECONOMICS TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS CONNECTED Economics has always been about understanding people’s choices, markets, and drivers behind economic growth. Traditionally, economists relied on surveys, censuses, and historical data to make predictions about our society. However, following the technology boom, spearheaded by companies such as Nvidia and OpenAI, Big Data and Artificial Intelligence are transforming economics into a much different field. From predicting consumer behaviour to shaping government policy, these tools are changing how we understand and manage economies. Big Data refers to the massive amounts of information generated every second by online activity - from online searches and social media posts to flights and financial transactions. Unlike traditional datasets, Big Data is extremely detailed, vast and very quickly generated. Economists use it to track economic activity in real time to measure things that were previously invisible to researchers, such as informal work or online spending, and spot early warning signs of recessions or inflation. For example, Google searches can hypothetically reveal rising unemployment in a particular area before official statistics are published. When people lose jobs, they often start searching online for terms like ‘unemployment benefits’, ‘job openings near me’, or ‘resume templates’. Economists and researchers track these search patterns using Google Trends, which shows how frequently certain terms are being searched compared to normal levels. AI takes Big Data and makes helps us to make sense of it. Machine learning algorithms can detect patterns in large quantities of data that are too complex for humans to see. Applications of this technology range from forecasting markets and predicting consumer demand to helping governments design smarter policies. Generative AI is already boosting efficiency in industries, such as automating repetitive tasks, that aid productivity and help firms produce more output. Traditionally, economic reports lagged several months behind what was going on at the time, especially as markets can be volatile and change very quickly. Big Data proposes a change to that, creating a scenario where the activity of thousands of people can be monitored instantly. For example, credit card transactions show consumer spending patterns, which can inform firms, and mobile phone data tracks commuting trends. This immediacy allows policymakers to respond faster to crises, such as pandemics or financial shocks.
These tools come with challenges. Algorithms can reflect existing inequalities if trained on biased data showing particular characteristics, raising concerns about fairness. Privacy is another issue, since using personal information for economic analysis sparks ethical debates over whether researchers should have access to private data. And while AI predictions are powerful, they are not perfect - sudden shocks like COVID-19 can still surprise even the most advanced models, and often Gen AI will give incorrect answers and not realise or care that it got it wrong. Economists stress that AI should complement, not replace, human judgment. Students encounter AI-driven economics daily, often without realising it. Streaming platforms like Netflix use algorithms to predict what you’ll watch next, and what you might like. Online shops adjust prices dynamically based on demand – holiday sites raise prices on their websites using algorithms once they realise someone has visited their site a lot. Social media ads target users with disturbing accuracy, often sparking trends in certain items. These are economic decisions powered by Big Data, shaping both markets and personal choices. Big Data and AI are turning economics into a science of immediacy and precision. They allow us to see economies in motion, predict trends, and design smarter policies. Yet they also challenge us to think carefully about fairness, privacy, and the role of human judgment. Economics is increasingly becoming about algorithms, data streams, and the accuracy of trend prediction. The future of economics is digital - and it’s happening now.
Written by: Jaya
13
Computer science
THE CONNECTION OF THE WORLD ~THE STRUCTURE OF THE INTERNET~ WRITTEN BY: ELLEN DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATED BY: REBECCA
The Internet connects people globally so easily it’s taken for granted. However, there are a lot of layers to the Internet that makes it useable and able to connect you to someone on the other side of the world. Firstly, to define the Internet: it is a network of inter-connected networks; where networks are 2 or more computers connected together, via WiFi for example. It’s important to note that this isn’t the definition of the World Wide Web (WWW), as they’re not the same thing! You might use these words interchangeably but that means you’re using them incorrectly. To define the WWW: it is a collection of resources accessed via the Internet; created by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, the British icon who made it free for anyone to use. Big thank yous to Sir Tim! Back to our definitions, to put it all simply, a) the WWW is a system accessed but the Internet requiring the Internet to be accessed, but the Internet doesn’t need the WWW to be accessible itself. b) the WWW isn’t accessible if the Internet isn’t, whereas the Internet is still accessible even if the WWW isn’t. One of the biggest parts of the Internet that make it what it is is what we call the “backbone”. These are a set of many different connections amongst dedicated large networks across the world. These are then connected to regional networks, controlled by what we call different Internet Service Providers (ISPs). Think …. If you take a look at the submarine cable map, you can see all the physical cables that create the backbone: yes, these are physical cables that massive boats have lowered into oceans over time. Pretty cool! Map of the wires can be seen below: Picture taken from SubmarineCableMap.com So now we know the fundamental idea of how we’re able to connect to someone or see a site created from across the world, how do we actually find these people or sites amongst the chaos of the backbone? This is where the WWW helps out. If you send a letter to a friend via post, you have to know their address, your own address, and who you’re sending it via. This is exactly what happens to your data online: we have what we call Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, and to send data you must have your IP; the IP of where your data wants to go next; and importantly something to configure the most efficient route. The “route” your data takes will be decided by “routers”, which you might’ve heard as a term that relates to WiFi. It won’t just be your router that decided how your data gets from point A to B, rather your data will “hop” from router-to-router, which configures where it will go next to eventually get to B. All of this applies for when data is being sent to you, relating back to how we’re able to see a webpage based in Australia. There’s some extra to know about “IPv4” vs “IPv6” and “packets”, however to summarise both areas of conversation: there are different types of IPs and as we have “run out” of IPv4 (4 referring to how many “numbers” can be apart of that address) IPv6 allows for more addresses; and if you think about tons of data being sent at once there would be a lot of traffic (it’s why the WiFi at school is sometimes slow), so if we break data down into tiny numbered packets they can all travel separately to their destination and then get renumbered if they arrive out of order. So you want to look at the school website. You would need to know it’s IP address. Well that’s ridiculous: have you seen what IP addresses look like? Imagine having to remember IP addresses for everything you use online: it’s not realistic. However if you search “King’s High Warwick”, you’re able to see our website, without a ridiculous combination of numbers. Why?
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This section applies specifically for the function of loading webpages part of the WWW, and it’s going to get “keytermy”. It’s important to note that it’s the browsers such as Google that search via keywords and makes a list based of what you might want to find: that’ll be briefly explained later on. When you look at the top of your browser when on a website, you’ll see what we call a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). It’ll look something like: “https://www.kingshighwarwick.co.uk“. The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (Secure) (HTTP(S)) is the first part of the URL. There are many protocols online for sending different things, so this tells the computers what type of “data” this is (being a webpage in our scenario). Then you have the domain name of the URL, which is the second part of the URL. This is the unique identifier of the website and its collection of webpages. As you can see, it identifies different things: the webpage being via the WWW; the unique name of the content we’re searching for; and the “root” as it’s called which is one of the 13 different servers that are responsible for catalogs by every domain (as you can have .org, .com, so on). A Domain Name Server (DNS) exists as a server that has the “domain name” of pages and hence the following IPs to them, as we’ve already identified separated via their roots. The process of finding the IP address to your webpage is called “resolving an IP”, and is done via the following steps: a) Resolving the domain name from right to left which will give us the root. b) Use the root to request from the root’s DNS the location of our webpage. Our local Client DNS does this on behalf of us. c) The search for the server with the IP addresses we want begins! The servers communicate with each other requesting for our webpage via the domain name, asking the relevant serves (if we go back to our scenario, they’d ask the .co server and the .uk server) d) Finally if the webpage we wanted is found, the IP address for it is returned to our Client DNS and then loaded for us (since if you remember the HTTP(S) tells the computer to load it as a webpage). e) To make the process more efficient, our Client DNS will “remember” the location of the DNS that gave us the IP address we wanted, storing it in a place called “cache” which is like short-term memory. The final part of the WWW to note is that these webpages are made via Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), which is/was the universal language for creating webpages. Nowadays there are more ways of making websites, such as companies like Squarespace that do the “CS-y” bit for you, but if you’re curious w3schools offers free coding tutorials you can follow: including one for writing in HTML. There are so many other aspects of CS that connect us or are connected, but there isn’t possibly enough space to talk about it all, or go back and give the proper depth of understanding you actually need for what we’ve talked about: this barely scratches the surface. But now you know how hard you computer works to connect you to the rest of the resources around the world. And maybe you can be a bit more patient next time it’s taking a while longer to load since you know what goes on behind the scenes of the spinning-wheel-of-doom at the top of your browser.
1.Resolving 2. Located 3.If re-requested (stores in cache) 15
Biology
WRITTEN & ILLUSTRATED BY: REBECCA
THE WOOD WIDE WEB References: Dan Puplett, Ecology: ‘Mycorrhizas’, trees for life Claire Marshall, ‘Wood Wide Web: Trees’ social networks are mapped’, BBC News, 2019 Olivia Rosane, ‘Scientists create first ever map of ‘wood wide web’, World economic forum, 2019
Whilst forests are known to be complicated and intricate ecosystems which one can’t help but be in awe of, the sheer degree that this complexity is mirrored underground is often overlooked. This, is the Wood Wide Web. The wood wide web is a complex network of tree and plant roots connecting them is fungi mycelium (The type of fungi that form the wood wide web are referred to as Mycorrhizal fungi). In essence the whole system is a form of connection between plants and fungi where they work harmoniously together, their relationship mutually beneficial where plants receive minerals from decomposed matter from the fungi whilst sugars and carbon are transferred in return. This Network is truly vital for plants and fungi within these ecosystems with only around 5-10% of plants not relying on these symbiotic relationships with fungi to survive.
The fungi that we appreciate during the autumn months for their vibrant colour and their whimsical fairy tale qualities still exist throughout the rest of the year below ground, primarily as a structure of splaying hyphae. Some of these fungi include: Laccaria bicolor, milkcaps and truffles.
Scientists have managed to complete a map of the wood wide web. Drawing up such a map isn’t a small feat, it required using the global forest initiative database which contained information about 1.2 million trees! An algorithm was developed that could analyse the trees within this database. The algorithm considered the species of tree and environmental factors etc which correlate to the microbes that interact with the trees. This allowed them to predict what fungi and bacteria that form the wood wide web in the surroundings. As with all areas of nature, climate change has a greatly detrimental affect, threatening the survival of our woodland. There are two types of mycorrhizal fungi EM (ectomycorrhizal – this fungi wraps about the roots of the plants) and AM (arbuscular fungi - this type of fungi penetrates the roots of the plants). EM fungi thrives in high-latitude areas with a cold and dry climate whereas AM prefer low-latitudes with hot and wet climates. Due to EM’s ideal conditions they are susceptible to the effects of global warming. As the climate shifts to a warmer and wetter one the EM fungi would deplete and would be replaced by AM fungi. This shift from EM fungi to AM has the potential to accelerate climate change further, as EM fungi retain more carbon from the atmosphere whilst AM fungi instead releases more carbon back into the atmosphere. 16
Mathematics
Chemistry
HAMILTON CYCLES How can patterns used in textiles, interior design and more be translated into scientific developments? Written by: Rebecca
A Hamilton Cycle (also known as the Hamilton circuit) is a type of cycle that connects every vertex or node on a graph only once until returning to its starting vertex. A Hamiltonian Path differs slightly in that it doesn’t have to return to the starting vertex. Certain graphs only possess one Hamilton circuit solution, these cases are known as Uniquely Hamiltonian Graphs. The Hamilton cycle was named after Sir William Rowan Hamilton, the creator of the Hamilton game in 1857. Also known as Icosian games, they are puzzles where one is challenged to find the Hamilton cycle along the edges of a dodecahedron. The game dictates that all the vertices of the dodecahedron must be connected only once (edges cannot be gone over multiple times) and the end and start vertex must be the same.
The properties of Hamilton cycles can be applied in interesting ways scientifically, For example Quasicrystals. Quasicrystals are solids that possess the following properties of: a crystalline structure and amorphous structures. This means that the structures of quasicrystals have patterns but they are non-repeating. Quasicrystals differ to typical crystals as their properties mean that they can have 5 fold, 8 fold, 10 fold, or 12 fold symmetries, whereas normal crystals instead possess 2 fold, 4 fold and 6 fold symmetries etc. Due to these patterns within the quasicrystal’s structure, Hamilton paths can be traced creating intricate patterns across their surfaces. Imagining those mazes across their surfaces now picture molecules that have a certain degree of flexibility ( meaning that their covalent bonds allow for a certain amount of rotation) can be arranged along these Hamilton paths a bit like puzzle pieces, this introduces the ability for quasicrystals to be used as catalysts during reactions (Catalysts provide an alternative reaction pathway which lowers the activation energy required for the reaction to take place therefore increasing the rate of reaction and the efficiency, catalyst are not used up).
This application of quasicrystals and Hamilton paths is currently being applied to a specific type of quasicrystal pattern where the Hamilton paths can be mapped out within a specific area. The type of quasicrystal that is being worked with is Ammann-Beenker quasicrystals, described after AmmannBeenker tiling. This is a type of tiling that is non-periodic and is composed of a square and a rhombus (with a 45 degree angle) forming an infinite 2D pattern of tiles across a plane, this AB tiling has 8 fold symmetry (as you will notice this is one of the folds of symmetry that can be possessed by quasicrystals). AB tiling patterns possess Hamiltonian cycles. By working with AB tiling it has become possible to solve for the most efficient path for a Scanning Tunnelling microscopy tip to trace, The STM can scan Each atom individually on an AB quasicrystal’s surface within a specific area. By finding the simplest path of maximum length to connect all vertices within a particular area (known as solving the longest path problem), one can find how different length flexible molecules can be organised onto the surface of quasicrystals with maximum efficiency and packing density. This can be translated into using quasicrystals as catalysts where the flexible molecules can absorb onto the surfaces along said Hamilton path as stated before.
References: Shobhna Singh, Jerome Lloyd, Felix Flicker, ‘Hamilton Cycles on Ammann-Beenker Tilings’, APS journals, 2014 Weisstein, Eric W. "Hamiltonian Cycle." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Resource. Shobhna Singh, Jerome Lloyd, Felix Flicker, ‘Hamilton Cycles on Ammann-Beenker Tilings’, APS journals, 2014 Weisstein, Eric W. "Hamiltonian Graph." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Resource. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/HamiltonianGraph.html Weisstein, Eric W. "Icosian Game." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Resource. Weisstein, Eric W. "Hamiltonian Graph." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Resource. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/HamiltonianGraph.html
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Biology
Written & Illustrated by: Rebecca
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Memes & Jokes: -By Simran Abi Jaya
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Biology
Science in Art
Below I’ve compiled three artists that combine and connect science with art, creating striking and intriguing pieces.
Susan Aldworth Susan Aldworth is an artist based in London, many of her works have a focus on the brain and its link to identity. This theme in her art work shows a strong connection between science and art. The artworks on the right are Aldworth’s Brainscapes etchings the reference of which came from patient brain scans at the Royal London Hospital.
Daria Fedorova Daria Fedorova is an artist that works in a range of media including the use photography, sculpture and textile. Her pieces explore the passing of time through the growth of the microorganisms that she cultivates. I find her work marries a grotesque quality of mould and fungi with its natural beauty evoking this odd draw as the art mesmerizes and intrigues.
Ana Dumitriu Ana Dumitriu also works in a range of different medias including Bioart, sculpture, digital media etc. Her artwork often depicts diseases and infections through a representation of deteriorating clothing, etc. some of the illnesses she explores include the plague, syphilis and Cholera.
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Book Recommendations: In accordance with this terms theme of ‘Connection’ the Café Scientifique team has compiled some recommendations of science explored in different media types.
Connections
The Planets
By Professor Karl Deisseroth
By Professor Brian Cox & Andrew Cohen
Webb’s Universe By Maggie Aderin-Pocock
Riding Rockets By Mike Mullane 21
Film Recommendations Physics
Compiled By Shahmeen and other members of the Café Scientifique Society
Apollo 13
Interstellar The Martian
2001: A Space Odyssey
Hidden Figures
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Radioactive Physics Chemistry
The Race For The Double Helix Chemistry Biology
The film “The Race For The Double Helix” follows the discovery of the DNA’s structure. One of the primary scientists involved, James Watson, was a Molecular biologist in America (who you may have read about on the science changemaker mural) has recently passed away. Thus if you are interested to learn a little about his contribution to this revolutionary development we would greatly recommend watching this film.
The Imitation Game Computer science Mathematics
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the following students for their contributions... Zoe Charlotta Abby Abi Jaya Ellen Shahmeen Arabella
A Massive thank you to last year’s team! Isabelle
Eleanor
Shraddhaa
Sahana
Cherrie
Emma
Deepthi
Karine
This Newsletter is presented to you by: Rebecca & members of the Café Scientifique team
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VOL. 1 (2025-26) - WINTER TERM
~CONNECTED~
Café Scientifique Graphics sourced from CanvaTM