Eskimo Carving Today
By George Swinton
Professor Swinton, artist and teacher at the University of Manitoba school of art, spent some time in the Eastern Arctic last summer
In the early fall of 1950 I visited Montreal and there, for the first time, I saw a few pieces of Eskimo sculpture I always had been interested in primitive art (in fact I used to lecture on it) and my surprise at what I saw was consdierable [sic]; there was a genuinely primitive art form I knew nothing about, never had heard anything about, and, in addition, it came from our own northland. Nobody could tell me much about it and my curiosity was aroused.
I was fairly familiar with the art of the Alaska Eskimo and I had seen various weapons, tools, utensils, and artifacts of the Eastern Eskimo in natural history museums The pieces I saw in Montreal were not only different but seemed to have nothing in common with what I had seen before I tried to find some material on it but was not successful, at least not until the spring of 1952 when I came across an article in Canadian Art It was one of several written by James Houston who, beyond doubt, is the one man most directly responsible for the current phase of Eskimo art, its widespread recognition, and its success. Houston, an artist in his own right, had gone north in the summer of 1948 , Port Harrison and Povungnetuk. There he saw a few small carvings in stone He recognized their artistic merit and their potential economic value He wrote:
“ I returned south with my drawings; but more important I had some splendid carvings in stone, made by the Eskimos
“The Canadian Handicrafts Guild suggested that I might make a test purchase for them the following summer The object was to find out whether the Eskimos on the east coast of the Bay could produce carvings in quantity and of a quality that would be saleable.
“Once the Eskimos fully understood that we wanted to trade cartridges, tea and so forth, for all their work, they went at this new industry excitedly. They were paid by means of a system of chits through the facilities of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and soon the allotment of money was used up
“When a sale of the Eskimo work was held that fall in Montreal it was advertised by the guild to last a week; but to our delight, everything was sold out in three days!
“The Department of Resources and Development became interested in the project, and asked the Guild to extend its search for such material even further north They stressed the need for work in areas that were depressed because of scarcity of game and offered the Guild a small grant to cover my salary and travelling expenses…”
I quote this passage for it illustrates Houston’s connection with Eskimo art and his enthusiasm The Hudson’s Bay Company had tried to introduce Eskimo handicrafts to the markets of the south earlier (during the great depression of the thirties) and even in 1949 they did not sound too optimistic On January 12 they wrote to the Canadian Handicrafts Guild in
answer to the Guild’s enquiry: “ ... the carved ivory around Port Harrison is not particularly good, nor particularly plentiful. The soapstone you speak of would, presumably, be little models of stone lamps, and so forth ” And again on February 11: “The soapstone models of implements and animals are inclined to be crude because the material is so breakable The ivory carving is much inferior to that done farther north ”
But Houston was too convincing and in July 1950 he wrote to the Hudson’s Bay Company: “The Eskimo Handicrafts from that area [Port Harrison, Povungnituk, and Cape Smith] are truly remarkable and I was able to purchase over $3000 worth for the Canadian Handicrafts Guild.” Today more than thirty times this amount is brought out annually and carving has become a major source of income for many Eskimos and for entire regions, particularly Povungnituk and Port Harrison
Last summer I visited this area and was able to see for myself and partially satisfy my curiosity about the nature and origin of this new art For, although I had meanwhile become a collector of Eskimo sculpture, I still had not been able to get as much information about its background as I had wished. All written material I saw was superbly illustrated, with exciting descriptions and anecdotes, but somehow, nothing felt quite convincing in view of the changing art I saw come on the market from year to year I developed a few theories, or rather projected opinions based on circumstantial evidence, and even today, after my short visit in the North and after I have scanned a good many arctic expedition reports of the past eighty years, I am reluctant to speak definitively about this
new art and must admit a considerable amount of speculation, yet I cannot attempt to be as cautious and prudent as Dr. Leechman was with his observations in the Summer 1954 issue of the Canadian Geographical Journal I am stressing this point because there has been published, reprinted, and quoted, a great deal of material, which was entirely misleading and which has established in the minds of even the not-so-gullible public a myth about various aspects of Eskimo carving that bears no resemblance to the facts This I should like to avoid, for it is my concern to re-evaluate Eskimo carving in stone so that it be understood and appreciated for what it really is, and not for what we wish it to be.
OLD AND NEW PHASES
Let me start by saying that Eskimo art, or rather carving in stone, as we know it today is a new art, or at least a new phase of an age-old activity Yet, it so markedly differs in almost every aspect from previous developments that we are quite safe in calling it a new art
The old activities were centred around functional and magical uses, i e , they were utilitarian in their intention, while the modern phase appears to have definite commercial purposes
The Eskimo had always been a carver - a carver of utilitarian objects. The economy of the Arctic had demanded that. But as far as soapstone was concerned the activity was almost entirely restricted to the making of lamps and kettles, the only utensils that were hardly ever decorated since the material did not lend itself to decoration Soapstone was also used for dolls and toys, and probably for replicas of larger objects, in burials There was, however, another use, which was a true precursor of the current phase: the carving
of odd bits and pieces for trading, particularly to sailors, similar to scrimshaw.
In this connection, comments such as John Murdoch’s in the Point Barrow Expedition Report of the International Polar Expedition of 1881 to 1883, are of considerable interest: “ in addition we brought home a series of 79 objects which may be considered as purely works of art without reference to decoration Some of the older objects in this series perhaps also served as amulets and charms, but a number of the new ones were made simply as works of fancy for sale to us… 17 pieces of these carvings are made of soapstone, in many cases evidently pieces of an old lamp or kettle…” The largest piece was not longer than 4½ inches and the smaller ones averaged less than 2 inches.
There is, however, a point which to some extent relates the old to the new, though I have no way of proving it I have asked many Eskimos how they visualize their carvings, as I had never seen them making “sketches” of any kind The carvers who were not doing repetitious work said, without exception, that they were seeing an image in the stone which they proceeded to carve out This is very nearly the same idea as Michelangelo’s freeing the form from the stone.” I imagine that the carvers who were not doing repetitious work said, without exception, that they were seeing an image in the stone which they then proceeded to carve out. This is very nearly the same idea as Michelangelo’s “freeing the form from the stone ” I imagine that the carvers of old might well have followed the same procedure whenever they produced some freer carvings, such as handles of ivory, charms and amulets, and whatever else there was In itself this method is the result of the interaction between the artist’s
knowledge of the material he uses, the objects he creates, and the ideas he wishes to communicate. Obviously such artistic integrity cannot be applied when and where mass production and imitation exist The Handicrafts Guild and the former Department of Resources and Development must have been very optimistic to have believed it possible to encourage conditions of industrial production on one hand and to maintain artistic integrity on the other This, of course, terminated right then and there any similarity that may have existed between the old art and the new.
As far as other materials such as bone, horn, ivory or antler were concerned, the Eskimo excelled in rich and meaningful decoration, all designed appropriately to the nature of the material and to the function of the weapon, tool, or utensil being carved, including charms and hunting records This art aspect might very well have been another of the traditions of the contemporary phase; inconveniently though, this is not quite true For this type of work was of inferior quality in the East, as compared to the Western Arctic (and particularly to Alaska), whereas the current phase of carving is almost completely restricted to the Eastern Arctic, apart from a little from Reid Island and Coppermine; most comes from the Belcher Islands, Port Harrison, Povungnetuk, Ivuyivik, Sugluk, Payne Bay, Lake Harbour, Cape Dorset, Repulse Bay, Arctic Bay, Pond Inlet, and Craig Harbour.
But that is not all The carving in ivory of the older phase had definite formal traditions, collective styles - generally known and used forms and methods of representation, symbols and signs, that existed over whole areas The current phase, however, is mostly individualistic,
was particularly so when it started, and only now is beginning to show signs of regional style developments which denote incipient deterioration as evidenced by increasingly repetitious work
Another significant point which is often overlooked, is the size of the current carvings, even weighing up to 50 pounds or more, which would never have been produced under the old conditions; for hunters and semi-nomads certainly cannot afford the luxury of excess weight and volume Older carvings were inevitably small, generally less than four inches, more often about one inch.
The most important point of the modern phase, though, combines all the points we have made so far and we shall have to refer to it again and again. For as an art, the modern phase of caring is conscious and premeditated, whereas in the previous phases it was unconscious, an unexpected by-product of the Eskimo’s intention to make good and effective things The old art of the hunter was inevitably tied up with life and with function, the new art of the Eskimo artist is consciously tied to a market, subject to the laws of supply and demand, and only vicariously does it relate to his life
We must clearly recognize that the satisfaction gained from the new phase of carving is, properly speaking, secondary and indirect in nature, as compared with earlier phases where the satisfaction was immediate or primary. We may, then, call this new activity an art, or more directly sculpture - Eskimo sculpture Certainly, most of the earlier activities could never have been called sculpture even by a very long stretch of the imagination
Finally, whereas one could say without hesitation that every male Eskimo
carved, that is, he could carve when he needed and wanted to carve, it does not follow that every male Eskimo was or is an ‘artist’ in the modern sense of the word Carving of utilitarian objects was essential to the struggle for survival, and although decoration was a part of this activity, it related directly to the life of the Eskimos and to the purpose of the objects they used Today, with their lives in a condition of change, their motives have also changed, and art and function have become divorced The art of an artist is different from the art of a hunter: not better, not worse, but different.
The collective aspect of a traditional and generally accepted style has disappeared but the act of the individual in the work of art, has come to the fore. The content is still collective the ethnic background, the daily life, the every-day world - but in this new activity the individual’s ability to transform experience into art, to give artistic form to the idea and thus to achieve an object that has unique value of form and content, is the entirely new and different objective
As yet the Eskimo is not aware of all this But we are When the new activity started it ran on its own vitality, on its sheer unharnessed power or uninhibited expression. Thus almost anything and everything went right. But now, with the object of producing “carvings in quantity and of quality that would be saleable,” the lack of primary function and motivation begins to make itself felt. The new carving depends more and more on the vision of the artist and, in this sense, on his uniqueness The traditionally anonymous carvers from the North have disappeared
PRIMITIVE OR NOT?
The earlier art of the Eskimo was always primitive Henry Moore most aptly
defined this art for us when he wrote: “Primitive art makes a straight-forward statement; its primary concern is with the elemental, and its simplicity comes from direct and strong feeling The most striking quality to all primitive art is its intense vitality It is made by people with a direct and immediate response to life and its mystery ”
In the beginning, the recent phase of Eskimo carving certainly was a primitive art Today we can no longer make such unequivocal statements Particularly in view of White influence and the new nature of Eskimo carving.
We have already observed that under these conditions Eskimo carving has developed into an individualistic art. I should have said, perhaps, good Eskimo carving, for now there definitely enters this quality distinction which existed only to a minor extent in the earlier phases To explain this I must digress for a moment into the general nature of art
The definitions of art are many, yet none is ever complete I will not attempt to add mine The definitions deal with various emphases on form, on content, on communication; they deal with standards of excellence and with emotive powers, with the criteria of judgment, and with the vagaries of taste. Ultimately - although we have come to accept changes of concept as to what is art and what is not - there seems to emerge inevitably some definite general agreement about objective qualities. Within these terms the primitive arts occupy a very special place For here the skills and the traditions of craftsmanship have a lesser meaning than emotive powers and vitality Not that emotive powers and vitality are neglected in the non-primitive arts, but there the excellence of the technical traditions
and the achievements of the past are more important as criteria of judgment than with the arts which we call primitive.
And in this sense primitive arts are more apt to be right, to be good, to be art
The primitive artist (like the child) is expressive in spite of himself His art, which is a part of his life, becomes art in spite of itself, whereas with production that is aimed at art, it may never - in spite of the intention - become art at all
Here then lies the danger, but also the glory, of the new art And we may therefore - in fact we must - make distinctions in the new phase of Eskimo carving.
As far as the more primitive work is concerned there is more good than bad, for reasons just explained. Very often I hear from people who have lived in the North (or from those who do not like primitive art) that it is just crude or the result of the carver’s inability to do better or finer work or that the work is appealing through its quaintness rather than through its qualities Relative to their standards these people are right; but are their standards right? Let me put it this way; judged by baroque portrait sculpture the best of the Congo masks will look uncivilized, oversimplified, and grotesque; but compared to the standards of Congo masks, baroque portraits will look degenerate, tricky, and pretentious. Yet both, in their own way, are the best there is; furthermore, some will like only the one, some will like only the other, some will like none, and a few will like both But liking, or value judgment, is only of little use when evaluating art, though it certainly is valid as a guide to personal collecting and uninhibited appreciation Now, if we can accept the standards of baroque portraits and Congo masks to be equally valid in their
own way, we should be able to accept the fact that primitive Eskimo art has its own standards too. We must judge it, therefore, not in accordance with what we think is good and with what we think we like, but on its own inherent merits
Moreover, it is never what the artist intends that makes his creation a work of art, but what he does I suggest that the uninhibited, naive, and childlike mind and attitude of the primitive artist make it possible that his creations become works of art more often than not I find it impossible to call the work of artists like Koperqualook, Shamasha, and Charlie Seeguapik, primitive because they are Eskimos. They do not produce “primitive art” but simply sculpture. Therefore these new standards are no longer primitive; and more often than not, the art that must be judged by these standards is not as good as the more primitive work, or not art at all Let me illustrate
With the more recent developments in Eskimo sculpture new considerations of technical perfection and of communication of ideas make themselves felt No longer can the Eskimo express himself without inhibitions, for he has created for himself an artistic consciousness which hampers his flow of unpremeditated art. In order that it may be art, he must not only think as an Eskimo but also as an artist. Such aspects as unnecessary detail, finicky and complex treatment, overprecious and unsculptural form, sacrifice of sculptural feeling for the sake of accuracy of representation (the famous “truth” in art!), lack of sensitivity, lack of expressiveness, and so on, all become important because they have become conscious With this, we have started to distinguish between the artist, the craftsman, and the imitator
No longer can we talk of Eskimo art when we see Eskimo sculpture, for some has become handicraft - skilful and “charming” as it may be - and some of the inferior pieces are just Eskimo souvenirs If we do not make these classifications time will do it anyhow
MEANING IN ESKIMO SCULPTURE
Yet we must also consider that the old phase and the new are each symbolic of the two different conditions of the respective cultures: the utilitarian art with its traditional form reflects the strong cohesiveness of the old Eskimo society, whereas the new individualistic and non-utilitarian art reflects a break-up of culture and civilization and the struggle of the individual Eskimo to assert himself.
And it is precisely in that last sense that Eskimo art achieves its new (and perhaps greatest) triumph For we must come to recognize that without the influence of the White Man, without his demand for the very thing that only the Eskimo could product, Eskimo art of the new phase would never have come into existence It is the real miracle that this art arose out of adverse conditions, out of the very destruction of a culture, and not out of the traditional development of old In a most significant sense this birth of the new art is the one way to respond to the challenges which confront the Eskimo’s accustomed way of life. The one symbolic way to assert himself, and his ethnic consciousness, in face of his cultural annihilation, is to produce an art that is all Eskimo art
An art that can affirm this, is truly great It means not only the creation of a new art form but also a lasting monument to a race For this new art will perpetuate the race through a tangible transformation of spirit into form, establishing for us, and for
generations to come, a comprehensive universal image of ‘Eskimo.’ By this new art we shall know the Eskimo even if he ceases to exist In this sense, now is the precise moment for the creation of such symbolic art But naturally, fewer and fewer pieces will qualify for such high standards How long it will last is difficult to say For the creative fire of the Eskimo will burn itself out, confronted by unsurmountable [sic] attacks on his culture His ethnic existence is threatened by his continuous contact with our way of life, our technological and economic seductiveness, which lead him from naivete, from his prehistoric childlikeness, into an adolescent stage of civilization.
But through his art, and in his art, of the new phase, the Eskimo rediscovers his ethnic and his human self. He asserts himself, his origin, and his race Personally and psychologically he represents his day-dreams and the objects of his fancy; ethnically he relates the myths, and legends, and the customs of his life; racially he creates what only he can do, but which the White Man desires and rewards
Through this the carvings have achieved a new meaning, a new function, and a new use. They are the Eskimo’s new magic, designed to establish quality, if not superiority, in a field in which the White Man cannot compete It does not matter whether or not the Eskimo is conscious of this function, and in fact of his creative process in general; what matters is that it is a real motivation for his art
The worst we can possibly do is to interfere in this development by suggesting to him a return to a way and tradition that no longer refers to his way of life. We know that the new art will disappear when the Eskimo has succumbed to our civilization, when he no longer is an Eskimo. We cannot expect his art to flourish when his civilization no longer exists. I suspect that with the death of this generation Eskimo carving of the new phase will have died too
The glory of having created this truly great art redeems the agony that inevitably accompanied the creative process In this sense all art resembles salvation - the road to continuous existence