Department of education Brussels, 2004
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
Published by:
Micheline Scheys, Division Head Ministry of the Flemish Community Departement of Education Policy Coordination Division Flemish Eurydice-unit
D/2004/3241/393
Š 2003
Policy Coordination Division Hendrik Consciencegebouw, Koning Albert II-laan 15, 1210 Brussel
This document is published with the financial support of the European Commission (Socrates, Eurydice)
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the copyright owner.
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
PREFACE
In order to gain insight in the different European educational systems it is of the utmost importance to dispose of reliable information. The European Commission and the member states have understood this need and have therefore initiated within the programme Socrates the project Eurydice. Eurydice conducts yearly a large number of comparative studies on certain educational topics. Moreover, each country that is member of the Eurydice network (at this moment 30 countries) gives each year an update on the ‘educational policy and educational structure’ in its country. The Department for Education of the Ministry of the Flemish Community has in the past years gathered a large amount of information and data. In the period 1997 – 2001 the data were brought up-to-date by the Catholic University of Louvain (Katholieke Universiteit Leuven). In 2002 the Centre for European Social and Economic Policy (CESEP) took care of the update. The update of the Flemish Eurydice report 2003 (Vlaams Eurydice rapport 2003) was assigned to Prof. P. Van Petegem of the University of Antwerp (Universiteit Antwerpen), research group EduBRon. Within EduBRon the work was taken on by Alexia Deneire, Ingrid Imbrecht en Jan Vanhoof. The report was adapted to the situation in 2003, according to the Eurydice guidelines on content and structure. Therefore, almost no critical notes will be found in this book, as its main objective is to provide information. The information will also be found on the internet. On the website www.eurydice.org/eurybase not only the educational policy of Flanders can be found, but also the information of all other countries. We could count on the help of a lot of people within the Department for Education. We would like to thank Mrs. Micheline Scheys and Mrs. Katty De Loof, who established the contacts with the Department for Education and who assisted in the project. We would also like to thank the many experts of the Department for Education, who have critically read and commented on certain sections. Their input and comments have greatly helped us. Finally, we would like to thank Mr Ludy Van Buyten, acting secretary-general of the Department for Education, who entrusted us with the assignment. We hope this report may contribute to a better appreciation of the formal educational structure in Flanders.
CONTENT
PREFACE .............................................................................................................................................................. iv CONTENT.............................................................................................................................................................. v LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................................xv
CHAPTER 1. POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND TRENDS ........................ 1 1.1. Historical overview.............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1.1. Toward a federal state ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.2. Levels of decision-making .............................................................................................................. 2 1.1.3. Political parties in Flanders ............................................................................................................. 2 1.1.4. Constitutional guarantees for education .......................................................................................... 3 1.2. Ongoing Trends ................................................................................................................................... 3 1.3. Main executive and legislative bodies ................................................................................................. 3 1.4. Religion and education......................................................................................................................... 4 1.5. Official and Minority Languages ......................................................................................................... 4 1.6. Demographic indicators ....................................................................................................................... 5 1.7. Economic indicators............................................................................................................................. 5 1.7.1. Flemish economic development...................................................................................................... 5 1.7.2. Flemish working population............................................................................................................ 6 1.8. Statistics ............................................................................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER 2. GENERAL ORGANISATION OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION ................................................................................................................................................... 9 2.1. Historical overview.............................................................................................................................. 9 2.2. Ongoing Trends ................................................................................................................................... 9 2.3. Fundamental Principles and Basic Legislation .................................................................................... 9 2.3.1. Freedom of education...................................................................................................................... 9 2.3.2. Educational networks .................................................................................................................... 11 2.3.3. Legal provisions for grant-aided schools ...................................................................................... 12 2.3.4. Teaching methods and the educational project (Pedagogisch project).......................................... 12 2.3.5. Attainment targets and Curriculum development.......................................................................... 13 2.4. General structure and defining moments in educational guidance..................................................... 14 2.5. Compulsory Education....................................................................................................................... 14 2.5.1. Historical overview ....................................................................................................................... 15 2.5.2. Compulsory education: present law .............................................................................................. 15 2.5.3. Monitoring compulsory education ................................................................................................ 16 2.6. General administration....................................................................................................................... 16 2.6.1. General administration at national level........................................................................................ 17 2.6.2. General administration at the intermediate level........................................................................... 17 2.6.3. General administration at local level............................................................................................. 19 2.6.4. Educational institutions, administration, and management ........................................................... 20
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2.7. Internal Consultation and Consultation with various players in society at large ............................... 29 2.7.1. Internal Consultation ..................................................................................................................... 29 2.7.2. Consultation involving players in society at large......................................................................... 32 2.8. Methods of Financing Education ....................................................................................................... 36 2.8.1. Origin of the Flemish educational budget ........................................................................................... 36 2.8.2. The Magnitude of the Educational Budget.................................................................................... 37 2.8.3. Relevant Themes Concerning Resource Allocation ...................................................................... 39 2.8.4. Important Entries in the Educational Budget ................................................................................ 41 2.8.5. School funding criteria .................................................................................................................. 42 2.8.6. Financing and Financial Management........................................................................................... 43 2.9. Statistics ............................................................................................................................................. 47 CHAPTER 3. PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION ............................................................................................... 49 3.1. Historical overview............................................................................................................................ 49 3.2. Ongoing Debate ................................................................................................................................. 49 3.3. Specific legislative framework........................................................................................................... 50 3.4. General objectives.............................................................................................................................. 50 3.5. Geographical accessibility ................................................................................................................. 51 3.6. Admission Requirements and Choice of Institution/Centre............................................................... 51 3.7. Financial Support for Pupils’ Families .............................................................................................. 52 3.8. Age Levels and Grouping of Children ............................................................................................... 53 3.9. Organisation of Time ......................................................................................................................... 53 3.9.1. Organisation of the Year ............................................................................................................... 53 3.9.2. Weekly and Daily Timetable......................................................................................................... 54 3.10. Curriculum, Types of Activity, Number of Hours ............................................................................. 54 3.11. Teaching Methods and Materials ....................................................................................................... 55 3.12. Evaluation of Children ....................................................................................................................... 55 3.13. Support Facilities ............................................................................................................................... 56 3.14. Private Sector Provision..................................................................................................................... 58 3.15. Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures........................................................................ 58 3.16. Statistics ............................................................................................................................................. 58 CHAPTER 4. PRIMARY EDUCATION........................................................................................................ 61 4.1. Historical overview............................................................................................................................ 61 4.2. Ongoing Debate ................................................................................................................................. 62 4.3. Specific legislative framework........................................................................................................... 62 4.4. General objectives.............................................................................................................................. 62 4.5. Geographical Accessibility ................................................................................................................ 62 4.6. Admission requirements and Choice of School ................................................................................. 63 4.7. Financial Support for Pupils’ Families .............................................................................................. 63 4.8. Age Levels and Grouping of Pupils ................................................................................................... 64 4.9. Organisation of School Time ............................................................................................................. 64 4.9.1. Organisation of the School year .................................................................................................... 64 4.9.2. Weekly and Daily Timetable......................................................................................................... 64 4.10. Curriculum, subjects, number of hours .............................................................................................. 65 4.11. Teaching Methods and Materials ....................................................................................................... 66 4.12. Pupil Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 66 4.13. Progression of Pupils ......................................................................................................................... 66 4.14. Certification ....................................................................................................................................... 67
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4.15. Educational Guidance ........................................................................................................................ 67 4.15.1. The new integrated equal opportunities policy.............................................................................. 67 4.15.2. Integrated education for pupils with special needs (GON) ........................................................... 67 4.15.3. The role of the Centres for Educational Guidance (CLB)............................................................. 68 4.16. Private Education ............................................................................................................................... 68 4.17. Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures........................................................................ 68 4.18. Statistics ............................................................................................................................................. 68 CHAPTER 5. SECONDARY AND POST-SECONDARY NON-TERTIARY EDUCATION ..................... 71 5.1. Historical overview............................................................................................................................ 71 5.2. Ongoing Trends ................................................................................................................................. 72 5.3. Specific legislative framework........................................................................................................... 73 5.4. General objectives.............................................................................................................................. 74 5.5. Types of institution ............................................................................................................................ 74 5.6. Geographical accessibility ................................................................................................................. 76 5.7. Admission requirements and choice of school................................................................................... 76 5.8. Registration and/or tuition fees .......................................................................................................... 77 5.9. Financial support for pupils ............................................................................................................... 78 5.10. Age levels and grouping of pupils ..................................................................................................... 78 5.11. Specialisation of studies..................................................................................................................... 78 5.12. Organisation of school time ............................................................................................................... 79 5.12.1. Organisation of the school year..................................................................................................... 79 5.12.2. Weekly and daily timetable........................................................................................................... 80 5.13. Curriculum, Subjects, Number of Hours............................................................................................ 80 5.13.1. First stage ...................................................................................................................................... 83 5.13.2. General secondary education (ASO) ............................................................................................. 84 5.13.3. Technical secondary education (TSO) .......................................................................................... 85 5.13.4. Art secondary education (KSO) .................................................................................................... 85 5.13.5. Full-time vocational secondary education (BSO) ......................................................................... 86 5.13.6. Part-time compulsory education.................................................................................................... 87 5.13.7. Fourth stage of vocational secondary education............................................................................ 88 5.14. Teaching methods and materials........................................................................................................ 89 5.15. Pupil assessment ................................................................................................................................ 89 5.16. Progression of pupils.......................................................................................................................... 89 5.17. Certification ....................................................................................................................................... 90 5.18. Educational/vocational guidance, education/employment links ........................................................ 90 5.19. Private education................................................................................................................................ 93 5.20. Organisational variations and alternative structures .......................................................................... 93 5.21. Statistics ............................................................................................................................................. 93 CHAPTER 6. TERTIARY EDUCATION ...................................................................................................... 97 6.1. Historical overview............................................................................................................................ 97 6.1.1. Colleges of higher education: history............................................................................................ 97 6.1.2. Universities and university studies: history................................................................................... 99 6.2. Ongoing debate ................................................................................................................................ 101 6.3. Specific legislative framework......................................................................................................... 101 6.4. General objectives............................................................................................................................ 101 6.4.1. Education in colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) ............................................. 102 6.4.2. University education ................................................................................................................... 102
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6.5. Types of institution .......................................................................................................................... 102 6.5.1. Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) ............................................. 102 6.5.2. University education ................................................................................................................... 103 6.5.3. Associations ................................................................................................................................ 104 6.6. Admission requirements .................................................................................................................. 105 6.6.1. Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) ............................................. 105 6.6.2. University education ................................................................................................................... 105 6.6.3. Formerly acquired qualifications (EVK) and elsewhere acquired competences (EVC) ............. 106 6.7. Registration and/or tuition fees ........................................................................................................ 106 6.7.1. Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) ............................................. 106 6.7.2. University education ................................................................................................................... 107 6.8. Financial support for students .......................................................................................................... 107 6.9. Organisation of the academic year ................................................................................................... 108 6.9.1. Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) ............................................. 108 6.9.2. University education ................................................................................................................... 108 6.10. Branches of study, specialisation ..................................................................................................... 109 6.10.1. Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) ............................................. 109 6.10.2. University education ................................................................................................................... 110 6.11. Curriculum ....................................................................................................................................... 111 6.11.1. Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) ............................................. 111 6.11.2. University education ................................................................................................................... 111 6.12. Teaching methods ............................................................................................................................ 112 6.12.1. Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) ............................................. 112 6.12.2. University education ................................................................................................................... 112 6.13. Student assessment........................................................................................................................... 112 6.13.1. Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) ............................................. 112 6.13.2. University education ................................................................................................................... 113 6.14. Progression of students through courses .......................................................................................... 113 6.14.1. Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) ............................................. 113 6.14.2. University education ................................................................................................................... 113 6.15. Certification ..................................................................................................................................... 113 6.15.1. Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) ............................................. 114 6.15.2. University education ................................................................................................................... 114 6.16. Educational/vocational guidance, education/employment links ...................................................... 115 6.16.1. Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs .............................................. 115 6.16.2. University education ................................................................................................................... 115 6.17. Private education.............................................................................................................................. 116 6.18. Organisational variations, alternative structures .............................................................................. 116 6.19. Statistics ........................................................................................................................................... 116 CHAPTER 7. CONTINUING EDUCATION AND TRAINING FOR ADULTS ............................................. 121 7.1. Historical overview.......................................................................................................................... 121 7.1.1. Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) ............................... 121 7.1.2. Basic Education........................................................................................................................... 122 7.1.3. Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor de Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) .................................................................. 122 7.1.4. Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO).................................................................................................................. 123 7.1.5. Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) ...................................................... 123
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7.1.6. Social-cultural adult work (sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk) ................................................ 123 7.2. Ongoing debates............................................................................................................................... 124 7.3. Specific legislative framework......................................................................................................... 125 7.3.1. Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) ............................... 126 7.3.2. Begeleid Individueel Studeren (BIS) .......................................................................................... 126 7.3.3. Basic Education (Basiseducatie) ................................................................................................. 126 7.3.4. The Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) .................................................................. 127 7.3.5. The Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO).................................................................................................................. 127 7.3.6. Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) ...................................................... 127 7.3.7. Agricultural training programmes (landbouwvorming) .............................................................. 128 7.3.8. Social-cultural adult work (Sociaal-cultureel Volwassenenwerk)............................................... 128 7.4. General objectives............................................................................................................................ 128 7.4.1. Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) ............................... 128 7.4.2. Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)........................................... 129 7.4.3. Basic Education........................................................................................................................... 129 7.4.4. Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) .................................................................. 129 7.4.5. Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO).................................................................................................................. 130 7.4.6. Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) ........................................................ 130 7.4.7. Social-cultural adult work ........................................................................................................... 130 7.5. Types of institution .......................................................................................................................... 130 7.5.1. Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) ............................... 130 7.5.2. Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)........................................... 131 7.5.3. Basic Education........................................................................................................................... 131 7.5.4. Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) .................................................................. 131 7.5.5. Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO).................................................................................................................. 132 7.5.6. Part-time art education ................................................................................................................ 132 7.5.7. Vocational training in agriculture................................................................................................ 132 7.5.8. Social-cultural adult education.................................................................................................... 132 7.6. Geographical accessibility ............................................................................................................... 132 7.7. Admission requirements .................................................................................................................. 133 7.7.1. Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) ............................... 133 7.7.2. Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)........................................... 133 7.7.3. Basic Education (Basiseducatie) ................................................................................................. 133 7.7.4. Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) .................................................................. 134 7.7.5. Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO).................................................................................................................. 134 7.7.6. Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) ........................................................ 134 7.7.6. Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk) ........................................ 134 7.8. Registration and/or tuition fees ........................................................................................................ 134 7.8.1. Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) ............................... 135 7.8.2. Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)........................................... 135 7.8.3. Basic Education (Basiseducatie) ................................................................................................. 135
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7.8.4.
Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) .................................................................. 136 7.8.5. Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) .................................................................... 136 7.8.6. Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk) ........................................ 136 7.9. Financial support for learners .......................................................................................................... 136 7.9.1. Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) ............................... 137 7.9.2. Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)........................................... 137 7.9.3. Basic Education (Basiseducatie) ................................................................................................. 137 7.9.4. Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) .................................................................. 137 7.9.5. Part-time art education (deeltijds kunstonderwijs) (DKO).......................................................... 138 7.9.6. Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk) ........................................ 138 7.10. Main areas of specialisation ............................................................................................................. 138 7.10.1. Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) ............................... 138 7.10.2. Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)........................................... 139 7.10.3. Basic Education (Basiseducatie) ................................................................................................. 139 7.10.4. Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) .................................................................. 139 7.10.5. Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO).................................................................................................................. 140 7.10.6. Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) .................................................................... 140 7.10.7. Vocational training in agriculture (Landbouwvorming) ............................................................. 141 7.10.8. Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk) ........................................ 141 7.11. Teaching methods ............................................................................................................................ 141 7.11.1. Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) ............................... 142 7.11.2. Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren (BIS)............................................ 142 7.11.3. Basic Education (Basiseducatie) ................................................................................................. 142 7.11.4. Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) .................................................................. 142 7.11.5. The Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO).................................................................................................................. 143 7.11.6. Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) ........................................................ 144 7.11.7. Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk) ........................................ 144 7.12. Trainers ............................................................................................................................................ 144 7.12.1. Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) ............................... 145 7.12.2. Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)........................................... 145 7.12.3. Basic Education (Basiseducatie) ................................................................................................. 145 7.12.4. Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) .................................................................. 146 7.12.5. Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO).................................................................................................................. 146 7.12.6. Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) ........................................................ 146 7.12.7. Vocational training in agriculture (Landbouwvorming) ............................................................. 146 7.12.8. Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk) ........................................ 146 7.13. Learner assessment/progression....................................................................................................... 147 7.13.1. Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) ............................... 147 7.13.2. Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)........................................... 148 7.13.3. Basic Education........................................................................................................................... 148
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7.13.4. Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) .................................................................................. 148 7.13.5. the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO) ................................................................................................................................. 148 7.13.6. Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) ...................................................... 149 7.13.7. Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk) ........................................ 149 7.14. Certification ..................................................................................................................................... 149 7.14.1. Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) ............................... 149 7.14.2. Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)........................................... 150 7.14.3. Basic Education (basiseducatie).................................................................................................. 150 7.14.4. Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) .................................................................. 150 7.14.5. Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO).................................................................................................................. 151 7.14.6. Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) ........................................................ 151 7.14.7. Vocational Training in Agriculture (Landbouwvorming) ........................................................... 151 7.14.8. Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk) ........................................ 151 7.15. Education/Employment Links.......................................................................................................... 151 7.16. Private Education ............................................................................................................................. 152 7.17. Statistics ........................................................................................................................................... 152 CHAPTER 8: TEACHERS AND EDUCATION STAFF .................................................................................. 157 8.1. Initial training of teachers ................................................................................................................ 158 8.1.1. Historical overview ..................................................................................................................... 158 8.1.2. Ongoing debate ........................................................................................................................... 158 8.1.3. Specific legislative framework.................................................................................................... 158 8.1.4. Institutions, level and models of training ................................................................................... 159 8.1.5. Admission requirements.............................................................................................................. 160 8.1.6. Curriculum, special skills, specialisation .................................................................................... 161 8.1.7. Evaluation, certificates ................................................................................................................ 162 8.1.8. Alternative training pathways ..................................................................................................... 163 8.2. Conditions of service of teachers ..................................................................................................... 164 8.2.1. Historical overview ..................................................................................................................... 164 8.2.2. Ongoing debates.......................................................................................................................... 165 8.2.3. Specific legislative framework.................................................................................................... 165 8.2.4. Planning policy............................................................................................................................ 166 8.2.5. Entry to the profession ................................................................................................................ 166 8.2.6. Professional status ....................................................................................................................... 169 8.2.7. Replacement measures ................................................................................................................ 170 8.2.8. Supporting measures for teachers................................................................................................ 171 8.2.9. Evaluation of teachers ................................................................................................................. 171 8.2.10. In-service training ....................................................................................................................... 173 8.2.11. Salaries ........................................................................................................................................ 175 8.2.12. Working time and holidays ......................................................................................................... 177 8.2.13. Promotion, advancement ............................................................................................................. 179 8.2.14. Transfers...................................................................................................................................... 181 8.2.15. Dismissal ..................................................................................................................................... 182 8.2.16. Retirement and pensions ............................................................................................................. 183 8.3. Educational Staff responsible for Administration and/or Management within Schools .................. 184
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8.3.1. 8.3.2. 8.4. 8.4.1. 8.4.2. 8.5. 8.6. 8.7.
Requirements for appointment as a school head ......................................................................... 184 Conditions of service................................................................................................................... 185 Educational Staff responsible for Monitoring the Quality of Education.......................................... 185 Requirements for appointment as an inspector........................................................................... 185 Conditions of service................................................................................................................... 186 Educational staff responsible for support and guidance................................................................... 186 Other educational staff or staff working with schools ..................................................................... 187 Statistics ........................................................................................................................................... 188
CHAPTER 9. 9.1. 9.2. 9.3. 9.3.1. 9.3.2. 9.3.3. 9.3.4. 9.4. 9.4.1. 9.4.2. 9.5. 9.5.1. 9.5.2. 9.5.3. 9.6. 9.7.
EVALUATION OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND THE EDUCATION SYSTEM 191 Historical overview.......................................................................................................................... 191 Ongoing debate ................................................................................................................................ 191 Administrative and Legislative Framework ..................................................................................... 192 The Inspectorate .......................................................................................................................... 192 Department of educational development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO)............ 196 Pedagogical support services (Pedagogische Begeleidingsdiensten) .......................................... 197 Special arrangements................................................................................................................... 198 Evaluation of Schools/Institutions ................................................................................................... 198 Internal evaluation....................................................................................................................... 198 External evaluation...................................................................................................................... 201 Evaluation of the Education System ................................................................................................ 205 The annual report of the educational Inspectorate....................................................................... 205 Periodical achievement test ......................................................................................................... 205 Participation in international comparative research .................................................................... 206 Research on Education..................................................................................................................... 206 Statistics ........................................................................................................................................... 207
CHAPTER 10: SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT ................................................................................... 209 10.1. Historical overview.......................................................................................................................... 209 10.2. Ongoing debates............................................................................................................................... 209 10.3. Definition and diagnosis of the target group(s)................................................................................ 210 10.4. Financial support for pupils’ families .............................................................................................. 211 10.5. Provision for pupils/students with special educational needs within mainstream education ........... 211 10.5.1. Specific legislative framework.................................................................................................... 211 10.5.2. General objectives ....................................................................................................................... 211 10.5.3. Specific support measures ........................................................................................................... 212 10.6. Separate provision for pupils/students with special educational needs............................................ 213 10.6.1. Specific legislative framework.................................................................................................... 213 10.6.2. General objectives ....................................................................................................................... 215 10.6.3. Geographical accessibility........................................................................................................... 215 10.6.4. Admission requirements and choice of school ............................................................................ 215 10.6.5. Age levels and grouping of pupils............................................................................................... 217 10.6.6. Organisation of the school year................................................................................................... 217 10.6.7. Curriculum, subjects.................................................................................................................... 218 10.6.8. Teaching methods and materials ................................................................................................. 219 10.6.9. Progression of pupils from one class to the next ......................................................................... 219 10.6.10. Educational/vocational guidance, education/employment links............................................. 219 10.6.11. Certification............................................................................................................................ 220
Table of content
10.6.12. Private education .................................................................................................................... 220 10.7. Special measures for children/pupils of immigrants ........................................................................ 220 10.8. Statistics ........................................................................................................................................... 221 CHAPTER 11. THE EUROPEAN AND INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION IN EDUCATION ..................... 225 11.1. Historical Overview ......................................................................................................................... 225 11.2. Ongoing Debates.............................................................................................................................. 225 11.2.1. Current European Influence on the Flemish Educational System ............................................... 226 11.3. National Policy Guidelines/Specific Legislative Framework .......................................................... 228 11.4. National Programmes and Initiatives ............................................................................................... 229 11.4.1. Bilateral programmes and initiatives........................................................................................... 229 11.4.2. Multilateral programmes and initiatives...................................................................................... 232 11.5. European/International Dimension through the National Curriculum ............................................. 233 11.6. Mobility and Exchange .................................................................................................................... 234 11.6.1. Mobility and Exchange of Pupils/Students ................................................................................. 235 11.6.2. Mobility and Exchange of Teaching and Academic Staff........................................................... 237 11.7. Statistics ........................................................................................................................................... 238 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................................... 243 OVERVIEW OF LAWS ..................................................................................................................................... 257
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Evolution in the Flemish population ......................................................................................................... 6 Table 2: Evolution in the number of inhibatants per km²........................................................................................ 6 Table 3: Evolution in population structure.............................................................................................................. 7 Table 4: Evolution in number of new borns............................................................................................................ 7 Table 5: School population in full-time education according to organising body and gender (except for the Flemish Community Commission) – school year 2002-2003 ....................................................................... 47 Table 6: Spreading of schools over the networks – school year 2002-2003 ......................................................... 48 Table 7: Cost price per pupil per educational level (in EUR) School year 2002-2003 ......................................... 48 Table 8: Relation educational budget compared to the budget of the Flemish Community and the Gross regional Product (in thousand EUR) – School year 2002-2003 .................................................................................. 48 Table 9: Number of institutions in pre-school education (school year 2002-2003) .............................................. 59 Table 10: Evolution in the number of pupils in pre-school education (1980-2003).............................................. 59 Table 11: Number of institutions in primary education (2002-2003).................................................................... 68 Table 12: Evolution in the number of pupils in primary education (school year 1984-2003)............................... 68 Table 13: School career in ordinary primary education (Belgian pupils) (2002-2003)......................................... 69 Table 14: School career in ordinary primary education (Foreign pupils) (2002-2003)......................................... 69 Table 15: Number of institutions in secondary education (school year 2002-2003)............................................. 93 Table 16: Part-time Vocational Secondary Schools (2002-2003) ......................................................................... 93 Table 17: Evolution of the number of pupils in ordinary and special secondary education (1984-2003)............ 94 Table 18: Delay at school in secondary education (1987-2001) ........................................................................... 94 Table 19: School delay (in percents) in ordinary secondary education per stage. Belgians and foreigners. (School year 2000-2001) ............................................................................................................................................ 94 Table 20: School delay (in percents) in ordinary secondary education per stage and per educational form (School year 2000-2001) ............................................................................................................................................ 95 Table 21: Evolution of the number of students in higher education of one cycle (former short form) and two cycles (former long form) (1985-2003)..................................................................................................... 117 Table 22: Evolution of the number of students in university education (1993-2003)......................................... 117 Table 23: Number of students broken down by field of study at the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) (academic year 2002-2003)......................................................................................................................... 118 Table 24: Number of students broken down by field of study at the universities (male and female) (academic year 2002-2003) .......................................................................................................................................... 118
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
Table 25: Percentage of all students (freshmen and non-freshmen) passing a number of basic courses in the first year of one-cycle colleges (2002-2003) ...................................................................................................... 119 Table 26: Success rates in the first and second year of a number of courses of two-cycle colleges (2002-2003) .................................................................................................................................................................... 119 Table 27: Number of students in the Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie ) (registration period: 1 February 2002 - 31 January 2003)........................................................................... 153 Table 28: Participation in the Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) in 2002................ 153 Table 29: Number of participants in basic adult education (basiseducatie ) (year 1999-2003) .......................... 153 Table 30: Number of participants in Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) on the 1st February 2003, by organising body and branch of study ............................................................................ 154 Table 31: Number of educational institutions in Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) in 2002-2003 ................................................................................................................................................... 154 Table 32: Obtained certificates/diploma’s in the Examination board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie Vlaamse Gemeenschap) for full-time secondary education in 2002........................... 154 Table 33: Number of completed training at the VDAB, by activity and employee/job-seeker (2002) ............... 154 Table 34: Education provided by the “Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen”: courses, periods and participants in 2002-2003............................................................................................................................ 155 Table 35: Number of socio-cultural organisations and core realisations 2002.................................................... 155 Table 36: Administrative and teaching staff by level of education: number of full-time equivalents (January 2003), by gender and post ........................................................................................................................... 188 Table 37: Administrative and teaching staff by level of education: number of persons (January 2003), by post and employment.......................................................................................................................................... 188 Table 38: Administrative and teaching staff (number of persons) in all levels of education, by age, post and gender (January 2003)................................................................................................................................. 189 Table 39: Administrative and teaching staff in colleges of higher education, by post and gender (January 2003) .................................................................................................................................................................... 189 Table 40: Number of staff (full-time units) at the universities (1 February 2003), by gender ............................ 189 Table 41: Annual gross salaries of members of teaching staff (full-time) in EUR (1 September 2003)............. 190 Table 42: Annual gross salaries of academic staff (full-time) at colleges of higher education (hogescholen) and at universities in EUR (1 June 2003) .............................................................................................................. 190 Table 43: Overview of the number of screenings by the Inspectorate in the school year 2002-2003................. 207 Table 44: Number of pupils in special pre-school and primary education according to type (school year 20022003) ........................................................................................................................................................... 221 Table 45: Number of pupils in special primary education according to type (school year 2002-2003).............. 221
List of Tables
Table 46: Number of pupils in special secondary education according to form of education (school year 20012002) ........................................................................................................................................................... 222 Table 47: Number of pupils in special secondary education according to type in form of education 1 (school year 2002-2003).................................................................................................................................................. 222 Table 48: Number of pupils in special secondary education according to type in form of education 2 (school year 2002-2003).................................................................................................................................................. 222 Table 49: Number of pupils in special secondary education according to type in form of education 3 (school year 2002-2003).................................................................................................................................................. 223 Table 50: Number of pupils in special secondary education according to type in form of education 4 (school year 2002-2003).................................................................................................................................................. 223 Table 51: Evolution in the number of pupils in special pre-school education (1990-2003)................................ 223 Table 52: Evolution in the number of pupils in special primary education (Buitengewoon Lager Onderwijs, BLO) (1990-2003) ...................................................................................................................................... 223 Table 53: Evolution in the number of pupils in special secondary education (Buitengewoon Secundair Onderwijs) (BuSO) (1990-2003) ................................................................................................................ 224 Table 54: Number of Schools for special education in 2002-2003 (1) ............................................................... 224 Table 55: Socrates Comenius for primary education Action 1.1. School projects.............................................. 238 Table 56: Socrates Comenius for primary and secondary education Action 1.3. School development projects (Socrates II)................................................................................................................................................. 238 Table 57: Socrates Comenius for primary education Action 3.2.c (until 1999), Actie 2.2c (as from 2000) ...... 238 Table 58: Socrates Comenius for secondary education - Action 1...................................................................... 238 Table 59: Socrates Comenius for secondary education Actieon 2.2c In-service training ................................... 239 Table 60: Evolution in number of participants in the Erasmus programme (1988-2002) ................................... 239 Table 61: Participation in Socrates- Adult education / Grundtvig-1 ................................................................... 239 Table 62: Participation in Socrates- Adult education / Grundtvig-2 ................................................................... 240 Table 63: Participation in Socrates- Adult education / Grundtvig-3 ................................................................... 240 Table 64: Participation in Socrates- Minerva, open and distance education ....................................................... 240 Table 65: Participation in Lingua Action C- higher education (transition year with ‘ex-Lingua C’ in 2001-2002, as from 2002-2003 Comenius 2.2.b “Language assistents”)....................................................................... 240 Table 66: Participation in Lingua Action E- secondary and higher education (transition year with “ex-Lingua E” in 2000-2001, as from 2001-2002 Comenius 1.2. “Language projects”).................................................... 241 Table 67: Participation in Euroklassen - secondary education............................................................................ 241 Table 68: Participation in Gros - secondary education ....................................................................................... 241 Table 69: Participation in Gros-Buurlandenbeleid (as from 1999) – primary education .................................... 242
xvii
CHAPTER 1.
POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND TRENDS
The movement toward a federal state in Belgium has had important implications for education. Since 1989, authority over education has been almost fully transferred to the three Communities. Though the common roots cannot be ignored, the Communities have since followed their own paths as regards educational structures and policy. This book describes the educational system of the Flemish Community. The first chapter presents an overview of the political, social and economic background of the Flemish educational Policy.
1.1.
Historical overview
In the following overview we present a historical overview on important facts and reforms relating to the federal state and (educational) politics in Flanders. 1.1.1.
Toward a federal state
Since the foundation of the Belgian State (1830), the Constitution, promulgated in February 1831, established the structures of a centralised state based on the principle of unified legislation and government for the entire country. However, there are two other powers alongside the central legislative power (consisting of the King, the Chamber of Representatives, and the Senate) and the executive power (consisting of the King and the Government) in this historical perspective. These two additional powers are the Provinces and the Municipalities (local authorities). However, although the provinces and municipalities have a fairly large degree of autonomy, their powers are restricted, and their decisions are subject to review by the central government (MVG, 1991a). In 1831, the Constituent Assembly created a unitary state. However, because of the diversity of regions, a certain degree of decentralisation was provided for: the State was divided into nine provinces and each province into local authorities. The provincial and local authorities were under the control of central power, so the Belgian State of 1831 was centralised. This unitary and centralised State continued for 140 years (1831 to 1970). In order to meet the ever-increasing pressure from the public expressed in society, the Constitution has been amended five times since 1970, in 1970-1971, 1980, 1988, and 1993. The revision of 1993 confirmed the new federal structure of the Belgian State. The former bilingual province of “Brabant” was split into two provinces: “Vlaams-Brabant” (Dutch-speaking) and “Brabant-Wallon” (French-speaking). “Brussels”, the national capital and also the geographical centre of the former province of “Brabant”, no longer belongs to a province. Its special status as a bilingual Gewest (Region) was reinforced (more details are included in section [1.1.2.]). The last amendment of 2001 is known as the “Lambermont Agreement”. This political agreement gives the Regions in Belgium more authority as well as financial resources. For the first time now, the Regions have real fiscal autonomy and are empowered with full authority over several regional taxes such as the traffic tax and the registration and succession taxes. In addition, authority over agriculture, foreign trade and development cooperation has been transferred to the Regions. Moreover, by the law on municipalities and provinces, the Regions have acquired control over the subordinate governments in their territory (Vlaams Parlement, 2002). The five stages of the constitutional revision gradually established a federal system, with the central State - the national power - retaining full authority for certain matters (e.g. finance, national defence, and justice) and
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
varying degrees of authority for other matters (e.g. foreign trade, education). The 3rd stage (1988-89) affected education directly with the transfer of education to the control of the Communities, which had been in a transitional stage since 1981 (Art. 127 par. 1, 2) as well as the guarantees provided in an earlier stage by the socalled School Pact Law (Schoolpactwet) of 29 May, 1959 (Art. 24). Art. 142 of the amended Constitution gives the right to refer to the Arbitration Court (Arbitragehof) to all citizens who contend that a violation has taken place of the principles and guarantees laid down in Art. 24 on education of the Constitution and who have been harmed. The contribution of the fifth constitutional revision to education is mainly the increase of the financial resources for education. 1.1.2.
Levels of decision-making
Today, besides the municipalities and the provinces, there are three levels of decision-making with their respective structures of legislative and executive power: the central State, the Communities (Gemeenschappen), and the Regions (Gewesten). Three cultural Communities - the Flemish, the French-language and the Germanlanguage - and three economic Regions - Flemish, Walloon, and Brussels - have been recognised (MVG, 1992). The Communities as such do not have any territory but have authority over their respective language area. In Brussels, however, the decrees of the Communities only apply to the institutions of Brussels Capital that, due to their organisation, are considered to belong exclusively to one or the other Community (e.g. Flemish schools). The Communities are responsible for cultural, linguistic, and “person-related” matters (including education and training). They are also responsible for scientific research concerning these matters and international affairs relating to these authorities. The Regions are responsible for economic, energy, and scientific policy, public works and transport, town and country planning, the environment and control over the municipalities and provinces. 1.1.3.
Political parties in Flanders
The political landscape in Flanders has eight political parties that are represented in the Flemish Parliament. First, there are the parties that are the inheritors of the former main traditional parties: the Christian democratic CD&V (“Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams”) and the NCD (“Nieuwe Christen-Democratie”), the social democratic SP.A (“Sociaal Progressief Alternatief”), and the liberal VLD (“Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten”). There are also the N-VA (“Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie”), Spirit and the VB (“Vlaams Blok”). These three parties regularly call for an autonomous Flemish State. The VB, however, is more right wing and extremist. “GROEN!” (formerly AGALEV “Anders Gaan Leven”) is the Flemish green party. There is one representative in Parliament, who was elected in 1999 from the list of the French-speaking UF (“Union des Francophones”) in Brussels. The NCD (a recent scission of the Christian Democratic party CD&V - incorporated in the VLD in 2002), the N-VA and Spirit (a recent split of the Flemish nationalist party VU-ID - Spirit formed a cartel list with the SP.A for the federal elections of 2003) are not yet recognised as separate fractions in the Flemish Parliament. At the municipal level, there are sometimes local parties. In relation to education, their influence is limited and only of local importance. Sometimes these local parties have links with the major parties.
Hoofdstuk 1: De politieke, sociale en economische achtergrond
1.1.4.
Constitutional guarantees for education
The Constitution, after the revision of 15 July 1988, turned over all responsibilities (Art. 127 par. 1, 2) in relation to the education system to the Communities (Gemeenschappen) with the exception of three: •
fixing the beginning and end of the compulsory school attendance period;
•
establishing the minimum conditions for granting diplomas;
•
maintaining the pension system.
These first two exceptions were made to safeguard a minimum degree of coherence in the educational systems of the three Communities. For the (pension system), the case is different. The pensions are still part of the national social security system for which there still is a national funding system based on solidarity of the Communities and the Regions. As a consequence, the responsibility for educational matters has been effectively in the hands of the Flemish Parliament (Vlaams parlement) and the Community Minister since 1 January 1989. Therefore, the Flemish Community governs its own education system (MVG, 1991a, 1991c, 1992; Platel, 1993).
1.2.
Ongoing Trends
The ongoing debates (and relevant reform proposal and politics) concerning education will be described in the chapters that deal with more specific aspects of the Flemish educational system.
1.3.
Main executive and legislative bodies
The legislature of Flanders is the Flemish Parliament (Vlaams parlement), which is the parliament of the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) and the Flemish Region (Vlaams Gewest). Before the general elections of 1995, the Flemish Parliament consisted of 186 Dutch-speaking members of the Belgian Parliament (124 Representatives and the directly elected Senators). This temporary arrangement disappeared after the general elections. At a further stage in the State Reform Process, the present national bicameral system was changed. The ‘double mandate’ (whereby each member of the Flemish Parliament was also a member of the national Parliament) was abolished, and the Flemish Parliament directly elected. This new Flemish Parliament now has 124 members: 118 directly elected by the residents of the Flemish Region and 6 elected from among the Dutchspeaking representatives of the Council of the Brussels Region (Platel, 1993). The Flemish Parliament has the three classic functions of a parliament: legislation, formation of governments, and supervision. The Flemish Parliament exercises its legislative powers by means of decrees, which have the same legal force as a law of the national Parliament. The Executive power rests with the Flemish Government. By decree it has a maximum of 11 members, at least one of whom must reside in the bilingual area of Brussels Capital. The ministers are elected from and appointed by the Flemish Parliament. The Flemish Government decides collegially: all decisions are taken by the entire government, unless delegation is expressly granted to an individual minister. At present the majority in the Flemish Parliament and Government is composed of four parties: the liberal VLD (26 seats), Social Democrats (SP.A) (20 seats), the Flemish green party (GROEN!) (12 seats) and Spirit (4 seats). The opposition is made up of the Christian Democrats (CD&V) (29 seats), the ultra-right-wing VB (22 seats), the ‘Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie’ (N-VA) (3 seats), a Francophone party (1 seat) and five independent representatives.
3
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
1.4.
Religion and education
The Belgian Constitution guarantees the separation of Church and State. In addition, many social, cultural, and educational matters are governed by the principle of subsidiarity. This explains why the Government in Flanders has no direct influence on the curricula. The Government only has a well-defined right to review those curricula (detailed information is included in section 9.4.1.). Consequently, there is no ‘official religion‘, although the State does recognise several religions by law. The recognised religions are: Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Anglican, Islamic, and Orthodox Christian. The Constitution (Art. 24) guarantees the right of all children in primary and secondary education to attend a philosophical or religious course (2 periods a week) at state expense. The official educational establishments (community schools (gemeenschapsscholen) and grant-aided official schools (gesubsidieerde officiële scholen)) must respect the philosophical options of all the parents, and offer a choice between a religion-based course and a philosophical (moral) one. The government has no authority over the content of these courses as long as they do not contravene the democratic principles of society (see 9.4.7.1.). A choice can be made for one of the recognised religions mentioned above or for a non-confessional ethics course. In special cases, pupils can be excused from these courses (e.g. Jehovah’s Witnesses). In grant-aided free schools (vrij gesubsidieerde scholen), there is no choice. The majority of these schools are Catholic, with the Protestant, Jewish, and Steiner schools constituting a small minority group. A special arrangement has been made for alternative method schools, such as the Steiner and the Freinet schools.
1.5.
Official and Minority Languages
Belgium has four language areas: Dutch, French, German, and the bilingual region Brussels Capital (Dutch and French). The language border was fixed in 1963. Each Community (Gemeenschap) belongs to a language region whose borders can only be changed by a specific law requiring a special majority in the national parliament. Bilingualism applies for the area making up the 19 boroughs of the capital city of Brussels with a majority of French-speakers, which is surrounded by the Flemish region, but the majority of the residents are Frenchspeaking. Around this bilingual Region, there are a number of Dutch-speaking municipalities with administrative facilities for their French-speaking residents. The only official language of the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) is Dutch. Many people in Flanders have a good working knowledge of at least one or two other European languages (English, French, German, Spanish, Italian). Officially, there are no legally recognised minority languages in Flanders, with the exception of French in certain communities along the language border (administrative facilities). In the Flemish Community the teaching language is Dutch. French is taught as a second language starting in the fifth year of primary education (in the region of Brussels it starts in the third year). English is taught as a third language starting in the second year of secondary education. Depending on educational choices, other languages can be learned at school. Languages spoken by the migrant population are not legally recognised as minority languages. Nevertheless, a special policy has been instituted within the education system to provide for adequate learning opportunities, especially for children within compulsory education. This policy is called the equal educational opportunities policy (gelijke onderwijskansenbeleid) (see 10.5).
Hoofdstuk 1: De politieke, sociale en economische achtergrond
1.6.
Demographic indicators
Flanders is an extremely densely populated region, and the number of inhabitants has doubled over the past 100 years. In 2003, the population count was 5.995.553 or 58% of the total Belgian population. The density has reached 443 inhabitants per square kilometre in 2003. The urbanised zones in Flanders clearly predominate, the densest concentration being in the centre, within the polygon formed by Antwerp, Leuven, Brussels, and Ghent (NIS, 2004). The Flemish Region has a foreign population of 4.7% (in 2003) (about 9.2% in the Walloon Region and about 26.2% in the Brussels Region). About a fourth of the foreign population is Dutch, more or less 15% is Moroccan, 13% is Turkish and about 9% is Italian (MVG, departement Algemene Zaken, 2000; NIS, 2004). In recent years Flanders, in common with the rest of Europe, has been confronted with the problem of the increased ageing of its population. In 2003, 22.3% of the population was older than 60 years of age, and a bit more had not reached the age of 20 years old (22.4%). The birth rate has decreased significantly, while the average life expectancy has increased (78.59 in Flanders in 2001). In 2000, the birth rate in Belgium reached the level of 1.11% and 1.04% in Flanders (MVG, departement Algemene Zaken, 2002, NIS, 2002). There are three cities in Flanders with more than 100,000 inhabitants: Antwerp (452,474 inhabitants), Ghent (228,016 inhabitants), and Bruges (139,501 inhabitants). On average, there is a village every 5 kilometres, and a city or town every 20 kilometres. Almost 25 percent of the total space in Flanders is built-on areas. Of this 25 percent, 10.5 percent are residential areas (NIS, 2004b).
1.7.
Economic indicators
In the following overview we present an overview of important aspects on the labour market and economic conditions in Flanders. 1.7.1.
Flemish economic development
A growing and better performing economy is one of the policy effects the Flemish government wants to reach. The Gross Regional Product (GRP) is an indicator of this trend. The Flemish GRP has grown strongly during the last years. Only in 1998-1999 there was a slight weakening of economy. In 2002, the Flemish GRP has increased with 3.2 percent. In 2002, this GRP accounted for 57 percent of the Belgian GNP (Gross National Product) (APS, 2002). The backbone of the Flemish economy is the great number of small and medium-sized firms (KMO’s), which often operate in the industrial sector and provide at least 40% of the employment in that sector. Only about 1.3% of the Flemish GRP (Gross Regional Product) is provided by agriculture (MVG, Departement Algemene zaken, 2000). This share is continually declining, as it is in the other industrialised countries. The dominant sectors are steel production with almost 10% of the GRP, the chemical sector (about 5%), and the textile sector. The trade and service sectors together represent approximately 60% of the Flemish GRP. The Flemish economy is extremely open: approximately 87% of the GRP is exported. In the period of 19992002, the export of Flanders has increased with 28% (Export Vlaanderen). More than two thirds (77.6%) of Belgian exports to foreign countries are of Flemish origin.
5
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
Economic development and the economic conditions of the labour Market are not equally distributed over the various parts of Flanders. 1.7.2.
Flemish working population
In 2002, the activity rate of the Flemish population from 15 until 64 years of age was 66.84% (74.9% for men and 58.5% for women). In the European Union, it was 69% (78% for men and 60% for women) (Steunpunt WAV, 2004). Up to 1990, unemployment rapidly decreased in Flanders. Youth unemployment (persons <25 years old) decreased in Flanders from 1985 to 1990, but increased again in 1993. In 1996, the Flemish unemployment rate again started to decrease. In 2001, for the first in a long time, a less favourable evolution on the job market was announced in Flanders. The decrease of unemployment stopped and the number of vacancies was less than the year before. 2002 and 2003 did not bring any improvement, in contrary. In December 2003 Flemish unemployment rates were 6,71% for males and 9,72% for females (in total it was: 8,01%) (VDAB, 2004).
1.8.
Statistics
The following tables present statistical data on the Flemish political, social and economic context.
Table 1: Evolution in the Flemish population MALE
FEMALE
TOTAL
1/01/2003
2.956.558
3.038.995
5.995.553
1/01/2002
2.945.066
3.027.715
5.972.781
1/01/2001
2.934.940
3.017.612
5.952.552
1/01/2000
2.929.510
3.010.741
5.940.251
1/01/1999
2.923.551
3.003.287
5.926.838
1/01/1998
2.916.640
2.995.742
5.912.382
1/01/1997
2.910.715
2.988.109
5.898.824
(NIS, 2004)
Table 2: Evolution in the number of inhabitants per km²
1/01/2003 1/01/2002 1/01/2001 1/01/2000 1/01/1999 1/01/1998 1/01/1997 1/01/1996 1/01/1995
Flanders
Brussels
Belgium
443 442 440 439 438 437 436 435 434
6.147 6.063 5.976 5.944 5.914 5.976 5.890 5.875 5.896
339 336 336 335 335 334 333 332 332
Hoofdstuk 1: De politieke, sociale en economische achtergrond
1/01/1994
432
5.881
331
Table 3: Evolution in population structure Age group 0-19 20-39 40-59 60-79 80+ TOTAL (NIS, 2004)
1990 1.413.368 1.782.520 1.412.454 941.637 189.757 5.739.736
2000 1.369.264 1.676.627 1.577.593 1.114.883 201.884 5.940.251
2001 1.359.547 1.659.164 1.607.213 1.114.353 212.275 5.952.552
2002 1.351.286 1.643.421 1.646.413 1.108.289 223.372 5.972.781
2003 1.345.685 1.627.796 1.681.446 1.107.464 233.162 5.995.553
estimations 2004 2009 2015 1.338.871 1.309.387 1.256.249 1.583.375 1.508.318 1.493.678 1.727.703 1.770.575 1.738.859 1.116.283 1.180.634 1.271.404 255.541 302.437 352.442 6.021.773 6.071.351 6.112.632
Table 4: Evolution in number of new borns Year 2002 2001 2000 1990 1980 1970 1960 (NIS, 2004)
Belgium (B) 111.225 114.014 114.883 123.554 124.794 141.119 155.520
New borns Flanders (VG) 59.725 60.590 61.877 69.492 72.491 81.807 93.752
% VG / B 53,7 53,1 53,9 56,2 58,1 58,0 60,3
7
CHAPTER 2. GENERAL ORGANISATION OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION The following sections focus on the general organisation of the education system and the educational administration in Flanders.
2.1.
Historical overview
A historical perspective on the Flemish educational administration learns that freedom of education has always been one of the most central themes. Freedom of education has been included in Article 24 of the Constitution since the very beginning of the Belgian State and has been the cause of much conflict and struggle. They are referred to as ‘school wars’ and constitute a significant part of the cultural and political history of Belgium, both in the 19th century, with major flare-ups around 1850 and 1879, and in the 20th century, particularly from 1951 onwards. This century of confrontation ended with the signing of the School Pact (Schoolpact) (6 November 1958). It was a pact between the political parties to ensure a sort of distributive justice between the different educational networks (onderwijsnetten). By virtue of the principle of freedom of education, the organisation of educational establishments may not be subjected to any restrictive measure. Schools can be created and organised without being in any way connected with the official authorities. However, schools wishing to grant recognised diplomas and obtain subsidies from the State or, since the revision of the Constitution, from the Community (Gemeenschap) must comply with legal and statutory provisions. Since the signing of the School Pact, a law of 29 May 1959, referred to as the School Pact Law, has formed the basis for the organisation of all educational establishments, with the exception of universities, in an educational system organised and grantaided by the State. Other articles (Art. 127 Par. 1, 2 and 142) regulate the general authority of the Communities in relation to education (De Groof, 1989; Laridon & Mertens, 1988).
2.2.
Ongoing Trends
Ongoing debates and reform proposals in the Flemish educational administration especially relate to the following themes: the involvement of stakeholders in education and in school life, the legal situation of the pupils, autonomy and governing power of schools and simplified rules, the promotion of the courses of study mathematics, sciences and technology, the cost price of education for parents and youngsters (equal opportunities) and the reform proposal for revaluation of the funding system.
2.3.
Fundamental Principles and Basic Legislation
The following paragraphs deal with the most important principles of education of the Flemish educational legislation and the Flemish educational administration. 2.3.1.
Freedom of education
In the following overview we present an overview of important aspects concerning fundamental principles and Flemish basic legislation on education.
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
2.3.1.1.
Freedom of providing education
The Belgian constitution (modification 17 February 1994) in which freedom of education is guaranteed (art. 24) is central to the Belgian educational administration. This principle consists of two pillars: free choice of school (vrije schoolkeuze) (see paragraph 2.3.1.2.) and educational freedom (pedagogische vrijheid), namely the right to establish schools autonomously. The Law of 29 May 1959 (School Pact) authorised the State to organise pre-school, primary, secondary, and higher education and to create for this purpose the necessary establishments or sections of establishments where such facilities are needed, in particular to ensure freedom of school choice for parents. Moreover, the State (now the Community) (Gemeenschap) is obliged to subsidise or grant-aid educational establishments and sections of educational establishments organised by educational networks (onderwijsnetten) other than the official network that meet legal and statutory standards regarding the organisation of studies and the application of the language laws. The concept of educational freedom regulates to a very large extent the relations between, and the responsibilities of, the various partners in educational administration (the Education Department, the organising bodies (inrichtende machten), the public and private schools). An important concept in this regard is that of the organising body. This notion is, together with pedagogical freedom, another fundamental notion for the organisation of education in Belgium. By organising body is meant the following (Article 2, Par. 3 of the Law of 29 May 1959): The organising body of an educational establishment shall be the authority, that is to say the individual or collective person or persons who accept(s) full responsibility with respect to that establishment. A while ago, the term school board (schoolbestuur) has been introduced as a synonym for the organising body by the government in the legislation on the basic education (basisonderwijs ). The agreements of the School Pact essentially meant that education that was not organised by the State - thus, mainly free education - would accept a form of state control in exchange for partial subsidisation but that each organising body (inrichtende macht) would have the right to exercise in complete autonomy what has come to be known as pedagogical freedom. This freedom was defined and governed by Article 6 of the Law of 29 May 1959 on the School Pact: ‘On condition that a minimum, legally fixed syllabus and schedule are respected, each organising body (inrichtende macht) has the freedom in its educational network (onderwijsnet), and even in each educational institution, to organise its own schedules, and, subject to ministerial approval in order to guarantee educational standards, to work out its own syllabuses’. Each organising body (inrichtende macht) enjoys total freedom as regards teaching methods. The Decree of 24 July 1996 replaced the text of this article. The basic principles were maintained and confirmed. However, a new text was introduced to meet the technical requirements related to establishing clearly defined wordings of the attainment targets (eindtermen) and developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) adopted by Parliament and since implemented. 2.3.1.2.
Freedom of school choice
Freedom of school choice is guaranteed by the Constitution. Parents have the right to choose between a neutral Community school and a denominational one. In theory, all choices of studies (of a school or a branch of study) are entirely free. 2002 was a historic year for the principle of freedom of school choice. The decree of 28 June 2002 (equal educational opportunities) enshrines a fundamental right of admission to the school selected by the parents. The decree of 28 June 2002 on equal educational opportunities provides for the unconditional right to admittance to
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
the funded or grant-aided school of choice. This should allow all pupils and parents in our pluralistic society to choose freely from a range of educational projects. Only in a limited number of cases, schools will be able to refuse pupils or to transfer them to other schools. This means that each pupil that meets the general conditions of entry (age and ability) has the right to attend any school chosen by the parents. Only in a very few cases can the school refuse or refer a pupil. The reasons for not accepting a pupil in the future will be regulated restrictively, namely when: •
a pupil does not meet the general conditions of admission;
•
the material circumstances of the school are insufficient or the school cannot accept a pupil for safety reasons;
•
the pupil or his parents do not subscribe to the educational project (pedagogisch project) or the regulations of the school;
•
there are objective reasons why the school cannot offer special education for a pupil with a severe handicap.
2.3.2.
Educational networks
Schools, which may be owned by different organising bodies (inrichtende machten) are grouped in educational networks (onderwijsnetten) on the basis of their legal status. By virtue of the constitutional liberty guaranteed in educational administration, an educational network may be organised by the Communities, the Provinces, and the Municipalities (public authorities), and private individuals, free associations, or non-profit organisations (private persons). The educational facilities organised by the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) (former state schools) are known as community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs), those organised by municipalities and provinces as grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs), whereas educational facilities organised by free associations or non-profit organisations are known as grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs). The education organised by the provincial and local authorities and the organisations in the third category are grant-aided by the Communities. Consequently, reference is generally made to three educational networks in the legal and statutory provisions: •
The network of community schools (formerly State schools). This system must conform to special regulations concerning neutrality. These schools are called community schools (gemeenschapsscholen);
•
The network of provincial and local authority schools. They are called grant-aided official schools (officieel gesubsidieerde scholen);
•
The network of grant-aided free schools (gesubsidieerde vrije scholen). This network consists of schools of which the organising bodies are based on religion (free confessional schools), schools where education is based on the principles of rational enquiry, and schools that are not founded on any confessional or philosophical basis.
Catholic schools are by far the most numerous of the grant-aided free educational establishments. The relative share of all pupils for the three major networks in 2003 (fulltime primary and secondary education) was as follows: 15,07% in the community schools, 16,55% in the grant-aided official schools (gesubsidieerde officiële scholen), and 68.32% in the grant-aided free schools (gesubsidieerde vrije scholen) (MVG, 2003).
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The Decree concerning Education XIV, which was approved in February 2003, also stipulates that all official schools in the field of compulsory education will have an open character. Public institutions, such as municipal schools and provincial schools are subject to the principle of openness, which is to say that they have to be open to all pupils irrespective of their ideological background. That is why the Decree prescribes that official schools must display an open character. This open character must be demonstrated by the schools’ regulations, their curricula and the support service (press release Flemish government, 2002). 2.3.3.
Legal provisions for grant-aided schools
The intentions expressed in Article 6 of the School Pact Law (Schoolpactwet) (29 May 1959), as amended (Decree of 24 July 1996 (b)), were specified in Article 24, Par. 2. This article stipulates that a school or a section of an establishment for pre-school, primary, or secondary education is grant-aided if it conforms to the legal and statutory provisions concerning the organisation of studies and the application of the language laws. Moreover, it must comply with 10 criteria: •
adopt a structure such as already exists within the State ((Community) (Gemeenschap)) educational administration or one approved by the Minister;
•
conform to a programme that satisfies the legal requirements or that is approved by the Minister;
•
submit to official supervision and inspection;
•
be organised by a natural or legal person who accepts complete responsibility;
•
meet student-number requirements as laid down by decree;
•
be housed in premises that meet the hygiene and health standards;
•
possess sufficient teaching and general school equipment to satisfy educational requirements;
•
employ staff who will in no way constitute a health hazard to the pupils;
•
accept the school holiday system as laid down by law;
•
organise participation structures as laid down by decree.
2.3.4.
Teaching methods and the educational project (Pedagogisch project)
As regards teaching methods or the educational project (pedagogisch project), the various educational networks (onderwijsnetten) and schools are largely autonomous. Every school board (schoolbestuur) defines its mission autonomously. Community control is thus excluded as long as the projects do not contradict the democratic principles upon which the Belgian State is based. This is why several ‘onderwijsnetten’ (educational networks) and schools have detailed their educational projects in writing and published them. In the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap), the Community Education (Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (previously ARGO) published the Educational Project of Community Education (Pedagogisch Project van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) on 1 September 1989. Catholic education, in turn, regularly publishes detailed documents in which its own educational project is explained. While respecting the legal and statutory provisions in force, each organising body (inrichtende macht) may determine its own programmes, its pedagogical methods (including the assessment of pupils), and its organisation. Nowadays, most schools have their own educational project (pedagogical project). Most schools are co-educational in accordance with the official provisions aimed at providing equal treatment for both sexes. Community schools (gemeenschapsscholen) and grant-aided official schools (gesubsidieerde officiële scholen) are obliged to offer mixed education. Being a public institution, they can not refuse someone
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
on the base of sex. Schools of the grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs) can refuse pupils in certain cases if they motivate with a written refusal and if the educational offer of schools in the neighbourhood is sufficient. That’s why a small number of boy-only and girl-only schools remain in grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs). In ordinary primary education 9 out of 2,161 schools are boy-only schools and 13 are girl-only schools. In ordinary secondary education only 2 out of 914 schools are not mixed. A proposal to generalise mixed schooling has not yet been adopted by the Flemish Parliament. The discussion and evolution, however, is towards coeducational schooling (also as a consequence of EU regulations on profession-oriented education). 2.3.5.
Attainment targets and Curriculum development
An important principle in Flemish educational administration is the use of attainment targets (eindtermen) and developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen). Attainment targets are minimum objectives with regard to knowledge, insight, skills and attitudes, which the educational government regards as necessary and attainable for a specific population of pupils. Developmental objectives are minimum objectives which the educational government regards as desirable for a specific population of pupils (Decree 4 February 2003). The attainment targets and developmental objectives define which knowledge, insight, skills and attitudes society regards as necessary or desirable for pupils at different educational levels. Thus, attainment targets and developmental objectives are used by the government for quality control. They will clearly be present in the curricula, the school work plans and the course books used by the schools (MVG,1998). Pre-school education is non-compulsory education. Not all pre-schoolers start school at the same age. They develop each at their own pace. Therefore there are no attainment targets in pre-school education, only developmental objectives. Pre-schoolers are offered all developmental objectives, but it is not strictly required to reach them before transferring to secondary education. Thus, development objectives are being strived for (MVG,1998). Compulsory education starts with secondary education. Here the attainment targets are being divided into subject related (vakgebonden) and subject exceeding (vakoverschrijdende) attainment targets. Subject related attainment targets, except for the attitudinal attainment targets (for the development of attitudes), are minimum objectives which the pupils have to reach during the learning process. The subject exceeding attainment targets are minimum objectives which do not specifically belong to a subject area. However, they add valuable content and objectives which otherwise might be left out in the areas of learning or in the subjects. Schools have to strive for the subject exceeding and attitudinal attainment targets in their pupils (MVG,1998). Attainment targets and developmental objectives have been defined for secondary education as well (see paragraph 5.13.). The developmental objectives and attainment targets define what the pupils minimally have to know and to be able to do, but do not stipulate how this has to be done. The schools are free to decide the method, which leads to different approaches and allows for differentiation. This emerges from the diversity in curricula which are being used in Flemish schools. The subject related attainment targets and developmental objectives have to be recognisably incorporated in the curricula. A curriculum is a document which contains the essential information for the concrete educational practice. It is adapted to a well-described group of pupils and it names the general
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and specific objectives and related educational contents for one or more subjects or subject areas. Moreover, it gives advice on the educational approach and gives information that is useful for the realisation of the curriculum. The educational inspectorate evaluates the curriculum on the basis of fixed criteria and advises the Minister for Education on the approval. As far as attainment targets and developmental objectives have already been defined for the level concerned, the inspectorate checks whether the curricula correspond. The curriculum is developed by the organising body or by the umbrella educational organisation of the school (see 2.3.2.). The schools belonging to the umbrella organisations usually adopt the approved curricula.
2.4.
General structure and defining moments in educational guidance
The education system in Flanders includes nursery and primary education, secondary education and tertiary education. Mainstream nursery education is available for children from 2.5 to 6 years. Mainstream primary education is aimed at children from the ages of 6 to 12 and comprises 6 consecutive years. The start of primary education normally coincides with the start of compulsory education. Although nursery and primary education are separate from the structural point of view, attempts are made to create an easy transition from one to the other. Secondary education is aimed at young people from the ages of 12 to 18. Since 1989, full-time secondary education has been organised in accordance with a unified system. It consists of three consecutive stages of two years each. From the second stage, there are four different types of education and the pupil can choose for a particular course of study. In general secondary education (aso), the emphasis is on broad general education, which particularly provides a firm foundation for going into higher education. In technical secondary education (tso), the emphasis is particularly on general and technical theoretical subjects. After tso, young people can carry out a profession or go into higher education. In secondary education in the arts (kso), a broad general education is combined with active art education. Vocational secondary education (bso) is a practical type of education in which young people learn a specific vocation in addition to receiving general education. Higher education is provided at both colleges of higher education and universities. In general, one could say that there are three defining moments in guidance of pupils. The first one is after the primary school (age 12): pupils have to choose a secondary school. Although theoretically the first stage of secondary education focuses on a core curriculum, the options offered already reflect choices to be made after the first stage. Second, after the second year of secondary education, pupils have to choose general academic, art, technical, or vocational secondary education. The third moment is, of course, at the transition between secondary and higher education. Pupils can also opt for part-time education after the fourth year of secondary education.
2.5.
Compulsory Education
Following paragraphs deal with the history of compulsory education in the Flemish educational administration (see paragraph 2.5.1.), the current situation concerning compulsory education (see paragraph 2.5.2.) and the control of compulsory education (see paragraph 2.5.3.).
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
2.5.1.
Historical overview
The Law of 19 May 1914 introduced compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6 and 12 and stipulated that the upper age limit of the period of compulsory education would be extended to 13 and then 14 years of age. However, this law, passed after ‘impassioned debate’, was not implemented until after the First World War, in 1919. Officially, Belgium has a period of compulsory education, not compulsory school attendance (schoolplicht). In 1953, a bill was introduced by the Government to extend the period of compulsory school attendance to the age of 15. During the 1970s, various other bills were introduced to extend compulsory education to the age of 16 following studies that showed a link between the level of education and unemployment. 2.5.2.
Compulsory education: present law
The Law of 28 June 1983 prescribes that minors, Belgians and foreigners alike, are subject to compulsory school attendance for a period of 12 years, starting in the school year during which the child reaches the age of 6 and ending at the end of the school year during which the youngster reaches the age of 18 (Dewaele, e.a., 1985; TORB, 1995). A Circular Letter of 2002 made it clear that the period of compulsory education stops at the age of 18. Anyone who is 18 and who has consequently attained majority, cannot be compelled to stay at school until the end of the school year. Compulsory education ends in the calendar year in which the pupil attains the age of 18, either on the 30th of June (the end of the school year) for pupils who have already attended 12 years of primary and secondary education or on the 18th birthday itself. However, the Circular Letter asks schools to do their utmost to convince the pupils concerned to finish the school year even if they have reached the age of 18 (Circular Letter 2002 - Dept. of Education). Compulsory school attendance is full-time up to the age of 15 or 16 years old, depending on the individual case. It consists of primary education (six or seven years depending on the needs of the child, and even eight years in exceptional cases) and at least the first two years of full-time secondary education. Full-time compulsory attendance never extends beyond the age of 16 (Law of 28 June 1983). For the school year 2003-2004, for example, pupils born after 1 January 1986 must complete at least the first two years of full-time secondary education. If they have completed the first two years they can leave full-time education when they reach their 15th birthday. If they have not completed these first two years, they may only leave full-time education on reaching their 16th birthday. In both these cases, they must follow part-time education consisting of at least 360 hours per year until 30 June of the year of their 16th birthday and at least 240 hours per year until 30 June of the year of their 18th birthday. Part-time compulsory school attendance requirements can also be satisfied by continuing full-time education, by participating in a part-time programme at a centre created for this purpose, or by participating in a recognised training course that fulfils the compulsory school-attendance requirements. ‘The recognised training courses’ are those defined in Article 2 of the Compulsory School-Attendance Act. These are for instance training courses offered by the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO). Pupils can also meet the compulsory education requirements through home teaching. This includes education offered by private persons as well as education in private schools and independent study. There are no specific stipulations for home teaching, although the following regulation concerning compulsory education also applies
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to home teaching: “the education and training offered to the pupil needs to contribute to his or her education as well as to the preparation for the practice of an occupation” (Circular Letter of 1 March 2000). However, home teaching does not lead to legal certificates. To obtain an official diploma, one needs to take an examination for the Examination Board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap). It has to be mentioned that this law on compulsory education has not settled the debate in the Flemish educational administration on the legally accepted school leaving age. 2.5.3.
Monitoring compulsory education
Young people may also satisfy the compulsory education requirement by being taught at home on condition that the teaching provided satisfies the requirements fixed by the law. Some time ago, rules for monitoring compulsory education have been included in legislation (Decision of the Flemish Community of 16 September 1997). Based on the registration numbers assigned to each citizen from the day of birth on, a monitoring system has been set up that assigns special responsibility to the school head. The registration number of pupils enrolled can be compared easily with those of all young Belgians in the State Register (Rijksregister). As a result of the Royal Decree of 7 July 2002, the Education Department can now also use the national identification number to check registrations and regular school attendance, rationalise existing data requests and follow-up of the educational career of a pupil (Belgian Official Gazette 17/09/2002). Parents are responsible for the enrolment of their children. If the administration determines that a child is not enrolled, the parents have to justify themselves and are reminded of their responsibility. Judicial measures are available if they do not fulfil their responsibility (Decree of 25 February 1997). There are no specific stipulations for home teaching. The following regulation of the law concerning compulsory education applies also to home teaching: “the education and training offered to the pupil needs to contribute to his or her education as well as to the preparation for the practice of an occupation” (Circular Letter of 1 March 2000). The Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s) are by the government assigned with the task to counsel youngsters who have problems concerning compulsory education. The centres’ aim is to re-involve these youngsters in the educational process (Decree of 1 December 1999). In 2000 a policy was developed which should result in a more pro-active way of handling problematic absences. A school does not have to produce proof for a problematic absence, but it has to actively counsel the pupil in conjunction with the relevant Centre for Educational Guidance. If the school cannot demonstrate that it has made serious efforts to resolve the stale-mate situation the pupil is in, this may result in problems as regards the legitimisation of the absence (Circular Letter 15/08/2002).
2.6.
General administration
Belgium is a small country, so indications such as ‘national level’ or ‘regional level’ must always be taken in context. The general framework of educational administration in Flanders, besides the Flemish Parliament and the Minister of Education (and his cabinet of advisors), consists of three major levels: the Education Department of the Ministry of the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap), the networks, and the local schools. This is somewhat different than what is common in other countries with a hierarchical structure with ‘national’, ‘regional’, and ‘local’ powers. In flanders, educational policy mainly results from interaction between the
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
organising body at the national level, the intermediate level and the local level. We refer to the sections below for a detailed description. 2.6.1.
General administration at national level
Within the Flemish central government it is the minister of Education who is responsible for nearly all aspects of educational administration going from nursery to university education. The Constitution stipulates that Communities (and by extension their government and relevant minister) have all responsibilities in relation to the education system with the exception of fixing the beginning and end of the compulsory school attendance period of establishing the minimum conditions for granting diplomas and of maintaining the pension system. The policy of the minister of Education is prepared, executed and evaluated by the administration (the Education Department of the Flemish Ministry). The Education Department (departement Onderwijs) of the Ministry of the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) itself works under the authority of a Secretary General. The Education Department itself is organised into five directorates: the Logistics and Support Administration (Administratie Ondersteuning), Elementary Education Administration (Administratie basisonderwijs), Secondary Education Administration (Administratie Secundair Onderwijs), Higher Education and Scientific Research Administration (Administratie Hoger onderwijs & Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek), and the Continuing Education Administration (Administratie Permanente Vorming). At present, nearly all of these services are located in Brussels. Some continuing training is also under the responsibility of the Education Minister: Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP), Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO), distance learning (Afstandsonderwijs), part-time vocational education (Deeltijds Beroepsonderwijs) (DBSO), and industrial apprenticeship contract (Industrieel leercontract). Continuing training for employees and the unemployed is the responsibility of various bodies under the Community and regional authorities. The same applies for the training of the self-employed. For those sectors, the Flemish Minister of Employment and Tourism, the Flemish Minister of Economy, Town and Country Planning, and Media, and the Flemish Minister of Environment and Agriculture have some authority as well. The Flemish Minister of Education is co-ordinating the various sectors. 2.6.2.
General administration at the intermediate level
The policy structures of the central en local level do not perfectly match existing geographical boundaries in Flanders. Moreover, there is an additional intermediate educational administration level that is very important in understanding the general and regional administration of Flemish education. This level consists of the educational networks (see paragraph 2.3.2.). The interrelationships between the intermediate level of educational networks and both the national and local level are illustrated by the following description of the administration levels in Community Education (see paragraph 2.6.2.1.). 2.6.2.1.
General administration in Community Education
Up until the 1 January 1989, the Minister of Education was the organising body (inrichtende macht) and made most of the decisions for State education in all three Communities. After 1989, this structure was changed in the Flemish Community but not in the other two Communities. In the Flemish part of the country, “gemeenschapsonderwijs� (community education) is now organised by the Community Education
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(Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (previously the Independent Council for Community Education (Autonome Raad voor het Gemeenschapsonderwijs - ARGO) established by the Special Decree of 19 December 1988). The organising body is, therefore, no longer the Community Minister, but the “Gemeenschapsonderwijs” (Community Education). To enable the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) to adapt itself to the renewed concept of school communities (scholengemeenschappen) in secondary education (Decree of 14 July 1998), a Special Decree on the Community Education of 14 July 1998 was enacted. This Special Decree contains a change from a two-level structure to a three-level structure: the school (micro level), the school group (mesolevel) and Flanders (macro level). 2.6.2.1.1. Micro level: the schools At the local level, the school head (directeur) and the school council (schoolraad) are responsible for school matters. A school council is composed of eight members: 3 members directly elected by and from the parents, 3 members directly elected by and from the staff, and 2 members co-opted from social, economic, and cultural circles. The school head is the school’s central figure. He is no member of the school council but he attends her meetings and has a advisory role. The authorities of the school councils are counselling and consultation in matters that affect school life, however, they have no decision-making authority. The school councils advise the school head concerning the general organisation of the school, the school development plan (schoolwerkplan), the enrolment of pupils, etc.. They also advise the school group (scholengroep) concerning the appointment of the school head, the programming of the provision of education, the infrastructure of the school, and the organisation of the pupil transport. At the local level the school head and the school council are responsible for the general and pedagogical organisation of the school and for personnel matters. School councils of the same level of education located on a same campus can merge voluntarily. 2.6.2.1.2. Meso-level: the school groups The decision-making authority pertains largely to the school groups (scholengroepen) at the meso-level. A scholengroep (schools group) is a voluntary co-operation arrangement between primary and secondary educational institutions of the Gemeenschapsonderwijs (Community Education) to offer multi-sectoral education with at least general, technical, and vocational education. These school groups (scholengroepen) are governed by a General Council (Algemene Vergadering), a Governing Body (Raad van Bestuur), a Board of Head Masters (College van Directeurs) and a General Director (Algemeen Directeur). The school groups will serve as the organising bodies (inrichtende machten) of the assigned schools, the boarding schools, and the Centre for Educational Guidance (Centrum voor Leerlingenbegeleiding). Two representatives of each school council are seated in the General Council: 1 representative elected by and from the parents and the co-opted members of the school council (schoolraad) and 1 representative elected by and from the staff members of the school council. The General Council is chaired by the chairman of the Governing Body. The General Council confirms the budget, the accounts, and the appointment of the General Director of the Governing Body. The Governing Body is composed of 10 members: 6 members are elected by the members of the school councils. These 6 directly elected members co-opt 3 members nominated by the Board of School Heads (College van Directeurs). The Governing Body (Raad van Bestuur) is responsible for the general policy, the educational policy, the personnel policy, and the material and financial management of the school group.
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
The Board of School Head bridges the individual schools and the school group, and takes care of the preparation and execution of schoolwork. The General Director chairs the Board of School Heads. He is also responsible for the everyday management of the school group. The mandate function of General Director is awarded to one of the school heads of the school group (scholengroep). The General Director has decision-making and managerial authority on the level of the school group (scholengroep). He also has the authority to decide in urgent circumstances. However, these decisions have to be confirmed by the Governing body afterwards. 2.6.2.1.3. Macro-level: Council of the Community Education Administration at the central level is occupied with the conservation of the constitutional guaranties, concerning free choice, the care of the tasks of the public service, the general quality assurance, the assistance of the schools and the school groups (scholengroepen), and the allocation of funds for investments and infrastructure. These authorities are executed by the Council of the Community Education (Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) and a Governor (Afgevaardigd-Bestuurder) (ARGO, 2004). The Council of the Community Education (Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) consists of 15 unpaid mandated functions: 5 members elected by an electoral college consisting of the directly elected parents and coopted members of the School Councils, 5 members elected by an electoral college consisting of the school heads and the members elected by the staff members of the School Councils, 3 members appointed by the 3 Flemish universities with an education faculty on the collective recommendation of the faculties of education, economies and law, and 2 members jointly appointed by the Flemish autonomous Colleges of Higher Education (Hogescholen). The Governor (Afgevaardigd Bestuurder) has an advisory voice in the Council of the Community Education. The Governor (Afgevaardigd Bestuurder) is, on behalf of the Council of the Community Education, responsible for everyday management and policy. Within the framework of the authorities of the Council (Raad), he/she has preparatory and executive duties concerning the policy of the Council and authority to decide under urgent circumstances. However, these decisions have to be confirmed at the first following meeting of the Council. The central administration is under the authority of the Governor. 2.6.3.
General administration at local level
The most important administration structures of the local government concerning education are the school and its head, the organising bodies and school communities. 2.6.3.1.
The school and its school head
The school is an educational unity that has of one or more seats. The school and the teaching staff is being managed by a mangement team. The school head as well as the teaching staff stand under the authority of the organising body of the school. With regards to personnel matters the school head is mainly responsible for the selection and hiring of temporary personnel, the preparation of the permanent appointments, the allocation of the concrete tasks for each employee with the related job description, guidance and evaluation, mapping the need for in-service training of his personnel, ‌.
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2.6.3.2.
Organising bodies and school councils
The organising bodies are responsible for the well-functioning of one or more schools. An organising body can be a government, a natural person or a legal person. The organising body hires the management and the teaching staff, receives the operational means for the school from the Department for Education and rents or owns the school buildings. The organising body defines for the school(s) which stand under its authority an educational project. The organising body of a school for basic education is called a school board (MVG, 2004). 2.6.3.3.
School communities
A school community is a combination of different schools of the same educational level (primary or secondary education) which cooperate in different ways (logistics, course offer, ‌). It concerns schools with the same or different organising bodies or belonging to the same or a different educational network. The Decree of 14 July 1998 makes a division in 44 geographical educational zones in order to classify the school communities. A school community stands under the authority of the relevant organising body(ies). The way in which the school community is managed is determined by the, depending on the case, only relevant organising body or by the different organising bodies in a written agreement (art.65). The objective of this concept of school communities (scholengemeenschappen) is to rationalise and structure transparently the provision of education at the local level. This is seen to be necessary for more objective development of and choice-making in the school career of the pupils. The competence of a school community (scholengemeenschap), as established by Decree of 14 July 1998, is the following: it is responsible for the rational and multi-sectoral provision of education, and to make agreements related to the provision of education of each school and concerning personnel policy (the criteria for recruitment, functioning, and evaluation of staff members). It also has an advisory role in matters related to school accommodations and infrastructure. Additional authority may be arranged concerning, for example, the transfer of teaching periods between the schools and co-operation with other educational levels or with institutions of other school networks. The administrative advantages of participating in a school community (scholengemeenschap) are, among other things, additional financial resources, the possibility of transferring teaching periods between the schools, the assignment of specific tasks to the level of the school community (scholengemeenschap), and the shared use of administrative personnel. School communities were in the first place established by the government to facilitate the transition of pupils from one school to another and to enable pupils to choose the study that corresponds with their real interests. In this respect there is a close collaboration with the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s). For a number of themes the Decree has assigned explicit powers to the school communities, in the form of obligatory arrangements, an obligatory formulation of advice or an option of a cooperation agreement (Circular Letter: School Communities Secondary Education, SO 62, date of publication: (30/04/1999)). 2.6.4.
Educational institutions, administration, and management
This section deals with the most important posts in educational administration and decision-making bodies responsible at local level for the school management.
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
2.6.4.1.
Educational institutions, administration, and management at pre-school, primary and secondary level
The main aspects of educational institutions, administration, and management (at pre-school, primary and secondary level) are discussed below. 2.6.4.1.1.
Administrative posts and decision-making bodies at the school level
The School Pact Law gives the school governing bodies (inrichtende machten) the responsibility for the organisation of education. However, their function is not described in more specific terms by law. The management function of the organising body is mostly shared with, or even executed to a large extent by the school head (directeur). Furthermore, there are Participation Councils (Participatieraden) in the grant-aided education and school councils (schoolraden) in the community education (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001). The school head is called “directeur”. Most of the pre-school level institutions are, however, a section of a basic school (basisschool), which has a primary level section as well. Many of these school heads still have teaching duties. Only in schools with at least 180 pupils does the school head have no teaching duties. In secondary education the school head has no teaching duties. Resources for additional policy support are provided depending on the number of pupils at school. In the case of a merger between schools, a deputy school head (adjunct-directeur) is appointed (Decree of 25 February 1997). It is now also possible to fill the post of school head on a job-share basis (Decree concerning Education XIV). In the community education, the the school councils are composed from April 2001. The school groups function (from 1 April 2001) as organising bodies (inrichtende machten) at an intermediate level and have all the duties which are necessary or useful for their assignment. In secondary school there are furthermore the functions of the executive secretary (directiesecretaris), the educator-caretaker (opvoeder-huismeester), the deputy head (onderdirecteur), technical advisor-co-ordinator (technisch adviseur-coördinator), technical advisor (technisch adviseur) and internal educational guides (interne pedagogische begeleiders). The functions of school head, administrator (beheerder) and technical advisor-coordinator (technisch adviseur-coördinator), are officially called promotion posts (bevorderingsambten); the others are officially called selection posts (selectieambten). There are also the recruitment posts (wervingsambten), namely the teachers (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001). General descriptions of these posts are provided by law only for community education and not for grant-aided education. As the result of consultation, general descriptions of these administrative positions have been established in the grant-aided education, but they are not binding (Devos, et al., 1987). 2.6.4.1.2.
Competence
The organising body is seen by law as the initiator of the school and is responsible for its operation. It is also responsible for the establishment of the educational project (pedagogisch project) of the school. Its freedom concerning educational methods and educational concept is guaranteed. On the condition that a minimum timetable is used and the curriculum is approved, the school can be funded or grant-aided. The organising bodies are also responsible for the recruitment and appointment of personnel and receive funds from the State. They own or rent their facilities (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001). In the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs), the authority of organising body (inrichtende macht) is divided between the central level (Council for Community Education (Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs)) and the intermediary level (school groups (scholengroepen)). On local level the school head has decisive
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authority, assisted by the schoolraad (school council). The school council has consultative duties and is, for example, entitled to give advice about the general organisation of the school, the recruitment of pupils or students, the school’s budget, the school development plan (schoolwerkplan),... However, the school councils (schoolraden) have no decision making authority. The decision-making authority resides largely in the intermediate level of the school groups (scholengroepen). The General Council (Algemene Vergadering) and the Governing Body (Raad van Bestuur) of the school groups are seen as the organising body (inrichtende macht) of the concerned school groups (scholengroepen). At the local level the school head is responsible for school related matters. Furthermore, there is a Participation Council (Participatieraad) in grant-aided schools consisting of representatives of the school board (inrichtende macht), the personnel, and the parents. This council has at least ‘advisory authority’ as regards the general organisation and operation of the school, planning, and the general criteria involved in supporting and evaluating pupils. It has ‘consultative authority’ (to strive for consensus) at least for the criteria for applying the teaching periods, the determination and modification of the school regulations, pupil transport, and pupil safety and health. Additional rights and authority can be assigned and are determined by law, like the policy concerning the recruitment of pupils, the provision of information to parents, and the infrastructure of the school (Decree of 23 October 1991 (a)). The school head is responsible for the administration of the school and directs the small administrative staff. He is responsible for the registration of pupils, their administrative records, and the records of each member of his staff. He is, by delegation, co-responsible for decisions on the use of funds. Regularly, at least once a year, he informs the school board on the school’s financial situation and proposes a budget for the next year. He is also responsible for the school’s material situation, for maintenance and repairs, for the purchase of furnishings and equipment, for the establishment of regulations concerning personnel and pupils, for the order and discipline at school, and other such matters (Devos et al., 1987). He takes responsibility for co-ordination in the educational area by, for example: •
maintaining personal contact with the staff;
•
class visits;
•
organisation of staff meetings on educational issues, the selection of learning materials, and teaching methods;
•
taking part in or organising the mentoring of new teachers;
•
evaluating teaching plans and course preparation;
•
developing and promoting in-service training activities;
•
chairing the Participation Council (Participatieraad);
•
supervising the administrative personnel.
He plays a central role in selecting new teachers and other staff members to be appointed by the organising body. He is responsible for all external contacts (with the Inspectorate, the pedagogical support services, the parents, the local community, etc.) and the public relations of the school in general (Michielsen, 1998). The deputy school head (adjunct-directeur) is the direct collaborator of the school head and assists him in accordance with his qualifications, concerning, among other things, the co-ordination of the education and the curricula, the time tables for classes and duties, and various activities of the personnel. He replaces the school head when he is absent and organises the supervision of pupils outside the classes. He also may be responsible for the library and so on. The executive secretary (directiesecretaris) is responsible for the paperwork and other
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
administrative tasks that the school head entrusts him with (Belgian Royal Decree of 15 July 1969 and of 23 November 1970). The administrator (beheerder) is responsible for the material and financial management in an educational institution that contains a boarding school. The educator-caretaker (opvoeder-huismeester) carries out the tasks concerning the material and financial management that the administrator entrusts to him with or he has the tasks of the administrator in the schools where there is no administrator (Belgian Royal Decree of 15 July 1969). In vocational and technical education, the technical advisor-co-ordinator co-ordinates and supervises the activities of the teaching staff in charge of the vocational exercises. He is responsible for such things as the management of the technical equipment. A technical advisor-co-ordinator (technisch adviseur-coördinator) co-ordinates the activities of the technical advisor in schools with at least three technical advisors (adviseur) (Decree of 14 July 1998). The tasks of the internal educational guide (interne pedagogische begeleider) are determined by the educational project (pedagogisch project) and the school development plan (schoolwerkplan) of the school. His assignment relates to the didactic facets of education and the related organisational tasks. He monitors the realisation of the educational project of the school and the quality of the education. Thus, he participates in the educational policy and the management of the school, and he fosters the development of the school culture (for example, by promotion of internal and external communication at school level). Every school will specify these general tasks. He may co-ordinate pupil guidance, and he may have an important responsibility concerning the preparation of and follow-up after the meetings of the class council (klassenraad), which consists of the teaching staff and is responsible for the evaluation of the pupils. He may also be an important contact person for parents and members of the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s). Other possible tasks are guidance of new teachers, the organisation of work groups of teachers, and the preparation of educational activities (VVKSO, 1994). 2.6.4.1.3.
Recruitment and appointment procedures
The new school heads will no longer be permanently appointed. Instead, they will be appointed for fixed terms. The modalities are determined in the Decree concerning Education XI of 18 May 1999. The starting date was originally set at 1 September 2000 but has meanwhile been postponed except for the Centres for Educational Guidance where every new school head has been appointed by mandate since 1 September 2000 (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001). Recruitment procedures can differ considerably, depending on the policy of a particular organising body (inrichtende macht). Sometimes formal examinations are organised (oral and written). Legally, an appointment in kindergarten and primary school is possible if two conditions are met: the candidate must have the diploma of pre-school teacher (kleuterleid(st)er) or primary school teacher (onderwijzer) and have 10 years of service (Devos, et al., 1987). In secondary education the candidate has to be holder of a required qualification (vereist bekwaamheidsbewijs) or a qualification deemed to be sufficient (voldoende geacht bekwaamheidsbewijs) and the last evaluation may not be “insufficient”. Some organising bodies require proof of having attended in-service training programmes as well. Except in the community education, no additional specific qualifications have been formulated, such as having attended preparatory courses or holding a specific certificate (Michielsens, 1998).
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For the other selection posts (selectieambten) and promotion posts (bevorderingsambten), similar requirements are established: the required diploma and permanent appointment in another recruitment post (wervingsambt), selection post (selectieambt), or promotion post (bevorderingsambt ). 2.6.4.1.4.
Organisation and planning of education
In pre-school institutions and primary schools the school head (directeur) must draw up a school development plan (schoolwerkplan) and a curriculum. In special education, an individual educational plan (handelingsplan) is also required. A curriculum is a plan that formulates the objectives for the pupils on the basis of the educational project (pedagogisch project) in general and the conception of the subject content of the school in particular. An individual educational plan consists of the educational and didactic plan for one or more pupils in a special education programme for a specific period of time. It integrates the social, medical, psychological, and orthopedagogical assistance in education (Decree of 25 February 1997). In the school development plan, the educational project is described. In fact, it deals with all aspects that are important to realise the vision on education of the school such as the organisation of the school, the division of the pupils, the mode of assessing and reporting, in-service training, and school rules. Facilities for pupils with a handicap or learning difficulties are defined as well as the forms of co-operation with other schools for ordinary or special education. In addition, it also has a variable part that consists of a schedule for a certain period whereby certain priorities are specified ‘that have to be worked on’ (VSKO, 1998). There is no longer any division in year groups, subjects, or degrees, and imposed timetables are history. So, apart from the obligation to establish a school development plan (schoolwerkplan), the school board (schoolbestuur) has a good deal of freedom to organise the education it provides. For example, it is possible to work with another division than the year-group system with the result that the provision of education can be more differentiated and adapted to specific groups of pupils. In the reorganisation of secondary education, the local autonomy of the school has been further enhanced; the centrally imposed timetables are abolished, so there is more room for adaptation to the needs of the pupils and more scope for integrating subjects and curricula in relation to an entire stage. Only the attainment targets (eindtermen) and the minimum timetable for the core curriculum are established by the government. In special education, there are more possibilities for differentiation because of the replacement of the year-group system by a flexible system of groups of pupils to permit more attention to the individual needs of the pupils. In special education, too, an educational plan (groepswerkplan) has to be integrated into the school development plan (schoolwerkplan). It plans the education for a group of pupils with similar handicaps. A number of hours for paramedical, medical, social, psychological, and orthopedagogical personnel are also provided. Furthermore, each school defines the school rules regulating the relations between the school and the pupils and parents. It consists, for example, of disciplinary rules, arrangements concerning homework, agendas, and reports. 2.6.4.2.
Educational institutions, administration, and management at colleges of higher education (hogescholen)
The Decree of 13 July 1994 relating to the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) prescribes the administrative organisation of higher non-university educational institutions. The Decree distinguishes between funded colleges (public institutions) and grant-aided colleges (private institutions).
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
2.6.4.2.1.
General administrative structures and posts
A funded educational institution is governed by a Board of Directors (Raad van Bestuur), consisting of the representatives of the different categories of the personnel elected for 4 years by the personnel, representatives of the students, elected for 2 years by the students, and the representatives of organising body and/or the representatives of the socio-economic and cultural sectors (also for a term of 4 years). The General Manager (Algemeen directeur), the school head of a college of higher education, has an advisory voice in this council. The Board of Directors determines the regulations concerning administration, examinations, and discipline, establishes the budget, appoints the personnel, establishes the framework for the organisation and co-ordination of the tasks of the educational institution and so on. The Directorate (Bestuurscollege) consists of the chairman of the Board of Directors, the General Manager (Algemeen Directeur), and 3 representatives of the personnel appointed for 4 years by the Board of Directors. The Directorate (Bestuurscollege) is responsible for the daily administration and the preparation, announcement, and execution of the decisions of the Board of Directors, the financial management within the framework established by the Board of Directors, the appointment of nonexecutive administrative and technical personnel, and many other matters that are not explicitly assigned by law to other administrative organs or posts (Decree of 13 July 1994). The General Manager is appointed (and may be dismissed) by the Board of Directors and is responsible for the administration of the institute. He directs the administrative and other (e.g. international relations officer) staff. He is responsible for the registration of students, their administrative records, as well as the records of each member of his staff. By delegation, he shares responsibility for decisions on the use of funds. Regularly, at least once a year, he informs the organising body of the school’s financial situation and proposes for the budget for the coming year. He is also responsible for the school’s material situation, for maintenance and repairs, and for the purchase of furnishings and equipment. He plays a central role in selecting new teachers and other staff members to be appointed by the organising body. He is responsible for all external contacts (with the pedagogical support services, the local community, guidance centre, labour market, etc.) and the public relations of the school in general. The institutes have to organise their own recruitment procedures for the post of General Manager. The position may be filled by a member of the regular teaching staff with a permanent appointment. Appointment conditions are similar to those of the teaching staff. The Decree provides the grant-aided colleges of higher education administrative bodies with mainly advisory tasks towards the board of directors of the college (hogeschoolbestuur) - which are not further defined by law, such as an Academic Council (Academische Raad). The board of directors of the college must inform the Academic Council about all matters concerning the educational institution. The Academic Council consists of elected representatives of the board of directors of the college (4 years), of the personnel (4 years), and of the students (2 years). This council is entitled to receive information and to advise (it issues an advice when asked to do so by the board of directors of the college or on its own initiative) for at least the educational aspects concerning certain matters (such as the research policy). Third, the Academic Council has the ‘competence of consultation’ (the taking of a decision on its own initiative or when asked by the board of directors of the college that, when consensus is reached, will be carried out by the board of directors of the college) for at least the educational aspects of certain matters such as the financial policy, the policy concerning education and examinations, and organisation of study guidance. If there is no consensus, the board of directors of the college
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will make the decision. Each college of higher education (hogeschool), both grant-aided or funded, is divided into departments (see next section). Each college of higher education must also establish a Council of Students (Studentenraad), consisting of at least 8 and at most 16 elected students. The Board of Directors and the Directorate (Bestuurscollege) (at funded colleges) or the board of directors of the college (at grant-aided colleges) must consult beforehand the council of students on all matters that have direct relevance for the students (e.g. regulations concerning education and examinations, and the evaluation of the teaching staff). The council of students may also take advisory initiatives (Decree of 13 July 1994). Concerning the conditions of employment, each college of higher education and each department of that institute has a negotiation committee (onderhandelingscomité) to regulate the relations between the employer and the unions of the personnel (see also next section). The Negotiation Committee of the College (Hogeschoolonderhandelingscomité) (HOC) consists of the representatives of the Board of Directors (Raad van Bestuur) and of the personnel at a funded college of higher education. At grant-aided colleges of higher education, this council is composed of the representatives of the board of directors of the college and those of the personnel (Decree of 13 July 1994). 2.6.4.2.2.
Administrative structures and posts on a lower level
For each department in a financed educational institution, there is a Departmental Council (Departementsraad) composed of the same parties as the Board of Directors (Bestuursraad) (with the same terms, but with another proportional composition). This council elects the head of the department, who serves as chairman of the council for a 4-year term. The Departmental Council is responsible for the establishment of educational programmes and examinations, the establishment of the research programmes, the use of the funds and personnel, the recruitment of temporary personnel, the nomination of personnel for permanent appointment, the internal organisation of the departement, the yearly drawing up of budget proposals, and other matters (Decree of 13 July 1994). At grant-aided educational institutions, a Departmental Council has to be established for each department consisting of the head of the department as the chairman of the council and elected representatives of the teaching staff, the students, and the socio-economic and cultural sectors. This council has the right of information for all matters concerning the department and may advise on the departmental level when asked by the board of directors of the college or on its own initiative on a range of matters concerning the department (Decree of 13 July 1994). At funded colleges of higher education, the Departmental Negotiation Committee (Departementaal Onderhandelingscomité) (DOC) consists of representatives of the Department Council (Departementsraad) and of the personnel. At grant-aided colleges of higher education, it consists of the representatives of the Board of Directors of the Department (Departementsbestuur) - not further defined by law - and of the personnel (see also the previous section) (Decree of 13 July 1994). 2.6.4.3.
Educational institutions, administration, and management at universities
Each individual university is, in principle, responsible for the establishment of its own internal organisation. The administrative structure of the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven) is taken here as an example in the following sections. In addition, the main administrative organs and posts of the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG) (Special Decree of 26 June 1991).
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
2.6.4.3.1.
General administrative bodies and administrative positions
First of all, at the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), there is the organising body (inrichtende macht), which approves the mission of the university and establishes the organic regulations of the university, both upon the advice of the Academic Council (Academische Raad). Moreover, it is responsible for the establishment, statute, and preservation of the Faculty of Theology and Religious Sciences. The organising body appoints and dismisses the Vice-chancellor (see next section) and the General Administrator (Algemeen Beheerder) (K.U.Leuven, 1996). The special decree concerning the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG) and the “Universitair Centrum Antwerpen” (UCA) (now “Universiteit Antwerpen” (UA)) (Decree of 22 December 1995) transfers the inrichtende macht (organising body) from the Flemish Government to both university institutes. At the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), the Board of Directors (Raad van Beheer) administers the university and represents the university outside the university institution. This council prepares the budget and the accounts and issues the structural regulations and the regulations concerning personnel and students upon the advice of the Academic Council. It is responsible for the financial management of the university and the personnel policy (appointments, recruitment etc.) and supervises over the fulfilment of the mission the university. This council consists of the Vice-chancellor, the General Administrator, the members of the General Bureau (Gemeenschappelijk Bureau) and other members, who are appointed for terms of 5 years. Furthermore, there is the Academic Council, which determines and co-ordinates the policy on education, scientific research, and scientific services. It also organises the election of the vice-chancellor and appoints the members of the General Bureau. The Academic Council advises the Board of Directors on its own initiative or when requested on matters for which the Board of Directors is competent, e.g. personnel policy, financial management, and regulations. In addition to the Vice-chancellor, the General Administrator, and the members of the General Bureau, the deans of the Faculties are also members of the Academic Council. This council also includes the representatives of the auxiliary academic personnel and of the students and possibly members of the independent academic personnel (K.U.Leuven, 1996). The General Bureau consists of the vice-chancellor, the General Administrator, and other members. This organ is responsible for the daily administration of the university and prepares the meetings of the Academic Council and the Board of Directors, submits proposals, and is responsible for the execution of their decisions (K.U.Leuven, 1996). The Board of Directors is the most important administrative organ at the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG). It consists of the vice-chancellor, the deputy vice-chancellor (vice-rector), representatives of the academic personnel and the administrative and technical personnel, representatives of the students, and representatives of public agencies, political, socio-economical and cultural circles, taken into account the university’s profile (Special Decree of 18 May 2001). Furthermore, at the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG) there is a Administrative Board (Bestuurscollege) consisting of the vice-chancellor, the deputy vice-chancellor and elected representatives of the different groups within the Board of Directors (Raad van Bestuur). This organ is entrusted with all matters concerning the university that are by decree not assigned to the Board of Directors. For example, it prepares the meetings of the Board of Directors, and publishes and carries out its decisions. It is also responsible for the assignment of auxiliary academic personnel, the use of the financial resources within the framework of the financial plan established by
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the Board of Directors, and the establishment of vacancies. The Administrative Board (Bestuurscollege) has to justify its decision to the Board of Directors (Decree of 13 July 1994). At the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG) administrators and other appointed members form a Directorate (Directiecollege) under the direction of the vice-chancellor and the deputy vice-chancellor. This board is entrusted with the daily administrative, technical, and financial management of the university and the coordination of the administrative services (Decree of 13 July 1994). The decree on the universities guarantees participation of students in the decision-making of a university. Every university has to establish a Council of Students (Studentenraad) as in the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) if the students are not already represented in the highest organ of the university that discuss matters that directly concern them (Decree of 13 July 1994). Finally, concerning conditions of employment, in accordance with national labour legislation (Ministry of Labour and Employment) grant-aided (non-official) universities have a Works Council (minimum 100 persons employed) and/or a Committee for Prevention and Protection on the Workplace (minimum 50 persons employed), just like all other companies. The Belgian Royal Decree of 25 May 1999 determines that the elections for the new representatives of the personnel from the committees for safety at work had to take place during a period that started on 8 May 2000 and ended on 21 May 2000. 2.6.4.3.2.
General administrative posts at the top
The vice-chancellor is responsible for the administration of the university and heads the administrative and other (e.g. international relations officer) staff. He is responsible for the registration of students and their administrative records, and the records of each member of his staff. By delegation, he shares responsibility for decisions on the use of financial allocations. Regularly, and at least once a year, he informs the organising body (inrichtende macht) of the university‘s financial situation and proposes the budget for the coming year. He plays a central role in selecting new teachers and other staff members to be appointed by the organising body. Ultimately he is responsible for all external contacts and the public relations of the university in general. The vice-chancellor is elected from among the members of the regular academic staff with the position of full professor (gewoon hoogleraar). At the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), he is elected by the members of the Faculty Councils (Faculteitsraden) every five years. The post of vice-chancellor (Rector) can be renewed once. Ultimately, however, he is appointed by the organising body. At the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG) the vice-chancellor is elected by the members of the Faculty Councils, but ultimately appointed by the Flemish Government for a term of 4 years. This term can be renewed twice (Decree of 26 July 1991). 2.6.4.3.3.
Administrative bodies at a lower level
In general terms, the co-ordination of the provision of education and scientific research is situated at the level of the faculties. At the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), there are three groups (humanities, pure science, and biomedical science), which are intended to encourage co-operation among the faculties. The chairman of the group and the concerned deans form a Group Council (Groepsraad). At the level of the faculties of the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), there is the faculty Council (Faculteitsraad) composed by the Independent Academic Personnel (Zelfstandig Academisch Personeel), the representatives of the Auxiliary Academic Personnel (Aanvullend Academisch Personeel), and the representatives of the students. At the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG) the representatives of the administrative and
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
technical personnel are also included. The representatives are elected. At the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), the faculty Council is entitled to draw up educational programmes, to organise and evaluate the provision of education, to organise and evaluate study guidance, to organise, supervise and evaluate examinations, to co-ordinate and encourage the departments as regards scientific research and scientific services, to draw up budgets, to allocate the resources granted by the Board of Directors (Raad van Beheer) for personnel, operation, and accommodation, and so on (K.U.Leuven, 1996). The bureau of the faculty provides for the everyday administration of the faculty. It consists of the dean, the academic secretary, and some members of the faculty Council. At the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG), the Board of Directors (Raad van Bestuur) has the power to determine the working and competence of the faculty council, which is chaired by the dean. The dean is elected from among the professors (hoogleraren) for two years by the faculty Council. At the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), the faculty Council also establishes for each course programme a permanent educational committee (permanente onderwijscommissie) that consists of academic personnel and representatives of the students and advises the faculty Council on educational matters (evaluation of the curriculum, programmes, teaching methods, methods of examination, etc.). The other universities have similar councils (K.U.Leuven, 1996). Every faculty of the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven) contains one or more departments, which are responsible for the organisation and co-ordination of scientific research and scientific services. They are mandated by the faculty to provide academic education. They draw their own budgets, are responsible for the internal personnel policy in accordance with the regulations concerning academic personnel (for example, advising on the appointment or recruitment of independent or auxiliary personnel), organise logistical services and infrastructure, and so on. On this level, there is also a Departmental Council (Departementsraad) with a similar composition as the faculty council but restricted to the members of the department. The chairman of the department, elected for three or more years by the Departmental Council (Departementsraad), supervises the execution of the tasks of the department, and is responsible for the use of the resources (K.U.Leuven, 1996). At the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), the chairman of the group as member of the General Bureau (Gemeenschappelijk Bureau) supervises the decisions of the organs at the faculty and departmental level concerning the internal distribution of accommodations, personnel, and resources. In exceptional cases, he has the power to overrule those decisions. The dean, elected from among the professors (hoogleraren) for three years (at the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven)) or for two years (at the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG) and the “Universiteit Antwerpen” (UA)) by the faculty Council (Faculteitsraad), provides the general leadership and representation of the faculty outside the faculty and supervises the decisions of the departments (K.U.Leuven, 1996; Decree of 26 June 1991).
2.7.
Internal Consultation and Consultation with various players in society at large
In the next paragraphs we go more deeply into the participation structures and bodies within the school (see 2.7.1.) and the participation structures and bodies organised beyond the schools (see 2.7.2.). 2.7.1.
Internal Consultation
Participation of parents, teachers, and the local community has not always been very intense in the Belgian educational system. The Flemish authorities have now made legal provisions for the participation of these parties
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
in school policy-making for basic and secondary education (together with the organising bodies). For community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs), it was part of the 1988 Special Decree relating to the Independent Council for Community Education (Autonome Raad voor het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (ARGO). This Special Decree of 1988 has been replaced by the Special Decree concerning the Community Education of 14 July 1998. For subsidised education, participation is regulated by the Decree of 23 October 1991. The policy and the practical organisation within the schools is organised in several consultation structures. In below paragraphs we discuss the most important structures. 2.7.1.1.
Participation councils and school councils
Concerning participation at school level a distinction has to be made between the community education on the one hand and grant-aided education on the other hand. The composition and areas of responsibility of the school councils in community education are discussed in paragraph 2.6.2.1. In the next paragraphs we go specifically into the participation councils in grant-aided free and official education. The Decree of 23 October 1991 relating to the Participation Councils (Participatieraden) in basic and secondary education took effect on 1 January 1992. On that date, a start was made with bringing the Participation Councils into operation. They were fully operational - for the first time - on 31 May 1992. A Participation Council (Participatieraad) is being established in each school or in each local school community. The council is composed of an equal number of respresentatives of the organising body, the parents, the staff members and the local community (at least two for each of these parties). In general, the school head is the chairperson of the Participation Council. The organising body appoints its representatives. Parents and teachers elect their representatives. These directly elected representatives co-opt the persons representing the local community. All the terms are for four years and are renewable. Parents whose children are no longer in the school or teachers who no longer work there may no longer participate in the council as co-opted members of the local community (Verhoeven et al, 1997). In every school community (scholengemeenschap), a participation council is established. The council is composed of an equal number of representatives per section. If the participation council is led by a single organising body, it delegates one representative. It is possible to deviate from this by common agreement, without nullifying the parity between the sections. Every member of the sections of the participation council of the school community (scholengemeenschap) originates from the participation council of the schools that belong to that school community (Decree of 18 May 1999). The decree of 23 October 1991 establishes four areas of responsibility for the Participation Councils of primary and secondary education as a minimum number of responsibilities. These areas of responsibility can be extended by the Participation Councils themselves. Because these councils do not act as organising bodies, the problem of their responsibilities is more complicated. They have: •
‘The right to information’ about all matters involving school life;
•
‘Advisory authority’ as a minimum for the general organisation and operation of the school, planning, and the general criteria involved in guidance and evaluating pupils;
•
‘Consultative authority’ (to strive for consensus) at least on the criteria for applying the course periods, the determination and modification of the school regulations, pupil transportation, and pupil safety and health;
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
•
‘Authority of assent’ (only in the grant-aided free education network) on, for example, the planning of the school calendar.
The last responsibility, however, is only in grant-aided free schools (gesubsidieerde vrije scholen). Legal constraints on the authority of Provincial and Municipal Councils do not allow their executive powers to be subject to the assent of external bodies. 2.7.1.2.
Pupil councils
Since 1 September 1999 every secondary school that is an individual legal entity of the ordinary recognised, financed and subsidised secondary education system has been able to establish a student council and has been obliged to do so when at least one third of the students of the school in question request this (Decree of 20 March 1999). A student council is an advisory organ chosen by the pupils. The aim of this council is to promote dialogue between the students and the school management team, the students and the teachers and among the students themselves so that an optimum opportunity to develop can be created for all students. The student council has the competence to advise the school management team on all matters that directly concern them. The school management team, for its part, has to make all the information concerning the students available and provide the infrastructure and administrative support needed by the student council. 2.7.1.3.
Staff councils
An important consultation body within schools is the staff council. There are no strict regulations and its interpretation varies from school to school. By means of example we refer to the following description of the function of a staff council on the website of a secondary school: “Once a month, alternately on Monday, Tuesday or Thursday, after school hours a staff council is organised. All teachers and administrative staff members are to be present. The school head elaborates on the issues discussed in the school council and asks for the group’s reactions. Individual staff members as well can put items on the agenda. Possible remarks or thoughts are discussed during the meeting. After the meeting the administration draws up a report with an overview of the items discussed and the decisions taken” (PSS, 2004). 2.7.1.4.
Class councils
Usually all teachers of a certain class participate in a class council. The meetings are organised after school hours. The class council can have three functions and is consequently assigned, depending on the case, as respectively “admission class council”, “assisting class council” and “deliberating class council” (Circular Letter, S.O. 64). The last two functions are the most important ones. In secondary education the “assisting class council” usually meets after a round of examinations or when there is a specific problem in a class group or with a specific pupil. The assisting class council especially deals with discussing the class atmosphere (relations within the class, attention and cooperation of the pupils), with followup, evaluation and guidance of the progression and the attitude os the pupils (e.g. by means of remedial tasks in case of attitude or study problems). The “deliberating class council” meets after the examinations in June and is authorized to decide on the the passing of a pupil or not. The class council issues attestations, diplomas and certificates and advises on the further school career of pupils.
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
2.7.1.5.
Subject councils
In a lot of secondary schools teachers who are responsible for the same subject(s) also hold structural consultations. The interpretation of these subject councils (e.g. the frequency of meetings and the objectives) belongs to the autonomy of the individual school. A key figure in this respect is the person responsible for the subject. This person usually supervises the subject council or the combination of subjects (he chairs the subject councils) and he guides beginning teachers. 2.7.2.
Consultation involving players in society at large
The next paragraphs give the most important Flemish participation and consultation structures that are organised beyond schools. 2.7.2.1.
Flemish education council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR)
Prior to the federalisation of education, the consultation at all levels of education as well as with the socioeconomic world was organised in a series of Higher Councils. All these councils have been merged into the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR) by the Decree of 31 July 1990. Representatives from the educational landscape confer in the VLOR on the educational policy. On the basis of these consultations, the VLOR advises to the Flemish Minister for Education and the Flemish Parliament. The Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) consists of: •
a General Council (Algemene Raad);
•
a Section for Part-time Art Education (Afdeling voor Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs);
•
a Council for Basic Education (Raad voor het basisonderwijs), which has a section for Special Primary
Education (Buitengewoon Lager Onderwijs); •
a Council of Secondary Education (Raad voor het Secundair Onderwijs), which has four sections: one
for General Secondary Education (Algemeen Vormend Secundair Onderwijs), one for Art Secondary Education (Kunstsecundair Onderwijs), one for technical secondary education (Technisch Secundair Onderwijs) and vocational secondary education (Beroepssecundair Onderwijs), and one for Special Secondary Education (Buitengewoon Secundair Onderwijs); there are also special commissions for consultation with representatives of socio-economic sectors; •
a Council for Higher Education (Raad voor het Hoger Onderwijs), which has two sections: one for
University Education and one for education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs); •
a Council for Adult Education (Raad voor het Volwassenenonderwijs) which has a section for the
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie). The General Council is composed of 39 active members, including representatives of the organising bodies, unions, and parents, university experts, students, civil servants from the Education Department, and members representing economic and social sectors, proposed by the Flemish Socio-Economic Council (SociaalEconomische Raad van Vlaanderen) (SERV). The composition of the councils and sections for each level of education are to be established by the Flemish Government by decree.
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
The remit for the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) is set out by law as follows. The Council has a general competence for study, concerted action, and consultation, on its own initiative or at the request of the Minister of Education, as regards all educational matters for which the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) is responsible. More in particular, the Minister of Education has to seek, prior to the discussion in the Flemish Parliament, the opinion of the Council on all preliminary draft decrees on educational matters (with the exception of the education budget) and on policy reports and papers addressed to the Flemish Parliament. The Flemish Government and the Minister for Education have assigned some projects to the VLOR which concentrate on one aspect of the educational policy, such as promotion of health, education for migrants, professional profiles and educational profiles, education for democracy, the policy on equal educational opportunities, the Forum Basic Education … 2.7.2.2.
Flemish Interuniversity Council (VLIR) and Flemish Higher Education Council (VLHORA).
In 1976, the Flemish Interuniversity Council (Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad) (VLIR) was established as an autonomous body of public utility with its own corporate status. The council is composed of representatives of the Flemish universities. It acts as a defender of the universities and as an advisor to the Flemish Government on university issues (consultation, advice, and recommendations). Moreover the council organises consultation with other universities. A similar body has been established for the colleges of higher education created after the merger of institutions in 1995, i.e. the Flemish Higher Education Council (Vlaamse Hogescholen Raad) (VLHORA). 2.7.2.3.
Parents’ associations
Many schools have their own school-related parents association. These associations are usually not involved in class and school matters. Their only objective is to improve the contact and cooperation between parents and school and between parents. There are parents’ associations across the schools belonging to the umbrella organisations. In the community education network, two smaller organisations were active: the Dutch Union of Parents’ Associations (Nederlandstalig Verbond van Ouderverenigingen) (NVO) and the Educational Association for Parental Involvement (Educatieve Vereniging voor Ouderwerking) (EVO). The former was more an interest group, the latter a social-cultural training centre for parents. Those two organisations created a new association called Council of Parents Associations of Community Education (Raad van Ouderverenigingen van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (ROGO). The Association for Parental involvement of Grant-aided Official Education (Koepelorganisatie van Ouderwerkingen van het officieel gesubsidieerd onderwijs) (KOOGO) represents the parents of grant-aided official schools (gesubsidieerde officiële scholen). Within the grant-aided free education network, the Flemish Association of Parents and Parents’ Associations (Vlaamse Confederatie van Ouders en Ouderverenigingen) (VCOV) promotes co-operation between parents and teachers at school. The Decree of 5 June 1996 provides financial support for the parents’ associations on the condition that the associations within the official and grant-aided official network and within the grant-aided free network decide to collaborate. The decree provides a basic financial allowance for administrative overhead, project-related financial support on an annual basis, and the assignment of a maximum of five members of the teaching staff to the associations for the promotion of parent-school relations.
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
The objective of these parents’ associations is the creation of a centre that helps parents and the local parents’ associations to find their way in the educational world. Moreover, they represent and advocate the parents’ ideas and interests towards the government and the outside world. At present the ROGO, the KOOGO, and the VCOV represent the parents in the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR). 2.7.2.4.
Teachers‘ unions
The teachers‘ unions are structured along the lines of the main political groupings in the Flemish society. The “Algemene Centrale der Openbare Diensten - Sector Onderwijs” (ACOD) belongs to the social democratic movement. The “Vrij Syndicaat voor het Openbaar Ambt - Sector Onderwijs” (VSOA) subscribes to the liberal ideology in Flemish society. More oriented to the Christian democratic tendencies are two unions. The first union represents basic school teachers (pre-school and primary education): the “Christen Onderwijzersverbond” (COV). The second one brings together teachers in secondary schools and colleges of higher education (hogescholen): the “Christelijke Onderwijscentrale” (COC). These four unions represent the teachers in the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR). Furthermore there is a new association of school heads (directeurs) in Flanders, namely the Organisation of School heads of the Flemish Basic Education (Organisatie Directeurs Vlaams Basisonderwijs) (ODVB). 2.7.2.5.
Student umbrella associations
A distinction is drawn between student umbrella associations (studentenkoepelverenigingen), that defend the interests of students of higher education, and student umbrella associations (leerlingenkoepelverenigingen), that defend the interests of students of secondary schools. Both associations are eligible for subsidies from the Flemish government if they are recognised by the Flemish Community and thus have met certain statutory conditions. This money is granted for operating costs, staff expenses, and projects. The umbrella association gives advice at the request of the Flemish government and comes under the authority of the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department (departement Onderwijs) (Decree of 30 March 1999). The student movement is structurally organised at each college of higher education (hogeschool) and university. However, at the community level, there is one umbrella organisation that represents on a pluralistic basis the interests of the students, namely the Association of Flemish students (Vereniging van Vlaamse Studenten) (VVS). This body consists of two parts: one for the colleges of higher education and one for the universities. The Association of Flemish Students concludes association agreements with each student organisation representing the interests of the students at the several higher education institutes. There are also other student organisations at the community level, but they do not represent the students as a whole and are associated with a political or ideological position. In 1997-1998 a totally new student umbrella association was established on the initiative of the Association of Flemish Students (Vereniging van Vlaamse Studenten) (VVS), namely the Flemish Student Federation (Vlaamse Scholierenkoepel) (VSK). Its aim is to represent the interests of students in secondary education. The basic objectives are the pupils’ participation on class, school and policy level, democratisation of education and child’s rights at school. VSK also works across the networks: the members belong to all networks (free, city and municipial, provincial and community education), belong to all forms of education (KSO, ASO, BSO, TSO) and from all regions in Flanders.
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
2.7.2.6.
Participation concerning working conditions
Teachers - or at least their representatives - are involved in either the school councils (schoolraden) or the participation councils (participatieraden) at the local level as well as in the school groups (scholengroepen) at the intermediate leven (Special Decree of 14 July 1998). Specific negotiations on working conditions, however, are not included in the authority of these participation structures. For the community and the grant-aided official schools (community schools and schools organised by municipalities and provinces), regular negotiations centrally and locally always have been organised in the committees with equal representation of employer and employees (paritaire organen) for the public services. The Law of 19 December 1974 organises the negotiations between unions of the civil servants in the public sector, including community and grant-aided official education, and the government (central level) (Devos et al., 1987). The negotiations on educational matters are organised in the “Sectorcomité X Onderwijs” (Vlaamse Gemeenschap), the “Comité voor de Provinciale en Plaatselijke Overheidsdiensten - Afdeling 2 - Onderafdeling Vlaamse Gemeenschap“ (Sector Committee X Education (Flemish Community), and the Committee for Provincial and Local Government - Section 2 - Subsection Flemish Community). At this level, only the Flemish Government and the unions are represented. The Decree of 5 April 1995 organised a similar structure for the grant-aided free network: the central negotiation committee (Overkoepelend Onderhandelingscomité). This commission consists of three delegations: the Flemish Government, the representative Teacher Unions, and the organising bodies. At the local school level in community and grant-aided official schools, there are local variants of these committees with equal representation of employer and employees (paritaire organen). These are called the Basic Consultation Committees (Basisonderhandelingscomités) (BOCs) (Belgian law of 15 December 1998), and they deal with the conditions of employment at the local level. By the Decree of 5 May 1995, one Local Negotiation Committee (Lokaal Onderhandelingscomité) (LOC) has been established for the grant-aided free sector at the school level; consisting of an equal number of representatives of the personnel and of the organising body. Therefore, participation of teachers at the school level is now guaranteed, regardless of the size of the school. Every competent authority also establishes a LOC for their centre for student counselling. Negotiations in these committees focus on five areas: the administrative rules on the working conditions of teachers and other staff (including holidays), the salary scales, the retirement schemes, the relations with the unions, and the organisation of social services. Since the decree of 15 May 1999, one Local Negotiation Committee (LOC) is established for each school community (scholengemeenschap) for the grant-aided free sector, consisting of an equal number of representatives of the personnel and of the organising bodies. Negotiations in these committees focus on matters for which the school community is responsible. The decrees on the colleges of higher education (13 July 1994) and the universities (12 June 1991; 26 June 1991) give a specific framework for the organisation of teacher participation (zie paragraph 2.6.4.2. and paragraph 2.6.4.3.). 2.7.2.7.
Relation with the labour market and other education providers
For technical and vocational secondary education, sector commissions (sectorcommissies) are established for all major sections of the labour market (e.g. metal industries, textiles, and food) (Law of 20 September 1948; Geers & Van Weydeveldt, 1994). Within the framework of the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR), they explore new labour market needs and give advice on new planning initiatives. Especially for adult
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
education, permanent working groups involving education and the labour market are set up within the Subregional Employment Committees (Subregionale Tewerkstellingscommissies) (STC‘s). These working groups have a consultative function and aim at intensive collaboration between industry, education, and employment agencies. They also have a formal advisory power with respect to planning of the new training programmes in adult education. The education sector is not the only provider of education and training in Flanders and a great many other education providers operate in Flanders. Learners can choose from among the offerings of various education providers. In order to offer the learners a unified course offer the Information Service for Education and Coordination (Dienst Informatie Vorming en Afstemming) (DIVA) (formerly INTERFACE) has been established on 31 March 2003. DIVA is the instrument of the Flemish Government for the promotion of lifelong and lifewide learning and for the coordination between the institutional training providers. It is a cooperation between the policy fields Education and Training, Employment, Culture and Economy, represented by adult education (OSP, BIS and Basic Education), the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB), the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO) and the information centre for social-cultural adult education (SoCiuS).
2.8.
Methods of Financing Education
This section will not deal with the total cost of education but solely with public spending in this sector, that is, the expenditures of public authorities. In addition to the expenditures by the Belgian State and the Communities, the information on the financing and resource allocation in Flemish education should in fact include the expenditures of the provinces and municipalities (in grant-aided official education), of the ecclesiastical authorities and private persons (in grant-aided free education), and of the parents. There is an ample supply of information on public spending but details about the other sources of funding are harder to come by, which is why it is impossible to give a complete picture of the real cost of education. To compare the year-by-year results is a risky undertaking because of the changes in the meanings of the definitions, the re-allocation of powers between the national and Community authorities, and the provisional nature of some of the figures. 2.8.1. Origin of the Flemish educational budget In 1989 the educational policy (educational administration) in Belgium was handed over to the Communities. Ever since the Flemish, the Frenchspeaking and the Germanspeaking Community finance the education. Resource allocation for this financing is made by the federal state. The State reform initiated in 1988 resulted in a budget of more than
17,35 billion being transferred to the
Communities. Simultaneously, a funding law was passed to establish the future rules for sharing out the budgets for education. These appropriations for education are funded by the VAT and are index-linked each year, but they are also adjusted (at a rate of 80%) to the decline in the number of young people. The Communities are, of course, at liberty to add their own resources to these appropriations. The dotations of the federal government to the Flemish and Frenchspeaking Community were fixed by the Special Law on the financing of the Communities and Regions (of 16 January 1989). The resource allocation does in no way imply that the
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
Communities are obliged to spend this budget for education, nor that their expenditures for education should be limited to this budget. The Special Law on the funding of the Communities and Regions of 16 January 1989 should have been adapted in 1998. Article 39 of this concerned Special Law stipulated that, from 1999 on, the rule for sharing out the budgets for education, on the basis of which the appropriations for education allocated by the State to the Communities are distributed to each of the Communities, will be adapted to the distribution of the number of pupils on the basis of objective criteria established by the law. The problem here concerns the horizontal distribution of the allocations mutually between the Communities and the objective criteria on the basis of which this should happen (Stienlet, 1998). The long political debate resulted in the Belgian Law of 23 May 2000, which determines the criteria referred to in Article 39 of the Special Law. Only the number of pupils from 6 to 17 years old, who are regularly enrolled in primary and secondary education in a educational institution organised or supported by the Flemish or the French Community are counted. The count takes place at a date between the 15th of January and the 1st of February, and the data are announced at the auditor’s office (Rekenhof) by the 15th of May every year. The auditor’s office (Rekenhof) checks the data carefully. The Lambermont-agreement revises the Special Law on the funding of the Communities (Gemeenschappen) and Regions (Gewesten) of 16 January 1989. The Lambermont-agreement gives the different Regions (Gewesten) more financial resources as well as more authority. Concerning the financial resources there is a refinancing of the Communities (Gemeenschappen), the regional taxes and the radio and television license tax is regionalized and the tax of persons is more clearly formulated. The funding for education in the German-language Community is governed by a separate law and, given the small size of this education sector, takes account of the specific requirements established in 1990. 2.8.2.
The Magnitude of the Educational Budget
In the next paragraphs we discuss the magnitude of the budget in general (see 2.8.2.1) and of the budget of the different educational level in particular (see 2.8.2.2.). 2.8.2.1.
The Educational Budget in General
Belgium spent in 1988 6.10% of the GNP on education, the Vlaamse Gemeenschap (Flemish Community) 5.4% of its own GRP (Gross Regional Product). In 1991, these figures were 5.4% of the Belgian GNP and 5.27% Flemish GRP. This share remained relatively stable for Flanders for the following years. In 2002 4.5% of the Flemish GRP was spended on education. The Flemish educational expenditures represented in 1991 43.6% of the Flemish budget. The following years this figure fluctuated around 45%. Subsequently, the relative share of the educational expenditures has decreased slowly from 44.7% in 1995 to 43.0% in 1999, 41.9% in 2000 and 41.1% in 2001, which reflects the greater expenditures of the Flemish Community of other sectors. Since 2001 the ratio between the educational budget and the total budget of the Flemish Government has again slightly increased to 42,1% in 2003. The total educational budget in 2003 amounted to 7,556 billion Euro (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003).
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
2.8.2.2.
The Educational Budget of Different Educational Levels
The principles for the primary level are applicable to the pre-school level as well. The subsidies and appropriations for the basic education sector have risen constantly over the last ten years. This favourable development is certainly justified, given that the absolute level of subsidies per pupil is still barely 40% of that for secondary education (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003). The Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) has spent the following percentages of its education budget on ordinary basisonderwijs (basic education): 26.88% in 1999, about 27% in 2000, 2001 and in 2002 and 28% in 2003. The total budget for normal basic education amounted in 2003 to 2,120 billion Euro. In 2003, the average investment for each pupil participating in ordinary basic education (basisonderwijs) was: /pupil in the grant-aided official network, and
4,117 /pupil in the community network,
3,320
3,275 /pupil in the grant-aided free network. The figures reflect
the problem of the resource distribution among the networks (MVG, education department, 2002). The average spending was
3,407/pupil in 2003.
The Decree concerning Education XIV (February 2003) increased the budget for primary education resources. As from the school year 2002-2003, the budget for resources will be increased by
19.83 million. This increase
will be used for the development of administrative centres in primary education. The Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) has spent the following percentages of its education budget on ordinary secondary education: 40.89% in 1999, 40.17% in 2000, 39.26% in 2001, 37.94% in 2002 and 38,36% in 2003. The total budget for normal secondary education in 2003 amounted to 2,899 billion Euro. The average investment can be calculated as follows (year 2003) for each pupil at the secondary school level: /pupil in the Community network, onderwijs) and
8,704
7,576 /pupil in the grant-aided official network (gesubsidieerd officieel
6,393 /pupil in the grant-aided free network (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs). In 2003 the average
was 6.901 Euro (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003). The Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) spent the following percentages of its education budget on higher education (universities included): 16.38% in 1999, 16.36% in 2000, 15.98% in 2001, 17.91% in 2002 and 16,95% in 2003. The total budgets for the education of the colleges of higher education and the universities in 2003 amounted to respectively 592,251 and 735,439 million Euro. The average investment for each student at the hogescholen (colleges of higher education) reached each student at the universities reached
6,139 /student in 2003. The average investment for
13,592 /student in 2003 (MVG, Departement Ondewijs, 2003).
In the future, the academic qualification awarded upon completion of two cycles at a college of higher education will be called a Master’s degree. According to the Structure Decree, Master degree courses must by definition be academically oriented, although they can have a professional component. A Master must have been trained in scientific research in a broad sense. In order to be able to realise this change of courses provided by colleges of higher education in two cycles, i.e. making them more academic, colleges of higher education will receive extra funds as from 2003 ( 5 million extra in 2003 and
12 million by 2006). Universities will also receive extra
funds in 2003 to enable them to carry out the conversion to a bachelor and master system. As in the past ten years the basic subsidy for universities did not develop in line with the increase in the student population or with budget changes to reflect salary costs, the government programme provided for an increase in the basic funding. Consequently, the overall budget will be increased progressively. In 2003 it will be increased by 7.8 million. The most important budget reduction was in Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) (-44% in the period 1975-1987), although it was partly compensated by a newly introduced registration
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
fee. The size of the cut is blamed chiefly on the ‘anti-plurality’ regulation, which was introduced in 1982 in an effort to keep the earnings a teacher can make from an extra job down to a minimum. This has now made it difficult to recruit specific categories of teachers in the technical and vocational sections of the Social Advancement Education (OSP) sector. In 2003, 2,36% of the education budget was reserved for the Social Advancement Education (OSP). In the period 1991-2003, the budget for the Social Advancement Education (OSP) increased from 66.84 million to
178.943.000 (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003).
The subsidies and appropriations for the special education sector have risen constantly over the last ten years. The Flemish Community has spent the following percentages of its education budget on special education: 6.55% in 1999, 6.6% in 2000, 2001 and 2002, and 6,84% in 2003. The total budgets for special basic and secondary education in 2003 amounted to respectively 288,025 and 229,259 million Euro. The average investment for each pupil in special basic education can be calculated as follows (year 2003): community network (gemeenschapsonderwijs), officieel onderwijs), and average spending was
9,982 /pupil in special basic education (basisonderwijs). For special secondary education
(gemeenschapsonderwijs),
15,291 /pupil was spent in 2002 in the community education
13,455 /pupil in the grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel
13,770 /pupil in the grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs). In 2003, the
average spending amounted to 2.8.3.
8,384 in the grant-aided official network (gesubsidieerd
9,053 in the grant-aided free network (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs). In 2003, the
(buitengewoon secundair onderwijs) onderwijs), and
13,832 in the
14,049 /pupil at the secondary level (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2004).
Relevant Themes Concerning Resource Allocation
Over the last years the following trends and events have influenced school funding. 2.8.3.1.
Decentralisation
Mention has been made several times of the trend towards decentralisation in education policy as a whole. This trend
is
also
very
noticeable
on
the
funding
front,
especially
in
the
community
education
(gemeenschapsonderwijs), which was initially organised entirely by the State. A recent decentralisation in the education policy in community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) was established by a change from a twolevel structure to a three level-structure (Special Decree of 14 July 1998). New school councils (schoolraden) have been created at the school level. These school councils have advisory and consultative duties. However, the school groups (scholengroepen) together with the Council of the Community Education (Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) will constitute the organising bodies (inrichtende machten) with decision-making authority for material and financial matters in the Community Education (Special Decree of 14 July 1998). 2.8.3.2.
The resource-sharing problem
The budget-sharing problem is tied up with two vital principles of the legislation on education: freedom of choice and compulsory education. Another problem is the distribution of the resources to the networks. It is generally agreed that community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) requires relatively higher public funding (for example for school buildings) so as to be able to organise its education in the same way as the other larger networks. Because of its historical roots, the Catholic education sector has more assets at its disposal, while grant-aided official education receives additional resources from the provinces and municipalities. Another argument in favour of the higher funding for community education concerns the obligation of official education
39
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
(community and the grant-aided official education) to open its doors to all pupils, which means that this sector finds itself with a relatively higher number of pupils from poorer families and with learning difficulties. Third, the requirement for all official schools (community or grant-aided) to provide both non-denominational and religious courses means that they have to meet higher costs than the free schools, which offer only religion courses. Fourth, the Community education network of schools is distributed over a smaller area, which means that the economy-of-scale factor operates in reverse here. Finally, Community education is subject to limits on the level of fees that its schools can impose on pupils enrolled for further education. It was because of these considerations, together with other, more politically flavoured ones, that the standard for distributing operating resources in the 1958 School Pact (Schoolpact) made a provision for Community education to receive one-third of the extra resources earmarked for operating expenditures. Community education also received concessions for expenditures on certain staff categories and funding for school buildings. In 1997, it was laid down by decree that the amount of the operating resources for each pupil in the grant-aided basic education (basisonderwijs) is to be between 75.8% and 76.2% of the amount of the operating resources for each pupil in the community basic education (basisonderwijs) (the subsidies for the maintenance staff not included). This difference of about 24% in the budget for operating and capital costs to the advantage of the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) is justified by ‘differences that are open to objectification’, such as the offering of both religious and moral education, the obligation to accept every pupil who applies, the larger participation of pupils with social and cultural backgrounds that tend to hinder a successful school career, differences in accommodations, and the consequences of decision making in the past. These ‘differences that are open to objectification’ are difficult to quantify scientifically, so for the present the political agreement of the 24% standard is applied (Decree of 25 February 1997). The reorganisation of secondary education as established by the Decree of 14 July 1998 on secondary education regulates the distribution of resources between the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) and grantaided education in a similar way (article 100 of this Decree). The Decree stipulates that the amount of operating resources for each pupil in grant-aided secondary education in 2007 is to be 76% of the amount of the operating resources for each pupil in the community secondary education. Because of differences of opinion about the legitimacy of the ‘differences open for objectification’ and because of the complexity of the matter that made an objective view impossible, the Flemish government decided in 1997 to carry out a study to clarify this matter. Meanwhile, the results of this study “Revenues and expenses of schools in Flanders are available. Quantifying differences open for objectification” have been published. The main conclusion of the report is that the educational network (onderwijsnet) of a school makes little difference in the need for financial resources. This means that the present differences in the subsidizing of schools based on educational network (onderwijsnet) are not grounded in ‘objective needs’. The researchers suggest equalizing the financial resources of schools regardless which educational network (onderwijsnet) it belongs to. Instead, only differences based on pupil features should be taken into account (Deloitte & Touche, 2001). It has already been described how the distribution of State resources between the Communities (Gemeenschappen) and the three educational networks (onderwijsnetten) is causing political controversy. A crucial issue in this context is deciding what objective criteria to use. There are no objective indicators for resource distribution among the networks at this moment, so ad hoc yardsticks tend to be established. The guidelines emerging from the parliamentary discussion on this issue are of a fairly general nature and expressed in impractical terms. There is also a need to assess the cost in order to obtain an objective idea of the
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
requirements. However, even in these circumstances, it would still be difficult to establish criteria for sharing out the subsidies, for there is no information available on the resources allocated by local authorities or private bodies to the grant-aided schools. 2.8.4.
Important Entries in the Educational Budget
The most important entries in the Flemish educational budget relate to the financing of the personnel, of the working and equipment costs and of the school infrastructure. Spendings on school staff accounts for the bulk of the budget appropriations (69,17% of public spending on education in 2003, without the spending on school staff for higher education). All school heads and members of the teaching and the paramedical staff, whether they form part of the education sector organised or grant-aided by the Communities (Gemeenschappen), are paid for directly by the Flemish Community. Each school is allocated a package of periods (basic and special education), an overall number of teacher periods (secondary education), or a lump-sum budget (higher education) that reflect the number of pupils and may be used and shared out, according to the needs, between levels, options, sections, disciplines, etc.. 8,96% of the government’s budget is reserved for the functioning of the schools (except for higher education) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003). Different arrangements exist for funding operating and equipment costs in schools organised by the Community, and those grant-aided by the Communities. Criticism has arisen in the Flemish Community about the disparities between the level of operating resources allocated to community education and those allocated to grant-aided education. More information about this matter is already given in paragraph 2.8.3.2. Investment in community education was previously paid for in full by the State. The grant-aided official schools (gesubsidieerde officiÍle scholen) received capital subsidies equal to 60% of their investment and interest-rate subsidies (covering the difference between the current rate of interest on the market and 1.25% for the balance). It is now recognised that grant-aided official and grant-aided free education in the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) should be put on an equal footing, each receiving capital subsidies equal to 60% of their investment (70% for basic education (basisonderwijs)). The responsibility for the non-grant-aided aspects of grant-aided official education is to be shifted to the investment fund of the municipalities. The Flemish Community is supposed to guarantee the loans intended to pay for the non-grant-aided share of the grant-aided free schools (gesubsidieerde vrije scholen). Investment in community education will continue to be chargeable to the Community (Gemeenschap). The decree also contains objective criteria to establish priorities for school buildings in all the networks in the Flemish Community. Within the Flemish Community, the commitments entered into by the former national guarantee fund for capital expenditures for both grant-aided official and grant-aided free schools have been taken over by the Infrastructure Service of Grant-aided Education (Dienst Infrastructuurwerken van het Gesubsidieerd Onderwijs) (DIGO). The legal assignment of DIGO is threefold (DIGO, 2004). The first assignment is the subsidisation of the purchase, the construction, the reconstruction and the first equipment of buildings for grant-aided educational institutions, centres for the guidance of pupils and boarding schools. DIGO can also use part of (max. 10%) its yearly dotation for subsidizing the purchase of heavy didactic equipment. The second assignment is providing a guarantee for the reimbursement of capital, interests and additional costs of loans for the funding of the nonsubsidized part of the subsidized cost price (30% or 40%). Finally, DIGO manages the federal loans before 1 January 1989 for the free as well as the official grant-aided education.
41
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
In total 2,44% of the educational budget (except higher education) is spent on investments (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003). 2.8.5.
School funding criteria
The Community finances the schools of the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) and subsidises the schools of the grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs) and grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs). The financing or subsidising of schools is regulated by a number of conditions that have to met by the schools. Besides the specific conditions to acquire resources for salaries, buildings, and accommodation and for the payment of operating expenses, two types of conditions have to be met to receive resources. First of all, there are general conditions for the recognition of schools such as the safety and hygiene of the school buildings, the responsibility of a school board (schoolbestuur) for the organisation of education, the drawing up of curricula, the acceptance of the control by the Inspectorate, the structural organisation of education in accordance with the legislation concerning education, and the respect for the law on the use of languages in education. The government grants recognition on the basis of the advice of the Inspectorate (Decree of 25 February 1997). Furthermore, there are more specific conditions related to the number of pupils who go to school in the basic education (basisonderwijs). Programming standards (programmatienormen) are standards referring to the number of pupils that have to be registered the last school day of September in a starting school to acquire resources from the state. These standards depend on the year of existence (maximum 4 years for ordinary schools) of the school and the population density of the municipality where the school is located. For starting a new educational level, besides the local population density, the existing spread of schools in the vicinity is taken into account. Rationalisation standards (rationalisatienormen) are standards that determine the number of pupils that have to be registered on the first school day of February after the fourth year of existence in ordinary education and the third year in special education to continue to be funded or subsidised. These standards depend also on the population density of the municipality where the school is located, the level of education, and the spread of schools or the provision of education in the vicinity (in order to guarantee the freedom of choice) (Decision of The Flemish Government of 17 June 1997). Registered minors whose residency status or that of their candidate asylum seeker parents is not yet fully processed are included in the calculation of the basic funding of the school. For secondary education, programming standards and rationalisation standards are also in effect, but other criteria are been established as relevant for defining the required number of pupils. For the programming standards, the character (denominational, non-denominational, or pluralistic education) of the school (with fulltime curriculum) is taken into account. For the rationalisation standards, the educational network (onderwijsnet) (official, grant-aided official or grant-aided free education) that the school (with full-time curriculum) belongs to is also relevant. Furthermore, within these defined categories, another distinction is made concerning the educational offering between divisions, options, and follow-up courses offered with high frequency and those with low frequency (in a province, within each educational network, and for each category). For the population density and the spread of the schools or the provision of education in the vicinity is taken into account (to guarantee the freedom of choice) and also the potential existence of a school community (scholengemeenschap). This is an organisation of institutions that is able to provide education in a certain area in function of demographic, economic, social-cultural, and infrastructural factors (Offeciers, 1996; Belgian Royal Decree of 29
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
July 1989). The Decree of 14 July 1998 stipulates a decrease of 15% of the rationalisation standard for those educational institutions that belong to a school community (Decree of 14 July 1998). For special education, the regulations are more complicated because of the existence of different types and forms of education (opleidingsvormen); for each type or form of education quantitative standards are established. For the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) and universities, there are also conditions for funding to prevent uncontrolled growth in the provision of courses. At colleges of higher education, a basic course will only be eligible for funding if it has 40 students in the case of a one-cycle basic course or the first cycle of a two-cycle basic course and at least 20 fundable students in case of the second cycle of a basic course of two cycles. Recently the basic courses and options were tested and evaluated by the government in order to reform the course and option offering. As from the academic year 20042005 only the courses which reside in the higher education register eligible for funding. This register will contain full information on each accredited course (Decree of 4 April 2003). Each university may only offer specific fields of study as stated by the Decree on the universities, and the courses will only be funded if they meet the following criteria: the first cycle of an academic course must have an average of at least 40 enrolled students in the two previous years. The figure for the second cycle is 20 (programming). The existing courses have to meet the criteria of 20 students enrolled for the first cycle in the previous two years and 10 students for the second cycle (rationalisation) (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). 2.8.6.
Financing and Financial Management
In below paragraph we go more deeply into respectively the funding and the financial management in the different Flemish educational networks on the one hand (see paragraph 2.9.1.) and in the colleges of higher education (see paragraph 2.9.2.) and the universities on the other hand (see paragraph 2.9.3.). 2.8.6.1.
Financing and Financial Management in the Different Educational Networks
The rules and procedures concerning the financial management imposed on the governing bodies differ greatly between the educational networks (onderwijsnetten) and can be explained by the differences in resources between the educational networks. The Special Decree on the community education of 14 July 1998 stipulates a whole new structure for the Community Education. The school groups (scholengroepen), as an intermediate level between the schools and the Council of the Community Education (Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) within the Community Education, constitute, together with the Council of the Community Education, the organising body of the Community Education. The school group itself is competent for the autonomous financial and material management of the schools assigned to it. The Council of the Community Education is competent for the definition of criteria for the allocation of the funds between the school groups (scholengroepen). The Commissioner of the Flemish Government has been replaced by a Board of Accountants (College van Accountants), that is instituted by the Flemish Government. This Board of Accountants, containing of 5 members, has a supervisory responsibility with respect to financial policy of the school groups. The Board supervises the financial balance of the budget and the accounts of the school group (scholengroep) and can advise the school group (scholengroep) concerning the organisation of the books. The Board of Accountants,
43
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
which is paid for by the Flemish Government, is also responsible for the financial supervision of the Council of the Community Education. The municipalities and the provincial governments are responsible for the financial management of the schools in the grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs). The budget has to be approved on a higher level (the provincial government for the budget on municipal level and the Flemish government for the budget on provincial level). Financial decisions on lower levels can be suspended by a higher level if the law is not respected (Devos et al., 1999). In contrast with the other two networks, the school governing bodies (schoolbesturen) of the grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs) have a very large degree of autonomy. They do not have to obey rules for drawing up a budget, and their budgets need not be approved by a higher body. They only have to comply with a number of basic rules concerning the operating funds obtained. Thus, the revelation of all expenditures and revenues is not required in this educational network (Devos et al., 1999). 2.8.6.2.
Financing and Financial Management in the Colleges of Higher Education
Each college of higher education (hogeschool) receives an ‘envelope’ of funds. The Decree on the colleges of higher education specifies the overall amount for all the colleges, which is index-linked to the unit labour costs and consumer prices. Before distribution can be carried out between the colleges, a number of deductions are made to cover certain costs that the government will meet directly, such as the salaries for certain members of staff. After these deductions have been made, an overall amount is left for the operational expenses of the colleges. The amount per college is determined on the basis of the following criteria: 1.
the historical fixed sum: the costs of the college in the past;
2.
the number of students (five-year average);
3.
finance-eligible units: a combination of student numbers (three-year average) and the
weightings allocated to the courses according to the nature of the courses. Four groups are distinguished to which the following weightings are allocated: 1.1 commercial science and business administration, 1.2 applied linguistics and one-cycle industrial science courses, 1.4 architecture, biotechnology, social work, two-cycle industrial science courses, and 1.6 product development, health care and education. A transfer period for introducing this funding scheme is provided for up to 2006 (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). As from January 2001 the yearly envelope is increased with
4,957,870.50 to compensate the costs of the
implementation of the Decree concerning the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) (CAO VI). The government also contributes to the funding of the colleges’ social facilities, and the colleges are entitled to collect enrolment fees. The decree specifies that colleges must charge a student who does not receive a grant a minimum of
62 and a maximum of
360 a year.
The colleges of higher education enjoy a certain degree of autonomy when it comes to determining the policy they wish to pursue in respect of this money. They are, however, bound by a number of decree regulations affecting matters such as the recruitment and promotion of staff members. Compliance with these rules is monitored by a Commissioner of the Flemish Government (Commissaris van de Vlaamse regering) and an inspector of finances. The commissioner can object to a decision of a college to the Flemish Government, which
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
then has to rule on the matter. As in the universities, the colleges determine the internal distribution of resources (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). 2.8.6.3. Financing and Financial Management in Universities Between 1991 and 1996, the government’s contribution to funding education and research was split into two for both ordinary operational expenditures and investment expenditures: a fixed portion that was adjusted in function of the evolution of labour costs and prices and a variable element that depended on the number of finance-eligible units and was also adjusted annually in function of the evolution of labour costs and prices. The fixed element was calculated on the basis of 50% of the funds provided to the universities in 1991. The remaining 50%, the variable element, depended on the number of funding-eligible units in a given year compared to the number on 1 February 1991. The number of funding-eligible units was based on the total number of students eligible for subsidy in a particular field of study weighted according to the nature of that field of study (a weighting of one for humanities, a weighting of two for candidatures in applied and biomedical science, and a weighting of three for the second cycle of applied and biomedical science). Since 1994, students of the advanced academic courses were no longer added to the number of finance-eligible units (OBE). With this method of calculation, the government not only wanted to lower the costs and rationalise the academic supply but also tried to free scientific research from being too dependent on the evolution of the number of students. As a consequence of the unequal rise of the number of finance-eligible units in the universities, an unequal financing per student in the different universities arose. Article 96 of the Decree concerning Education IX of 14 July 1998 was intended to rectify this problem. Since the budget of 1996, the operating subsidies have been divided into three parts. The first part (Wao) consists of operating subsidy for the academic education, doctoral training, and the academic teacher-training courses for the year 1995 + n (450 million BEF) and a yearly indexation. Some measures were taken to guarantee that the universities with a notably lower amount of subsidy per financeeligible unit would receive more than in the past. The second part (Wvao) consists of an amount of the operating subsidy for advanced academic courses (see 6.4.3.) for the year 1995 + n. These subsidies are distributed among the universities on the basis of the average amount of diplomas that have been granted in the last two academic years. The third part (Whuisarts) consists of the nominal amount of the operating subsidy for the education for general practitioners for the year 1995 + n. As for the previous part, the subsidies are also allocated on the basis of the average amount of of general-practitioner diplomas granted in the last two academic years. With this calculation, all universities receive more operating subsidies but the under-indexation of the operating subsidies is not disappeared nor has the unequal grant per student. In addition to operating subsidies, the Government also guarantees social facilities. Furthermore, the universities can charge registration fees. The Decree of 12 June 1991 also aimed at establishing a new relationship between the universities and the authorities based on more autonomy and local financial responsibility. From then on, universities were funded for 50% in function of the number of students on 1 February of the previous academic year. The other 50% was fixed and varied in function of the index of consumer prices and wage costs. This way, spending became more stable and long-term planning was facilitated. Since then, the financing system has been regularly adapted for
45
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
details by different decrees. A result of the previous financing system was an inequality between the different universities by which the small universities benefited. The Decree of 1998 tried to undo this inequality by dividing an extra amount of money and changed the financing formula. At present a new financing system for the universities is in the air that is intended to stress the research component of the universities, to make the financing system less dependent on student numbers, and to increase financing based on output. In expectation of this new system, the government has set a transitional period from 2001 to 2004 during which financing is independent of student numbers. This temporary freeze of financing should lead to optimisation and rationalisation of the educational offering (Deweghe, 2000). This temporary financing system was ratified in the Decree of 7 December 2001 concerning the revision of the financing of the universities in the Flemish Community and accompanying stipulations. For the years 2001-2004 the operating subsidies of the universities consist of the following parts: •
a fixed sum;
•
an extra as a supplement of this fixed sum;
•
a sum for the post-graduate courses;
•
supplementary resources allocated by covenants between the Flemish government and university
authorities. Every year the Flemish Parliament determines, on the recommendation of the Flemish Interuniversity Council (Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad), the minimum and maximum enrolment fees and fees for the exams of academic courses and of advanced academic courses (voortgezette academische opleidingen). The advices of the Flemish Interuniversity Council (Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad) (VLIR) concerning registration fees for the academic year 2003-2004 are
488 for students who do not receive a grant,
to the category of students who receive grants, and students the amounts are
147 (students almost belonging to the
53 (students who are eligible for grants). For every additional
enrollment students who do not receive grants pay who receive grants
80 for students who are eligible for grants. For part-time
269 (students who do not receive a grant),
category of students who receive grants) and
257 for students almost belonging
158, students who almost receive grants
105 and students
55 (Information received from the Flemish Interuniversity Council).
In addition, the Decree of 18 May 1999 allows the board of directors of the university can set a higher enrolment fee for specialised courses on the basis of numerical criteria. The universities enjoy a certain degree of autonomy when it comes to determining the policy they wish to pursue with this money. Nevertheless, compliance with the rules of the law is monitored by a Commissioner of the Flemish Government (Commissaris van de Vlaamse regering) and an inspector of finances. The commissioner can object to a decision of a university, whereupon the Flemish Government must decide. Until recently, universities were bound by a number of decree regulations affecting matters such as the recruitment and promotion of staff members. The Decree of 5 May 1999 concerning Education X has made these severe regulations more flexible. Rules have been drafted within the institutions for the distribution of resources among faculties and central services and among the departments and/or subject groups. The Flemish government has supported the Interface activities of universities since September 2002 (Decree of 13/09/02). Interface activities are activities for the promotion of: •
collaboration between universities and companies;
Chapter 2: General organisation of the education system and administration of education
•
economic valorisation of academic research;
•
establishment of spin-off companies by the universities.
Every 5 years, the Interface departments must draw up a policy plan that outlines the valorisation policy pursued and the way in which the financial support has been used. This policy plan must be submitted to IWTVlaanderen (Institute for the Promotion of Innovation by Science and Technology in Flanders).
2.9.
Statistics
The following tables present a selection of statistical data on aspects of educational policy in Flanders.
Table 5: School population in full-time education according to organising body and gender (except for the Flemish Community Commission) – school year 2002-2003
BASIC EDUCATION
Community
Free
Provin-
Munici-
education
education
cial
pial
Boys
Girls
Total
94.547
427.698
928
146.116 342.017 327.335
669.352
Primary education
32.857
153.008
136
52.107 121.586 116.557
238.143
Normal
32.335
151.910
136
52.036 120.410 116.007
236.417
Special
522
1.098
-
Primary Education
61.690
274.690
Normal
55.962
257.888
Special
5.728
16.802
595
SECONDARY EDUCATION
71.976
327.337
13.616
Foreign speaking newcomers
581
795
117
404
1.018
879
1.897
71
550
1.726
792
94.009 220.431 210.778
431.209
197
90.261 203.591 200.717
404.308
3.748
1.176
16.840
10.061
26.901
22.179 222.332 213.449
435.781
1st stage
23.066
108.866
3.287
6.304
72.711
68.895
141.606
2nd stage
22.637
101.790
4.397
6.457
69.385
65.981
135.366
3rd stage
21.732
100.646
5.142
6.676
67.492
66.847
134.339
General
7.747
39.173
325
845
20.712
27.378
48.090
Technical
5.261
34.599
2.295
2.351
25.369
19.178
44.547
Art
536
1.284
312
508
965
1.675
2.640
Vocational
8.188
25.590
2.210
2.972
20.446
18.616
39.062
4th stage
122
1.032
-
38
170
1.022
1.192
Modular 2nd and 3rd stage
145
1.000
137
499
1.008
773
1.781
Modular 4th stage
190
2.639
257
112
332
2.866
3.198
Total normal secondary
68.473
316.768
13.337
20.490 212.116 207.263
419.379
Total special secondary BASIC- EN SECONDARY HIGHER EDUCATION Education
of
colleges
of
3.503
10.569
279
166.523
755.035
14.544
1.689
10.216
6.186
16.402
168.295 564.349 540.784 1.105.133 71.507
84.993
156.500
46.125
53.536
99.661
31.012
42.946
73.958
15.113
10.590
25.703
25.382
31.457
56.839
higher education One-cycle Two-cycle University education GENERAL TOTAL
635.856 625.777 1.261.633
47
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003) Table 6: Spreading of schools over the networks – school year 2002-2003 Comm. Free Edu. Provincial Municipial Edu. Pre-school education 359 1320 2 448 Primary education 361 1325 1 474 Secondary education 233 603 29 48 (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003) Educational network
Total 2129 2161 913
Table 7: Cost price per pupil per educational level (in EUR) School year 2002-2003 Educational level Normal basic education Special basic education Normal secondary education Special secondary education Education of colleges of higher education University education Part-time art education Social advancement education (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
2001
2002
2003
3.026,83 8.954,23 6.412,78 13.114,17 5.796,76 10.999,41 901,62 -
3.215,85 9.531,95 6.640,77 13.692,70 5.952,20 13.262,81 910,00 624,19
3.407,74 9.982,84 6.901,21 14.049,45 6.139,00 13.592,56 959,99 651,17
Table 8: Relation educational budget compared to the budget of the Flemish Community and the Gross regional Product (in thousand EUR) – School year 2002-2003 General evolution figures (in ficed prices of 1998)
1998
2000
2002
2003
6.112.482
6.320.562
6.707.895
6.899.697
14.059.700 136.261.378 1998
15.015.210 145.522.360 2000
16.034.782 147.683.032 2002
16.392.824 Not known 2003
Educ. Budget/Budget Fl. Comm.
43,5
42,1
41,8
42,1
Educ. Budget/Gross Reg. Prod.
4,5
4,3
4,5
Not known
Budget Fl. Comm./Gross Reg. Prod.
10,3
10,3
10,9
Not known
Educational budget Budget Flemish Community Gross Regional Product Mutual relation (%)
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
CHAPTER 3.
PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION
In Flanders pre-school education and primary education together constitute basic education (Decree on the basic education of 25 February 1997). As from 1 September 2003 newly established schools will have to adopt the structure of pre-school and primary education. This stipulation does not apply to existing schools: autonomous pre-school and primary schools can keep their present structure (Decree concerning the landscape of basic education of 10 July 2003).
3.1.
Historical overview
In this paragraph we take a look at Flemish pre-school education from a historical perspective. In 1827, the first day-care centre was opened in Brussels for children of parents who worked outside the home. The day-care centre has been acknowledged as the basis of the public school and was seen as an institution of education in 1843. This new school form spread very quickly: in 1845, there were about 400 such schools. The day-care centres took care of the moral and physical well-being of the children and prepared the oldest children for primary education. In 1857, the first Froebel Kindergarten was established in Brussels. The activity, spontaneity, and intellectual awakening of the young child were the essential and innovative elements of Froebel’s philosophy. He also insisted on professional status for teachers. Training courses for Froebel teachers were organised with government support. The Froebel-method needed some time to be introduced in the ordinary daycare centres. It was only in 1880 that the first ministerial directives were issued to regulate the operation of pre-school establishments. In 1890, the first model curriculum drew its inspiration largely from Froebel’s work. The primary-school inspectors were made responsible for ensuring that the directives were implemented. In the following period, up to 1914, pre-school education was no longer a priority policy domain. During the Interbellum, pre-school establishments developed from being only day-care centres into places for children to learn social skills, to develop intellectually, and to develop their personalities. Several official programmes of activities were implemented. Froebel’s influence, together with the influence of the Italian Montessori and the Belgian Ovide Decroly expanded and is reflected in the epoch-making curricula published in 1936. Since then, pre-school education in Belgium has expanded a great deal. In 1997 the Decree on the basic education (basisonderwijs) came into effect. This decree integrates all the legislation related to pre-school and primary education into one coherent framework. Furthermore, it contains important modifications and innovations. The Decree promoted the autonomy of but also the accountability of the school (see chapter 2).
3.2.
Ongoing Debate
The Policy for Equal Educational Opportunities (Gelijke Onderwijskansenbeleid - GOK) is a current theme in basic education and is an interesting reform proposal that has become structural policy. This policy is being implemented in 3 phases. •
Phase 1: as from 2002-2003 basic schools with a specific target public were granted GOK-resources.
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
•
Phase 2: as from 2003-2004 the basic schools receive extra teaching periods for special needs provision for pupils (zorguren).
•
Phase 3: in future more inclusive education will be established.
The implementation of phase 1 and 2 and the discussion on the reform proposal of phase 3 are current themes (see also paragraph 3.13). An administrative scale expansion is established by encouraging basic schools to cooperate in combined schools (Vanderpoorten, 2002). Basic schools are not obliged to participate, but they receive incentives through the assignment of extra resources. One of the most recent innovations relates to the introduction of extra support through a system of envelopes with points (puntenenveloppes). This framework aims at supporting the school head and the teaching staff in pedagogical, organisational and administrative matters. The envelopes are intended for executing a policy for the provision of special educational needs (zorgbeleid), the coordination of an ICT policy and for the develoment of an administrative framework. The obligation for basic schools to plan is being reduced. As from 1 September 2004 the basic schools will have to provide less information for the school screening by the educational inspectorate (see also chapter 9). Participation at school is a current theme for which the Reform Proposal of the Decree on participation at school and the Vlaamse Onderwijsraad already has been adopted by the Flemish Parliament. The central participation instrument will be the school council (schoolraad), possibly complemented by a pupils’ council and/or an educational board and/or a parents council. The aim is to start implementing this Decree as from 2004. Attention is being paid to language education. Almost all basic schools have already voluntarily introduced French in the fifth year. There is a reform proposal which would impose all basic schools to teach French as from the fifth year and to give the opportunity of an initiation in a foreign language as from the pre-school (Vanderpoorten, 2003).
3.3.
Specific legislative framework
Important educational legislation for pre-school education is added below: •
Decree on basic education of 25 February 1997, modified by the Decree of 15 July 1997 confirming the developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) and attainment targets (eindtermen) of the ordinary basic education (basisonderwijs).
3.4.
•
Decree of 28 June 2002 concerning equal educational opportunities I
•
Decree of 10 July 2003 concerning the landscape basic education
•
Decree of 5 February 2003 concerning education XIV General objectives
Following aims of education and teaching objectives apply for pre-school and primary education of all educational networks. •
Broad education: In pre-school and primary education the focus is on a broad basic education in which the personal development of the child is central. Moreover, the foundations are laid for the future studies and for
Chatper 3: Pre-Primary Education
the good functioning in society. The intellectual development but also the development of attitudes and values is important. •
Active learning: the developmental objectives and the attainment targets enable the children to look for solutions, to gain experience, to use skills, to gain insight, … during the classes together with the teacher and the other pupils. This concerns ‘basic competences’: the formulated objectives are real and can be applied in the childrens’ daily lives.
•
Care for each pupil: the first assignment for the school is to make sure that each child acquires the necessary basic skills. All children have a right to that minimum. However, the school also respects the differences between the children. The personal development of each child is namely central.
•
Cohesion: a fourth important feature is the mutual cohesion between the areas of learning. Children do not look at the reality in separate parts. Consequently, there are only 5 areas of learning and 2 themes across these areas of learning. This is called the horizontal cohesion. Besides, there is also vertical cohesion. There has to be a uninterrupted line in the learning process as from pre-school until the end of compulsory education (MVG, 1998g).
The Decree concerning basic education of 25 February 1997 (art. 8) states that on the basis of a pedagogical project the school should create an educational and learning environment in which the pupils can go through an uninterrupted learning process. This environment is adapted to the progression in the pupils’ development. Basic education is responsible for education of all pupils and has to continuously guide as many pupils as possible through permanent attention and the extension of special needs provision.
3.5.
Geographical accessibility
School distribution (also of pre-school institutions) in Flanders is characterised by a rather equal spread over the territory. All parents have the constitutional right to choose a school with the philosophical or religious orientation they prefer (Constitution of 17 February 1994). In some cases, the Community (Gemeenschap) pays for the transportation costs if there is no appropriate school in the vicinity. According to the Constitution, parents not only have a free choice of school, they also have the right to choose between a neutral Community school or a denominational one (belonging to the grant-aided free network (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs)). If one of these schools is not within a certain distance (4 km for primary education, 8 km for secondary education), a special transportation scheme at public expense applies. For children attending special education schools, transportation is organised at public expense by bus or taxi. In some cases, parents themselves provide the transportation. In such cases, they are reimbursed on the basis of the cost of public transportation.
3.6.
Admission Requirements and Choice of Institution/Centre
Although pre-school education has an obvious social and a preparatory function for primary education , there is no obligation to attend school at this level. There is no obligatory pre-school education in Flanders. The school starting age in pre-school education is 2.5 years old. Preschoolers between 2.5 and 3 years old are admitted to pre-school education at the following school entry dates: the first school day after the summer holiday; the first school day after the autumn holiday; the first school day after the Christmas holiday; the first
51
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
school day of February; the first school day after the spring half term or the first school day after the Easter holiday. This means that children are admitted in pre-school education and are considered as regular pupils as from the school entry date following the date they reach the age of 2.5 years old. Before the school entry date, children between 2.5 and 3 years old are not allowed in school. Children who are 3 years old or older can be enrolled at any day of the school year (Circular Letter of 10 August 2001). The school career at the pre-school level normally ends in June of the year of the sixth birthday of the child. However, this may be extended by a year on the recommendation of the school council (klassenraad) of the pre-school institution and the head of the competent Centre for Educational Guidance (CLB). In this case, during the first year of compulsory school attendance, the children are obliged to attend the pre-school institution regularly. As mentioned above, freedom of choice of school is guaranteed by the Constitution, which supports the current educational system (Legislation of 29 May 1959). In theory, each choice of school and branch of study is entirely free. 2002 was a historic year for the principle of freedom of school choice. The decree of 28 June 2002 (equal educational opportunities) enshrines a fundamental right of admission to the school selected by the parents. As from the school year 2003-2004, each pupil will have a right to admission to the school selected by his parents (in consultation with the pupil if this pupil is aged 12 or over). The parents and pupil are informed of the educational project and the school regulations (which respect the principles concerning human and children’s rights under international law and the constitution). If the parents do not agree with this project or the school regulations, admission will be refused. There are no other admission requirements. A school can only refuse admission on the following grounds: •
if an additional admission jeopardises pupil safety due to the material circumstances of the school;
•
if the pupil concerned has been permanently expelled from school during the previous school year or during the year before.
Any refusal will be assessed by a pupils’ rights committee (‘Commissie inzake leerlingenrechten’) (set up pursuant to the Decision of 27/09/02). If a refusal was not or insufficiently justified (in case additional admissions were accepted later), action will be brought against the school. The committee also deals with referrals for which no solution was found within the local consultation platform. Upon enrolment, an organising body can also refer each additional pupil whose home language is not - or depending on the case - or is Dutch to ensure the proposed ratio between the two groups of pupils. Referral, however, is subject to a number of conditions pertaining to Dutch language education within the school and the relative presence of the target group which must constitute at least 20% or more of the relative presence in the school’s catchment area. Furthermore, the school may also conclude that it has insufficient resources to support a pupil with a severe handicap and refer this pupil. All referrals are dealt with by the local consultative equal opportunities platforms (see chapter 10).
3.7.
Financial Support for Pupils’ Families
Basic education, of which pre-school education is part, is to be accessible for everyone free of charge (Decree on basic education of 25 February 1997, article 27). No grants or family allowances have been foreseen. Parents enrolling their child at a basic school may not be asked to pay a direct (i.e. at the registration) or an indirect (e.g.
Chatper 3: Pre-Primary Education
by increasing the contributions that are allowed) registration fee, as is the case in higher education. Activities and school material which are necessary for complying with the attainment terms or the development objectives are free (e.g. exercise books, school diary, school books, magazines for class activities). Parents (= the guardians or the carers for the child) may, however, be asked to contribute towards e.g. the costs of meals and transportation for school trips and optional (and non-obligatory) extra-curricular activities (such as snow classes, sports classes, …). The school council (schoolraad) (community education) or the participation council (participatieraad) (grant-aided education) advise on the materials and services for which a contribution of the parents may be requested. As from 1 September 2002 the contributions need to be communicated to the parents in the school regulations. A list of all different cost categories for which a contribution may be asked is included in the school regulations. An estimate is made of the maximum contribution per category in order to enable the parents to assess the yearly contributions and thus not to be confronted with any surprises during the school year. Within the participation council (participatieraad) or the school council (schoolraad) a differentiated regulation is developed for less well-off parents, which is also included in the school regulations (Circular Letter BaO/2002/3).
3.8.
Age Levels and Grouping of Children
In most cases, class composition is based on the grouping of children according to age category: •
Children from 2,5 to 3 years old
•
Children from 3 to 4 years old;
•
Children from 4 to 5 years old;
•
Children from 5 to 6 years old.
However, this division has not been defined by government. In pre-school education grades do not exist officially. The teacher usually does not stay with the class group when they transfer to the next grade. Every school is free to organise its education.. Some schools employ the vertical division system, either occasionally or continuously. This means that different age groups are included together in the same class. This is normally the case in rural areas where the population is too small to provide enough infants for three separate classes. This system gives more possibilities for differentiation.
3.9.
Organisation of Time
The arrangement of school time is regulated by the Decision of the Flemish government concerning the organisation of the school year in basic education of 14 April 1991. Within the framework of this decision the school board decides autonomously on the arrangement of the school day, school week and the school year in pre-school education (also see paragraphs 3.9.1, 3.9.2 and 3.10). 3.9.1.
Organisation of the Year
The school year starts on 1 September and ends on 31 August. Schools minimally operate during 182 days per year and are closed in the months July and August. Schools may at their own discretion reserve days in July and August to register pupils (also see abstract 5.12.1).
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
3.9.2.
Weekly and Daily Timetable
With the exception of hospital schools, pupils have 28 or 29 class periods of 50 minutes per school week. These periods are equally spread over 5 days from Monday till Friday. Wednesday afternoon is free. Classes start at 8.00 a.m. at the earliest. The school day ends between 15.00 and 17.00 p.m. Lunch break takes at least 1 hour. Time-tables are made up by the school board. A legal framework has been established for out of school provision on Wednesday afternoon and during holidays. Besides private initiatives, a school can organise child care when it is accepted on the municipal level that, because of organisational reasons, it is best for the school to be responsible for organising such care, in view of the existing provisions for child care in the municipality. Like the other initiatives, the school has to meet the specific quality requirements for child care (Decision of the Flemish Government of 24 June 1997). Schools are not obliged though to provide for this service.
3.10.
Curriculum, Types of Activity, Number of Hours
Development objectives were formulated by the department for educational development (DVO) and have been adopted by Decree in the Flemish Parliament (Decree of 25 February 1997). Development objectives are minimal objectives with regard to knowledge, insight, practical and social skills, which the education department considers as desirable for a certain group of pupils. The curriculum is based on the developmental objectives. They are formulated for five areas of learning: physical education (subjects: motor competencies, healthy and safe life style, self-concept and social functioning), music education ( subjects: image, music, drama, movement, media and attitudes), Dutch language (subjects: listening, speaking, reading, writing, language education), environmental studies (subjects: nature, man, society, technology, time and space), and mathematical initiation for pre-school education (subjects: numbers, measuring and space). The themes exceeding the areas of learning, learning how to learn and social skills, run through all areas of learning and the complete time-table in pre-school education. All schools have to provide their pupils activities in these areas of learning. In the decree on basic education (basisonderwijs) (25 February 1997), exceptions from the established development objectives are possible. A school board can judge that the development objectives do not provide the space to express its own educational and didactical views and/or are incompatible with those views. In that case the school board can apply for an exception to the Flemish government. Reasons have to be given and alternative development objectives have to be proposed. The Flemish government judges on the similarity between the proposed development objectives and the established ones. The education inspectorate monitors whether the development objectives are pursued. In pre-school education additional teaching periods for movement education and a separate time-table for child care workers have been introduced as from 1 September 2002. Part of the resources for the extension of special needs provision has also been foreseen for pre-school education for the appointment of special needs coordinators.
Chatper 3: Pre-Primary Education
3.11.
Teaching Methods and Materials
The decision on teaching methods and teaching aids belongs to the freedom of the school boards. Consequently, there are no official guidelines. The ideas of the experience-focused teaching (Ervaringsgericht Kleuteronderwijs) has become fairly popular in Flanders. This approach focuses on the social and emotional development and well-being of the individual child (Laevers, 1987). A small number of pre-schools have adopted alternative teaching methods such as Steiner, Montessori and Freinet (see also abstract 3.15). Children have to get the opportunity to experiment, discover, interact, … independently and with the aid of other children (and adults). Working in corners and contract work (hoeken- en contractwerk) are important teaching aids for attaining independence. When working in corners, a few hours a week (the school’s autonomy) are reserved for the children to make discoveries in the different corners of the class room, to experiment in daily situations or to find a solution for a problem. The children can also use these extra hours to voluntarily do an assignment from their contract. They have to take care to finish the assignment within a determined timeframe (planning). This is called contract work (contractwerk), a form of organisation in which for each pupil an activity plan for a particular period is specified. The pupils work according to this plan during a specified amount of class time and can decide relatively independently on the duration and the sequence of the activities. In basic education ICT is regarded as being supportive of the learning process. Pre-school children as from 4 years were included in the target groups of the ICT infrastructure programme (successor to the temporary pc/kd project). The objective was 1 PC per 10 pre-school children in 2001, which was just not reached in ordinary preschool education. Therefore, ICT competences for basic education are being developed as well (also see abstract 3.10). The purchase of teaching material such as school books, audiovisual material a.o. is not laid down by the government. Schools can make arrangements between themselves (e.g. within school communities).
3.12.
Evaluation of Children
Pre-school education is organised along the lines of the German ‘Kindergarten’. Therefore, there is no formal schooling or any formal pupil evaluation. This does not mean that there is no assessment at all at this stage. Assessment in pre-school education is based mainly on observation and fulfills three roles: •
forecasting: Does the degree of maturity and development reached by the pupil augur well for the next stage (especially the transfer to primary school)?
•
measurement: What has the pupil acquired, how is it placed in comparison to its peers?
•
diagnostics: Why has development slowed or why has knowledge in certain subjects not been acquired?
It should be noted that, at the point of contact between pre-school and primary education, an ever greater monitoring is being required from the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLBs), together with the educational team. This is due to the growing number of problems noticed at this stage. The Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s) function as integrated school guidance services and are a consequence of the integration of the former guidance centres (Psycho-
55
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
Medisch-Sociale Centra) (PMS) which were mainly responsible for the guidance of pupils and the Health Supervision in Schools (Centra voor Medisch Schooltoezicht) (MST’s) which carried out the health supervision in schools. The new Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) are consequently responsible for both school guidance and health supervision. They came into effect on 1 September 2000 as a result of the Decree of 1 December 1998 concerning the Centres for Educational Guidance. The school guidance services’ work consists of a number of integrated, multidisciplinary actions. These actions are focused on the pupil ‘on preventive, remedial or educational grounds’ (Decree of 1 December 1998). They are part of the concern for the development of the pupils and are carried out together with parents and school, which are primarily responsible. If necessary, the Centres for Educational Guidance cooperate with other services, institutions or other facilities. The school guidance centres’ field of action is wide-ranging and concentrates on the following (Decree of 1 December 1998):
1)learning and studying; 2) the educational career; 3) preventive health care; 4) the
psychological and social functioning of pupils’. The main task of the Centres for Educational Guidance (CLB’s) is to contribute to the well-being of pupils now and in the future. An important task of the Centres for Educational Guidance is providing information concerning the structure and organisation of the Flemish educational system, the available courses, the relationship between education and the labour market, the welfare facilities, and the health facilities. Another focus is the raising of the passing rates and the decrease and prevention of high-risk behaviour. The centres are also concerned with pupils who play truant, and they will try to re-involve them in the educational process. The decree on Centres for Educational Guidance stipulates that only the school bears the main responsibility for educational and career guidance for pupils in the transition from secondary to higher education. This means that the decree has shifted the responsibility for educational and career guidance for pupils to teachers in the school. Several Centres for Educational Guidance coach the teachers in this task and pass on their know-how (MVG, education department - 2002). In the medical field, the centres engage in the pupils’ health, growth and development. Therefore, they carry out obligatory medical consults of all pupils at certain moments of their school career and they keep records of the pupils’ vaccinations. They also trace early disorders and are concerned with the prevention and detection of infectious diseases. From pre-school up to the threshold of higher education the Centres for Educational Guidance (CLB’s) gather, analyse and progressively assess psychological, medical and social data of pupils, which are kept together in a multidisciplinary file for each pupil.
3.13.
Support Facilities
Since 1993-1994, the Flemish Government offers the project extending care (zorgverbreding) at the pre-school and primary level (six to seven year olds). The project provides extra teaching periods as to provide a wider range of educational care for children who suffer from learning difficulties and for disadvantaged children. The effort for the extending care (zorgverbreding) has to lead to a preventive and remedial teaching process whereby the complete personality of the child is the point of departure. The intention is to apply an educational practice that takes into account the language, cultural, and social background of the children (also of the immigrant children). The action fields that have to be included are:
Chatper 3: Pre-Primary Education
1.
prevention and remediation of developmental and learning disadvantages;
2.
Dutch-language proficiency;
3.
intercultural education (Intercultureel onderwijs) (ICO);
4.
socio-emotional development;
5.
parental involvement.
A new integrated policy for equal educational opportunities (GOK) has been implemented since the school year 2002 - 2003. The new integrated policy combines the existing measures for special assistance for pupils extending care (zorgverbreding) and educational priority policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid). These temporary projects are being discontinued. The measures will now be combined in one recognisable support system. The integrated educational equal opportunities policy aims to offer equal development and education opportunities to all children, focusing on development into transfer programmes in general secondary education, technical secondary education and art secondary education. If ten percent of a school’s population consists of target group pupils and the school has been classified positively, this school will obtain a number of extra teaching periods for a period of 3 years. The school no longer has to submit an application plan, but will be assessed afterwards to see whether it has properly implemented its policy plan. The following indicators (each indicator is awarded a certain weight) are used to determine whether someone is a target group pupil: •
the family is wholly dependent on income support;
•
the pupil is homeless;
•
the parents belong to a travelling population group;
•
the mother does not have a secondary education qualification, a certificate of the second year of the third stage of secondary professional education or an equivalent certificate;
•
the home language is not Dutch.
As from 1 September 2003 the second stage of the Policy for Equal Educational Opportunities (Gelijke Onderwijskansenbeleid - GOK) comes into effect and all ordinary primary schools are granted extra teaching periods for individual educational needs (zorguren). These extra hours are granted on the basis of an envelope of points (puntenenveloppe), which are calculated according to the number of registered pupils. So far, more than three quarter of the schools were able to deploy more means to fight against deprivation (first part of equal educational opportunities). As from this school year each ordinary primary school can outline a policy for individual educational needs (zorgbeleid). The teaching hours for individual educational needs are added to the already existing hours for equal educational opportunities (GOK-uren). The main objective of the new policy for individual educational needs (zorgbeleid) is the well-being at school of learning-disabled children. Adapted care will increase their motivation and give them more pleasure in learning. This will also enable learning-disabled children to attend classes in an ordinary school. The person responsible within a school for the special needs provision is called the special needs coordinator (zorgcoördinator/zorgbegeleider). The special needs coordinator does not only assist pupils and coordinate the
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
special needs provision within a school. He or she also assists teachers with questions on how to approach specific learning-disabled children. Moreover, he or she can be the intermediary between pupil, school, parents, the Centre for Educational Guidance (CLB), therapist and all other instances, that can help better support the children. Since the school year of 2001-2002, a separate number of hours for nursery workers has been financed or granted in ordinary pre-school education. This measure is a first step to come to better guidance and optimisation of the care for the youngest preschoolers. The total number of hours allocated is calculated on the basis of the number of regular pupils and the number of school sites. 8 hours for nursery workers are granted as soon as the school counts 35 preschoolers. For each additional 55 preschoolers, one hour is added. Per extra school site, the school receives two extra hours (Decree of 13 June 2001). In the school year 2002-2003 20,095 hours for nursery workers were funded (MVG, Dep. Education 2003). For children with a handicap, special-education facilities are available (see chapter 10).
3.14.
Private Sector Provision
Private education (written or not) is not legally organised in Flanders and, therefore, no official data are available. The certificates granted by these facilities have no legal value. The course offering within this private education is very diverse, in the content of the courses as well as in teaching modalities and financing (SIDIN 2004-2205, http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/sidin/wnhso/wnhso2004-2005.pdf).
3.15.
Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures
An alternative school form is home education, as pre-school education is not obligatory. The legal basis for home education is provided by the Decree concerning education-XIV of 14 February 2003. Parents opting for home education, commit themselves to providing education or have education provided that corresponds with following minimum requirements: 1) The education is aimed at the development of the complete personality and the talents of the child and at the preparation of the child for an active life as an adult; 2) The education promotes the respect for the basic human rights and for the cultural values of the child itself and of others. The educational inspectorate is authorised to check whether the home education complies with the objectives as determined. The parents are obliged to cooperate with the inspectorate’s control of home education. If this control is not accepted or if the inspectorate decides that the education does not comply with the objectives, the parents enrol the pupil in a school which is recognised, funded or subsidized by the Flemish Community.
3.16.
Statistics
In the tables below we present a number of statistical data on pre-school education.
Chatper 3: Pre-Primary Education
Teacher-Pupil Ratio1: 15.9 (2002-2003) (ordinary pre-school education) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003). Table 9: Number of institutions in pre-school education (school year 2002-2003) Community Education
382
Grant-Aided Free Education
1380
Grant-Aided Official Education
457
Total
2219
These figures cover both ordinary and special pre-school education2 and also schools who offer both pre-school and primary education. In 2002-2003, 1950 schools organised both ordinary pre-school and primary education, 211 schools organised only primary education and 179 schools organised only pre-school education. In special education, no schools organised only pre-school education, 90 both special pre-school and primary education (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003). Table 10: Evolution in the number of pupils in pre-school education (1980-2003) Year
Community
Grant-Aided Free
Grant-Aided Official
Education
Education
Education
Total
80-81
32,100
160,314
31,559
223,973
82-83
34,899
164,584
34,142
232,811
84-85
33,479
166,456
36,118
236,053
86-87
30,078
159,063
35,542
224,683
88-89
28,301
150,410
34,817
213,528
90-91
28,200
148,847
36,792
213,839
92-93
31,251
166,767
43,909
241,927
94-95
32,390
174,410
47,931
254,731
96-97
32,741
171,149
49,153
253,043
97-98
32,442
165,370
49,703
247,515
98-99
31,706
160,405
50,510
242,621
99-00
31,624
157,454
51,576
240,654
00-01
31,498
156,301
52,783
240,582
02-03
32,857
153,008
52,278
238,143
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
These figures cover both ordinary and special pre-school education3. In section 10.13 only the figures for special pre-school education are indicated.
1
Number of pupils in ordinary pre-school education in the school year 2002-2003 divided by the number of budgetary full-time teaching equivalents in January 2003 in ordinary pre-school education.
2
Institutions that provide type 5 education (for children with long-term diseases) are not included in the figures (6 schools in special pre-school education).
3
Institutions that provide type 5 education (for children with long-term diseases) are not included in the figures (6 schools in special pre-school education).
59
CHAPTER 4.
PRIMARY EDUCATION
In Flanders pre-school education and primary education together constitute basic education (Decree on the basic education of 25 February 1997). Primary education consists of 6 school years. After succesful completion, pupils transfer to secondary education.
4.1.
Historical overview
In this paragraph we look at primary education from a historical perspective. In 1830, Belgium introduced the freedom of education: anyone could establish a school without permission of the government. This led to the creation of many primary schools, most of the time by private persons or the clergy. To organise this expansion and to improve the quality of the education, the parliament enacted the first law on primary education in 1842. This law required each local authority to maintain at least one primary school. Nevertheless, non-attendance at school in the 19th century was very high. There was no compulsory school attendance in Belgium, so there was a great deal of illiteracy. The most important reason for the non-attendance was the widespread child labour. At the end of the 19th century, approximately 30% of the population was illiterate, but from then on the situation improved. In 1914, the compulsory school-attendance was introduced in Belgium: everybody from six till fourteen years old was obliged to attend school. Until then, there were only three grades. The 1914 law provided for the establishment of a fourth grade for the children from twelve to fourteen years old. The First World War delayed the implementation of this law. The model program of co-ordinating-general Germain, introduced in 1880, was the first study plan (curriculum). An important revision of this study plan came in 1920, when a study plan for the fourth grade was developed. The Study Plan of 1936 stated that it was short-sighted to seek to reduce primary education to the mere basics of ‘reading, writing, and arithmetic’. From 1936 to the present, the influence of Ovide Decroly has been important, especially his ideas about the influence of the child’s interests in learning processes. This influence is still present
in
the
newly
developed
attainment
targets
(eindtermen)
and
developmental
objectives
(ontwikkelingsdoelen). In the subsequent study plans, a more systematic approach and syntheses dominated basic education (basisonderwijs) without restricting the initiatives taken by the experienced teacher. These innovations were, above all, a response to the fear of introducing a greater degree of flexibility into education. They took into consideration methods appropriate to the teaching aimed at young children, thus adapting education to the new needs of the surrounding world and respecting as much as possible each child’s pace of learning. Programmes have been devised to stimulate the acquisition of instrumental knowledge (such as mastery of the mother tongue and mathematics) rather than factual knowledge. From 1959 on, the government too, took the initiative to establish schools. Reform initiatives began on an experimental basis first in a small number of schools in 1973 in the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap). Out of these experiments, a large-scale innovation program arose: the Renewed Primary Education (Vernieuwd Lager Onderwijs) (VLO). In 1980, the principles of this new approach - which required more attention to be paid to the individual child - were generalised in all schools.
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
In 1997 the Decree on basic education (basisonderwijs) came into effect. This decree integrated all the legislation related to pre-school and primary education into one coherent framework. Important modifications and innovations were introduced. In fact, it undermined the principles of the so-called School Pact (Schoolpact), which continued the controlling power of the umbrella organisations within the different educational networks (onderwijsnetten). By the principle of decentralisation, the autonomy and responsibility of the school are promoted and so the importance of the umbrella organisations, which served as go-betweens in the relation between schools and state, has been reduced. On 1 September 2003 implementation of the Decree of 10 July 2003 on the landscape of primary education was started. As a result 9 out of 10 primary schools have united in school communities. This is being promoted but not enforced.
4.2.
Ongoing Debate
The ongoing debates (and reform proposal) discussed in paragraph 3.2. relate to basic education, and therefore not only to pre-school but also to primary education.
4.3.
Specific legislative framework
Following educational legislation is important for primary education in Flanders: •
Decree on basic education (basisonderwijs) of 25 February 1997, modified by the Decree of 15 July 1997, confirming the developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) and attainment targets (eindtermen) of the ordinary basic education.
•
Decree of 14 July 1998 determining various measures concerning secondary education and modifying the Decree of 27 February 1997 on the basic education.
•
Decree to ratify the Decision of the Flemish government of 23 November 2001 concerning the determination of development targets for type 1 special primary education
•
.Decree to ratify the Decision of the Flemish government of 27 April 2001 concerning the determination of development targets for type 8 special primary education.
•
Decree of 28 June 2002 concerning equal educational opportunities I.
•
Decree of 10 July 2003 concerning the landscape basic education.
•
Decree of 5 February 2003 concerning education XIV.
4.4.
General objectives
The aims of education and teaching objectives of pre-school and primary education are quite similar. For the general objectives of primary education we refer to paragraph 3.4.
4.5.
Geographical Accessibility
Most schools in Flanders provide pre-school and primary education. For the school distribution we refer to paragraph 3.5.
Chapter 4: Primary Education
4.6.
Admission requirements and Choice of School
Primary education normally begins in September of the year in which the child reaches the age of 6. This date marks the beginning of compulsory education, which lasts for twelve years (incl.uding secondary schooling). However, the guardian may have his/her child start the first year of primary education at the age of 5 or have it attend pre-school during the first year of compulsory school attendance (on the age of 6), always on the recommendation of the class council (klassenraad) and the Centre for Educational Guidance (CLB). With a concurring recommendation of the class council and the Centre for Educational Guidance, the child can continue attending primary school for an eighth year, which need not necessarily be the sixth class of primary education (Decree of 25 February 1997). These arrangements enable a child who started school late (due to illness, disability, or immigration) to remain in primary school (and on condition that he/she has not attended this form of education for more than eight years) until the end of the school year in which the child reaches his/her fifteenth birthday. Upon first admission to primary education, the organising body (inrichtende macht) informs parents and pupils on the educational school project and the school regulations. The contribution scheme for the parents, the guardians or the carees of the child and information on the school’s policy regarding monetary and nonmonetary support from outside the Flemish community is added to the school regulations. There are no further admission requirements. In addition, the new equal opportunities decree (see paragraph 3.10) is of course also relevant here. The constitutional freedom of choice of school is guaranteed as from 2003-2004 (Circular letter 2002/01 – Information upon first admission and school regulations). An organising body may: •
refuse any additional admission if it jeopardises pupil safety due to the material circumstances of the school;
•
refuse the admission if the pupil concerned has been permanently expelled from the school during the previous school year or during the year before.
If the parents do not support the school’s motivation to refuse their child, they can complain to the Pupils’ Rights Committee (Commissie inzake leerlingenrechten) within 30 calendar days following receipt of the refusal. The Pupils’ Rights Committee decides on the essence of the complaint within 5 calendar days following receipt and sends a notification per registered mail. If the committee assesses that the refusal was justified, the local consultative platform assists in finding a more suitable school. If the committee assesses that the refusal was not justified, the school may receive financial penalty, unless the school is prepared to enroll the child after all.
4.7.
Financial Support for Pupils’ Families
Basic education, of which primary education is part, is to be accessible for everyone free of charge (Decree on basic education of 25 February 1997, article 27). For further information on financial support (grant, family allowance) we refer to paragraph 3.7.
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
4.8.
Age Levels and Grouping of Pupils
The structure of primary education, consisting of six years in three stages, has been in place for several decades. When the school population was insufficient for the grouping (formation) of six classes for the six age groups (6 to 12 years old), stage classes were formed with grouping pupils from two successive age groups, or inter-stage classes were formed if necessary. This class composition occurred in areas with a low population density. At present, the school board is free to organise its own educational system. Basically, there is no longer an obligatory division in classes, subjects, or stages (Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000: 146). However, most schools are keeping the division into six classes. Apart from classes, in a few exceptional cases, in which inter-age group work and individualised methods are employed, primary education is largely undifferentiated. The same programme is used most of the time for all pupils in the same class. However, today, educational policy is looking for ways to improve differentiation. In fact, most primary schools are working hard to improve differentiation by means of, for example, special hours for children with learning difficulties, “hoekenwerk” (working in corners) where children of the same class work in groups on different tasks and “contractwerk” (contract work) by which the children are responsible for their own work (Inspectie Basisonderwijs, 2000). Normally one teacher teaches all subjects. However, sometimes special teachers are assigned for subjects such as music, physical education, religion, … The decision on the number of pupils per class group comes under the authority of the school board.
4.9.
Organisation of School Time
The arrangement of school time is regulated by the Decision of the Flemish government concerning the organisation of the school year in basic education of 14 April 1991. Within the framework of this decision the school board decides autonomously on the arrangement of the school day, school week and the school year in pre-school education (also see paragraphs 3.9.1, 3.9.2 and 3.10). 4.9.1.
Organisation of the School year
The school year starts on 1 September and ends on 31 August. Schools minimally operate during 182 days per year and are closed in the months July and August. Schools may at their own discretion reserve days in July and August to register pupils (also see abstract 5.12.1). 4.9.2.
Weekly and Daily Timetable
The school board is free to determine the educational organisation which is laid down in a school development plan (schoolwerkplan) (Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000, 35). There are no longer fixed time-tables in basic education. With the exception of hospital schools, pupils have 28 or 29 class periods of 50 minutes per school week. These periods are equally spread over 5 days from Monday till Friday. Wednesday afternoon is free (Decision of the Flemish government of 17 April 1991). Classes start at 8.00 a.m. at the earliest. The school day ends between
Chapter 4: Primary Education
15.00 and 17.00 p.m. Lunch break takes at least 1 hour. Often classes are interrupted before and after noon for a play break. Before and/or after lunch break there is sometimes a play break as well. A legal framework has been established for child care before and after school hours, on Wednesday afternoon and on school holidays. Besides private initiatives, a school can organise child care when it is accepted on the municipal level that, because of organisational reasons, it is best for the school to be responsible for organising such care in view of the existing provisions for child care in the municipality. Like the other initiatives, the school has to meet the specific quality requirements for child care (Decision of the Flemish Government of 24 June 1997). However, the schools are not obliged to provide this kind of services.
Length of the school day Child
care
outside
class
hours
Classes
Lunch break
Classes
before
classes
Child
care
outside
class
hours
after
classes
Monday
Child
care
Not
before
Tuesday
before classes
8.00
am,
15.00 pm and
after
Thursday
possible
usually at 8.30
at 17.00 pm at
possible
am
the latest
Friday Wednesday
At least 1 hour
Not
before
Child
care classes
Free on Wednesday afternoon (possibly limited child care after classes)
The Decree on Basic Education (25 February 1997) provides the right of temporary education at home for children who are temporarily unable to attend class in primary schools because of illness or an accident. At the request of the parents, or the guardian(s) or carer(s) of a minor, the school is obliged to organise temporary education at home (two teaching periods in one week that are grant-aided or funded as additional teaching periods). It is necessary that the absence extends for at least 21 calendar days.
4.10.
Curriculum, subjects, number of hours
For primary education attainment targets (eindtermen) were formulated by the Department for Educational Development (DVO) and adopted by Decree by the Flemish Parliament on 25 February 1997. The curriculum consists of the attainment targets and curriculum subjects physical education (subjects as described in paragraph 3.10), music education (subjects as described in paragraph 3.10), language (subjects as described in paragraph 3.10 completed with skills and strategies Dutch and French (subjects: listening, reading, speaking and writing)), environmental studies (subjects as described in paragraph 3.10 completed with the use of sources), and mathematical initiation for primary education (subjects: numbers, measuring, geometry, strategies and problem solving skills and attitudes). These attainment targets have to be reached by the pupils at the end of the primary school. The themes exceeding the areas of learning, learning how to learn and social skills, run through all areas of learning and the complete time-table in pre-school education. All schools are obliged to provide their pupils activities in these areas of learning as from 1 September 1998.
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
The decree on basic education (basisonderwijs) (25 February 1997) allows for deviations from the established attainment targets for school boards who are responsible for organising primary education. A school board can judge that the attainment targets do not provide the space to express its own educational and didactical views and/or are incompatible with those views. In that case the school board can apply for an exception to the Flemish government and ask for their judgement. Reasons have to be given, and alternative attainment targets have to be proposed. The department for educational development was assigned by the Department of Education to develop specific ICT competencies for basic education. The objective is to introduce these competencies through normal classes as from the school year 2003-2004 (see also paragraphs 3.10. and 3.11.). On the basis of the attainment targets the school boards define their own curriculum. In practice this is done by the umbrella organisations of the educational networks. These curricula are ratified by the government based on the advice given by the Inspectorate in order to guarantee the level of education (Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000). The responsibilities of the Inspectorate are described in chapter 9.
4.11.
Teaching Methods and Materials
The decision on teaching methods and teaching aids belongs to the freedom of the school boards. Consequently, there are no official guidelines (see also paragraph 3.11.).
4.12.
Pupil Assessment
In order to assess the extent to which objectives have been achieved by the pupils and to evaluate the effectiveness of the teaching, the primary school teacher (onderwijzer) has to develop tests for use at the end of each stage of learning. A school report informs the pupil and parents at regular intervals of the results achieved, the progress made, the learning behaviour, and personality development of the child. At this level (as on the secondary level as well), the teacher is encouraged to use the pedagogy of success and positive evaluation, which takes into account the difficulties inherent in the objectives set and the varying aptitudes of pupils. In addition to formative observations and comments, the results of exams that may be taken in December or June may be included. Awareness is growing that differentiated forms of evaluation are necessary. Pupil follow-up systems also gain momentum. All evaluations (exams and tests) are organised by the teacher under the responsibility of the school board.
4.13.
Progression of Pupils
The teacher, often in consultation with the school head and possibly with other members of the educational team decides on the successful completion of the school year and on the promotion to the next class. However, repeating a year is clearly a problem in primary education (see table 4.3 and 4.4.).
Chapter 4: Primary Education
4.14.
Certification
Certification of basic education (Certificate of Basic Education - Getuigschrift basisonderwijs) may be obtained at the end of the 6th year of primary education, at the end of the 1st year of secondary education (1st year A or B), or at the end of the preparatory year of vocational education (= second year of the first stage of secondary education for those who passed the 1B-class) (corresponding certificate).
4.15.
Educational Guidance
In 1984 the Royal Decree of 27 October 1966 was changed to encourage greater independence of management in each school by funding it on the basis of an assigned stock or fund of teaching periods. This means that a number of teaching periods is put at the disposal of each school, depending on the number of pupils. This system gives the schools the opportunity to set up an optimum time-table and to gear the structure of the school to its pupils’ particular needs (organisation of adaptation classes, physical education courses, school management, etc.). Schools may call on the services of a remedial teacher, whose task is to provide guidance for pupils who are going through a difficult stage in the learning process by means of specific and individualised activities. The activities of the remedial teachers are at this moment included in the policy for special needs provision (zorgbeleid), which is situated on 3 levels: 1) coordination of all initiatives for special needs provision (zorginitiatieven), 2) coaching of the teachers, and 3) guidance of pupils (Circular Letter concerning the remedial teachers in normal basic education, ref. B/HJ/LC/HDB). 4.15.1.
The new integrated equal opportunities policy
A new integrated policy for equal opportunities (GOK) is implemented as from the school year 2003-2004. The new integrated policy combines the existing measures for special assistance for pupils, i.e. extending care (zorgverbreding) and educational priority policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid). These temporary projects will be discontinued. Instead, the measures will be combined in one recognisable support system. The temporary educational priority project in special education will be continued pending a special education review. The individual supporting measures for Dutch-speaking primary schools around Brussels and in municipalities on the linguistic border and for schools for non-Dutch speaking newcomers will be retained. The support that results from the temporary project ‘Vlaamse rand’, however, cannot be combined with the integrated support system. The Policy for Equal Opportunities (GOK) is discussed at length in paragraph 3.13. 4.15.2.
Integrated education for pupils with special needs (GON)
A special system of integrated education (GON) enables pupils with special needs, who have spent a certain period of time in a school for special education, to temporarily continue to benefit from assistance from special education (Circular Letter of 1 July 1993, see also paragraph 10.5.). This system also allows for equipping children with technical aids in order to re-integrate them in a school for ordinary education. Such equipment is funded by government. In the 1990-2003 time frame the number of pupils in integrated education has increased from 524 to 1.874 in basic education (MVG, Department Education, 2003).
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
4.15.3.
The role of the Centres for Educational Guidance (CLB)
The role of the Centres for Educational Guidance is described in paragraph 3.12.
4.16.
Private Education
Private education (written or not) is not legally organised in Flanders and, therefore, no official data are available. The certificates granted by these facilities have no legal value. The course offering within this private education is very diverse, in the content of the courses as well as in teaching modalities and financing (SIDIN 2004-2205, http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/sidin/wnhso/wnhso2004-2005.pdf).
4.17.
Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures
If the parents can give the Inspectorate sufficient guarantees (as to study possibilities and so on), home education is allowed as an alternative school type. Compulsory education does not imply the obligation to attend a school. More information on this alternative school form is to be found in paragraph 3.15.
4.18.
Statistics
In below tables we present a number of statistical data on pre-school education. Teacher-pupil ratio4: 12,6 (2002-2003) (ordinary primary education, for special education see section 10) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003).
Table 11: Number of institutions in primary education (2002-2003) Community Education
397
Grant-Aided Free Education
1,447
Grant-Aided Official Education
506
Total
2,350
These figures cover ordinary and special primary education5. They also concern schools with pre-school and primary education (MVG, education department, 2003).
Table 12: Evolution in the number of pupils in primary education (school year 1984-2003) Year 84-85
4
Community
Grant-Aided Free
Grant-Aided Official
Education
Education
Education
63,052
272,930
93,218
Total 429,200
Number of pupils in ordinary primary education in the school year 2002-2003 divided by the number of budgetary fulltime teaching equivalents in ordinary primary education.
5
Institutions, which provide type 5 education (for children with long-term diseases), are not included in the figures (6 schools in special primary education).
Chapter 4: Primary Education
86-87
60,611
276,059
92,820
429,490
88-89
59,346
281,068
94,276
434,690
90-91
58,650
278,364
93,214
430,228
92-93
56,979
270,147
91,565
418,691
94-95
55,842
264,918
91,829
412,589
96-97
57,087
267,534
92,748
417,369
97-98
57,977
271,835
94,298
424,110
98-99
58,708
275,116
96,132
429,956
99-00
59,387
277,673
97,212
434,272
00-01
59,908
278,292
97,335
435,535
01-02
59,802
277,027
97,491
434,320
02-03
61.690
274.690
94.009
431.209
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003). These figures cover both ordinary and special primary education6. In section 10.8, only the figures for special primary education are indicated.
Table 13: School career in ordinary primary education (Belgian pupils) (2002-2003) GRADE
pupils ahead
pupils on age
#
%
#
First
590
0.90
58,253
Second
621
1.00
Third
629
Fourth
%
1 year of delay #
2 years of
> 2 years of
delay
delay
TOTAL
%
#
%
#
%
89.13 6.313
9.66
197
0.30
6
0.01
65,359
53,862
86.48 7.384
11.85
398
0.64
21
0.03
62,286
1.03
52.021
85.50 7.682
12.63
480
0.79
30
0.05
60.842
602
0.59
53.693
84.87 8.308
13.13
616
0.97
46
0.07
63.265
Fifth
655
1.02
54.368
84.74 8.522
13.28
598
0.93
18
0.03
64,161
Sixth
654
1.05
54.173
86.64 7.337
11.73
352
0.56
10
0.02
62.526
TOTAL
3.751
0.99
326.370 86.24 45.546 12.04
0.70
131
0.03
378.439
2.64 1
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 14: School career in ordinary primary education (Foreign pupils) (2002-2003) GRADE
pupils ahead
pupils on age
1 year of
2 years of
> 2 years of
delay
delay
delay
TOTAL
#
%
#
%
#
%
#
%
#
%
First
28
0,56
3.211
64.56
1.400
28.15
261
5,25
74
1,49
4.974
Second
31
0,68
2.519
55.58
1.517
33.47
370
8,16
95
2,10
4.532
6 In order to avoid double counts, pupils enrolled in special education due to a long-term disease (type 5 education) are not included in the figures of special education.
69
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
Third
17
0,38
2.269
50.90
1.580
35.44
465
10.43
127
2,85
4.458
Fourth
32
0,74
2.960
45.41
1.644
38.09
581
13,46
99
2,229
4.316
Fifth
26
0,64
1.875
46.41
1.532
37.92
460
13.86
47
1,16
4.040
Sixth
29
0,82
1.823
51.37
1.365
38.46
315
8.88
17
0,48
3.549
TOTAL
163
0,63
13.657
52.79
9.038
34,94
2.552
9,87
459
1,77
25.869
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
CHAPTER 5.
SECONDARY AND POST-SECONDARY NONTERTIARY EDUCATION
The organisation of full-time secondary education in a four stages structure is based on the Decree of 31 July 1990 concerning secondary education-II, as modified. The second and third stages offer General Secondary Education (ASO), Technical Secondary Education (TSO), Art Secondary Education (KSO) and Vocational Secondary Education (BSO). There is also Part-time Vocational Secondary Education (DBSO). Pupils can attend secondary education within one institution.
5.1.
Historical overview
In this paragraph we look at secondary education from a historical perspective. It was not until 1887 that a law defined the structure of secondary education. This structure was then maintained until the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Classics (Latin - Greek, Latin), modern humanities appeared (with the emphasis on modern languages and science). Moreover, secondary schools were established that were in no way linked with humanities and that were intended to prepare young people for careers in commerce, industry, administration, and finance. Also in the course of the 19th century and independently of secondary schools, technical education developed. This type of education was oriented to agriculture, horticulture, industry, and commerce and offered evening and Sunday classes of a practical and utilitarian nature. Following World War I, major political, social, and economic changes affected the secondary-education structures, and the number of schools and pupils increased (De Keyser & D’Hoker, 1984-1985). From the inter-war period onwards, discussion focused on the equivalence of the Classics and modern humanities.
In 1924, the curriculum of the secondary school, which could have a Latin/Greek section,
corresponded to the first three years of modern humanities. The development of technical education lacked coherence as it had neither a statute nor a unitary structure. Technical schools were classified for the first time in 1933 by Royal Decree. The management of technical education, which up till then had been the responsibility of various ministries (Agriculture, Commerce, Labour), was placed under the Ministry for Public Instruction. At that time, the idea of bringing secondary and technical education closer together also arose, at least in certain circles. After the Second World War, and particularly after the 1950s and 1960s, secondary education evolved significantly. First of all, there was the creation of new sections, new structures (the Co-ordinated Laws on Secondary Education of 30 April 1957). At the same time, technical and vocational education was given a structure and organisation similar to that of the older general secondary education (Co-ordinated Laws on Technical Education of 30 April 1957). The Omnivalence law (Omnivalentiewet) of 8 June 1964 allowed greater access to higher education and particularly to certain university faculties. During the decades preceding the Second World War, secondary education, with its very hierarchical, compartmentalised, and pyramidal structure, was reserved for only a small percentage of young people. Technical and vocational education had been kept separate from the humanities and had its own structures and statute. Therefore, in the spirit of democracy within secondary education, a radical transformation of its structures, pedagogical methods, and climate took place after the Second World War. It should be noted that this evolution had both qualitative (structural innovations) and quantitative (the school boom) dimensions.
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
More attempts at reform within secondary education date back to the school year of 1969-1970. A new type of secondary education, which was called Type I, was brought into being and passed by the Law of 19 July 1971. While it was compulsory in State education, it developed only gradually in grant-aided schools. In order to understand the current secondary education structures in Flanders, one has to take into account at least two important reforms. First, the two main types (a comprehensive type and one with streams) were replaced by one general framework. Former national legislation (passed before the devolution of power to the Communities) of 1971 (Type I) and 1957 (Type II) has been replaced in the Flemish Community by the Decree on Education II of 31 July 1990, which provided a general framework for secondary education. As a result of this decision, from 1 September 1989 on, all Flemish secondary schools adopted this organisational form progressively from the first year of secondary education onwards. Second, secondary education has evolved over the last 30 years towards one uniform standard applying to the whole of secondary education (including technical and vocational education) concerning certification, curriculum, evaluation, and so on. In Flanders, the terms ‘lower’ and ‘upper’ secondary education refer to the former structure of secondary education organised in two three-year cycles (lower cycle and upper cycle). At present, secondary education has a more comprehensive structure and a division in three stages. A new reorganisation has been established by the Decree of 14 July 1998, which took various measures concerning secondary education and modified the Decree of 25 February 1997 on basic education (basisonderwijs). An important aim of this Decree of 14 July 1998 is the improvement of the orientation of the capacities of the pupils in order to provide each pupil with the education that corresponds best to his or her capacities and interests. This required that certain educational problems have to be dealt with such as the increasing number of pupils in special education, the large number of school failures, the system of elimination that characterises the system of secondary education at present, and the ‘output’ of unqualified graduates of secondary education onto the labour market. Therefore, modifications in five areas were established such as the rationalisation of the provision of education, the encouragement of local autonomy for the schools, additional efforts concerning pupils with learning difficulties, the integration of special and ordinary education, and the introduction of a system of modular courses in the vocation-oriented education (see 5.13.5).
5.2.
Ongoing Trends
In secondary education following debates and reform proposals are ongoing. Focus on talent. In the summer of 2004 a reform proposal or white book will be presented, which will comprise all experiences of the pioneer schools, the proposals of the SERV and other concrete facts from the report ‘Focus on talent’. This white book has to serve as preparation for the educational innovations in Flemish secondary education by 2010 (see also paragraph 5.18.). Languages. Following the extension of the European Union, schools should be able to offer other official languages of the European Union as well besides German, Italian, Spanish or Russian. The possibility of compulsory teaching of two foreign languages as from the first year of secondary education is being investigated. The teaching of foreign languages in BSO and TSO has to be re-evaluated. Part-time education requires full-time commitment from the pupils. Therefore, a sufficient number of instructive work experience places need to be available. Alternating training has to become a real and equivalent option within compulsory education. In the school year 2004-2005 pupils in DBSO will get the opportunity to get a
Chapter 5: secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
certificate of the second degree. This will enable a smooth transfer between full-time and alternating education systems. Three centres can organise receptive education by means of experiment. Regional Technological Centres. As from 2004 the Regional Technological Centres are restricted to those sectors and study areas which are important for the region concerned and offer opportunities for the future. The selection of sectors and study areas belongs to the autonomy of each Regional Technological Centre. The availability of a high-technological infrastructure for the schools remains priority (see also paragraph 5.18).
5.3.
Specific legislative framework
Following educational legislation is important for secondary education. •
Law modifying certain provisions of the educational legislation of 29 May 1959, called the ‘School Pact Law’.
•
Laws concerning technical education, coordinated by the Royal Decree of 30 April 1957.
•
Laws concerning secondary education, coordinated by the Royal Decree of 30 April 1957.
•
Law concerning the general structure and organisation of secondary education of 19 July 1971.
•
Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the organisation of full-time vocational secondary education of 31 July 1990.
•
Decree concerning inspection and educational assistance of 17 July 1991.
•
Decree concerning Education II of 31 July 1990
•
Decision of the Flemish Executive concerning the organisation of full-time secondary education of 13 March 1991.
•
Decree confirming the attainment targets (eindtermen) and developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) for the first stage of ordinary secondary education of 24 July 1996.
•
Decree of 14 July 1998 determining various measures concerning secondary education and modifying the Decree of 25 December 1997 on basic education (basisonderwijs).
•
Decree concerning Education XI of 18 May 1999.
•
Decree of 13 July 2001 concerning Education XIII - Mosaic.
•
Decision of the Flemish Government of 31 August 2001 concerning the organisation of the school year in secondary education.
•
Decree of 18 January 2002 concerning the attainment targets (eindtermen), the developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) and the specific attainment targets (eindtermen) in full-time ordinary and special secondary education.
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 19 April 2002 concerning the definition of general and social developmental objectives in special secondary education - education form 3 (published in the Belgian Official Gazette on 26/07/02)
•
Decree concerning the ratification of the general and social developmental objectives in special secondary education - education form 3.
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 20 September 2002 concerning the definition of the attainment targets of the third form of the third stage of ordinary vocational secondary education (published in the Belgian Gazette on 28/11/02).
•
Decree of 28 June 2002 concerning equal educational opportunities I.
•
Decision of the Flemish Minister For Education and Training concerning the appointment of the centres for part-time vocational secondary education of 5 March 2002.
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•
Decree concerning education XIV of 14 February 2003.
5.4.
General objectives
Education and training has to clearly pursue following aims of education and teaching objectives (from Vanderpoorten, 2003b). 1)
To develop as much as possible the ‘do’, ‘think’ and social talents and competencies of each individual
pupil and to maximize his social and economic skills by using the best possible learning processes, systems and professional teaching staff and by a maximum use of individual learning paths. 2)
To realise complete and permanent training: lifelong learning, learning how to learn, knowing and
doing, learning and working, critical thinking and definition of values, refreshing and renewing, stimulating and developing of creativity, innovation, entrepreneurship and team spirit in the broadest sense. The teaching objective of compulsory education is to offer youngsters the basis for steering their own lifelong learning. The responsibility of providers of education and training is to create opportunities for everyone for learning at any age. 3)
To guarantee access to education for everyone through a policy of equal opportunities and respect for
diversity; to help stimulate social cohesion in Flanders, tolerability, active respect for human rights and democratic civilianship. Social cohesion originates from civilians sharing a common platform of values. Education has to define values, without excluding the right of youngsters to being different. 4)
To prepare youngsters for economic independence. Education has to offer youngsters a perspective for
the future of which a meaningful professional life is part. Broad professional training which also develops ‘key competencies’ has to be advocated, so that employees remain permanently available. 5)
To comply with the highest global standards of efficiency and effectiveness, of return on investments,
of pupils’, parents’, teachers’ and school board’s satisfaction. This should be achieved without harming the primary teaching objective: to maximize the social and economic skills of the pupils besides the enhancement of personal well-being. 6)
To develop a number of pupils’ competencies and values, such as: •
Competencies: Personal competencies: analytical thinking, critical-creative thinking, capacity for moral judgement, quality and safety awareness, attention for the balance between economy, environment and limitation of raw materials (permanent development), initiative and entrepreneurship, general culture. Interpersonal competencies: team work and group-oriented thinking. Functional competencies: knowledge of languages, ICT skills, technical and technological skills.
•
Values: care for personal development, tolerability, respect for diversity, respect for the individual and for society, active-democratic attitude, social commitment.
5.5.
Types of institution
Full-time secondary education is composed of four stages of two school years each (except for the three years’ nursing training of the fourth stage), possibly enhanced with a third school year of the second stage of vocational secondary education and with a third school year of the third stage.
Chapter 5: secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
The structure of secondary schools is built up as follows (Circular Letter concerning the structure and organisation of full-time secondary education, ref. SO 64). First stage: •
first school year A;
•
first school year B (for pupils needing adapted education);
•
second school year of the first stage;
•
pre-vocational school year.
Second stage: •
first and second school year of the second stage of A.S.O., T.S.O., K.S.O., B.S.O.;
•
third school year of the second stage of B.S.O., organised as a follow-up course.
Third stage: •
first and second school year of the third stage of A.S.O., T.S.O., K.S.O., B.S.O.;
•
third school year of the third stage of A.S.O. and K.S.O., organised as a preparatory year for higher education;
•
third school year of the third stage of T.S.O., K.S.O. and B.S.O., organised as a specialisation year;
•
third school year of the third stage of B.S.O., not organised as a specialisation year.
Fourth stage: •
first and second school year of the fourth stage of B.S.O.;
•
third school year of the fourth stage of B.S.O. (only for nursing).
The reception classes for foreign speaking newcomers do not belong to any stage. The first stage has a common curriculum for all pupils. The second, third and fourth stage comprise four different teaching methods: •
General Secondary Education (Algemeen Secundair Onderwijs) (ASO). A broad theoretical training is emphasised here. It provides a strong base for higher education.
•
Technical Secondary Education (Technisch Secundair Onderwijs) (TSO). Attention is given mainly to general and technical theoretical subjects. TSO prepares the youngsters for professional life or higher technical education. Practical courses are included in the training.
•
Art Secondary Education (Kunstsecundair Onderwijs) (KSO). General and broad development is linked with active practice. KSO prepares the youngsters for professional life or higher (art) education.
•
Vocational Secondary Education (Beroepssecundair Onderwijs) (BSO). In this method, pupils acquire specific skills and simultaneously receive general education. Access to higher education is possible but rare.
There are different types of educational institutions: independent middle schools offering only the first stage of secondary education, schools offering only the second and third stages (either ASO, or TSO and BSO, sometimes both), and schools offering the three stages, … Art education (second and third stage) is offered in only a few educational institutions.
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5.6.
Geographical accessibility
School distribution in Flanders, also for schools organising secondary education, has the characteristic of being rather equally spread over the territory. All parents have the constitutional right to choose a school with the philosophical or religious orientation they prefer (see also paragraph 3.5.).
5.7.
Admission requirements and choice of school
Generally, pupils have reached the age of 12 when they are admitted to secondary education. Below the admission requirements are described for pupils in the different stages and teaching methods for secondary education. They may enter the first school year A on the basis of having obtained the Certificate of Basic Education (getuigschrift basisonderwijs) (Law of 28 June 1983; Decision of the Flemish Executive of 13 March 1991). After spending the last year of primary education without obtaining the certificate of basic education, pupils may be admitted into the first school year A with the consent of their parents and on the recommendation of the Centre for Educational Guidance (Centrum voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB) and if the first year A admissions class council (toelatingsklassenraad) approves. Following are the admission requirements for regular pupils for the first school year B: •
the regular pupils who have finished the sixth school year of ordinary primary education, without having obtained the certificate;
•
the pupils who have not attended or finished the sixth school year of ordinary primary education, on condition that they reach the age of twelve at the latest on 31 December following the start of the school year;
•
pupils holding the certificate of ordinary or special basic education, on condition that the persons involved approve after having obtained the advice of the CLB;
•
regular pupils of special primary or secondary education not holding the certificate of basic education, on condition that the admissions class council decides favourably and b) that the persons involved approve after having obtained the advice of the CLB;
The transition from the first year B to the first year A is possible until 15 November and from the first year A to the first year B until 15 January, if the child’s parents agree and the class council (klassenraad) of the first year A approves. Transitions from one teaching method to another are authorised throughout secondary education with the approval of the admissions class council and if the transfer conditions between the courses of study are respected. In the third stage of general academic, technical, and art education, the transitions are more restricted. At the age of 16 a pupil may enter the 3rd year of vocational education whatever his or her previous school career may be, provided the admissions class council approves. These pupils cannot obtain the Diploma of Secondary Education (Diploma van Secundair Onderwijs), unless they enter at age. In order to be regularly enrolled in ordinary secondary education, a pupil following special education ( see GON, paragraph 10.5) must obtain the approval of the Administration of the Department for Education (Ministry of the Flemish Community).
Chapter 5: secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
Foreign pupils wishing to continue their secondary studies in Belgium must submit a certificate of equivalence of their previous studies abroad, issued by the relevant administration, when enrolling for the first time. When a pupil without a legal residency status is enrolled, the existing procedures of obtaining a certificate of equivalence can be used, when a foreign certificate can be presented. If such certificate cannot be presented, equivalence can still be obtained, as is already applicable to reception classes, on the basis of a sworn statement from the parent or the unaccompanied minor about the exact education that the pupil has completed (Circualr Letter of the Dept. Education 24/4/02). Three sorts of certificates are issued in secondary education; •
an A certificate (when the pupil has passed the year successfully);
•
a B certificate (the pupil is admitted to the next year, but some teaching methods and/or subjects are excluded);
•
a C certificate (the pupil has to repeat the year).
B certificates are not issued at the end of the first year B, the first year of the third stage in general secondary education (ASO)/ vocational secondary education (BSO), or the fourth stage of vocational secondary education (BSO). Each pupil, irrespective of his/her residency status, who has regularly attended classes and who has passed the examination at the end of the course, must also be issued a certificate. In addition, the new Decree on equal opportunities (see also paragraph 3.13) is of course also relevant here with regards to the choice of school. The right to admission to the school of choice will be guaranteed as from the school year 2003-2004.
5.8.
Registration and/or tuition fees
The regulations concerning registration and tuition fees are legally defined in the Decree on Education XIII – Mosaic of 13 July 2001. International treaties and the Belgian Constitution translate the principle of free education in prohibiting direct or indirect registration fees for community-funded or grant-aided schools for full-time or part-time education. Direct registration fees are only allowed in non-compulsory education (i.e. education outside basic and secondary education) (see chapter 7). Indirect registration fees refer to the costs which are imposed at the beginning or in the course of the school year by the organising bodies or related organisations and which can be so high that they form a real impediment to enrolment. In secondary schools there is no absolute free education. Parents and pupils of age may be asked to contribute towards the costs of certain school activities and teaching aids. It goes without saying that these costs have to be effective, demonstrable and accountable and have to evenly correspond with the character and the target group of secondary education. Moreover, the Decree stipulates the fulfilment of two additional conditions as from the school year 2002-2003 onwards:
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•
the list of contributions, submitted to the parents and pupils of age, as well as the deviations for financially less well-off families can only be defined by the organising body after consultation within the school council (Community Education) or the participation council (grant-aided education);
•
the list of contributions has to be communicated in writing to the relevant persons at the beginning of the school year at the latest. This is best done through the school regulations.
5.9.
Financial support for pupils
The assignment of study grants is legally determined in the Law concerning the assignment of study grants (B.S. 16 July 1971). In order to receive a study grant from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, a number of conditions need to be fulfilled, i.e. nationality conditions, financial conditions (concerning income, rateable value, conditions for single or married pupils) and study conditions. As long as a pupil is of statutory school age and follows full-time education, a study grant can always be received. If the pupil is no longer of statutory age, a number of additional conditions have to be met, i.e. that the pupil 1) obtained an A or B certificate during the previous year, 2) has not repeated one or more school years during the non-compulsory school period and 3) follows a higher school year than the previous year. If the pupil follows the same school year, this has to be advised by the school board. The Study Fund of the Family Association (Gezinsbond v.z.w.) grants students from large families (as from 3 children) student loans (family allowances). The money is destined to finance the study costs of Dutchspeaking secondary and higher education with full curriculum. 5.10.
Age levels and grouping of pupils
Theoretically, class composition is linked with age grouping: the year-class system. Because of school failures and repeats, the classes sometimes become heterogeneous (especially in vocational education). Each subject is taught by a specialised teacher. The teacher’s teaching qualification depends on his/her competence certificate: the teacher may teach all subjects for which he/she owns an adequate competence certificate. Teachers teach in different school years and children are taught by different teachers. Compulsory education stops when the age of 18 is attained. Anyone who is 18 and who has consequently attained majority, cannot be compelled to stay at school until the end of the school year. Compulsory education ends in the calendar year in which the pupil attains the age of 18, either on the 30th of June (the end of the school year) for pupils who have already attended 12 years of primary and secondary education or on the 18th birthday itself.
5.11.
Specialisation of studies
In secondary education specialization or course options are offered, especially in technical and vocational secondary education. The Decree of 14 July 1998 relating to secondary education stipulates that the provision of forms of education, courses of study, and study areas should be more transparent and more rationally organised. The first stage has to guarantee a broad base, and excessive specialisation in the second year of the first stage is avoided. The number of optional subjects is reduced. For the second and third stage, a number of courses of study is reduced or regrouped to clarify the courses of study and give them a more recognisable profile. The objective is to prepare
Chapter 5: secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
the pupil more adequately for higher education and/or professional activity within the different forms of education. In the present provision of education 29 study areas remain (2nd, 3rd and 4th stage and modular education). The courses of study of the General Secondary Education (ASO) are placed in one study area, namely ‘general secondary education‘. One study area, namely sports, overlaps General Secondary Education (ASO) and Technical Secondary Education (TSO). The courses of study of the Technical Secondary Education (TSO) and Vocational Secondary Education (BSO) and are divided into 26 study areas, which partly overlap each other. For TSO it concerns following 24 study areas: auto mechanics, construction, chemistry, decoration, photography, glazing techniques, printing techniques, commerce,
woodworking,
clothing,
heat
and
cooling,
agri-
and
horticulture,
naval
training,
mechanics/electricity, optics, orthopaedics, caring, personal hygiene, dentistry, textile crafts, tourism and nutrition. As mentioned, the study area sports overlaps ASO. The study area performing arts overlaps KSO. For BSO it concerns 18 study areas: auto mechanics, construction, decoration, glazing techniques, jewellery, printing technology, commerce, woodworking,
fashion, heat and cooling, agri- and horticulture, naval training,
mechanics/electricity, building musical instruments, caring, personal hygiene, nutrition and textile crafts. BSO has another 7th school year, that has no name and is not assigned to a study area. The courses of study within Art Secondary Education are divided in three study areas: performing arts, visual arts and ballet (MVG, Department Education, 2003).
5.12.
Organisation of school time
The school board decides to a large extent autonomously on the arrangement of school time (school day, school week and school year) in secondary education (also see the Circular letter concerning the organisation of fulltime secondary education, ref. SO 64). 5.12.1.
Organisation of the school year
Similar to basic education, the school year in secondary education starts on 1 September and ends theoretically on 31 August. Due to the summer holiday (from 1 July till 31 August), however, the school year ends in fact on 30 June (MVG, Department Education, 2001f). After 31 August educational activities (such as practical trainings) relating to the past school year are no longer possible; exceptions are late decisions of the deliberating class council (on 1 September at the latest) or appeals against controversial decisions of this class council (on 20 September at the latest). As the school year ends theoretically on 31 August, regular pupils are obliged to participate in all educational activities, which are organised by the school in the summer period, e.g. practical trainings or holiday work. Should the occasion arise, the deliberating class council may revert to the principle of postponement on 30 June of its final decision, as it does not dispose of sufficient information to decide on the passing of the pupil (Circular letter of 12 June 2001). Taking into account the holidays, the school opens for 182 days per school year (MVG, Department Education, 2001f, also see paragraphs 3.9.1. and 4.9.1.).
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5.12.2.
Weekly and daily timetable
Classes during the school week in full-time ordinary secondary education and in special secondary education are spread over 9 half days from Monday till Friday, not taking into account the practical trainings. The free half day (before or after noon) can freely be defined and is in fact mainly set on Wednesday afternoon. In part-time vocational secondary education classes are spread over maximally 4 half days from Monday till Friday. The word “maximally” refers to the fact that for some pupils the time-table of part-time vocational education comprises of 15 hours and for others, who follow general courses in a recognised institute for part-time nonformal education, only of 8 hours. The spreading of classes does in any case not prevent schools to organise classes in another “rhythm”, after approval of the Department for Education (cf. Ministerial Circular letter SO 66 of 30 June 1999 concerning the organisation of DBSO). In full-time secondary education the weekly time-table comprises of at least 28 periods (36 weekly periods for nursing). The maximum number of weekly periods, which is qualified for government funds or subsidies, is defined in the Royal Decree nr. 2 of 21 August 1978. This maximum (which does not include the periods for remedial education) comprises of 32 periods with a few exceptions. During school days teaching starts at the earliest at 8.00h and ends between 15.00h and 17.00h. There is a lunch break of minimally 50 minutes at an acceptable time for taking lunch. When the teacher is absent and substitution or organisation of a substituting activity is not possible, it may be decided that pupils are allowed to leave the school. Common sense and the interests of the pupils have to prevail; elements as approval of the parents, insurance cover, degree of force major, period in time, age of the pupils a.o. have to be taken into account (Circular Letter of 12 June 2001, SO 74).
5.13.
Curriculum, Subjects, Number of Hours
As regards the curriculum, the development of attainment targets (eindtermen) and developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) has to be mentioned as part of the quality control procedures in Flemish education. Attainment targets are minimum objectives which the government regards as necessary and attainable for a specific population of pupils in ordinary secondary education. Minimal objectives refer to minimal knowledge, insight, skills and attitude specific for this population of pupils. The attainment targets are defined per stage and per teaching method (MVG, Department Education, http://www.ond.vlaaanderen.be). A set of attainment targets for the first year A and the second year of the first stage has been developed for all courses within the core curriculum (kerncurriculum) (Maes, 1998). Developmental objectives have been defined for the core curriculum in the first year B and in Pre-Vocational Education (Beroepsvoorbereidend Leerjaar) (BVL). Five cross-curricular attainment targets have been formulated as well: learning how to learn, social skills, education for citizenship, health education and environmental education. These attainment targets have been worked out by the Department for Educational Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO). The Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR) gives advice on the proposals to the Flemish Parliament. The attainment targets and developmental objectives for the first stage of secondary education have been adopted by the Decree of 24 July 1996 and have been introduced in September 1997.
Chapter 5: secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
The attainment targets for the second and third stage of secondary education were officially approved by the Flemish Parliament in the Decree of 18 January 2002. A set of attainment targets is formulated for all core curriculum subjects (kerncurriculum) of the different courses of study in the second and third stage. Crosscurricular attainment targets are also formulated. These cross-curricular attainment targets are the same for General Secondary Education (Algemeen Secundair Onderwijs), Technical Secondary Education (Technisch Secundair Onderwijs), Art Secondary Education (Kunstsecundair Onderwijs) and Vocational Secondary Education (Beroepssecundair Onderwijs) but are different for the second and third stage. The themes are almost similar to those of the first stage: learning how to learn, social skills, education for citizenship, health education, environmental education, musical-creative education and technical-technological education (only for General Secondary Education (Algemeen Secundair Onderwijs)). These cross-curricular attainment targets as well as the attainment targets for the core curriculum subjects are progressively introduced as of the school year 2002-2003 in the second and third stage. As it is the case in pre-school and primary education, departures from the established developmental objectives and attainment targets are also possible in secondary education (MVG, Department Education, http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be; Decree of 15 July 1997). The time-tables in secondary education always consist of a common and an optional part. The common part contains the core curriculum which is common per stage and per teaching method (common core curriculum); optional curriculum subjects belong either to the core curriculum (depending on further choices) or to the free choices which have to be filled in by the school within the legal framework. The latter is called the “complementary part”. As regards the core curriculum, minimum teaching time is linked to the different limitative lists of obligatory subjects, only in the first stage – globally and not per separate subject. Moreover, the Flemish government can allow individual educational institutions to depart from this minimum teaching time, on condition that the same educational level for the core curriculum is guaranteed. In the second and the third stage, the teaching time for the core curriculum can be assigned and divided completely autonomously. The respective compulsory subjects of the core curriculum are listed below: - for the first year A: religion or non-denominational ethics (only for official education), religion or nondenominational ethics or cultural philosophy or indigenous culture and religion (only for grant-aided education), Dutch, French, mathematics, history, geography, natural sciences OR physics and/or biology, art education OR expressive education and/or music education, physical education, technological education and possibly English. This core curriculum consists of 27 periods per week and has to be organised on the basis of minimally one minimum curriculum to be followed by all pupils of the same educational institution. - for the first year B: religion or non-denominational ethics (only for official education), religion or nondenominational ethics or cultural philosophy or indigenous culture and religion (only for grant-aided education), Dutch, mathematics, social education OR history and geography, natural sciences OR physics and/or biology, art education OR expressive education and/or music education, physical education, technological education and possibly French. This core curriculum, of which two or more subjects can be integrated in the project general subjects, consists of minimally 27 periods per week and has to be organised on the basis of minimally one minimum curriculum to be followed by all pupils of the same educational institution.
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- for the second year of the first stage: here the same subjects are found as for the first year A. The only exception is that the subject English is compulsory and that beside natural sciences OR physics and/or biology there is also the choice for scientific work. This core curriculum consists of 24 periods per week, of which minimally 14 periods per week have to be organised on the basis of minimally one minimum curriculum to be followed by all pupils of the same educational institution. - for pre-vocational education: here the same subjects are found as for the first year B. The only exception is that beside natural sciences OR physics and/or biology there is also the choice for scientific work. This core curriculum, of which two or more subjects can be integrated in the project general subjects, consists of minimally 16 periods per week. - for the first and the second year of the second stage ASO: here the same subjects are found as for the first year A. Exceptions are that 1) art education OR expressive education and/or music education, and technological education are no longer included, 2) the subject English is compulsory, and 3) there is the choice between natural science OR physics and/or chemistry and/or biology, preceded by the word “applied” or not, in an integrated form or not. - for the first and the second year of the second stage TSO and KSO: here the same subjects are found as for the first and the second year of the second stage ASO. The only exception is the choice between English or French. - for the first and the second year of the second stage BSO: religion or non-denominational ethics (only for official education), religion or non-denominational ethics or cultural philosophy or indigenous culture and religion (only for grant-aided education), Dutch, mathematics and/or natural sciences and/or applied physics and/or applied chemistry and/or applied biology, in an integrated form or not, social education OR history and/or geography, physical education. Two or more subjects of this core curriculum can be integrated in the project general subjects. - for the third year of the second stage BSO, organised as a follow-up course, no core curriculum is imposed, as the follow-up course is to a high extent linked to options with consequently special attention for technical and practical subjects. - for the first and the second year of the third stage ASO: here the same subjects are found as for the first and the second year of the second stage ASO. Exceptions are the choice between English or German, and the limited choice between natural sciences OR physics and/or chemistry and/or biology (not preceded by the word “applied” and not in an integrated form). - for the first and the second year of the third stage TSO and KSO: here the same subjects are found as for the first and the second year of the second stage TSO and KSO. The only exception is the lacking of the subject natural sciences OR physics and/or chemistry and/or biology, preceded by the word “applied” or not, in an integrated form or not. - for the first and the second year of the third stage BSO: here the same subjects are found as for the first and the second year of the second stage BSO. The only exception is the lack of the subject mathematics and/or applied natural science and/or applied physics and/or applied chemistry and/or applied biology, in an integrated form or not. Two or more subjects of this core curriculum can be integrated in the project general subjects.
Chapter 5: secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
- for the third year of the third stage BSO, organised as a follow-up course or not: compared to the previous, a somewhat special rule applies to this year, as the core curriculum, which has to consist of general subjects and of which two or more subjects can be integrated in the project general subjects, has to 1) contain the subjects of the first and the second year of the third stage BSO and has to 2) consist of minimally 12 periods per week. Insofar as this year is organised as a follow-up course, at least 14 hours per week have to be assigned to technical and/or practical subjects. - for the third year of the third stage ASO, respectively KSO, organised as a preparatory year for higher education, and for the third year of the third stage KSO, respectively TSO, organised as a follow-up course: for these years no core curriculum is imposed, as the secondary education of the pupils involved can already be regarded as completed and the year aims at mere specialisation or at deepening the completed study in preparation of higher education. - for the years of the fourth stage BSO: because of the specificity, no core curriculum is imposed as well. Moreover, the subject religion or non-denominational ethics is not compulsory in official education (Circular Letter of 25 June 1999 ref. SO64; Decree of 31 July 1990 concerning education-II). In below text we describe in more detail the first stage, general secondary education (ASO), technical secondary education (TSO), art secondary education (KSO) and vocational secondary education (BSO), part-time vocational secondary education (DBSO) included. We conclude this section with “language education”. 5.13.1.
First stage
Because the organising body of the school is responsible for the time-tables, it is impossible to present all of them here. Therefore, we will present the schedule of the community education (Gemeenschapsonderwijs). In the first year A, all pupils follow a common core curriculum (kerncurriculum) of at most 28 periods per week consisting of the following curriculum subjects: religion or non-denominational ethics, Dutch, French, mathematics, history, geography, biology, art education, musical education, technological education, physical education and English. Additionally, pupils in community education have to follow 4 periods of choice per week. They can opt for following new subjects and/or for completion of already taught subjects from the core curriculum. There is choice between the general subjects Latin, physical education, music education, art education, scientific work and Dutch, and between the technical subjects technological education and nautical techniques. Condition is that the school offers these choices and that the total amount of optional periods is not more than four. For the first year B an almost identical time-table applies. Differences are: •
in the core curriculum the subject natural sciences is included instead of the subject biology;
•
in the list of optional subjects the general subjects French and mathematics are included. Latin, scientific work and nautical techniques are not included in the optional subjects;
•
as desired two or more subjects (letter of choice A) can be combined to the project general subjects, insofar the school offers this choice.
Thus, in the first year A as well as in the first year B, the pupils have to follow in total maximum 32 teaching periods per week (Community Education, 2004). In the second year all pupils in the A-stream follow a core curriculum of maximum 26 periods per week, consisting of following subjects: religion or non-denominational ethics, Dutch, French, English, mathematics,
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history, geography, physics, biology, art education, technological education and physical education. Depending on the chosen basic option, pupils follow additionally 6 or 8 periods per week of optional subjects. Pupils can choose between following basic optional subjects: agricultural and biological techniques, art education, ballet, construction and woodworking, Greek-Latin, printing technology, commerce, hotel-nutrition, industrial sciences, Latin, naval training, mechanics-electricity, modern sciences, and social and technical training. Thus, in total a school week consists of maximum 32 or 34 teaching periods. Also in the second year there is an alternative organisation for pupils of the second year B, the so-called prevocational education (beroepsvoorbereidend leerjaar) (BVL). Their core curriculum consists of maximum 16 periods per week of so-called “choice A subjects” (A-keuzevakken), Dutch, French, mathematics, history, geography and natural sciences, of which as desired two or more subjects can be combined to the project general subjects, insofar the school offers this choice. In the core curriculum of maximum 16 periods also the subjects art education, physical education and religion or non-denominational ethics are included. As in the second year A, this core curriculum of 16 periods in pre-vocational education is completed with maximum 18 periods of which the content depends on the chosen world of work (beroepenveld). This results in a total amount of maximum 34 teaching periods per week. There is a choice between 48 worlds of work, which are being formed by combinations of construction, decoration, electricity, hair care, wood working, office and sales training, metal, fashion, Rhine and inland navigation and care-nutrition. The only exceptions to this ‘combination rule’ are the worlds of work agri- and horticulture and industry (Community Education, 2004). 5.13.2.
General secondary education (ASO)
General secondary education has a more theoretical approach to subjects than the other teaching methods and is clearly intended to facilitate the transition to higher education (Van Den Bossche, 1996). Below we will only present the general secondary education (ASO) of community education. Except for the second and the third stage of the disciplines Rudolf Steiner pedagogics, Yeshiva and top sports sciences and the second stage of the discipline human sciences, community education organises all existing ASO courses of study (in the 2nd or 3rd stage). In the second stage it organises: economics, Greek, Latin, Greek-Latin, sciences and human sciences. The subjects of the core curriculum of the second stage are following: religion or nondenominational ethics, Dutch, French, English, mathematics, history, geography, physics, chemistry, biology and physical education. In total this ASO core curriculum in the second stage for the 6 disciplines consists of maximum 24 periods. Except for the discipline Greek-Latin (only maximum 8 periods for the fundamental part), the fundamental part consists of maximum 5 periods and the complementary part of maximum 3 periods. In the third stage (5th and 6th school year) of the ASO the community education offers 14 courses of study: sports- sciences, economics-modern languages, economics-mathematics, Greek-Latin, Greek-sciences, Greekmathematics, Latin-modern languages, Latin-sciences, Latin-mathematics, human sciences, modern languagessciences, modern languages-mathematics, mathematics-sciences and sciences-top sports. In the third school year of the third stage the special course of study ‘special scientific training’ is offered as a preparation for higher education. Except for this special course of study and sports-sciences, the number of periods for the core curriculum is always maximum 18 or 20 depending on the chosen discipline. The maximum number of teaching periods for the fundamental and the complementary part of the 13 above mentioned disciplines varies between respectively 8 and 14 periods and 4 and 0 periods. For the special discipline ‘special scientific training’ the 24 teaching periods belong to the fundamental part. The
Chapter 5: secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
complementary part is limited to 6 periods, the core curriculum to 2 periods (namely religion or nondenominational ethics). For the third stage of the discipline sports-sciences applies a maximum of 18 periods for the core curriculum, 13 periods for the fundamental part and 1 period for the complementary part. 5.13.3.
Technical secondary education (TSO)
Technical secondary education concentrates on the practical application of theoretical knowledge. TSO has two objectives: it prepares the pupil for an occupation and also for higher education, technical or other (Van Den Bossche, 1996). The teaching periods for the core curriculum, the fundamental and the complementary part as presented below, are those of the disciplines within the 18 TSO areas of study offered by community education: auto mechanics, construction, chemistry, photography, printing technology, commerce, wood working, heat and cooling, agriand horticulture, personal hygiene, naval training, mechanics-electricity, optics, caring, sports, dentistry, tourism and nutrition. The school year of the second and the third stage of the disciplines belonging to these TSO areas of study consist each of maximum 13 to 20 teaching periods per week for the core curriculum, 14 to 23 periods for the fundamental curriculum and 0 to 4 periods for the complementary part, depending on the specific course of study and the stage. In total the teaching time per week always amounts to maximum 36 periods. For the third year of the third stage as well a maximum of 36 periods per week applies, spread over 4 periods for the core curriculum and 32 periods for the fundamental part. The discipline tourism and recreation (branch of study tourism) constitutes the only exception, as the total teaching time per week amounts to 38 periods (Community Education, 2004). Practical training is important in the framework of the revaluation of technical secondary education (TSO) and vocational secondary education (BSO). Indeed, practical training forms a driving force for the trainingemployment relationship. The government has established a practical training database to assist schools looking for practical training places.
It
is
an
electronic
market
place
for
offer
and
demand
of
practical
trainings
(http://www.stagedatabank.be/). In a Circular Letter of 16 September 2002 (ref. SO/2002/09) clear instructions are given as to the actual organisation of practical trainings. 5.13.4.
Art secondary education (KSO)
This small form of education (about 2% of the pupils of secondary education) provides a more ‘artistic’ kind of education and facilitates the transition to art higher education, without excluding though non-artistic follow-up courses of study in higher education and non-artistic disciplines in employment. Because of these broad objectives, the curriculum of KSO is fundamentally based on the integration of general education with artistic components. KSO offers youngsters a very complete education: handicraft, art and theoretical subjects. Moreover, they are also philosophically educated (VLOR, 2001). The Decree of 14 July 1998 stipulates that KSO is divided in three areas of study, namely ballet, performing arts and visual arts. Each of these areas of study consists of one or more courses of study. Typical for the branch of study visual arts are the three principles ‘education’, ‘arts’ and ‘training’. The principles differ as regards objectives, balance general and art subjects and the transition possibilities.
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Regardless of the course of study, KSO pupils have to follow a compulsory number of general subjects according to the Decree concerning education-II of 13 July 1990. This core curriculum is identical to the one of TSO (common attainment targets valid as from 1 September 2002) (see introductory part of paragraph 5.13.). Beside the general subjects pupils have to follow a substantial number of art subjects, depending on the chosen course of study. There are no technical and/or practical subjects in this specific part. A full school week in KSO consists of maximum 36 periods. Within the branch of study visual arts some ‘specialisation years’ are offered after the second year of the third stage, aimed at pupils with intrinsic qualities and a specific motivation for certain artistic professions: ‘architectural design’, audiovisual design’, ‘printing technology’, ‘industrial art’ and ‘spatial design’. In the third year of the third stage KSO also offers two preparatory school years. A preparatory year aims at pupils who have not followed KSO, have no or insufficient artistic pre-education and still want to transfer to higher art education. ‘Special visual arts education’ is the preparatory year for the branch of study visual arts. Pupils with a minimal pre-education can follow the course of study ‘special music education’ within the branch of study performing arts (Decree concerning education-II of 13 July 1990; Decree of 14 July 1998; VLOR, 2001). Below we will only present the teaching periods of the core curriculum, the fundamental part and the complementary part of the courses of study within the areas of study visual arts and performing arts, as offered in community education. The two years of the second stage of the courses of study belonging to the branch of study visual arts each consist of maximum 17 to 21 periods per week for the core curriculum, 15 to 19 periods for the fundamental part and 0 to 2 periods for the complementary part, depending on the course of study. In the two years of the third stage of this branch of study the maximum number of periods per week amount to respectively 13 to 16, 18 to 23 and 0 to 2. The preparatory year offered by community education within the branch of study visual arts, special visual arts education, consists of a core curriculum of maximum 4 periods per week and a fundamental part of maximum 28 periods per week. Within the branch of study performing arts the two years of the second stage each consist of maximum 19 to 20 periods per week for the core curriculum, 13 to 17 periods for the fundamental part and 0 to 3 periods for the complementary part, depending on the course of study. In the third stage there are two possibilities for the courses of study within the branch of study performing arts: 1) a core curriculum of maximum 15 periods and a fundamental part of maximum 21 periods, or 2) a core curriculum of maximum 16 periods and a fundamental part of maximum 20 periods. The preparatory year within the branch of study performing arts, special music education, consists of a maximum number of periods per week of respectively 4 – 25 – 3 periods (Community Education, 2004). 5.13.5.
Full-time vocational secondary education (BSO)
Full-time vocational secondary education provides a practically oriented form of education and offers youngsters beside a general education especially a training towards a specific occupation (MVG, Department Education, 2004a). However, not only youngsters with practical talents who want to be trained for an occupation follow full-time vocational secondary education, but also youngsters who have experienced a number of failures or learning difficulties in their former school career, sometimes already in primary education. As already mentioned (see paragraph 5.11.), the BSO educational offering of the second, third and fourth stage is divided into 18 areas of study, which correspond to a large extent with those of TSO (MVG, 2003a).
Chapter 5: secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
Below we will only present the teaching periods of the core curriculum, the fundamental part and the complementary part of the courses of study offered by community education. The courses of study belong to the areas of study auto mechanics, construction, decoration, commerce, wood working, jewellery, clothing, heat and cooling, agri- and horticulture, personal hygiene, naval training, mechanics-electricity, caring and nutrition. The years of the second and the third stage of the courses of study belonging to these areas of study each consist of maximum 8 to 13 periods per week for the core curriculum, 21 to 26 periods for the fundamental part and 1 to 4 periods for the complementary part, depending on the course of study and the stage. In total the teaching time per school week always amounts to maximum 36 periods. The third year of the third stage also consists of a school week with maximum 36 periods, spread over maximum 4 to 12 periods for the core curriculum, 20 to 32 periods for the fundamental part and 0 to 4 periods for the complementary part (Community Education, 2004). Practical training is also in vocational secondary education important (see paragraph 5.13.2). The reorganisation of secondary education established by the Decree of 14 July 1998 made important modifications in vocational education. A system of modular training courses was established in order to deal with the problems of the unqualified ‘output’ of pupils from vocational education to the labour market and of the discrepancy between the supply of vocational training courses and the demand on the labour market. Moreover, a system of modular training courses was set up to orientate pupils on the basis of capacities instead of failures. In the modular system, every school program consists, besides the general training, of vocation-oriented modules in which general educational elements are integrated and attention is paid to core skills. This way the pupil is prepared for specific occupations and also for personal and social functioning. Important are the vocational profiles set up by the social partners and the attainment targets (eindtermen) set up by the government for each stage and each educational form. These profiles assure close linkage with the labour market (Decree of 14 July 1998; Circular Letter of 26 July 2001 ref. SO 76). Moreover, the school year in the modular system looks entirely different: the division in subjects disappears, modules are not restricted to one school year and structural time is foreseen weekly for differentiation (Schepers, 2000: Circular Letter of 25 July 2000). Experiments of the modular educational system with pupils have started on 1 September 2000 and last till 31 August 2007. The following areas of study are included in modular education: •
as from 1 September 2000: auto mechanics, construction, commerce, mechanics-electricity, caring;
•
as from 1 September 2001: printing technology, woodworking, clothing, heat and cooling, personal hygiene, textile crafts and nutrition (Circular Letter of 26 July 2001).
5.13.6.
Part-time compulsory education
There are many ways to comply with part-time compulsory education. 1) The pupil can enrol in part-time vocational education (DBSO). This form of education has been established especially for pupils who have problems in full-time compulsory education and are tired of school. A formula is offered where pupils work part-time and go to school part-time with adapted curriculum and teaching methods. The provisions of the Decree of 14 July 1998 concerning the introduction of a system of modular training courses in vocational education is also meant for part-time vocational education (DBSO) (see paragraph 5.13.5.).
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Part-time secondary education is provided for 40 weeks a year with 15 weekly periods of 50 minutes (a minimum of 6 periods of general secondary education and a minimum of 6 periods of technical or vocational training) (Circular Letter of 31 July 1990). It is provided by 45 Centres for Part-time Vocational Education (Centra voor Deeltijds Beroepsonderwijs) (CDO) (MVG, Department Education, 2001b). They are linked to secondary schools that offer full-time technical and vocational education. 2) Pupils can attend courses ( the so-called contractual apprenticeship) organised by the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO) (see chapter 7). Through an apprenticeship contract, training for more than 200 vocations is possible. The pupils follows a practical training in a company during 4 days per week and follows additional courses during one day per week. This ‘contractual apprenticeship’ is possible for youngsters as from 15 years who have followed the first two years of secondary education or as from 16 years. As from 18 years they can sign an agreement for practical training. Contractual apprenticeship usually takes 3 years. Depending on the age and pre-education a shorter training is possible. 3) Pupils can enrol in part-time off-shore fishing education. This education consists of minimally 240 teaching periods and spreads over minimum seven to maximum 10 weeks per school year. It comprises the general subjects as well as the technical and the practical subjects. At least 80 periods are reserved for general subjects (Decision of the Flemish Government of 5 June 1991 concerning the organisation of secondary off-shore fishing education). 4) Finally pupils can follow accredited part-time education. This form of education has to add to the education and to the preparation for an occupation. Moreover, it has to contain components of personal, social and vocational education (Decision of the Flemish Government of 31 July 1990 concerning the organisation, the standardization and the funding of accredited compulsory part-time education). 5.13.7.
Fourth stage of vocational secondary education
BSO comprises three areas of study in the fourth stage, namely decoration, clothing and caring (see paragraph 5.5.) (Department Education, http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be). This fourth stage of vocational secondary education originated from Complementary Vocational Secondary Education (Aanvullend Secundair Beroepsonderwijs) (ASBO), that has long been a rather floating bundle of courses between secondary and higher education. With the merger operation of 1995 in higher education, these courses were brought together to form the fourth stage of vocational secondary education (Vierde Graad Beroepssecundair Onderwijs). At present 6 courses of study are offered in the fourth stage, within following three areas of study. •
Branch of study decoration: course of study visual arts.
•
Branch of study clothing: course of study fashion.
•
Branch of study caring: courses of study psychiatric nursing, hospital nursing and nursing (modular or not). The courses of study psychiatric nursing and hospital nursing will disappear in the future (Circular Letter SO 64).
Except for the course of study nursing, which consists of three years, the fourth stage always consists of two years. As already mentioned, no core curriculum is imposed because of its specific character. Moreover, the subject religion or non-denominational ethics is not compulsory in official education (Circular Letter of 25 June 1999; Decree of 31 July 1990 concerning education-II, as modified and the Decision of the Flemish Government
Chapter 5: secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
of 19 July 2002 concerning the organisation of full-time secondary education, modified by the Decision of the Flemish Government of 7 February 2003).
5.14.
Teaching methods and materials
The decision on teaching methods and teaching aids belongs to the freedom of the organising bodies. Consequently, there are no official guidelines. In general, it can be stated that teaching is subject-oriented. A number of so-called method schools within accredited and grant-aided education are inspired by the ideas and methods of Steiner, Freinet, Montessori and other important figures of educational history. There are no official guidelines concerning duration and amount of homework. The Flemish Community delegates this responsibility to its school boards and teachers. Modular vocational secondary education (see paragraph 5.13.5.) emphasizes teaching methods such as ‘integrated working’, ‘team teaching’, ‘permanent evaluation’ and ‘step by step learning’.
5.15.
Pupil assessment
Pupil evaluation is based on tests and examinations organised by the individual teacher under the ultimate responsibility of the organising body of the school (Decision of the Flemish Government of 13 March 1991). Permanent evaluation is possible as well. In secondary education, the essential instrument of assessment is the class council. The assisting and deliberating class council consists of the school head or his/her representative and all members of the teaching staff, who teach the pupil in a specific school year (these persons are entitled to vote). They can be assisted by the deputy school head, the technical advisor (coordinator), supporting personnel and/or personnel, which is involved in the psycho-social or pedagogic guidance of the pupils (these persons only give advice) (Circular Letter SO 64). The class council is responsible for the instruction of a specific group of pupils, the assessment of their school progress, the decision regarding each pupil‘s promotion to a higher class, and the issuing of certificates when appropriate.
5.16.
Progression of pupils
A regular pupil’s promotion to the next class follows the issuing of an orientation certificate by the class council at the end of the school year. The class council can base its decisions on factors such as the following: •
the past school career of each pupil;
•
the intermediary results from assessments, tests and examinations;
•
information from the Centre for Educational Guidance (CLB);
•
the interviews with the pupil and parents, if necessary.
Each class council has the delicate task of establishing at regular intervals an intellectual and social evaluation of each pupil and of drawing pedagogical conclusions from this evaluation. Remedial help may be suggested and, if necessary, orientations or re-orientations. The council agrees on a common position with regard to each pupil and, at the end of the school year, decides about promotion to the next class and the issuing of certificates.
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
At the end of the year, the class council decides for each pupil whether promotion to the next class is permitted with (B certificate) or without (A certificate) restrictions, adjourned (promotion being dependent on the successful completion of re-examinations), or refused (C certificate) (VSKO, 1997). These decisions form the basis of orientation reports. The decision resides with the persons involved (e.g. at the issuing of a B certificate the pupil/parents can decide to repeat the year). One of the major points of interest remains the problem of school failure. In too many cases, repeating a class is too easy an alternative for a failed orientation process or the consequence of a wrong choice of study. Campaigns to counter school failure and repeating are being prepared.
5.17.
Certification
In addition to advisory reports (orientation certification) established at the end of each year of secondary education, the class council may grant the Diploma of Secondary Education (Diploma Secundair Onderwijs) at the end of the 6th year of secondary education (after completion of general, technical, or arts education) or at the end of the 7th (specialisation) year or at the end of the 1st or 2nd year of the fourth stage (after completion of vocational education), following the conditions confirmed in the Decree of 31 July 1990, as modified. In vocational secondary education pupils can obtain certificates after the 4th or the 6th year and after the 5th specialisation year for the same courses (Circular Letter Structure and Organisation of Full-time Secondary Education, ref. SO64). The Diploma of Secondary Education and the certificates may be granted after passing one integrated test. In part-time vocational secondary education qualification certificates are granted after successful completion of the training (see Circular Letter concerning the organisation of part-time vocational education, ref. SO66). The certificate may also be obtained after completion of education with reduced curriculum, on the same conditions as in full-time education. The intention of the minister is to enable pupils in vocational education to obtain a certificate after 6 years of secondary education. However, this certificate will not give access to higher education, because the seventh year will be retained. A two-track system will be introduced: (1) a seventh year to prepare for higher education and (2) a specialisation year to provide access to professional life (MVG, Dept. Education, 2002). In modular vocational education (see paragraph 5.13.5.) each module results in a partial certificate and all modules of a learning path together result in a certificate. One or more certificates combined with attainment targets and a complete course duration result in a diploma.
5.18.
Educational/vocational guidance, education/employment links
A large number of measures have already been taken concerning guidance of youngsters in order to facilitate their introduction in the labour market. In secondary technical and vocational education practical training (also in real-life situations) are an essential part of most programmes. Therefore, cooperation between schools and business is very important, especially in technical and vocational education. In the first place, this cooperation can improve the quality of education by actualising the curriculum through practical knowledge. Second, material and financial cooperation can improve the image of technical and vocational education by providing better facilities (Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000:
Chapter 5: secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
175). Recently, several measures were taken to facilitate the student training in full-time secondary education (Decision of the Flemish Government of 31 August 2001) (see also 5.13.2). In this context, it must be said that a number of schools have a long tradition of co-operation with local businesses. Company executives are members of organising bodies (inrichtende machten) and examination committees and donate equipment for school workshops. Pupils taking practical training in a company often go on to work there full-time when they leave school. In 1993, the Flemish Educational Board (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) organised the “States General” for technical secondary education. There, cooperation agreements have been established between education and certain sectors such as construction, the catering industry and clothing. In 1995, the Flemish Social-Economical Council (Sociaal-Economische Raad van Vlaanderen) together with educational personnel and with the European Commission’s support formulated a manual for organising such cooperation agreements. Since the “States General”, the cooperation between education and business have received a more structural support by means of covenants between government, business and the educational sector. These sector-bounded covenants have already been excluded for a number of branches of study. The covenants make education more true-to-life and result in a more intense training-employment relationship (Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000: 175). In this respect the modular system is to be mentioned (also see 5.13.4.). Modular education is explicitly concentrated on the labour market, the aims being to decrease the number of youngsters who leave education unqualified and to increase the ability of pupils to adjust to the changing labour market (Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000: 183).
Furthermore, the government has taken a number of employment initiatives that are focused on the guidance of young graduates on the labour market and have an educational component. Examples are the ‘Youthwork Guaranteed Plan’ (Jeugdwerkgarantieplan) in 1994, the ‘Bridging Projects’ (Brugprojecten) and the ‘Starting Job Agreement’ (Startbaanovereenkomst). This ‘Starting Job Agreement’ (Startbaanovereenkomst) is part of the Law of 24 December 1999 for the promotion of employment. It is in the first place focused on young (less than 25 years old) graduates. The plan offers them full-time employment or a part-time employment together with a training of unlimited duration or of limited duration of at least one year. The employer is not only encouraged to hire these people by means of financial incentives but also obliged to hire 3% young people if the employer is a private company with more than 50 employees. In a cooperation agreement, approved by the Flemish government on 25 February 2000, it was arranged to create starting jobs by means of projects. Moreover, after consultation with the Flemish government the federal government decided to provide among other things 315 starting jobs in education, completely financed by the federal government. Within this framework two projects have been conceived by the Flemish government. The first project, for the creation of 150 starting jobs, deals with ‘prevention of anti-social behaviour for schools’, and has been initiated under the name ‘Schools for youngsters – Youngsters for schools’ or ‘Yo-Yo’ (‘Jo-Jo’). The second project ‘traffic safety’ offers jobs for 165 youngsters. When drawing up the projects, prior attention is paid to the groups with the highest level of unemployment. With the ‘Yo-Yo’ (‘Jo-Jo’) project the Flemish government addresses youngsters who have left school early or who have left school after secondary education but are still interested in working in schools. Allochthonous and less fortunate youngsters are especially encouraged to register for these starting jobs, because they generally encounter a lot of problems in the labour market. The project has two objectives: 1) to have the youngsters try out a job in education and encourage them to possibly follow further training and pursue employment in
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
education, and 2) to offer schools with youngsters with school problems an additional employee who can assist in creating a positive school atmosphere and in establishing a better contact between teachers and allochthonous and less fortunate families. The project ‘traffic safety’ aims at encouraging youngsters to complete their school education with a professional qualification which is necessary for permanent employment. The objective is to give youngsters the necessary experience with responsibility to the security of other youngsters, to create a traffic safe school environment between schools and communities and to make school-home traffic more safe. Moreover, it tries to set up cooperation between schools and communities, where the youngster can assume tasks which add to an improvement of traffic safety in school environments. As mentioned before, the industrial apprenticeship contract (Industrieel Leercontract ) is set up to facilitate the entrance to the labour market for certain job-seeking school-leavers. The current government is very much concerned with the training-employment relationship and is making efforts to strengthen this relationship. Measures in this respect are the evaluation of the existing covenants, the giving of special attention to the organisation of sufficient, good-quality apprenticeships especially for minority groups and the establishment of regional technological centres (RTC) through the Decree concerning Education XIIIMosaic. These centres support cooperation between educational institutions, the business world and socioeconomic or educational organisations. The regional technological centres are responsible for the joint use of technological equipment, the educational infrastructure, and technical and didactic know-how. They also develop study material for joint use, establish in-service training projects for new technologies, and play a role in harmonising the supply and demand for work experience places. Through the Decree concerning Education XIII- Mosaic the rules concerning advertisement and sponsoring by companies were already made more flexible. This measure aims to help schools to buy the necessary equipment with the help of companies (Decree of 13 June 2001). The Decision of the Flemish government of 3 September 2003 introduced the temporary project ‘for promotion of work experience in part-time vocational education (DBSO)’. This project aims to insert the pupil permanently into the labour market by means of an individualised approach and the delivery of a basic qualification. Guidance (Trajectbegeleiding) needs to prevent early drop-out. The project will end on 31 August 2005. In November 2002 the King Baudouin Foundation published the report of its commission ‘A new perspective for technical and technological occupations and trainings’, entitled ‘Accent on Talent, An Integrated Vision on Learning and Working’. The commission advocates ‘learning differently’ (e.g. abolition of ASO/TSO/BSO, more modular education, lifelong learning), ‘choosing differently’ (e.g. better orientation, more attractive offering of technical trainings) and ‘managing differently’ (more autonomy for schools). She clearly opts for a reorganisation in which also the socio-economic world is involved, and therefore also argues in favour of ‘working differently’ (e.g. innovation of company organisations). The commission intends to gather the experiences of the pioneer schools, the proposals of the SERV and other concrete ideas on the concepts of the report ‘Focus on talent’ in a white book for the next Flemish government, which will be presented in the summer of 2004. This white book has to serve as preparation for fundamental educational innovations in Flemish education by 2010.
Chapter 5: secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
5.19.
Private education
Private education (written or not) is not legally organised in Flanders and, therefore, no official data are available. The certificates granted by these facilities have no legal value. The course offering within this private education is very diverse, in the content of the courses as well as in teaching modalities and financing (MVG, 2004c).
5.20.
Organisational variations and alternative structures
An alternative school form is education at home. This is being described in paragraph 3.15
5.21.
Statistics
Below are some statistical data on secondary education can be found. Teacher-pupil ratio7: 7,65 (2002-2003) (ordinary secondary education: see also section 10.13) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003). Table 15: Number of institutions in secondary education (school year 2002-2003) Ordinary Secondary Schools
Special Secondary Schools8
Community Education
233
19
Grant-Aided Free Education
603
74
Grant-Aided Official Education
78
18
Total
914
111
Total Secondary Education:
1,025
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003) Table 16: Part-time Vocational Secondary Schools (2002-2003) Community Education
16
Grant-Aided Free Education
23
Grant-Aided Official Education
7
Total
46
Part-time See fishing Training Community Education
0
Grant-Aided Free Education
0
Grant-Aided Official Education
1
Total
1
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
7
Number of pupils in ordinary secondary education (full-time and part-time) in February 2003 divided by the number of managing and teaching staff (budgetary full-time equivalents) in January 2003 in ordinary secondary education (full-time and part-time).
8
The 4 schools that offer special education Type 5 are not included.
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
Table 17: Evolution of the number of pupils in ordinary and special secondary education (1984-2003) Year
Community
Grant-Aided Free
Grant-Aided
Education
Education
Official Education
Total
84-85
95,097
350,840
46,927
492,864
86-87
86,576
344,046
45,216
475,838
88-89
79,345
335,304
44,205
456,854
90-91
73,368
328,187
38,470
440,025
92-93
74,249
329,582
38,618
442,449
94-95
75,027
337,616
39,274
451,917
96-97
74,026
334,845
38,904
447,775
98-99
71,596
327,187
37,242
436,025
99-00
70,336
323,981
36,710
431,027
00-01
69,690
322,705
36,711
429,106
01-02
69,929
323,332 327.337
36,902 36.468
430,163 435.781
02-03
71.976
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003) Table 18: Delay at school in secondary education (1987-2001) School year
% pupils withdelay at school All years
First year
Sixth year
1987-88
35.1%
21.6%
40.1%
1991-92
31.9%
19.8%
40.9%
1995-96
29.4%
19.9%
38.1%
1996-97
30.9%
20.2%
37.6%
1999-00
30.3%
19.7%
36.5%
2000-01
29.1%
19.4%
36.4%
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2001)
Table 19: School delay (in percents) in ordinary secondary education per stage. Belgians and foreigners. (School year 2000-2001) Belgians
Foreigners
Boys
Girls
Total
Boys
Girls
Total
First
19,9
14,9
14,5
60,2
58,8
59,6
Second
24,7
18,1
21,5
68,8
61,0
65,1
Third
30,1
20,9
25,7
73,5
64,8
69,4
Fourth
35,8
24,4
30,2
75,0
69,6
72,3
Fifth
42,6
28,9
35,9
76,4
67,4
71,8
Sixth
42,7
27,8
35,1
78,2
67,0
72,4
Total
32,3
22,4
27,5
71,2
64,4
67,9
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001d)
Chapter 5: secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
Table 20: School delay (in percents) in ordinary secondary education per stage and per educational form (School year 2000-2001) General secondary
Technical secondary
Art secondary
Vocational secondary
education
education
education
education
Boys Girls Third
Total
Boys
Girls
Total
Boys
Girls
Total
Boys
Girls
Total
11,5
7,8
9,5
35,4
28,0
32,4
55,4
39,1
44,9
59,8
52,8
56,7
Fourth 14,6
9,1
11,5
42,7
32,0
32,2
64,0
45,6
52,6
62,0
54,2
58,4
Fifth
20,5
12,1
15,7
49,4
37,3
44,4
71,8
46,5
57,0
64,3
54,9
59,9
Sixth
22,6
12,2
16,7
50,3
37,1
44,5
69,5
47,0
56,1
62,7
51,5
57,3
Total
13,8
10,2
13,1
44,4
33,7
39,9
66,0
44,8
53,2
62,2
53,4
58,1
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001d)
95
CHAPTER 6.
TERTIARY EDUCATION
In Flanders higher education is organised in non-university higher education and university higher education, which both offer respectively post-university higher education and post-higher education.
6.1.
Historical overview
From a historical perspective, the backgrounds of higher education in the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) and in university education differ. The Belgian law distinguishes between the colleges of higher education and universities. In the basic Law of 7 July 1970, universities were defined as only one particular form of higher education. The main reason for this has to be found in a separate development of the two forms of education. More recent developments in the educational policy retain the differences between the various types of higher education. Since Belgian independence was won in 1830, universities have always been a case apart in Belgian education. For example, the universities escaped the ‘school wars’ to a large extent. For more than a century the ideological equilibrium between the four traditional Belgian universities - Ghent (public), Liège (public), Leuven (Catholic), and Brussels (liberal) - has been maintained. Education of colleges of higher education originated mainly from higher levels of technical secondary schools. The forerunners of this form of education were largely vocation oriented (mainly developed in technical schools) and were organised in, or closely linked to, schools in which secondary education was also provided. 6.1.1.
Colleges of higher education: history
In the 19th century, all universities and colleges of higher education with an academic level were Frenchspeaking as was the public to which these schools were aimed: the upper classes and the nobility. On a lower level were the schools for teachers, nurses, technical engineers, etc.. These schools of higher education initially started as an extension to secondary education and were attended by the middle classes. After the Second World War, these institutions were upgraded up to become independent tertiary bodies. Since the 1960’s, the Higher Education Outside University (Hoger Onderwijs Buiten Universiteit) (HOBU) has grown much more than has university education. The expansion of the student population in these schools mirrors the democratisation of higher education: an increasing number of boys and girls of the lower classes are obtaining higher education. In 1968, the National Council for Science Policy (Nationale Raad voor Wetenschapsbeleid) published a report proposing an overall restructuring of post-secondary education and the construction of a full-fledged education at colleges of higher education that would no longer be tightly linked to technical secondary education (Wielemans & Vanderhoeven, 1991). This led to the Law of 7 July 1970 on higher education. This law fixed the provision of education on four levels (Art. 1): pre-school, primary, secondary, and higher. Higher education comprised eight forms: university, technical, economic, agricultural, paramedical, social, art, and pedagogical higher education. The Law of 15 July 1985 added a ninth form: naval higher education. Education of colleges of higher education was organised in two different forms as well as in two different sorts of schools. The law distinguished two forms (Art. 2): a short form and a long form. The short form took at least
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two years (since 1990 three years) (with only one exception in the paramedical short form: midwifery required four years). All these training courses were explicitly vocation oriented. The long form higher education had two cycles of at least two years of study. In the new legislation, the short- and long form higher education outside the university are redefined as one-cycle and two-cycle education of colleges of higher education. As far as the regulation of budgeting, appointments, curricula, etc. is concerned, education of colleges of higher education was still covered by the School Pact Law (Schoolpactwet) of 29 May 1959. On 23 October 1991, a Decree was adopted on the long-form higher education. Although it was not integrated into university education, its object was to provide education of an ‘academic level’. The long-form education observed the same rules as university education (see below). On 1 September 1995, the Decree of 13 July 1994 was implemented. The main aim of this legislation was primarily a very fundamental reorganisation (including an important merger operation) of education of colleges of higher education and a further integration of higher education rules as a whole (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). At present a profound reform of the higher education is taking place. This reform has to be seen in the light of the Bologna Declaration, signed in 1999 by the Ministers of Education of 29 European countries. This declaration intends to create a European educational area in order to bring more unity to European education. The new European education system should be in place by 2010. The most important objectives of this project are: 1)
To increase the comparability of the structure and the degrees of the different courses.
2)
To bring more mobility of students and professors.
3)
To defend education against international competition.
4)
To harmonise European higher education in a structure of two cycles: bachelor and master. The first
cycle (undergraduate study) has to be at least three years and already provide professional qualification for some of the students. The second cycle (graduate study) is to provide professional qualifications or a scientific education that may lead to a doctorate. 5)
To establish a credit system - the ECTS system - as a proper means of promoting the student mobility.
Credits could also be acquired in non-higher education contexts, including lifelong learning, provided they are recognised by the universities concerned. 6)
To create an international transparent system of quality control or accreditation.
7)
To increase greatly cooperation between European educational institutions.
This declaration will have profound consequences for the Flemish system of higher education. For one-cycle programmes in colleges of higher education (hogescholen), there are few problems. These colleges of higher education (hogescholen) will be converted to the level of the bachelor’s degree. Two-cycle programmes in colleges of higher education (hogescholen) will become academic education. One of the consequences is that cooperation between universities and colleges of higher education (hogescholen) will increase considerably by the development of associations between universities and colleges of higher education (hogescholen). Increased cooperation in higher education was initiated by the Decree of 20 April 2001. The Decrees on colleges of higher education and universities will be further harmonised to promote cooperation between the different institutions. The transition between higher education and university education will be made easier.
Chapter 6: Higher education
On 4 April 2003 the Flemish government approved the Decree on the restructuring of higher education in Flanders. The final Decree is expected in the middle of 2003. This Decree on the structure of higher education is also called the Bologna Decree. Changes will take place in several fields: •
a new qualification structure will be introduced. There are Bachelor courses, either vocational or academic, and Master courses that link up with a Bachelor course and Master courses that link up with other Master courses. Colleges of higher education provide (a) vocational Bachelor courses and/or (b) academic bachelor courses and master courses in association with a university. Universities provide (a) academic Bachelor courses; (b) Master courses; (c) doctoral degree courses;
•
the quality control system will be improved. By means of accreditation students and employers will be given the guarantee that the graduates have attained an internationally recognisable level of competence;
•
cooperation in the form of associations will be intensified and expanded;
•
Dutch will remain the language of instruction, but exceptions to this rule are possible for certain elements of the course if this can be proven to have an added value;
•
other providers can also offer higher education if their courses are accredited.
The institutions will be awarding the first Bachelor and Master titles as from June 2005. The Flemish government does not intend the reorganisation to result in an extension of the course duration (press release of the Flemish government, 24 May 2002). 6.1.2.
Universities and university studies: history
In 1830, when Belgium became independent, there were three state universities: Ghent, Leuven, and Liège. The Law of 1835 on higher education acknowledged two free universities (Leuven and Brussels) and two state universities (Ghent and Liège). The state university of Leuven was abolished and the Catholic University of Mechelen moved to Leuven to continue the old University of Leuven (founded in 1425). All these universities were French-speaking, as was the language of the public to which the universities were aimed: the upper classes and the nobility. From 1835 up until 1876, university examinations were organised by an examination board composed of public authorities. The government did not want to give the right of granting diplomas to the universities. Thus, the freedom of education was assured but the quality of education was still controlled. The Law of 20 May 1876 changed this drastically by enabling the universities to empanel their own examination boards. Neither external experts nor representatives of the Ministry had to be added to these boards. The parliamentary discussions at that time indicate that this measure was intended not so much to provide freedom of scientific research but more to assure academic freedom as a condition for quality (Vanhove, 1985). The control of the quality of education was not yet completely removed. The law established legal academic degrees and so created the distinction between legal and scientific degrees. Legal degrees were diplomas explicitly pointing to a particular professional qualification and covered the ‘traditional’ academic diplomas, such as Law, Medicine, Philology, and Engineering. The curricula were determined, at least in general, by law. The legal diplomas had to be sanctioned by the public ratification commission (which was a formal control on the conditions to be fulfilled). Scientific diplomas were delivered on the authority of the universities themselves
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in, for example, psychology and education. Their quality was guaranteed by the university‘s scientific prestige. This distinction was abolished by the Flemish Decree of 12 June 1991. In 1930, the University of Ghent became totally Dutch-speaking, and the universities of Leuven and Brussels also provided courses taught in Dutch later on. This broadened the recruitment in Flanders, but the university remained intended for a small, socially privileged group. From the 1960s on, university education became more democratic. There was an enormous increase of the student population. New universities arose, as in Antwerp. The unitarian universities of Leuven and Brussels were split into Dutch-speaking and French-speaking autonomous universities in 1968. Although the missions of the two forms of higher education differ markedly, this is not the case for every component of the education they offer. The difference between university education and education of two-cycle colleges of higher education in particular is not always clear. There is little doubt that scientific research is the core task of the university and that education at the university ought to be founded on this. At the same time, the emphasis at the colleges of higher education is on the distinctive character of the ‘college education’, referred to in the Explanatory Memorandum to the Decree of 12 June 1991 (MVG, 1991: 36) as “more ‘professionally orientated’ education”. Although it may be inferred from this definition that universities and colleges of higher education have different tasks, this view is clouded by the Decree on colleges of higher education, which states that the two-cycle basic courses offered by the colleges of higher education will be of “academic level and hence founded on scientific knowledge” (Art.11, § 2). The distinction becomes even harder to maintain when the Decree continues: “The basic course in the field of commercial science and business administration (in the colleges of higher education) is equivalent to the academic course in applied economic science (in the universities)” (Art. 11, § 3). One might well ask what the distinction means for students who have to choose between a university and a college of higher education. The vast majority of students basically enter higher education in order to gain access after their studies to professions and/or posts that are more or less highly respected in society. A distinction may be drawn between the professions for which higher education offers training: •
Professions that are based on a particular field of knowledge or its application: The institution claims the ability to apply, research, and/or teach this knowledge. Training for professions of this kind is the exclusive preserve of the universities and may be defined as scientific education.
•
Professions that are based on one or more socially relevant and highly complex issues: The institution claims the ability to help deal with these issues in an appropriate and expert manner. This generally entails drawing on the ideas and skills of several disciplines. Training for professions of this type is provided by colleges of higher education and may be defined as higher vocational education. As we have seen, however, it is also possible to define medicine, law, and other similar training provided by the universities as higher vocational education.
The period of study lasts for 3, 4, or 5 years, depending on the degree of complexity and the scale of the “body of knowledge, skills and attitudes” that have to be acquired (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). The present reform of higher education as explained in the former paragraph, also applies to university education (see 6.1.1.).
Chapter 6: Higher education
6.2.
Ongoing debate
The execution of the Decree on the restructuring of higher education and reform proposals that are still being debated following the Bologna Declaration, lead to a lot of legislative work and reorganisation in higher education. By 15 January 2004 an accreditation commission advised the Flemish government on the proposals of the institutions for the reorganisation towards the bachelor-master structure. One month later the Flemish government decided on the reorganisation dossiers. The results will form the first Higher Education Register (Hoger Onderwijsregister) (HOR) containing information on the courses and the institutions offering these courses. The first HOR will supply the list of the bachelor courses which the institutions can start as from 20042005 or 2005-2006 and the list of the master courses as from 2007-2008 or 2008-2009. In execution of the Decree on the restructuring of higher education and the reform proposals that are still being debated, the Flemish government still has to approve a large number of implementing orders. The government wants to submit as quickly as possible the reform proposal on the flexibilisation of the learning paths to the Flemish Parliament. In a flexible system a student obtains a diploma after successful completion of different components of a course and after obtaining a credit certificates for each part of the course. As from 2004-2005 flexibilisation can be introduced, as from 2007-2008 it is compulsory (Vanderpoorten, 2003).
6.3.
Specific legislative framework
Following educational legislation is important for higher education in Flanders. •
The Law of 7 July 1970 relating to the general structure of higher education.
•
The Decree of 12 June 1991 relating to the universities in the Flemish Community.
•
The Special Decree of 26 June 1991 relating to the University of Ghent and the University Centre of Antwerp.
•
The Decree of 13 July 1994 relating to the colleges of higher education in the Flemish Community.
•
The Decree of 24 July 1996 relating to the modification of the Decree of 12 June 1991 relating to the universities.
•
The Decree of 14 July 1998 relating to Education IX.
•
The Decree of 18 May 1999 relating to Education X.
•
The Decree of 20 October 2000 relating to Education XII Ensor.
•
The Decree of 20 April 2001 relating to an adjustment of the regulation of tertiary education.
•
Special Decree of 4 April 2003 relating to the abolition of the special Decree of 26 June 1991 relating to the University of Ghent and the University Centre of Antwerp, as regards the University Centre of Antwerp.
•
Decree of 4 April 2003 relating to stipulations for the foundation of a University of Antwerp and for the modification of the Decree of 22 December 1995 relating to the modification of various Decrees on the University of Antwerp.
•
6.4.
Decree of 4 April 2003 relating to the restructuring of higher education in Flanders.
General objectives
The aims of education and teaching objectives of the colleges of higher education and of the universities are treated separately.
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6.4.1.
Education in colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs)
Below the aims of education in colleges of higher education are described. The teaching objective of courses of one cycle (undergraduate study) is to prepare students for various occupations in sectors such as industry, commerce, transport, agriculture, medical auxiliary and social work, teaching, the hotel trade, fashion, information technology, applied arts, and the media. The study focuses on practical aspects and provides direct access to employment. Courses offered by 2-cycle higher education (graduate study) train technical staff who will carry out, and be responsible for, executive tasks of a highly scientific and technical nature. The Decree of 13 July 1994 stipulated that the instruction offered by the present 2-cycle higher education programmes is “on a university level and therefore based on scientific knowledge”. As a whole, it contributes to general human education; in particular, it is directed towards “the application of the sciences, independent thinking, and the development of creativity” (Art. 11 § 2). Nevertheless, a clear distinction between 2-cycle higher education and university education remains. The universities provide education based on scientific research, whereas the education of colleges of higher education provides education based on scientific knowledge (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). Furthermore the Flemish government charged the colleges of higher education with conducting scientific research in collaboration with other colleges of higher education, universities and third parties. 6.4.2.
University education
Below the aims of education at universities is described. The Decree of 12 June 1991 outlines the task of the universities in terms of three aspects: ‘Universities should, in the interest of society, be simultaneously active in the field of academic education, scientific research, and scientific service provision’ (Art.4). Academic education is further specified in the Exploratory Memorandum (MVG, 1991) accompanying the university Decree. According to this, the teaching objectives of academic education are: •
offer training that is critically questioning, multidisciplinary in terms of context and synthesising;
•
be founded on the results of the latest scientific research (this implies the integration of education and research activities within the same entity);
•
place greater weight on theoretical training and methodology than on the accumulation of knowledge (the ‘why’ is more important than the ‘what’);
•
stimulate a problem-solving mentality, perspective, and the ability to synthesise (skills should be more important than knowledge of facts) (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).
6.5.
Types of institution
In following paragraph on educational institutions first the colleges of higher education, then the universities and finally the associations of colleges of higher education and universities are described. 6.5.1.
Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs)
As a first type of educational institution in higher education the colleges of higher education are described.
Chapter 6: Higher education
On 23 October 1991 a Decree was adopted (now integrated in the Decree of 13 July 1994) related to the twocycle higher education outside the university. Although it was not integrated into the universities, it was said to provide education of an ‘academic level’. The two-cycle education observed the same rules as university education. The main new element was the much larger autonomy of two-cycle colleges of higher education, backed up by package funding. The Decree gave colleges of higher education (hogescholen) the possibility to conduct scientific research with other colleges of higher education, universities and third parties. The new rules also introduced a more flexible system for transitions between the different levels of training. On 1 September 1995 the Decree of 13 July 1994 was implemented. The main aim of this legislation was, first of all, a very fundamental reorganisation (including an important merger operation) of higher education outside the university and a further integration of higher education rules as a whole. Short-form and long-form courses became integrated into one system, one institutional framework, and one law, which was already prepared by the 1991 Decree. Also the colleges of higher education have become more autonomous concerning the spending of their budgets. Each college receives an ‘envelope’, a sum of money with which they can work. In the new financial arrangement however, the government still directly pays the salaries for certain members of staff. Moreover a merger operation took place. The 164 colleges of higher education with either short-form courses or long-form courses or exceptionally both have been merged into 25 colleges of higher education with generally at least 2000 students and offering most basic courses of the education of colleges of higher education: •
5 institutes are ‘autonomous’. All, except one, used to belong to the official education network (the former state schools). At present their boards of directors function autonomously;
•
2 institutes are governed by provinces;
•
16 institutes belong to the free education network and operate under private law;
•
1 institute is the Antwerp Nautical College (Hogere Zeevaartschool in Antwerp). This institute works under the direct authority of the Minister of Education and offers bilingual courses (Dutch/French). It is the only nautical college in Belgium (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).
Most of these new institutes group several departments. 6.5.2.
University education
A second type of educational institution in higher education are the universities. University education is organised in establishments that have the status of university. Their task is academic education, scientific research, and scientific service provision. Within the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) there are six universities. The four largest are the “Universiteit Gent” - RUG -, the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” - K.U.Leuven (including a campus near Kortrijk called “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Afdeling Kortrijk” - KULAK -), the “Vrije Universiteit Brussel” - VUB and the “Universiteit Antwerpen” (UA). Besides, there are two Flemish universities in which education is limited to a certain number of disciplines: “Katholieke Universiteit Brussel” - KUB - and “Limburgs Universitair Centrum” - LUC -. The “Limburgs Universitair Centrum” (LUC) forms together with the Dutch “Universiteit Maastricht” (UM) the “transnationale Universiteit Limburg” (tUL) (transnational University of Limburg). This university started with courses in knowledge technology, information science and biomedical sciences on 1 October 2001. The number of courses offered has been expanded since the academic year 2001 - 2002. The establishment of the
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“transnationale Universiteit Limburg” is not yet a merger of the two universities. The new university is a 3rd legal person alongside the “Universiteit Maastricht” and the “Limburgs Universitair Centrum” (Deweghe, 2000: 13). 6.5.3.
Associations
As a third type of educational institution the associations are being described. In the Decree of 4 April 2003 concerning the restructuring of higher education in Flanders it is stipulated that colleges of higher education and universities form associations. An association is an organisation without purpose of gain to which colleges of higher education and universities since the restructuring of higher education can transfer specific powers of decision. An association consists of one university, which has the power to offer autonomously bachelor as well as master courses and at least one college of higher education. A university or college of higher education cannot belong to more than one association. The colleges of higher education can in the framework of an association offer courses that lead to the degree of master. Associations are at least authorised for: •
the educational offering;
•
the tuning of the course profiles, the structuring of the course paths and an improvement of the transition possibilities between especially bachelor and master courses;
•
the organisation of student counselling;
•
the tuning of the internal rules concerning the personnel policy;
•
the formulation and execution of a long-term plan for educational innovation and improvement, in connection with a jointly established system for internal quality care for education;
•
the formulation of long-term plan for research and social and scientific service provision, in connection with a jointly established system for quality care for research;
•
the alignment with research of the academic bachelor courses and of the master courses offered by the colleges of higher education of the association within the framework of the long-term plan for research;
•
the formulation of a long-term plan for the mutual tuning of investments, infrastructure, provisions for library and documentation;
•
the definition of a procedure for the appointment of an adequate number of representatives of the colleg(s) of higher education which offer academic bachelor courses and master courses to the research council of the university;
•
advising on the offering of a new bachelor or master course in an institution;
•
advising on the reorganisation of a two-cycle basic course into a bachelor and master course in academic education;
•
advising on the plan for educational development.
Associations were formed around the KULeuven, LUC/tUL, RUG, UA and VUB. In the Decision of the Flemish government concerning the definition of the controlling task list of the commissioners of the Flemish government at the universities of 05.09.03 (B.S.21/10/2003), it is stipulated that the Minister for Education will appoint every five years the commissioners who have the power to supervise the
Chapter 6: Higher education
legality and the financial balance of the associations. This restricted power further guarantees the freedom of policy of the associations. A commissioner can attend all board meetings of an association with an advising vote.
6.6.
Admission requirements
Below the admission requirements of the colleges of higher education and the universities are described. In paragraph 6.6.3. the reform proposal for the Decree on flexibilisation of elsewhere acquired qualifications (elders verworven kwalificaties) (EVK) and formerly acquired competences (eerder verworven competenties) ( (EVC) is discussed. 6.6.1.
Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs)
All students who obtained the Diploma of Secondary Education (Diploma Secundair onderwijs) have free access to higher education. ‘Numerus clausus’ and other admission requirements are non-existent at this moment at the colleges of higher education. The colleges of higher education impose an aptitude test on candidates for their basic courses in nautical science, while schools in the fields of study of audio-visual and plastic art and music and drama give an artistic entrance exam. 6.6.2.
University education
Admission requirements are almost identical throughout higher education. All students who obtained the Diploma of Secondary Education (Diploma Secundair onderwijs) have free access to higher education. ‘Numerus clausus’ requirements are non-existent. The faculties of Applied Science (for the training of civil engineers) organise an entrance examination in mathematics. Under these circumstances, the examinations of the first year in all other faculties may be seen as a kind of selection mechanism. Rules on entrance procedures in medicine and dentistry have been in force since the academic year 1997-1998 (Decree of 24 July 1996). The entrance exam is organised on a inter-university basis by the ministry. It is split up into two parts: testing actual knowledge of physics, biology, chemistry, and mathematics at the level of the third stage of general secondary education (Algemeen Secundair Onderwijs) (ASO) and a test on the learning ability of the candidate. Every year, two sessions of the exam are organised (July and September). The relatively easy access to higher education seems to go together with a high failure rate at the end of the first year. For the academic year 2000-2001, the pass rate for the first candidature amounted to 49.61% for freshmen and 50.11% for non-freshmen (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2002). In 2001-2002, the pass rates were 48.11% and 60.02% respectively. For students from General Secondary Education the pass rate at the end of the first year is considerably higher: 54.6% (Inspectie Secundair Onderwijs, 2000). The entrance tests organised for applied science courses (66.67% of freshmen passed for the first canditature) and medical sciences (80.42%) and dentistry (78.57%) do affect first-year pass rates (MGV, 2000e). However, the impact of this test disappears after the first year - the pass figures for applied sciences are not discernibly different from those of other courses after the second year (see paragraph 6.6). Further policy proposals are under consideration.
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6.6.3.
Formerly acquired qualifications (EVK) and elsewhere acquired competences (EVC)
At the moment the Decree on flexibilisation (Flemish Government, 12 December, 2003), which will make the admission requirements more flexible, is being prepared. The preliminary draft of the Decree on flexibilisation of higher education comprises following guidelines concerning formerly acquired qualifications (eerder verworven kwalificaties) (EVK) and elsewhere acquired competences (elders verworven competenties) (EVC). Institutions can grant on the basis of EVK and/or EVC exemption to students from following and passing exams for specific components of a course. The formal recognition of competences (submitting of formal proofs of competences, regardless of how they were acquired) can lead to the certification of competences. Following procedure will be followed: •
the government works out a set of agreements in consultation with the associations, in which a number of basic methodologic guarantees are included;
•
at the level of each association a uniform procedure, methodology and reference framework is worked out, taking into account this set of agreements;
•
each association submits its proposal for approval to the Flemish government;
•
finally the receiving institution assesses and recognises the competences, grants exemption and issues a credit certificate on the basis of the procedure and the reference framework, established at association level.
The Flemish government will organise periodical external assessment of the different steps (on the level of the association as well as on the level of the institution). The rights of the students are guaranteed by a number of legal principles and/or procedure rules in the Decree: •
the term ‘a substantial difference” is included as guideline for the interinstitutional recognition;
•
compulsory regulation for student participation;
•
preliminary objective criteria established in consultation with the student (e.g. content, course credit …);
•
an elaborate obligation of the institution to motivate on the basis of the established objective criteria:
•
an appeal procedure;
•
formulation and publication of the rules at the moment of registration.
The student that has received a credit certificate for all components of a specific course, obtains the corresponding degree and diploma. Each college of higher education and university has to foresee a procedure of deliberation in which the exam commission can decide whether a student that has not obtained a credit certificate for the complete course has nevertheless sufficiently realised the objectives of the course. The exam commission can decide to grant this student the corresponding degree.
6.7.
Registration and/or tuition fees
Below the registration and exam fees to be paid by students in higher education are discussed. 6.7.1.
Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs)
The Decree concerning the colleges of higher education of 13 July 1994 only lays down the amounts for the registration and exam fees. For the basic courses the yearly registration fee amounts to minimum 77,48 EURO
Chapter 6: Higher education
and maximum 449,90 EURO. For a student registering for the second time in the same academic year, the registration fee amounts to half of minimum 77,48 EURO and maximum 449,90 EURO. For the part-time student the registration fee amounts to half of minimum 77,48 EURO and maximum 449,90 EURO. For non-fundable students and free students the college’s board of governors decides autonomously on the registration fee. The maximum amount of the exam fee is fixed at 50 EURO. The student may only once per academic year be asked to pay this amount. The college of higher education uses the registration fees to the benefit of the students. The government does not regulate which additional costs of studies a college may charge its students on top of the registration fee. The total cost of a course can considerably vary from course to course. Moreover, other variables such as e.g. the general financial capacity of a college of higher education can play a role in a college’s necessity to charge the students extra costs (Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs, 2003a). 6.7.2.
University education
The registration fee is the sum of the tuition fees and the amount fixed in article 43 §9 of the University Decree of 12 June 1991. The latter amount comprises exam fees, registration costs, insurance, a.o. The tuition fees comprise the registration for the training components of a full year of study, including practical work, and the registration for the application exercises which these training components require. The university’s board of governors has to yearly fix before 1 May the amounts of the registration fees for the next academic year. The Flemish Interuniversity Council (Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad) (VLIR) formulates each year at its own initiative a recommendation as regards the registration fees, which the institutions are free to follow or not. The VLIR recommendation as regards the registration fees for the academic year 2003-2004 was followed by all universities. The VLIR indexes the registration fees according to the evolution of the ‘health index’, on condition that the resulting amounts do not exceed the indexed (consumption index) boundaries as fixed in the Decree (http://www.vlir.be). For non-grant-aided students the registration fee amounts to 488 EURO yearly. Books and course material cost minimum 125 EURO and maximum 375 EURO depending on the course. For the exam fees and all other costs which the university charges its students at registration a maximum amount of 50 EURO was fixed as from the academic year 1993-1994. The student may only once per academic year be asked to pay this amount. These amounts are yearly adjusted to the evolution of the consumption index.
6.8.
Financial support for students
At the universities and the colleges of higher education, the registration fees, the exam fees and all other costs which the university charges its students at registration decreased for almost-grant-aided students and grantaided students. In order to obtain a study allowance from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, a number of conditions have to be met, namely nationality conditions, financial conditions (taking into account the income, the rateable income and the composition of the family) and study conditions. To meet the study conditions, one has to be registered as a regular student (full-time or part-time) in an institution that is accredited, grant-aided or funded by the Department for Education of the Flemish Community. Free students, students registered in higher social advancement education or for the board of examiners of the Flemish Government are not eligible for a
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study allowance. Following education on a higher level than before and having succesfully completed the previous year are basic conditions for being eligible for a study allowance. When repeating a year, choosing another course or following a course of the third cycle, a ‘Joker’grant can be requested once in higher education ((Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs, information leaflet on study allowances in higher education 2003-2004). Student loans are being granted by the League of Families (Gezinsbond), the Limburg Study Fund (Limburgs studiefonds), the Foundation Fernand Lazard and the Association of Civil Engineers from Leuven. The Study Fund of the League of Families (Gezinsbond v.z.w.) grants students from large families (as from 3 children) student loans (family allowances). The money is destined to finance the study costs of Dutchspeaking secondary and higher education with full curriculum. For higher education a loan of 1000 EURO can be obtained for den students and 650 EURO for commuting students. Study allowances are also granted by several authorities such as the Provincial Commission for Foundations for Study Allowances (Provinciale Commissie voor Studiebeurzenstichtingen), within the framework of the Socrates Agreements and other European exchange programmes, the Foundation Van Goethem-Brichant and the Society of the Order of Leopold. Moreover, there are also post-university study allowances for abroad and for scientific research (a.o. doctoral scholarships).
6.9.
Organisation of the academic year
The Decree of 4 April 2003 concerning the restructuring of higher education in Flanders stipulates that the arrangement of school time during the academic year including the holiday arrangements for the students has to be included in the educational regulations drafted by the institution’s board of governors. An academic year is described as a period of one year beginning on 1 September at the earliest and on 1 October at the latest and finishing on the day before the beginning of the next academic year; departure from the fixed duration of one year can exceptionally be allowed if the institution’s board of governors decides to start the academic year earlier or later. 6.9.1.
Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs)
The organisation of the academic year may differ as this belongs to the educational regulations of the college of higher education. The academic year begins around September/October and finishes towards the end of June or the first half of July. In general, it comprises 30 weeks of attending lectures, seminars, and practical work. It is generally divided into two semesters. 6.9.2.
University education
As mentioned before, the organisation of the academic year belongs to the educational authority of the institution’s board of governors (Decree concerning the universities in the Flemish Community of 12 June 1991 and Decree of 4 April 2003 concerning the restructuring of higher education). The university academic year begins on 1 October and finishes on 30 September of the following calendar year.
Chapter 6: Higher education
Most universities apply a system of semesters, which means that the academic year is divided into two separate teaching periods or semesters. The first semester comprises first 13 weeks of educational and study activities, concluded with 2 weeks of autumn vacation. Then there is 1 week of individual study and 3 weeks of examinations, followed by 1 week of vacation. The second semester comprises also 13 weeks of educational and study activities, but is interrupted by 2 weeks of Easter holiday. The 13 weeks are followed by 2 weeks of individual study, 3 weeks of examinations and 1 week of deliberations. The summer break of 6 weeks is followed by the second examination period, which consists of 3 weeks of examinations. Some courses need 4 weeks of examinations; in that case the summer break takes only 5 weeks. The examinations are followed by 1 week of deliberations. Between the end of the deliberations and the beginning of the new first semester one free week remains.
6.10.
Branches of study, specialisation
The branches of study, the duration of studies and specialization of the courses at colleges of higher education and at universities are separately discussed below. 6.10.1.
Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs)
All the colleges of higher education offer four types of courses (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996): •
basic courses following secondary education (1-cycle or 2-cycle courses); The duration of studies is usually 3 or 4 years;
•
complementary courses in tertiary education (voortgezette opleidingen) follow on from the basic courses and are intended to complement or broaden the knowledge gained during a basic course or to deepen it by specialising in a selected study area;
•
further training at colleges of higher education (posthogeschool vorming);
•
teacher training courses (see Chapter 8).
The Decree of 13 July 1994 has organised all these courses within a framework of eleven branches of study: •
architecture;
•
health care;
•
industrial sciences and technology;
•
audio-visual and plastic arts;
•
music and dramatic arts;
•
biotechnology;
•
education;
•
product development;
•
social-agogic work;
•
applied linguistics;
•
commercial sciences and management.
Courses can be organised, depending on the general teaching objective, in two forms: in 1 cycle or in 2 cycles.
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6.10.2.
University education
Each academic basic course is divided into two cycles that each lead to an academic degree. The duration of studies in both cycles is usually 2 years. Academic initial teacher trainings aim at the acquirement of basic competencies for teachers of secondary education – group 2 and in other words train students for teaching in the 2nd and 3rd stage of ASO, TSO, BSO and KSO (see chapter 8). Advanced academic courses comprise all complementary courses (aanvullende opleidingen) and specialist courses (specialisatieopleidingen). A complementary course is designed to complete or to broaden one or more academic courses of the second cycle. A specialist course is designed for further deepening of a course or for specific specialisation. An example of an advanced academic course in arts is the specialised interuniversity course theatre sciences (University of Antwerp). A doctoral training is the preparatory course for a doctoral thesis. Post-academic education comprises all post and additional courses that universities offer outside the academic courses and the advanced academic courses. (Decree of 12 June 1991 concerning the universities of the Flemish Community; Ministerie van de Vlaamse gemeenschap, 2001; Ministerie van de Vlaamse gemeenschap, http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be, 2003). The Decree of 12 June 1991 regulated and simplified the design of university-level education. A crucial point here is the arrangement of the instruction within the 18 branches of study, each of which is open to further detailed specification, which the Decree exhaustively sets out: •
philosophy and Ethics;
•
theology, Religious Sciences, and Canon Law;
•
linguistics and Literature;
•
history;
•
archaeology and Arts;
•
law, Notarial Law, and Criminology;
•
psychology and Educational Sciences;
•
economics and Applied Economics;
•
political and Social Sciences;
•
social Health Sciences;
•
physical Education, Rehabilitation and physiotherapy;
•
sciences;
•
applied Sciences;
•
applied Biological Sciences and Agronomy;
•
medicine;
•
dentistry;
•
veterinary medicine;
•
pharmacology.
These 18 branches of study include an overall number of about 85 acknowledged training programmes (academic degrees and diplomas). Students can follow courses on a full-time or part-time basis if the university offers the opportunity.
Chapter 6: Higher education
6.11.
Curriculum
Below paragraphs treat the curriculum of the colleges of higher education and the universities. 6.11.1.
Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs)
The government has legally ensured that the scale of the courses remain manageable for students by ruling that a study year comprises at least 1,500 and at most 1,800 study hours. This includes contact time, processing, literature, tasks, internships, dissertation, and preparation for and taking of examinations. In brief, everything that a student has to do to pass a year successfully. Furthermore, every study-year has to consist of 60 credits (studiepunten) where each course component must count for at least three credits - each credit reflects about 25 to 30 hours of study activities. These credits are a reflection of the study workload for a certain course. Within this framework colleges of higher education are free to structure their own curriculum. The specific details of curriculum formulation vary from one institution to another. Broadly speaking, the overall curriculum of a field of study or course is drafted by course committees (at course, faculty, department and/or subject-group level) and the content of each subject is then largely determined by the course teachers. The course committees determine whether or not this content meets the established objectives (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). The colleges of higher education have to respect the system of quality control set up by the government and organise a system of self-evaluation. The Decree of 13 July 1994 already eliminated a number of interventions by the authorities in aspects of the curriculum. The responsibility of the colleges of higher education has been enlarged, including the obligation by analogy with the universities to create their own form of quality assurance. Students who hold a higher education diploma or certificate or who have passed at least one study year of a higher education course can obtain a study-time reduction or be exempted for examinations on certain course components (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). 6.11.2.
University education
The government has legally ensured that the scale of the courses remain manageable for students by ruling that a study-year comprises at least 1,500 and at most 1,800 study hours. This includes contact time, processing, literature, tasks, internships, dissertation, and preparation for and taking of examinations. In brief, everything that a student has to do to pass a year successfully. Furthermore, every study-year has to consist of 60 credits where each course component must count for at least three credits - each credit reflects about 25 to 30 hours of study activities. These credits are a reflection of the study workload for a certain course. Within this framework universities are free to structure their own programmes. The specific details of curriculum formulation vary from one institution to another. Broadly speaking, the overall curriculum of a field of study or course is drafted by course committees (at course, faculty, department and/or subject group level) - sometimes permanent educational councils (permanente onderwijscommissies) (POCs) at universities - and the content of each subject is then largely determined by the course teachers. The course committee determines whether or not this content meets the established objectives (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). In general an academic curriculum consists of compulsory subjects and, at least in the second degree, of sometimes a few, sometimes a wide range of elective subjects, which can be taken at other faculties, and optional packages.
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The board of the university can grant exemptions or study-time reductions to people who hold a higher education diploma or certificate or who have passed at least one study year of a higher education course (Verhoeven, & Beuselinck, 1996). The universities are compelled by Decree to create their own form of quality assurance (see paragraph 9.4.1).
6.12.
Teaching methods
Below the teaching methods and teaching aids used in colleges of higher education and universities are described. 6.12.1.
Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs)
The decision on teaching methods and aids belongs to the freedom of the organising bodies (inrichtende machten). As a consequence there are no official guidelines. The study material is chosen or prepared by the teacher. In all forms of higher education, there still is a strong tendency to organise all programs according to the same principles. Ex-cathedra teaching is common and the use of electronic teaching platforms proofs to be a persisting trend. Every year there is a more or less fixed program starting with a broad, general, and theoryoriented introduction to a certain discipline. Later on this general knowledge is applied to more concrete problems. Every year, each student has to pass formal exams. Following the scale expansion in higher education, the groups of students to be taught are becoming increasingly larger (Decree concerning the restructuring of higher education in Flanders). 6.12.2.
University education
Teaching methods are the responsibility of teachers, although the permanent education committees (permanente onderwijscommissies) (POCs) specify in general terms whether a given body of material would be best delivered in the form of seminars or, lab courses, or with some other approach (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). The study material is chosen or prepared by the teacher. At the university level as well, there still is a strong tendency to organise all programs according to a fixed structure. Ex-cathedra teaching is common and the use of electronic teaching platforms proofs to be a persisting trend.
6.13.
Student assessment
The methods for evaluation of students at colleges of higher education and at universities is described below. 6.13.1.
Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs)
Following is a description of the examination system. Generally, there are at least one or two weeks in which the student can prepare for the examinations organised by the colleges of higher education. At the end of each year, the student’s processing of subject matter is assessed by means of examinations, usually both theoretical and practical. There are, in general, two examination periods: June, and September. In a semester system examinations are also organised in January (end of the first semester); these are considered to be part of the first examination period. At the end of a course each student has to present (and sometimes also defend) a personal paper.
Chapter 6: Higher education
6.13.2.
University education
Following is a description of the examination system Generally, there are at least one or two weeks in which the student can prepare for the examinations organised by the universities. There were formerly two examination periods: June and September. The semester system was introduced in preparation of the implementation of the Bologna declaration. As a result a student can in some cases also sit an examination at the end of the first semester (January - February) (also see paragraph 6.9.2.). Students can sit one particular exam no more than twice a year. Moreover in most faculties, each student has to present (and also defend) a personal paper.
6.14.
Progression of students through courses
Below the conditions for promotion to the next class of students at colleges of higher education and at universities are discussed. 6.14.1.
Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs)
Students must successfully pass the examinations of each year of a cycle, before being allowed to start the next cycle or year. Students can sit one particular exam no more than twice a year, even if a trimester or semester system is in operation; thus, each student gets a second chance. A student who did not succeed all his exams in a certain study year, can follow an Individually Adjusted Year Programme (Individueel Aangepast Jaarprogramma) (IAJ) during the next academic year. This programme consists of subjects of the study year they did not pass and subjects of the next study year. The examination boards, set up by the teachers of the college of higher education, are responsible for these procedures (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). Transfer to another branch of higher education (whether 1-cycle, 2-cycle or university) is possible. This might be accompanied by an exemption for one or more courses. These exemptions must be requested and are allowed individually (Decree concerning the colleges of higher education of 13 July 1994). 6.14.2.
University education
Students must successfully conclude each cycle or year before being allowed to start the next cycle or year. A student who did not succeed all his exams in a certain study year, can follow an “Individually Adjusted Year Program“ (Individueel Aangepast Jaarprogramma) (IAJ) during the next academic year. The characteristic feature of university education is that studies are quite strictly subdivided. Each cycle of study is confirmed by the awarding of a degree that is a necessary requirement for admission to the following cycle.
6.15.
Certification
Certification of colleges of higher education and of universities is discussed below.
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6.15.1. •
Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs)
1-cycle higher education confers ‘graduate diplomas‘ in various disciplines like midwifery, nursing, social work, export management, accounting, and teaching (pre-school, primary, and secondary education - group 1). The organising body is responsible for the diplomas that are automatically ‘recognised’ by the Flemish Ministry of Education.
•
2-cycle higher education confers the following degrees: qualifications as industrial engineer, licentiate, licentiate in nautical science, commercial engineer, architect, and master of arts.
6.15.2.
University education
The first university degree is that of candidate (kandidaat) which is obtained after two, or in some faculties, three years of study. This constitutes the essential basis for further studies. The second degree, that of licentiate (licentiaat), is obtained after another two or three years of study and involves specialised instruction and the submission of a thesis at the end of the course. In some faculties, the second degree carries the title of doctor of medicine, pharmacist, engineer (including civil engineer) or veterinarian and, depending on the case, the study period required may be longer. Second-cycle degrees qualify the holder to practice a profession, although in some cases complementary training is required. Thus, access to teaching posts in upper secondary education, for example, is subject to the possession of a supplementary degree, that of qualified secondary school teacher - group 2 (geaggregeerde voor het secundair onderwijs - groep 2), which may be granted immediately after the awarding of a licentiate degree without any further study period - if supplementary teacher training is taken by the student during the licentiate period (see chapter 8). Students that have successfully completed complementary courses or specialisation courses become holder of a diploma of complementary courses ( gediplomeerde in de aanvullende studies) (GAS) or holder of a diploma of specialisation courses (gediplomeerde in de gespecialiseerde studies) (GGS). The degree of doctor (doctorate or PhD) may be obtained at the earliest two years after the awarding of a licentiate degree conferred at the end of the second cycle. It is completed by the presentation of a ‘doctorate‘, which consists of an original dissertation and one or several associated theses, which the candidate defends in public. This degree is essential for a career as a university lecturer (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1998). Before the Decree of 12 June 1991, a thesis based on independent scientific research, supervised by a director (promoter), and publicly defended was the only condition required for a PhD. At present, each university may organise doctoral studies and require doctoral students to follow a training programme before defending the thesis. This training, given while the thesis is being prepared, is equivalent to one year of study and contains no fewer than 1,500 and no more then 1,800 hours of study or other related activities (equivalent to 60 credits). The student has to earn credits by taking courses, participating in seminars or conferences, attending summer-school sessions, and so on. Gaining these credits may be spread over the period necessary for writing the thesis. After the doctoral training programme is completed, a certificate is issued. Until now, it has been the autonomous decision of each university whether to make it compulsory for postgraduate students to attend a training programme or to make the attendance at seminars, courses, conferences, and so on optional (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1997).
Chapter 6: Higher education
Doctoral students can be funded by the university/faculty as university assistants or by the Fund for Scientific Research (Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek) and related funds. One can also finance a project oneself, but this is rather exceptional (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1997). The elimination of the former distinction between legal and scientific degrees is a consequence of the overall restructuring of instruction. Consequently, from now on degrees may be obtained via the State examining boards.
6.16.
Educational/vocational guidance, education/employment links
The guidance provided by colleges of higher education and universities to assist students with the transition to the labour market is described below. 6.16.1.
Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs
Training at the colleges of higher education is focused on the practical aspects and from the outset oriented on the future occupation. Practical training in real work conditions (firms, hospitals, schools, etc.) is an essential part of each one-cycle programme. Guidance of students to facilitate their entrance on the labour market is provided in many different forms. The majority of colleges of higher education have placement services, although the operation of these can vary. No official guidelines are available. Some restrict themselves to displaying vacancies or maintaining the statistics on the employment of their graduates, while others maintain extensive employment dossiers on individual graduates, give application training and/or preparation seminars on employment, etc (Inspectie Hoger Onderwijs, 1996). Regularly, the work-experience activities of the student lead to recruitment when leaving the college of higher education. The interaction between the labour market and education programs (initial training and INSET) is not always optimum, but this varies a great deal, depending on the field of study or course (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). Overall, graduates in higher education outside university have, in relative terms, good chances of employment. In order to determine how (even) better cooperation between the business community and education can be achieved, a cross-network initiative of the Union of Christian Employers and Managers (Verbond voor Kristelijke Werkgevers en Kaderleden) (VKW) was set up in 2002 for all secondary school teachers, employees of Centres for Educational Guidance (CLB’s) and 127 large and medium-sized companies (80 in 2001). Each participating company organised a company presentation and tour, followed by a debate with the management on a predetermined topic. 6.16.2.
University education
The universities have also created a specific infrastructure within the social sector for offering a broader service of care and guidance, e.g. by setting up job centres. Varying from university to university, initiatives are taken such as informing graduates and former students on job openings through a database of job openings and organising information seminars on employment in different sectors, the social status of graduates.
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6.17.
Private education
Private education (written or not) is not legally organised in Flanders and, therefore, no official data are available. The certificates granted by these facilities have no legal value. The course offering within this private education is very diverse, in the content of the courses as well as in teaching modalities and financing (Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs, 2004). Private education is not funded by the government.
6.18.
Organisational variations, alternative structures
A distinction has to be made between organisational variations of the regular programmes and alternative structures for training not regulated by the ordinary laws and Decrees on tertiary education. Four organisational variations have to be mentioned within the provision of higher education. 1) Some university and 2-cycle higher education programmes offer an alternative course schedule (evening lectures) for students who already have a job. 2) Anybody can take the examinations for all higher education courses at all levels without attending the courses. These exams have to be taken in institutes that organise the normal full-time programme. 3) Many programmes at colleges of higher education are also offered on a part-time course basis by the Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) 4) Finally, on the level of higher education, there is a co-operative project with the Heerlen Open University (Open Universiteit Heerlen) in the Netherlands for offering distance education. Reference ought to be made to a few tertiary education institutes not regulated by the corresponding laws on tertiary education. The Protestant Theological Faculty (Faculteit der Protestantse Godgeleerdheid) in Brussels and the Evangelical Theological Faculty (Evangelische Theologische Faculteit) award degrees in Protestant Theology. They are recognised private institutes. Catholic Theology is taught as a regular course at the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven�. Officer cadets of the Army receive their training in the Royal Military College (Koninklijke Militaire School) (KMS) in Brussels. This College is a higher education establishment that trains officers for the Armed Forces as stated in the Law of 18 March 1838. The duration of the university level studies in the Polytechnic Section is five and a half years (civil engineer) and four and a half years in the All Weapons Division. Until recently officer cadets in the state police force also took their first study cycle at the Royal Military College. However, within the framework of the reorganisation of the police force, the Minister of the Interior has decided tosuspend the recruitment through the Royal Military College. Some officer cadets are fully trained at ordinary education establishments described in the previous sections, including the Nautical College (Hogere Zeevaartschool). Among them, the candidates for the medical service have to be mentioned. These training options were regulated by the Royal Decrees (KB’s) of 20 June 1975 and 3 October 1989. The Armed Forces organise post-graduate programs as well.
6.19.
Statistics
Below some statistical information on tertiary education is included.
Chapter 6: Higher education
Teacher-student ratio9 in university education is 15,06 and 12,50 in colleges of higher education (2002-2003) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003). Table 21: Evolution of the number of students in higher education of one cycle (former short form) and two cycles (former long form) (1985-2003) Academic year
Men
Women
Total
N
%
N
%
N
%
1985-86
33,884
48.34
36,210
51.66
70,094
100
1987-88
36,841
47.69
40,406
52.31
77,247
100
1989-90
39,392
48.15
42,415
51.85
81,807
100
1991-92
39,001
48.24
41,848
51.76
80,849
100
1993-94
42,917
47.34
47,734
52.66
90,651
100
1995-96
42,451
46.63
48,595
53.37
91,046
100
1997-98
45,685
46.82
51,889
53.18
97,574
100
1999-00
45,747
46.43
52,789
53.57
98,536
100
2000-01
45,773
46.12
53,485
53.88
99,258
100
2001-02
45,775
46.08
53,564
53.92
99.339
100
2002-03
46,125
46.28
53,536
53.72
99,661
100
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 22: Evolution of the number of students in university education (1993-2003) Only academical basic courses Academic year
Women
Total
N
%
N
%
N
%
1993-1994
26.173
51,43
24.714
48,57
50.887
100
1995-1996
27.934
50,52
27.364
49,48
55.298
100
1997-1998
27.929
49,08
28.973
50,92
56.902
100
26.508
46,72
30.232
53,28
56.740
100
2000-2001
25.656
45,70
30.462
54,30
56.118
100
2001-2002
25.644
45,23
31.049
54,77
56.693
100
2002-2003
25.382
44,66
31.457
55,34
56.839
100
1999-2000
9
Men
10
Number of students enrolled in higher education courses in the academic year 2002-2003 divided by the number of Independent Academic Personnel (ZAP), Auxiliary Academic Personnel (AAP) for university education on 1 February 2003 or the governing and teaching staff of the colleges of higher education (budgetary full-time equivalents) in January 2003.
10
As from the academic year 1999-2000 the student numbers are gathered by the Education Departement of the Flemish Community. Before, the Flemish Interuniversity Council (Interuniversitaire Raad) was responsible. As from this year the enrolment in the following courses is counted: university courses, specialization and university initial teacher training courses.
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(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 23: Number of students broken down by field of study at the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) (academic year 2002-2003) One
Field of study
cycle
Two cycles First cycle Second cycle of two
of two
Total
Architecture Audio-visual and plastic art Music and drama Product development
1.762
1010
811
3.583
186
2.228
1.359
3.773
Commercial Science and Business Administration
25.874
37
Applied linguistics
708
1.014
1.759
172
237
409
3.336
2.282
31.492
1.806
1.027
2.833
521
426
10.090
Health care
9.143
Education
18.556
18.556
Social work
8.440
8.440
Industrial science and technology
9.071
4.697
3.687
17.455
Biotechnology
889
178
168
1.235
Total
73.958
14.656
11.011
99.625
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 24: Number of students broken down by field of study at the universities (male and female) (academic year 2002-2003)
Philosophy and moral science Theology, religious science and canon law Language and literature History
Men
Women
Total
730
429
1.159
176
171
347
1.074
2.587
3.661
1.253
987
2.240
Archaeology and art Law, notarial law and criminology
425
950
1.375
3.928
5.033
8.961
Psychology and educational science
1.328
5.532
6.860
Economics and applied economic sciences
4.876
3.443
8.319
Political and social science
2.576
3.099
5.675
Social health science
223
872
1.095
Physical education, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy
1.010
1.344
2.354
Science
3.401
1.946
5.347
Applied science
3.634
1.108
4.742
Applied biology
1.283
1.189
2.472
Medicine
1.667
2.431
4.098
Dentistry
158
207
365
Veterinary science
485
1.114
1.599
Chapter 6: Higher education
Pharmacy science
315
1.050
1.365
Combined fields of study
1.218
2.396
3.614
Total
29.760
35.888
65.648
(*) Only university basic courses (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003) Table 25: Percentage of all students (freshmen and non-freshmen) passing a number of basic courses in the first year of one-cycle colleges (2002-2003) Course
Freshmen
Non-freshmen
Architecture
51,06%
61,07%
Audio-visual and plastic arts
43,75%
62,22%
Biotechnics
52,78%
73,79%
Health care
45,41%
66,83%
Commercial sciences and business administration
38,58%
54,73%
Industrial sciences and technology
40,70%
54,43%
Music and drama
50,00%
100,00%
Education
37,22%
57,50%
Social work
36,43%
56,16%
Total
39,94%
57,13%
(Information received from the ‘departement Onderwijs’ 2004) Table 26: Success rates in the first and second year of a number of courses of two-cycle colleges (20022003) Field of study
1ste year Freshmen
Nonfreshmen
2nd year
Architecture Audio-visual and plastic art Biotechnology Health care Commercial Science and Business Administration
45,45%
64,77%
86,46%
51,09%
58,38%
84,07%
52,00%
60,27%
93,95%
33,33%
61,70%
90,72%
43,15%
60,32%
84,21%
Industrial science and technology
44,77%
55,12%
86,95%
Music and drama
62,81%
77,19%
79,52%
Product development
48,48%
63,24%
94,81%
Applied linguistics
32,31%
52,36%
86,34%
Total
46,75%
58,21%
85,73%
(Information received from the ‘departement Onderwijs’ 2004)
119
CHAPTER 7. CONTINUING EDUCATION AND TRAINING FOR ADULTS In Flanders several training courses belong to the form of education called ‘continuing education and training for young school leavers and adults’. In this introduction a short overview is given of the relevant courses and their main target group: •
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP), organised by the Centres for Adult Education (Centra voor Volwassenenonderwijs), for youngsters and adults;
•
Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS), organised by the department for adult education of the Ministry of the Flemish Community, for anyone who is interested;
•
Basic Education (Basiseducatie), organised by the Centres for Basic Education (Centra voor Basiseducatie) and supported by the Flemish Supporting Centre for Basic Education (Vlaams Ondersteuningscentrum voor de Basiseducatie) (VOCB), for all adults who insufficiently dispose of the required basic competences to fully develop themselves and to participate in the different social contexts;
•
Vocational training programmes (beroepsopleidingen), organised by the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB), for job seekers and employees;
•
Training programmes for self-employed workers (opleidingen tot zelfstandige), organised by the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO);
•
Part-time art education (deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) for youngsters and adults;
•
Vocational training in agriculture (landbouwvorming), organised by acknowledged centres or organisations, for individuals employed in agriculture or a related sector;
•
Social-cultural adult education (sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk) which enables citizens to acquire competences and become emancipated.
The term ‘adult education’ refers to Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP), Guided Individual Study (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS) and Basic Education. In below paragraphs the different types of training – depending on the theme – are further discussed.
7.1.
Historical overview
In this paragraph adult education (except for Guided Individual Studying), the vocational training programmes of the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB), the training programmes of the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO), part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) and social-cultural adult work are discussed from a historical perspective. 7.1.1.
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP)
The origins of what is now referred to in Belgium as Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) can be traced back to two kinds of institutions in the 19th century: adult schools and industrial schools. The latter were established in large cities and were a form of adult education with a typically technical programme for the ‘élite’ working people. Classes were given on Sundays and weekday evenings by primary
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
school teachers. At the outset, the promoters of adult education gave free play to their imagination by organising the widest variety of training courses depending on the requests and level of experience and knowledge of those wishing to attend the classes. In 1933, serious efforts were already undertaken to standardise adult education within the framework of technical education. In 1957, legal regulations standardised the training and qualifications provided. A reclassification of the 1957 organisation and categories took place in 1966 and resulted in the following structure: lower secondary cycle; upper secondary cycle; 1st stage upper cycle; 2nd stage upper cycle. Meanwhile this structure has been changed again. After 1970 the third and fourth category were reformed to part-time higher education outside the university (Law of 7 July 1970). This is now Social Advancement Higher Education which offers courses of higher education short-form and higher technical courses 2nd stage. Within the framework of the BAMA reforms this form of higher education will further be changed in future. As described in chapter 5, secondary education is divided in three stages (except for BSO, which has a 4th stage as well). The Decree of 2 March 1999 copied this organisational structure for Social Advancement Education, which now offers education in the 2nd and 3rd stage, and partly in the 4th stage. Language education has a structure of its own. 7.1.2.
Basic Education
In 1985 the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) began an experiment adult basic education (basiseducatie). The goals were to explore the possibilities of a policy of basic education for adults who have had little education on the one hand; and to construct a network of institutions and integrated programmes for basic education on the other hand. This experiment went on for three years and - thanks to continuous reflection and research into the programmes - led to proposals regarding an integrated system of basic adult education, with local or regional centres. 7.1.3.
Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor de
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) In the context of the development since 1945 of a Social Security system, a request was made by the government to organise vocational training programmes for the unemployed. As an answer to that request, an extensive network of training centres has been established to provide training courses in the secondary and tertiary sectors. The 1961 Laws on Economic Expansion not only introduced a new designation, the National Unemployment Agency (Rijksdienst voor Arbeidsvoorziening) (RVA), but also and above all brought about a change in the objectives, contents, and target groups. The reform of the Constitution in 1988 led to the transfer of the educational aspects of this service to the Communities, and this resulted, once again, in a change of name and slight differences between the service provided in each Community (Gemeenschap). Thus, the RVA has become the Flemish Unemployment Agency, at least for the educational aspects of the problem of unemployment. Today the Flemish Minister of Employment and Tourism is responsible for this sector.
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
7.1.4.
Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig
Ondernemen) (VIZO) The oldest institution for extra-curricular vocational training is the system of apprenticeships in the sector of independent trades. As early as the Middle Ages, corporations and trade guilds in cities such as Bruges, Ghent, Brussels, and Antwerp developed systems of ‘on-the-job’ apprenticeships with a hierarchy of apprentices, mates, and masters, and a corporation or guild council to supervise the conditions of admission to the trade. It was not until 1906 that a ministerial Decree first made ‘apprenticeship contracts’ official and granted an allowance to employers who took on young apprentices. In 1947, an official framework for training and further education of craftsmen and tradesmen was set up. The current structure and the different types of vocational training programmes of the self-employed classes were established by the Royal Decree of 4 October 1976. The continuing training for the self-employed classes has been federalised since the 1980 institutional reforms and is now under the responsibility of the Communities. In Flanders, the training programmes have been managed since 1991 by an autonomous institution with the status of a Flemish Public Institution (Vlaamse Openbare Instelling) (VOI): the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO). The VIZO training centres (erkende VIZO-centra) are recognised and subsidised by the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (VIZO, 1996). 7.1.5.
Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO)
The origins of art education can be traced back to the 17th century with the foundation of the Academies. In the 19th century the Academies got competition through the establishment of the Sint-Lucas schools. These were conceived as a kind of substitute for the official Academies, which were regarded as being ‘heathen’. The esthetic-ideological gap between them has been filled in the last decennia though (De Maeyer, 19988; Tavernier & Rijmen, 1997; VLOR, 1998). The basis of the current DKO was formed on 14 May 1955 with the first law on the orgaisation of art education with a full curriculum. Art. 1 of this law referred to art education as a separate level of education beside ‘nursery education, primary, secondary, normal, technical and special education’. However, it would last until 1990 before this form of education was fully recognised in the educational landscape. On 31 July 1990 the organisational resolutions were adopted in which the structure of DKO was determined in detail. (see paragraph 7.3.7) (VLOR, 2000). 7.1.6.
Social-cultural adult work (sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk)
The origins of social-cultural adult work (formerly: public education, public elevation, public development, training and development work) can be traced back to the period of Enlightment. The Willemsfonds (1851) and the Davidsfonds (1875) are considered to be the first initiatives for public development. From the beginning until nearly the end of the 20th century the social liberation movements, the catholic farmers and traders and other emancipation movements joint the public development work. Social-cultural adult work has considerably expanded in the second half of the 20th century. In 1967 a better subsidy regulation for national and regional organisation for public development came into force. In the late seventies the first separate Decree for organisations (1975) and (trade-union) training institutes (1978) were issued. In 1985 a Decree on ‘political training institutes’ was adopted, which has later been abolished. In the same year also the so-called ‘fifth Decree’ came into force. This Decree regulated at the same time the acknowledgement and subsidisation of adult
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development work and of the public development orgaisations, which aimed at people with a handicap or another specific issue. A group of mainly small organisations remained subsidised on the basis of the Royal Decree (Koninklijk Besluit) of 1967. In 1995 efforts were made to organise social-cultural adult work. This resulted in three Decrees, being: a Decree for organisations for public development, a Decree for institutions for public development and a Decree for services for adult social-cultural work. Not more than 8 years later (in 2003) social-cultural adult work received a new acknowledgement and subsidisation basis, for which the government opted for one Decree with 3 components: a component social-cultural organisations, a component training institutions and a component movements. This Decree of 4 April 2003 also regulates the acknowledgement and subsidisation of an information centre for social-cultural adult work (Steunpunt voor het sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk) (SoCiuS).
7.2.
Ongoing debates
In this paragraph two themes are discussed, that have not directly to do with adult education as such: On the one hand the current cooperation between all institutions in Flanders involved in training and on the other hand the so-called ‘Dutch Language Houses’ (Huizen van het Nederlands) in Flanders aimed at foreign speakers. Each branch of study has its own legislative framework (see 7.3.). A more integrated general structure has been promised since several years. The objective remains to set up a complete coordinating training structure for fulltime and part-time education, accessible for youngsters of statutory school age and for adults. The Decree did not reach this objective. Meanwhile the reform proposal was further elaborated to come to a closer cooperation between the four institutions involved in training. The Training and Alignment Information Service (Dienst Informatie Vorming en Afstemming) (DIVA) – which started on 31 March 2003 – is a cooperation between the policy fields education and Training, Employment, Culture and Economy, represented by adult education (OSP, BIS and Basic Education), the VDAB, the VIZO, and information centre for social-cultural adult work (Steunpunt voor het sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk) (SoCiuS). Directed by the Ministerial Committee on Training (Ministerieel Comité Vorming) DIVA is being presented as the instrument of the Flemish Government for promoting lifelong and lifewide learning and coordination between the training institutions. DIVA aims at the different players in the field of lifelong and lifewide learning, i.e. the students (individuals, organisations and enterprises), public and private providers of training, researchers and policymakers. DIVA has different tasks: it assist the government in the preparation and the execution of the policy on lifelong and lifewide learning; it promotes research into lifelong and lifewide learning, as well as its coordination and promotion; it detects the learning and training needs of individuals, orgainsations and enterprises and tests the offering against the demand; it coordinates common projects, structural initiatives and the back-offices of the training institutes; it acts as a platform for the training providers to strengthen the effectiveness of the training offering; it supports actions concerning the sensibilisation of lifelong and lifewide learning; it makes the training offering transparent and organises first-line advice through the learning shop; finally it develops for the training providers a system of mutual transeferable and acknowledged certification and quality control. DIVA’s working is based on following 4 pillars: policy support of the the Ministerial Committee on Training (Ministerieel Comité Vorming), policy implementation aimed at the provision of services for adults, policy implementation aimed at the coordination and cooperation projects between the partners, and provincial working (source: DIVA, programme 2004).
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
Since November 2002 7 experimental “Dutch Language Houses” map the complete offering of Dutch as a second language (NT2) in their working area, as well as the needs of foreign speakers looking for a course. After a professional and uniform intake procedure, they direct the foreign speakers to the most suitable courses. Through a specially developed student registration system they will also in the short term inform the government on the existing needs, possible waiting lists, promotions and failures. All centres for basic education, centres for adult education, VDAB-centres, Syntra, university language centres, provincial authorities, the Flemish Community Commission and the city councils of Antwerp and Ghent have a seat as partners in the Dutch Language Houses. It is expected that as from 1 September 2004 eight Dutch Language Houses will pursue a qualitative and customer oriented NT2 policy in Flanders. There will be a House in each province, as in the cities Antwerp, Brussels and Ghent.
7.3.
Specific legislative framework
Each branch of study has its own legislative framework. In below subparagraphs we will discuss the relevant legislation within adult education (OSP, BIS and Basic Education), the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB), the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO), the vocational training in agriculture, part-time art education and social-cultural adult education. In the introduction we will first discuss in detail the legal framework of educational leave and name the authorities responsible in Flanders for continuing education and training for young school leavers and adults. The system of paid educational leave is regulated by the reform law of 22 January 1985 concerning social regulations, modified by the programme laws of 22 December 1989 and 10 February 1998, the laws of 29 December 1990, 10 June 1993 and 23 March 1994 and by the Royal Decrees of 28 March 1995, 20 July 1998 and 31 May 1999. The objective of paid educational leave is the social advancement of employees in the private sector. They receive extra vacation hours for the training programmes they follow in their spare time or they get vacation for actually following classes if these classes are scheduled during working hours. This leave is primarily paid by the employer with the normal wages and at the same moment. However, the employer can request reimbursement at an especially established fund. The number of reimbursable hours of leave equals the number of hours of class attendance and is limited in function of the type of training and the fact whther the classes are scheduled within working hours or not. A limitation of the reimbursable wages has been determined as well. The courses followed can have a professional goal, although there is no need for a link with the current occupation, but they can also have a general educational objective. Moreover, specific regulations are available for employees preparing exams for the Examination Board of the Flemish Community, for employees of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (KMO’s) and for certain part-time employees. The Flemish Minister for Education and Training is responsible for almost all types of acknowledged training programmes. In only three cases other Ministers are responsible: the Flemish Minister for Employment and Tourism is responsible for the training programmes of the the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB); the Flemish Minister for Economy, Foreign Policy and E-government is responsible for the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO); and the Flemish Minister for Environment, Agriculture and Development Aid is responsible for the vocational training in agriculture.
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7.3.1.
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP)
The Law of 7 July 1970 gave the actual adult education its current name of Social Advancement Education. The Decree of 2 March 1999 regulates Social Advancement Education concerning its educational assignment, educational organisation and the programming rules, the educational offering, the admission requirements, the examinations and certification, the financing and subsidising, the appointment and salary requirements of the personnel, and the reclamations and sanctions. This Decree was followed by a large number of resolutions. In the reference year 2003 three new resolutions were approved. The Decision of the Flemish Government of 10 January 2003 modifies specifically the determination of the subjects and the organisation of the subjects in social advancement secondary education; the Decision of the Flemish Government of 18 July 2003 relates to the programmation of secondary adult education for the school year 2003-2004; and the Decision of the Flemish Government of 17 October 2003 modifies the structure in social advancement higher education. 7.3.2.
Begeleid Individueel Studeren (BIS)
The forerunner of what is referred to as Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) was officially created in Belgium in 1959 and recognised by the Law of 5 March 1965. In the context of the constitutional reform of 1980, this form of education was transferred to the Communities. Since the Decree of 2 March 1999, the Law of 5 March 1965 has been nullified and Guided Individual Studying is partly integrated in part-time adult education. After all, in addition to face-to-face education (contactonderwijs), combined education (gecombineerd onderwijs) is now possible, which means that part of the education can be organised through Distance Education. Therefore, Guided Individual Studying (BIS) is sometimes also called ‘Distance Education’. The Decision of the Flemish Government of 30 June 2000 introduced the name ‘Guided Individual Studying‘ (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS) for this specific form of adult education. However, the term ‘Distance Education‘ (Afstandsonderwijs) is also still used. The most recent Decision of the Flemish Government of 8 November 2002 regulates a number of issues concerning Guided Individual Studying, namely the salary of the mentor and the registrations, and also regulates these issues for BIS Online, the distance education through the Internet. 7.3.3.
Basic Education (Basiseducatie)
On 12 July 1990 the Decree on basic education was adopted and came into force on 1 September of the same year. This Decree regulates among others the establishment of 29 local centres and 1 support and coordination centre (Vlaams Ondersteuningscentrum voor de Basiseducatie – VOCB). The assignment given to the VOCB by the Decree was updated in the Decree of 2 March 1999. On 21 December 1994 the Flemish Parliament approved for the first time a number of regulations which modified the Decree of 12 Junly 1990. The modifications related to the level of education, the funding techniques and the function descriptions of the centres’ personnel. In 1996 a second modification to the Decree was approved (Decision of the Flemish Government of 24 Juny 1996) which resulted in the abolishment of the Council for Basic Education (Raad voor Basiseducatie) and the transfer of the assignments to the Council for Adult Education (Raad voor Volwassenenonderwijs) within the VLOR (Flemish Education Council – Vlaamse Onderwijsraad). On 2 march 1999 a third modification was approved, resulting in the transfer of administrative supervision and quality control, originally assigned to the VOCB, to the Department for Education itself. Within the department for adult education an administrative unit basic education was set up and specific inspection regulations were laid down for basic education.
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
7.3.4.
The Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) was established on the basis of the Decree of 20 March 1984. This Decree was then completed and modified by consequent Decrees and decisions of the Flemish Government. The most recent Decision of the Flemish Government relating to the VDAB dates from 10 October 2003. The provisions relate to the working of the institution, the administrative career, the leave and the administrative situation during leave, and the salary of the personnel. 7.3.5.
The Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig
Ondernemen) (VIZO) the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO) was established on the basis of the Decree of 23 January 1991. This Decree was modified by the Decree of 7 July 1998 for the modification and nullification of some provisions of Decrees and laws concerning some Flemish public institutions and for the nullification of legal provisions concerning preferential appointment at Flemish public institutions. Since 1991 a large number of Decisions of the Flemish Government were taken relating to aspects such as administrative simplification, company guidance, governing bodies, centres, finances and budget, learning secretaries, teachers, scale expansion and funding of the SYNTRA etc. (Decisions of the Flemish Government of 17 April 1991, 5 June 1991, 3 July 1991, 31 July 1991 and 14 December 2001). The most recent decision dates from 4 April 2003, and relates to the continuing training programme organised by the VIZO. 7.3.6.
Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO)
The Decree of 31 July 1990 (Education Decree II) has introduced important reforms in part-time art education. The proper structure of degrees and options of each course of study in DKO was determined. Specific organisational aspects and personnel issues within part-time art education are further regulated in 5 different Decisions of the Flemish Government of 31 July 1990. In view of the organisation of part-time art education still other decisions were taken in 1996, 1999 and 2002: •
the Decision of the Flemish Government of 15 October 1996 regulates the establishment and organisation of the department part-time art education of the Flemish Education Council;
•
The Ministerial Decision of 16 may 1999 stipulates the conditions for the apply for a programmation in part-time art education and its treatment, the conditions for the notification of a structural modification in the existing course offering in part-time art education and the infrastructure requirements for the course of study dance in part-time art education;
•
Finally, the decision of the Flemish Government of 15 July 2002 stipulates the application percentage of the number of teaching periods-teacher in part-time art education.
The Educational Decrees VI and VII of respectively 21 December 1994 and 8 July 1996 regulate again a number of personnel issues of part-time art education. The Decision for modification of 9 July 2001 created more flexible learning paths for the pupils, as well as more autonomy for school boards and teachers. Additionally, brought about an update and differentiation of the course offering.
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7.3.7.
Agricultural training programmes (landbouwvorming)
Vocational training in agriculture, which was formerly under the authority of the Minister of Agriculture, has been transferred to the responsibility of the Communities by the institutional reform Law of 8 August 1980. The original Royal Decree of 23 August 1974 concerning agricultural reform was nullified on the basis of the Decision of the Flemish Government of 21 December 1992 concerning the permanent training of people working in agriculture. This decision was further completed and modified on the basis of the Decisions of the Flemish Government of 6 July 1994 and of 13 december 1995. 7.3.8.
Social-cultural adult work (Sociaal-cultureel Volwassenenwerk)
On the basis of the Decree of 4 April 2003 (see 7.1.6.) the Flemish Community supports as from 2004 orgaisations which enable citizens to acquire competences and become emancipated. These organisations take the form of an association, movement or training institute. The Decree is limited to the social-cultural adult work. The new Decree determines how the sector social-cultural adult work is organised as from 2004, which working methods are acknowledged and can be subsidised and which conditions it should meet.
7.4.
General objectives
Each form of training promotes its own aims of education. Therefore, the below paragraphs discuss separately the aims of education and – if relevant – the teaching objectives of adult education (OSP, BIS, Basic Education), the training programmes organised by the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB), the training programmes organised by the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO), part-time art education and social-cultural adult work. 7.4.1.
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP)
The Law of 7 July 1970 has given the proper adult education its current title: Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP), as well as a wider range of functions. A distinction was made between two types of social promotion: vertical promotion or a way to make up secondary or higher education and horizontal promotion or complementary training and/or retraining for people employed in industry and other sectors of professional life. The Decree of 2 March 1999 stipulates that Social Advancement Education has the task of teaching knowledge, skills, and attitudes to the course participant for social integration, for participating in further education, for exercising a profession, or mastering a language and enabling the student to obtain a recognised certificate. The main purpose of Social Advancement Education is providing basic training and vocational retraining and, in the second place, promoting social integration. Concretely the aims of Social Advancement Education can be summarised as follows: •
1/ Offering the opportunity to obtain a recognised certificate.
•
2/ Offering the opportunity to follow further training or to complete a training.
•
3/ Improving the population’s language skills.
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
• 7.4.2.
4/ Offering opportunities for personal development and social integration. Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)
Guided Individual Studying rests on the principle of learning independent and individual regarding place, time, and rate, independent of the mentor or other course participants. Direct contact between these persons, therefore, is exceptional. Guided Individual Studying has the special aim of giving the course participants the opportunity to obtain knowledge and skills to prepare them for the examinations of full-time secondary education and examinations for the civil service organised by educational institutions and by the Examination Board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap) (Decree of 2 March 1999). In Guided Individual Studying the educational content is made available in written form or through other media (BIS Online) at the request of the course participant and according to the course participant’s own rate. 7.4.3.
Basic Education
Basic education is a form of education for adults with poor and low educational backgrounds; basic education aims at acquiring and improving basic competences which are elementary for functioning and participating in society. In art. 5 of the Decree of 12 July 1990 the aims of basic education are described as follows: ‘the improvement of elementary language and calculating skills, social skills, the broadening of the social orientation and the preparation for another training or occupation’. Basic education’s function is twofold. On the one hand an educational and course offering is worked out which meets the educational needs of the participants and which has its own objectives. Some programmes are aimed at social functioning, educational functioning or professional functioning. On the other hand basic education prepares and provides transition to other training and educational initiatives. 7.4.4.
Flemish
Service
for
Employment
and
Vocational
Training
(Vlaamse
Dienst
voor
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) The VDAB carries out a social and an economic assignment, namely bringing employer and employee together and being a reliable partner for all matters of personnel policy. In order to carry out this assignment as efficiently as possible, the VDAB offers a package of services including employment, training and education, career guidance and outplacement (see also paragraph 7.15.4.). As regards training and education two important aims of education are central: 1) offering training programmes for job seekers or employees in order to enable them to find employment or to stay employed; and 2) training of sufficient qualified labourers. Thus, the VDAB’s teaching objectives are twofold: transition of job seekers to the sector and training for employees, which is on the one hand precautionary as a weapon against possible unemployment and on the other hand pro-active in function of technological innovations (Annual report VDAB, 2002). As from 2002 the training programmes for employees at the request of employers and the training programmes for individual employees are part of the course offering of the VDAB (Annual report VDAB, 2002). The general objectives, curricula and teaching methods are strongly related with and are depending on the specific objective of a specific course or initiative. The different initiatives are divided in three groups: 1)
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
training programmes for the secondary sector; 2) training programmes for the tertiary economic sector; and 3) other more specialised initiatives for job seekers (see paragraph 7.15.4.). 7.4.5.
Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig
Ondernemen) (VIZO)
The VIZO’s aim of education is the development of general and vocational skills necessary to practice an independent profession. The VIZO is assisted by the SYNTRA training network for self-employed workers and for small and middle-sized enterprises (KMO’s). The course offering of the SYNTRA network is based on three basic principles: 1) offering permanent training with consequent levels and possibilities; 2) the system of alternate learning (alternerend leren) in which learning is alternated with working; and 3) the modular organisation of the offering, in which the participant can compose its own training according to his own level and training needs. 7.4.6.
Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO)
Part-time art education responds to the general artistic interests of the participant, gives the possibilities to develop one’s artistic ambitions, or may provide professional training, with possibilities in professional life. There are three main objectives: to practise art oneself, to learn to discover art, and to prepare youngsters to higher art education. 7.4.7.
Social-cultural adult work
Social-cultural adult work has three common general objectives, namely adding to the balanced development of each individual as active participant in society; stimulating the participants through non-formal education in the development of their competences (e.g. in the field of social integration, active citizenship, …), and finally adding to the meaningful emancipation of the participants and at the same time adding to cultural creation, to social integration and to the realisation and consolidation of a democratic society. 7.5.
Types of institution
In this paragraph we discuss the training centres of adult education (OSP, BIS and basic education), Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB), Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO), part-time art education, Vocational training in agriculture and social-cultural adult education. 7.5.1.
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP)
Social advancement education is provided by acknowledged, funded and subsidised centres for adult education, organised by community education, cities and municipalities, provinces or organisations without purpose of gain. Since the Decree of 2 March 1999 the institutions for social advancement education are called ‘centres for adult education (CVO’s). In Flanders 112 centres provide secondary education and 64 centres provide higher education (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003). A number of institutions offer secondary as well as higher education; most institutions, though, choose between the two forms of education.
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
7.5.2.
Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)
As mentioned before BIS is a service of the Flemish Community (department for education) offering distance learning. Moving is not necessary: the participant studies at home at his/her own pace and is guided in written form or through other media by a mentor who helps the participant throughout the course. Thus, BIS has no training centres. 7.5.3.
Basic Education
At this moment 29 centres for basic education are acknowledged and subsidised. The centres are independent pluralistic institutions, structured as private organisations. Beside the centres for basic education the Flemish Government established in 1990 a support and coordination centre (Vlaams Ondersteuningscentrum voor de Basiseducatie – VOCB). This centre has a specific support and development assignment. The centres are yearly acknowledged for a well-defined number of participant’s teaching periods (which means a specific volume of educational work with a number of course participants). The acknowledgement threshold for centres for basic education was fixed by Decree on 12,000 participant’s teaching periods. However, following the increased interest in basic education the smaller centres have in fact since January 1996 the disposal of a minimum acknowledgement of 15,000 participant’s teaching periods. Large centres such as Ghent, Antwerp and Brussels have an acknowledgement of 50,000 to 90,000 participant’s teaching periods (VOCB, http://www.vocb.be, 2004). After the spectacular increase in the year 2001-2002 (+ 24,39 % compared to 2000-2001) the number of course participants in basic education decreased for the first time in the year 2002-2003 (- 6,54 % compared to 2001-2002). All the traditional educational networks (community, grant-aided official, and grant-aided free) and all the different types of organisations, Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP), social-cultural education, etc.. participate in the management bodies of the local centres.
7.5.4.
Flemish
Service
for
Employment
and
Vocational
Training
(Vlaamse
Dienst
voor
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) The largest part of a VDAB training takes place in the proper VDAB centres. The VDAB has 68 training centres spread over Flanders with about 700 teachers. Throughout the country about 400 departments can be found which offer trainings for a large number of occupations in construction, metal industry, transport, chemical industry, timber and construction, textile industry, …. Beside its own training centres the VDAB acknowledges and funds three other training centres which offer VDAB courses: the VCL (Vervolmakingscentrum voor Lassers – training centre for welders), the COBOT (Centrum voor Opleiding, Bij- en Omscholing voor de Textiel- en de Breigoednijverheid – training centre for the textile industry), and the CEPA (Opleidingscentrum voor havenarbeiders in Antwerpen - training centre for dockworkers). In-company training is also possible at the request of the company. Companies in difficulty can apply for the introduction of a training in cooperation with the VDAB (Centres established in cooperation with companies) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003). In case of distance learning and web learning the studying is done at home or at work. In case of distance learning there is one face-to-face meeting with the teacher when picking up the course material in the VDAB centre. The remaining communication happens asynchronically through e-mail. In case of web learning the course material is 24 hours a day available on-line, and all guidance happens synchronically through e-mail (VDAB, http://www.VDAB.be, 2004).
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7.5.5.
Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig
Ondernemen) (VIZO) As coordinating government institution the VIZO acknowledges and subsidises the SYNTRA network. Flanders has 21 training centres for self-employed workers and small and middle-sized enterprises (KMO’s) combined in 5 regional SYNTRA-umbrellas. These centres offer training programmes for pupils with an apprenticeship agreement, as well as long-form courses for future entrepreneurs and in-service and complementary courses for established entrepreneurs. 7.5.6.
Part-time art education
The DKO is a form of education with 4 equivalent courses of study: plastic arts, music, wordcraft and dance. These courses can be followed in two types of schools: academies for plastic arts and academies for music, wordcraft and dance. Flanders has 167 institutions for part-time art education spread over three networks (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003). School population in part-time art education has considerably increased since 1994-1995. In 2002- 2003 the number of fundable pupils increased with 2,82 % compared to the previous year. 7.5.7.
Vocational training in agriculture
Vocational training in agriculture is a department of the Administration Agri- and horticulture (ALT), one of the 5 administrations of the policy field Agriculture and Fishery of the Ministry of the Flemish Community. Also the Centre for Agricultural Economy (Centrum voor Landbouweconomie) (CLE) and the Centre for Agricultural Research (Centrum voor Landbouwkundig onderzoek) (CLO) are part of Agriculture and Fishery. As mentioned before (see introduction to chapter 7) the department Agricultural Education is responsible for the Flemish Community for the permanent training of agri- and horti-cultural workers and their collaborators. Moreover, it subsidises the training activities organised by acknowledged training centres. The department is also responsible for the registration of the teachers, the inspection, the accreditation of the certificates and the payment of the compensation for social promotion of the participants. The accreditation of the organisers falls under its authority as well. Flanders has 64 acknowledged training centres, divided in three groups: 4 general centres, 50 regional
centres
and
10
amateur
organisations
(http://www2.vlaanderen.be/ned/sites/landbouw/nieuws/landvorm.html, 2004). 7.5.8.
Social-cultural adult education
The new Decree on social-cultural adult education (4 April 2003) has led to a thorough reorganisation of the landscape. Throughout Flanders 13 adult education institutes were established in as many regions. Moreover, 17 training institutes, which are specialised in a theme, were eligible for subsidies. The trade-union training institutes have created 3 federations. The same happened for the institutions for people with a handicap. Moreover, 1 (new) training institute for detainees was acknowledged.
7.6.
Geographical accessibility
We refer to paragraph 3.5. for the school distribution in Flanders in adult education and permanent education and training for young school leavers and adults, as well as for the related aspect of geographical accessibility.
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
7.7.
Admission requirements
We discuss successively the admission requirements for adult education (OSP, BIS, basic education), the VDAB, the VIZO, part-time art education, vocational training in agriculture and social-cultural adult education. 7.7.1.
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP)
A distinction can be drawn between the admission requirements for secondary and higher Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie). To be admitted to secondary education in adult education, one should be older than the age of 18. But also an adolescent can join this programme when he or she is either 16 or 15 and has followed the first two school years of full-time secondary education. Depending on the moment someone joins the educational route, a certain previous education can be recommended. Admission to the higher social advancement education programmes requires one of the following certificates: •
a “diploma“ of secondary education;
•
a
certificate
of
Complementary
Vocational
Secondary
Education
(Aanvullend
Secundair
Beroepsonderwijs) (ASBO) or a diploma of full-time Higher Education (voltijds Hoger Onderwijs); •
a certificate or diploma of technical higher secondary education or a certificate of an OSP course categorised as TSO3;
•
a diploma or certificate that by law, Decree, European directive, or international agreement is recognised to be equivalent to one of the above.
If the course participant has not got any of these certificates, but has reached the age of 21, he/she can be admitted upon passing of an entrance examination. For certain courses specific previous education is required. 7.7.2.
Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)
There are no admission requirements for Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS). Enrolment is permitted at all times. A BIS course can also be followed from abroad. 7.7.3.
Basic Education (Basiseducatie)
Only persons without a recognised certificate of lower secondary education or a certificate of the second stage of lower secondary education, and migrants who have followed education in their country of origin for maximum 10 years are admitted to the training programmes of basic education. The distinction of levels per branch of study (see 7.11.3.) does not imply that course participants have to go through all available levels. Depending on their entrance level and their learning needs they can start and leave at any level. Persons with low learning potential belong to the target group of basic education on condition that there is proof of possible learning gains. Through an assessment system – and on the basis of adapted instruments – it is decided who can join basic education and in which learning paths. The start competence, the learning competence and the learning needs of the potential course participant are probed. Moreover, the assessment should verify whether the specific form of basic education offered is a realistic option for the needs of the course participant.
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7.7.4.
Flemish
Service
for
Employment
and
Vocational
Training
(Vlaamse
Dienst
voor
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) The training programmes of the VDAB are available for each adult – without distinction of nationality – with a minimum of previous education. By means of special benefits and guidance some adults are especially stimulated to follow the courses. For certain courses higher admission requirements apply and one has to pass entrance examinations (UG, Pi-online Vademecum, 2004). 7.7.5.
Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig
Ondernemen) (VIZO) As mentioned before, the VIZO cooperates with the SYNTRA educational network for self-employed workers and small and medium-sized entreprises. Just like the VDAB, SYNTRA does not set any general admission requirements, except for certain courses. The general conditions to start in the schooling are: to be of the age of 15 and having completed the second year of secondary education or to be of the age of 16 at least. Youngsters wishing to follow the course for entrepreneurs need to have successfully finished their apprenticeship or to have followed another form of training, to be of the age of 18 at least and need to have – for some courses – adequate professional experience (Decree of 23 January 1991). 7.7.6.
Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO)
Part-time Art Education (DKO) has an hierarchical organisational structure with several levels: for example, one cannot start a specialisation course without sufficient training at a lower level. On condition that the required minimum age for the course of study is reached, a learner starts in principal in the first year of the chosen option. For transition to the next year the learner has to successfully pass the exams for the next year. There are two exceptions to this general rule. On the one hand it has been established that learners enter at age in following cases: in the lower and secondary stages of plastic arts, in the lower stage of wordcraft and in the first three years of the lower stage of dance. On the other hand it was decided that after a positive admission period a learner can/may follow a year for which he/she is not qualified according to the ‘normal’ admission requirements. Such an admission period allows the teachers to carefully observe the learner for a short or longer period (max. until 31 January). As through this method the level and learning difficulties of a learner can be much better assessed than through an entrance examination, the modified Decision of the Flemish Government of 9 July 2001 only provides for an admission period. Beside these exception rules, still other departures from the usual admission requirements ‘minimum age’ and/or ‘successful completion of the year’ are possible. 7.7.6.
Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk)
Except for certain activities of organisations aimed specifically at its own members and (management) educational initiatives aimed at voluntary and freelance collaborators of organisations, no specific admission requirements are set for the training programmes of social-cultural adult education.
7.8.
Registration and/or tuition fees
In this paragraph the registration procedure and registration fees for adult education (OSP, BIS and basic education), the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB), part-time art education and social-cultural adult education are discussed. 7.8.1.
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP)
The course participant has to pay a minimum fee for following a course. The government has fixed a registration fee that depends on the number of teaching periods of the course. The registration fee amounts to minimum 0.37 EURO and maximum 0.74 EURO per teaching period. This fee is paid for the whole year or for the complete module. The Centre for Adult Education defines freely, within the fixed boundaries, the registration fee. The centre’s regulations stipulate also for which course material beside the registration fee the real costs will be charged. Otherwise the course participants cannot be charged any other costs. 7.8.2.
Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)
For this type of training a registration fee has to be paid as from May 2000. For a written course the fee depends on the number of learning packages of the course. The price varies from 9.5 to 85.5 EURO. The moment at which one orders an information package is decisive for the price calculation. One does not have to pay extra afterwards to start a course, if payments occurs within three months after receipt of the information package. For web learning the price depends on the number of months for which one registers. Registration or prolongation is obligatory for 3 or 6 months. The fee amounts to 15.25 EURO per month and per course until 31 July 2004. The Flemish government has decided that the fee increases with 0.75 EURO per month each year on 1 August for web learning and with 0.25 EURO per learning package for the other courses. For the courses which are not offered through the internet, the course participants have to pay a registration fee after the first trial shipment and for the complete course. A course participant who stops or interrupts the studies, has no right to neither reimbursement of the registration fee nor to the learning packages he/she has not yet received. If the interruption lasts for more than a year, the registration is no longer valid. The registration remains valid until three years after payment date of the registration fee. A course participant who has followed not more than 40% of the learning packages and who transfers to another course of the same subject at the advice of his/her mentor, does not have to pay a registration fee for this course. Course participants can be excluded at the advice of their mentor for pedagogoical reasons. In this case they have no right to reimbursement of the registration fee. Web learning participants can be excluded due to improper language in the communication with fellow course participants and mentors. In this case they have no right to reimbursement of the registration fee. The course participant who makes no or partial use of the access to the course on the internet, has also no right to reimbursement of the registration fee. BIS is a service of the Flemish Government, who as a consequence can decide to change the admission requirements. Course participants are not individually informed of these changes. They are published on the website and through the usual legal channels (Decision of 8 November 2002). 7.8.3.
Basic Education (Basiseducatie)
In contradiction to Social Advancement Education and Guided Individual Studying the courses in basic education are offered for free. Only the costs for copies and course books have to be paid.
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7.8.4.
Flemish
Service
for
Employment
and
Vocational
Training
(Vlaamse
Dienst
voor
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) For unemployed job seekers all VDAB courses are for free. This also applies to the web learning, for which by the way also other categories of job seekers can be eligible for exemption from the training costs (see 7.9.4.). An employee who follows a course at his own initiative only pays a fee for the didactic course material. This fee amounts to – depending on the category of training – 25,37 or 43 EURO per day with a maximum of 250 EURO per course. For web learning the complete fee varies from 30 to 360 EURO (depending on the course). For employers the fee depends on the chosen training programme, the duration, the training place (company or VDAB centre), the number of participants, etc. The fee is fixed in a contract after negotiation with the person responsible for the training in the VDAB centre involved. In principal the fee for a training for employees at the request of the employer varies from 99 to 161 EURO per participant per day (depending on the course).. 7.8.5.
Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs)
Part-time Art Education courses do not come under the compulsory education system. Consequently, a registration fee has to be paid. This registration fee amounted to 49 EURO on 1 October 2003 for youngsters (reduced fee: 32 EURO) and 160 EURO for adults (reduced fee: 92 EURO). This amount is paid to the Department for Education (Circular Letter PV/2003/01 (DKO)). 7.8.6.
Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk)
For participation in the course programmes of social-cultural adult education usuaaly a small fee is charged. The fee is determined by the organiser itself. 7.9.
Financial support for learners
In Flanders different types of grants for course participants exist within the totality of course programmes for young school leavers and adults (including adult education). The government has taken such measures in order to stimulate lifelong and lifewide learning of adults. The most important types are the system of paid educational leave (see paragraph 7.3.) and the system of education vouchers for employers on the one hand and education and guidance vouchers for employees on the other hand (see also paragraph 7.4.4.). As already mentioned in paragraph 7.3., the system of paid educational leave offers employees the opportunity to follow courses with a relatively high number of teaching periods per year and at the same time to enjoy a certain form of financial compensation for the loss of income. Moreover, the Flemish Government set up a system of education vouchers to encourage enterprises to invest in training (Decision of 14 December 2001). An education voucher for employers has a value of 30 EURO, of which 50% is paid by the enterprise and 50% by the Flemish Government. With these vouchers enterprises can pay trainings of acknowledged training providers. The target group consists of small, medium-sized and large enterprises and a number of free professions. Conditions are that the enterprise: 1) has a seat in the Flemish region, 2) is active in an acceptable sector and 3) is no organisation without purpose of gain. Education vouchers have to be applied for before the training starts. Once the education vouchers have been received, one of the employees of the enterprise has to follow a training at an acknowledged training centre within the 12 months following the issuing of the vouchers. On 19 July 2002 the Decision of 14 december 2001 was modified. The list
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
of acceptable sectors was expanded with the nutrition and transport sectors, as well as the sector of the private training providers. The modalities for cashing the vouchers for the training providers were adapted as well. Not only employers but also employees (living in Flanders or the Brussels region) can make use of the education and guidance vouchers of the Flemish government on the basis of the above cited decision. With these vouchers a training as well as career guidance can be paid. Condition is that the training is followed at one’s own initiative, in an acknowledged training centre and outside normal working hours. The education vouchers for employees can for the same training not be cumulated with the education vouchers for employers. Only the direct costs (registration fee, course material, exams or tests, …) are reimbursed to the employee. For each training paid with education vouchers the Flemish government pays half of the voucher’s value. Other encouraging measures are among others the sector funds and the power credit which subsidises training for employees, job seekers and self-employed workers within the framework of an innovation in the enterprise. This credit subsidises 27.5% of the total project cost (exclusive the wages costs of the participants). 7.9.1.
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP)
In certain cases exemption from the resgitration fee is possible, for persons with a minimum income, job seekers or unemployed with a compensation, obligatory registered job seekers (except for early pensioners), voluntarily registered unemployed job seekers older than 25 years, disabled persons, persons engaged in a procedure for recognition as political refugee or already recognised as political refugee, prisoners in a Belgian penitentiary, part-time or full-time youngsters of statutory school age, course participants in the study field Dutch as second language (stage 1 and 2), course participants in the study field General education (formerly ‘second chance education’) and persons who have followed at least two years of basic education (exemption for a period of four consecutive school years). Students in social advancement higher education are not eligible for a study allowance. 7.9.2.
Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)
Exemption form payment is possible for detainees and for course participants preparing for exams organised by the Board of Examinations of the Flemish Community. 7.9.3.
Basic Education (Basiseducatie)
Course participants in basic education pay no registration fee, only the costs for copies and course books. Paid educational leave is possible. 7.9.4.
Flemish
Service
for
Employment
and
Vocational
Training
(Vlaamse
Dienst
voor
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) In order to encourage the training policy of enterprises, the Flemish, federal and European governments have taken a number of financial encouraging measures (paid educational leave, power credit, education vouchers, etc.). Within the framework of these measures, the VDAB offers several services, such as the close follow-up of modifications and new measures, the provision of as much information as possible (through information sessions, mailings, …), the provision of advice and assistance in making up application dossiers for subsidies and the actual opening of application dossiers for subsidies (VDAB, http://www.vdab.be, 2004). On specific
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
conditions the employer can benefit from reductions of the training fee or even from exemption from payment. As mentioned before, there are also education vouchers for employers and education and guidance vouchers for employees (see paragraph 7.9.). In paragraph 7.8.4. it was already mentioned that web learning is for free for job seekers with full compensation. Also other categories of job seekers are eligible for free web learning. 7.9.5.
Part-time art education (deeltijds kunstonderwijs) (DKO)
In part-time art education there is a system of ‘social reduction’ or ‘reduced fee’ (see also paragraph 7.8.5.). For the reduced registration fee the pupil has to submit (Decree of 31 July 1990) an attestation which proofs that he/she (1) is unemployed with full compensation or living at the expense of an unemployed with full compensation; or (2) is obligatory registered as job seeker, receives the minimum income or is living at the expense of a person in either one of the two previous categories; or (3) is disabled with a incapacity for work of at least 66%, has the right to a compensation as disabled, or is living at the expense of a person in either one of the two previous categories; or (4) is living in a relief centre or in a medical-pedagogical institution; or (5) is a recognised political refugee or is living at the expense of such a person; or (6) is receiving a compensation from the Child Allowance Fund, if he/she is older than 18. A pupil who has not reached the age of 18 on 31 December of the relevant school year pays a reduced registration fee, if another member of the family has already paid the registration fee in the same or in another centre; and/or for each extra registration in another course of study in the same or another centre. 7.9.6.
Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk)
Organisations usually have reduced fees for their own members, and training institutions often take into account the (family) income and/or family or working situation of participants when determining the registration fees.
7.10.
Main areas of specialisation
In this paragraph we discuss the most important branches of study and specializations within adult education (OSP, BIS and basic education), Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB), Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO), part-time art education, vocational training in agriculture and social-cultural adult education. 7.10.1.
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP)
Social Advancement Education offers a wide and diversified range of training programmes. It is organised at the level of secondary education (31 branches of study) and at the level of short-form higher education (7 categories). The branches of study of the level secondary education are: general education (‘second chance education’), auto mechanics, business administration, book-binding, construction, chemistry, decoration, diamond cutting, photography, printing technology, commerce, woodworking, domestic training, juwelry, lace work, heat and cooling, agri- and horticulture, leather training, personal care, naval training, mechanicselectricity, furniture restauration and wood carving, building of musical instruments, Dutch as second language (NT2), orthopaedics, caring, forging, languages, textile, tourism and nutrition. Social advancement higher education is divided into 7 categories, which are again divided in a number of course programmes
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
(‘departments’). These categories are: short-form higher art education, short-form economic higher education, short-form paramedical higher education, short-form pedagogical higher education, short-form social higher education, short-form technical higher education and technical higher education 2nd stage. Despite the wide range of course programmes, certain courses cannot be followed in social advancement education (e.g. paramedical basic courses, training for (pre-school) teacher, etc. ). On the other hand social advancement education offers a number of courses that cannot be followed in full-time education (e.g. course ‘polyvalent caring’). 7.10.2.
Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)
All major subjects, based on the existing curricula in ordinary secondary and higher education, are available for students in Guided Individual Studying. The offer of written courses comprises the categories foreign languages (French, English, German, Spanish, Intalian and Portuguese), Dutch (a.o. Dutch for foreign speakers), informatics, economy, human sciences, law, technics and other (memory training, mathematics and basic course prevention advisor). At this moment (Spring 2004) BIS Online also offers the language courses Spanish for beginners, advanced English, Dutch for foreign speakers (advanced) and advanced French. Each course offers several levels but not all levels are available yet. Finally, a number of courses prepare for the exams of the Board of Examinations of the Flemish Community: languages, informatics, economy, sciences, human sciences, mathematics. 7.10.3.
Basic Education (Basiseducatie)
Basic education is organised at the level of primary education and the first stage of secondary education. As such basic education is defined as a range of specific training programmes following or within the existing branches of study in adult education. Basic education comprises following courses: Dutch as native language (NT1), Dutch as second language (NT2), alphabetisation in the native language: Turkish and Arabic (Alfa NT2), ICT, social orientation (MO), mathematics (WISK) (wiskunde) and basic courses for French and English. 7.10.4.
Flemish
Service
for
Employment
and
Vocational
Training
(Vlaamse
Dienst
voor
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) The VDAB organises hundreds of practical oriented training programmes, in almost all possible professional fields: from PC training and welding to fork-lift truck driver and Dutch on the workfloor for foreign employees. Moreover these training programmes are completely tailor-made and very flexible. The participants decide themselves on time (during working hours, in the evening or on Saturday) and place of a course. To correspond as good as possible with the professional reality the courses are organised in close cooperation with the professional world. This results in various organisational forms such as collective training VDAB training centres, apprenticeships in enterprises, collective training in enterprises, courses in an acknowledged centre, individual vocantional trainings in an enterprise or educational institution, open learning, distance learning and web learning (VDAB, http://www.VDAB.be, 2004).
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
7.10.5.
Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig
Ondernemen) (VIZO) There are five types of training programmes for the acquirement of the necessary skills for practising an independent profession: schooling, entrepreneurial training linked to an apprenticeship contract, in-service training or the tailor-made training. VIZO also organises courses in business administration for obtaining a licence to establish a business. Apprenticeship (leertijd) is a vocational training programme for youngsters as from 15 years who have followed the first two years of secondary education, or as from 16 years, and who can learn the basic skills necessary to work in a company through an apprenticeship contract. An apprenticeship contract is a contract of fixed duration in which a company/supervisor commits himself to train the pupil in a profession, and in which the pupil commits himself to follow the training under the guidance of this supervisor and to follow additionally the necessary theoretical courses. The theoretical course programme comprises of social-oriented (120 teaching periods per year + 120 supplementary periods for 15 year old youngsters) and vocational subjects (120 teaching periods per year). Moreover complementary language courses can be organised as well as complementary courses within the social-oriented and the vocational subjects (VIZO, http://www.vizo.be, 2004 - brochure Wegwijs in Leertijd). An entrepreneurial training prepares the participants for the general, technical, commercial, financial and adminitrative management of an independent profession or a small or medium-sized enterprise (upto 50 employees). The entrepreneurial training consists of a theoretical and practical course programme (or a complementary practical training). The in-service and completion training programmes for independent entrpreneurs, small and medium-sized enterprises and their close collaborators comprise of programmes on very specific professional techniques (new evolutions and technology); general programmes on current topics for SME’s, on themes of business administration and SME management; seminars on new regulations for SME’s; specific language courses for SME’s in which especially company-related conversational skills are mastered; refreshing courses for established entrepreneurs who want to be kept informed of certain developments in their profession or in general management; and certified in-service training. As the course offer of the SYNTRA centres do not cover all educational needs, training programmes are tailormade. Such a tailor-made training programme can be drawn up exclusively for an enterprise in one of the SYNTRA educational centres, in the relevant enterprise or elsewhere. The educational SYNTRA consultants map out a global educational plan which contributes to the improvement of the employees’ competences and thus to the company’s benefit. 7.10.6.
Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs)
DKO is a form of education with four equivalent branches of study: plastic arts, music, wordcraft and dance. Each branch of study has its own structure with stages (lower stage, middle stage and higher stage and possibly specialization stage) and options which are defined in the organisational decisions of 31 July 1990. In view of some updating and flexibilisation of the DKO structure, the organisational decisions concerning DKO were often modified (see paragraph 7.3.7.). In this respect the modifying decision of 9 July 2001 has to be mentioned. This
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
decision has among other has expanded the number of courses offered with a number of new subjects and options: e.g. Jazz and easy listening, digital visual arts, dance, literary skills. 7.10.7.
Vocational training in agriculture (Landbouwvorming)
The Department Agri- and Horticultural Training (Administration Agri- and horticulture – policy field agriculture and fishery – department Economy, Employment and internal Affairs) subsidises courses, short educational activities ans lectures organised by the acknowledged educational centres. The courses are either Bcourses (training for beginners in agri- and horticulture) or educational courses (C-courses). These C-courses consist of minimum 20 teaching periods, can be theoretical or practical and are aimed at agri- and horticultural workers. The offer is very varied, such as computer courses, courses in artificial insemination for cattle, cattle pedicure, courses in recognised use of phytoproducts, etc. The C-courses make up the largest number of teaching periods in vocational training in agriculture. There are three types of short educational activities: firstly, the activities for continuing education of farmers, organised as short educational activities of 3 hours with a social, legal, technical or economic theme (educational meetings, panel debates and guided visits); secondly, the yearly meetings of agricultural responsibles of the general centres; and thirdly, the in-service training days. These are activities of minimum 4 hours for further training of teachers in agricultural vocational education. Finally, the Department Agri- and Horticultural Training also subsidizes lectures, which are information meetings for amateurs
oragised
by
acknowledged
amateur
organisations
(http://www2.vlaanderen.be/ned/sites/landbouw/nieuws/landvorm.html, 2004). 7.10.8.
Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk)
The offer of educational activities by social-cultural adult organisations is very varied. The classification per theme of the more than 4,500 activities which were entered in the database ‘Prettig Geleerd’ ( a database of social-cultural activities) illustrates this diversity: art education (12 %), health, caring and sports (11%), creativity and expression (7%), society and politics (6%), intercultural education (6%), ethics and philosophy (6%), work and career (5%), computer, media and information (5%), interpersonal relations (4%), upbringin and education (4%), social and communication skills (4%), popular culture and hobby (3%), consumers training (3%), nature and environment (3%), tourism (3%), languages (1%) and sciences and technics (1%) and other themes (4%). It has to be mentioned that this concerns activities organised by supra-local organisations, eductional institutions and services. The local activities of the departments of these organisations are not included in the database.
7.11.
Teaching methods
In this paragraph we discuss the teaching methods and teaching aids of adult education (OSP, BIS and basic education), the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB), the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO), part-time art education and social-cultural adult education.
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
7.11.1.
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP)
The decision on teaching methods belongs to the freedom of the organising bodies (inrichtende machten). Consequently, there are no official guidelines. The Decree of 2 March 1999 makes a distinction between three categories of education, namely contact education, distance education and combined education. Two organisational models are being used: 1) linear courses that cover one school year or more. Lessons are given 32 to 40 weeks from the beginning of September until the end of June; and 2) the modular system – based on the notion of ‘capitalizable units’ – which was introduced in 1987 (KB of 6 November 1987) following the meager success of the linear system. In a modular system the educational matter is divided in a number of modules in which theoretical and practical subjects are integrated. Further divisions in units enables the course participant to define his/her own educational package. The course participant also determines himself the durantion of his training. A modular course can cover one school year or part of one year. These courses have different starting dates. Each Adult Education Centre (Centrum voor Volwassenenonderwijs) is free to determine the scheduling of the courses. 7.11.2.
Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren (BIS)
Distance training programmes use mass education but are at the same time individualised. The classic BIS training uses a written form of education, printed course books combined with the necessary didactic material. As well as many solved examples, each lesson includes a task that must be sent back to the service, accompanied, if necessary, by questions or requests for additional explanations and information. These tasks are returned to the student with corrections and comments, and, if required, by a typical example giving a correct version of the answer. In the case of modern language courses, cassettes are generally used. BIS Online uses obviously on line courses. Just as for the written courses, tasks have to be carried out, namely one task per 5 to 10 lessons, which have to be sent to the personal mentor for evaluation. The mentor can be consulted for further explanation and information as well. The communication between course participant and mentor is established through BIS, the discussion forums and the tasks, or through other channels offered by BIS Online. Online, http://www.bisonline.be, 2004). 7.11.3.
Basic Education (Basiseducatie)
The final objectives of basic education are similar to the ones of normal education but they are reached through a proper pedagogical didactic teaching method. The focus is mainly on teaching key competences, studying skills and guidance of course participants, beside conveying knowledge and skills. The Decree concerning education XIV (February 2003) has increased the budget of the Flemish Support Centre for Adult Basic Education for the next 3 years. The Centre has been asked to develop a proposal for a modular system. In 2002, the resources for basic education were already increased by 10% in order to give the centres additional educational scope (education department, 2002). 7.11.4.
Flemish
Service
for
Employment
and
Vocational
Training
(Vlaamse
Dienst
voor
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) Four teaching methods can be distinguished within the VDAB training programmes: group learning, open learning, distance learning and weblearning. In the first teaching method the course is followed in group under
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
the guidance of an instructor, at fixed moments in time and with a common learning path for the participants (whole class instruction in a VDAB-centre or in a company). In open learning the total course is followed individually in a VDAB-centre or in a company guided by an instructor and making use of a wide range of teaching aids (CD-rom, video, self-study packages). This is self-study with direct guidance, on appointment when it suits the course participant. In distance learning the course participant follows the course (course book, disk or CD-rom) at his own pace at home or at work. The course participant collects the course package in the VDAB-centre and discusses with the instructor the teaching method. For questions and feedback the participant can always contact the personal mentor through e-mail (asynchronically: answer within 24 hours). Distance learning combines in other words guided self-study with computer-aided learning. Finally, in weblearning the course material is online available 24 hours per day and the participant can count on synchronical guidance per e-mail. The course participant studies online at his/her own pace at home or at work (VDAB, http://www.VDAB.be, 2004). 7.11.5.
The Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig
Ondernemen) (VIZO) We discuss consecutively the system of apprenticeship (leertijd), the entrepreneurial training (incl. apprenticeship contract), in-service training (bijscholing) and tailor-made training. As mentioned before (see paragraph 7.10.5.2.) the system of apprenticeship is a form of alternating training: a practical training (4 days per week) with a self-employed or in a small or medium-sized enterprise is linked to a theoretical training (1 day per week) in a SYNTRA training centre. In the system of apprenticeship a distinction can be made between general social-oriented education and vocational education. In the latter the objective is to offer vocational training applying the principle of ‘the arguing practice’. This didactic principle is desribed by VIZO as “the ideal combination of on the one hand practical demonstrations and on the other hand the aloud thinking and learning process of the learners with the help of the teacher”. In the social-oriented course programme the learners’ personality is developed through thematic project work and separate training moments for language and calculating skills. The educational objectives are specifically social-oriented: responsible self-development, responsible family and professional life, citizenship and world citizenship. Within the social-oriented as well as within the vocational course programmes complementary courses can be organised. More specifically the remedial teaching for learners who are disadvantaged in learning. As some yougsters do not fit in a normal class group because of character, pscychological or social circumstances, a number of these learners are intensively and individually guided in a smaller group as from 1988-1989. As mentioned before, the entrepreneur training consists of theoretical and practical courses and practical training. The in-service and complementary course programmes for entrepreneurs, SME’s and their close collaborators consist, as mentioned before, of general and specific/thematic programmes, seminars, specific language courses, refresher courses, etc. (see paragraph 7.10.5.4.). As regards tailor-made training programmes, educational consultants map out a global educational plan in steps, which meets as closely as possible the personal needs and ambitions of the (management of the) company.
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The entrepreneurial training and other training programmes apply the principle of the arguing practice. The larger part of the course participants is already professionally active and gains daily professional experience. For course participants who are not able to but nevertheless wish to attend an entrepreneur training, the apprenticeship contract or the in-service training is available. 7.11.6.
Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO)
The decision on methods belongs to the freedom of the organising bodies (inrichtende machten). Consequently, there are no official guidelines, although small groups and even individual teaching are common. 7.11.7.
Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk)
In social-cultural adult education the teaching methods are defined by the applied intervention strategy. The most important intervention strategies of social)cultural adult education are: •
The creation of a context in which course participants can study in an informal way in interaction with others and/or through self-study, as well as the informal guidance of participants (i.e. types of guidance of learning paths, which are not linked to preliminary externally fixed programmes and attainment targets);
•
The social motivation of people concerning various collective issues and themes aiming at integration and/or participation in society;
•
The stimulation of human interaction;
•
The creation of a context in which cultural expression, the giving of meaning and the creation of symbols is possible and encouraged.
Social-cultural adult education has a non-formal educational function, with the focus on informal learning that stimulates incidental as well as intentional learning. In social-cultural adult education interventions and guidance are not considered as a transfer from mentor to the individual. On the contrary, the course participant is an active partner, who assists in another way in determining the content and the teaching method of the programmes, projects and activities.
7.12. Trainers In this paragraph we discuss the persons (trainers, course providers, instructors, …) that concretely provide education for young school leavers and adults in Flanders. In the Flemish Community the schooling of trainers within the continuing education for young school leavers and adults (including adult education) is almost completely integrated in the educational programmes for teachers. Trainers within this continuing education normally have a diploma of teacher. Four exceptions, however, are to be mentioned: •
the
Flemish
Service
for
Employment
and
Vocational
Training
(Vlaamse
Dienst
voor
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) has its own centre for pedagogical training and study; •
the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO) organises for the trainers on the one hand an initial in-service training with focus on pedagogical-didactic elements and on the other hand periodical in-service trainings with focus on subject-related or pedagogical-didactic elements; and for the company leaders the so-called Estafette training;
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
•
the Flemish Community also provides training courses for instructors and teachers in the agricultural sector;
•
for the Basic Adult Education (basiseducatie) a special complementary course in tertiary education (voortgezette opleiding) for teachers is offered by some colleges of higher education (see 7.12.3.).
In these four cases the personnel is not appointed as teaching staff and not paid by the Department for Education of the Ministry of the Flemish Commnity. They become civil servants assigned to one of the services listed. Trainers in the SYNTRA-network, however, are appointed and have an employee contract. Beside pedagogically educated persons, in many cases experts from business or administrations are invited as lecturers for a few presentations or as teachers responsible for a particular course. In most of those cases their expertise is recognised as qualification to teach. In that case no further teacher-training certificates are required as conditions for an appointment. Determinative for the selection of the teachers is their experience. In the absence of candidates with experience, other experts can be appointed. 7.12.1.
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP)
The status of the teaching staff in the OSP is regulated by the Decrees legal position (27 March 1991). Their legal status and qualifications are similar to the conditions in ordinary secondary and education of colleges of higher education 7.12.2.
Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)
The teaching staff, both those who plan the courses and those who correct the tasks, are all specialist teachers in the particular subject being taught. In the case of administrative subjects, the teachers are all top-ranking civil servants. The tutor evaluates the progress of the student and gives educational advice to the course participant. The Flemish Government appoints the tutor for a renewable term of two years. The tutors are either selected from teachers who have in the previous two years been teaching in at least part-time education in a recognised instruction centre or from trainers who have at least in the previous two years been teaching in a training institute recognised or established by the Flemish Community. In the absence of candidates with experience in an instruction or training institute, it is possible to appoint other experts. As to the preparation of the examinations for the civil service, tutors can also be chosen from among the civil servants of level A of a public administration or of an equivalent level (Decree of 2 March 1999). 7.12.3.
Basic Education (Basiseducatie)
The centres for basic education are professional organisations, each with a team of educational collaborators. The assignment of the educational staff is directed at teaching itself and guiding course participants; there is also a clear distinction between the function of coordiator and of educational staff member. Each centre also disposes of one or more administrative collaborators. More than 500 professionals are employed in the centres as trainer (educational staff member) or in a coordinating or administrative function. Gradually the tasks of the staff members in the centres were more specified. Following functions are distinguished at this moment: coordinator, educational staff member with teaching assignment, educational staff member without teaching assignment, administrative staff member with policy responsibility and executive administrative staff member. An obligatory in-service training for educational staff members Between 1992 and 1995 this training was by means of experiment consigned to the Flemish Support Centre for Basic Education (VOCB). Since 1996 the obligatory in-
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service training is organised as higher teacher training (Decree of 16 April 1996), which is offered by two Flemish colleges of higher education. This training consists of contact modules, guided practical training and self-study. The staff members do not have the status of teachers. 7.12.4.
Flemish
Service
for
Employment
and
Vocational
Training
(Vlaamse
Dienst
voor
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) Although the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) has its own centre for pedagogical training and study, the VDAB-centres recruit trainers who have been trained as teachers. 7.12.5.
Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig
Ondernemen) (VIZO) As mentioned in the introduction to paragraph 7.12., the VIZO organises for the trainers in the first place an initial in-service training of 120 teaching periods, in which the focus is on pedagogical-didactic elements. Besides, periodical in-service trainings are orgaised regularly in which the focus is on subject-related elements, or specific aspects of the pedagogical-didactic approach. For the company leaders (who instruct the youngster 4 days a week) the Estafette trainings are provided, in which the focus is primarily on instructing and coaching youngsters and dealing with conflict. 7.12.6.
Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO)
Trainers in DKO need to submit a specific required certificate of competence. For almost all subjects in DKO these required proofs of competence are determined: specific basic diplomas of art education, completed with a teacher training. Since 1 September 2002 also other certificates of competence are accepted as sufficient: general basic diplomas, usually of art education, completed with a teacher training. In exceptional cases experience may be regarded as certificate of competence and lead to a full-time appointment (Circular letter PV/2002/07). 7.12.7.
Vocational training in agriculture (Landbouwvorming)
Although the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) also provides training courses for instructors and teachers, the centres recruit trainers with a teacher‘s diploma. 7.12.8.
Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk)
The educational staff members of social-cultural organisations do not need to have a specific diploma. The basic training ‘social-agogic education’ organised by the social colleges of higher education and the branch of study ‘social (ped)agogics at university level are suitable trainings. SoCiuS, the information centre for social-cultural education, organises yearly an introductory course of several days for new collaborators in social-cultural organisations and takes care of the organisation of and the access to an adequate offer of in-service training. The organisations provide themselves training for their voluntary and freelance trainers. Orgaisations as well as educational institutions appeal to secialised experts.
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
7.13.
Learner assessment/progression
After a short introduction on the Examination Board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap) we go more deeply into the evaluation of course participants in adult education (OSP, BIS and basic education), the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB), the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO), part-time art education and social-cultural adult education. The Examination Board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap) enables people to obtain, without attending normal secondary schools and courses, the certificates of the first and second stage of secondary education, as well as the “Diploma of Secondary Education” (certificate after the third stage of secondary education). A basic education certificate can also be obtained via the Examination Board. Since September 2002, the age for participation has been reduced from 11 to 9 years in a move to give highly gifted pupils the opportunity to obtain this certificate at a younger age. (Decree concerning Education XIII art. 19 and the Decision of September 2002). Since the school year 2000-2001 CVO’s can act as decentralised examination boards. Also students of higher education can obtain a degree without attending lessons: •
first section (eerste afdeling) for the first and second stage of secondary education;
•
second section (tweede afdeling) for the assignment of the Diploma of Secondary Education (Diploma Secundair Onderwijs) based upon a general academic oriented study;
•
third section (derde afdeling): Diploma of Secondary Education based upon a technical, art or vocationoriented study;
•
fourth section (vierde afdeling) Diploma of nursing.
This examination board used to consist of separate bodies for higher education as well but they have been abolished. However this does not mean there are no Examination Boards of the Flemish Community (Examencommissies van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap) for higher education. They are now part of the concerning university or college of higher education (hogeschool). Every candidate is now entitled to take part in the higher education examinations of any college of higher education (hogeschool) or university without regularly attending all the classes. He or she will have to register as non-enrolled student. Doing exams for the Examination Board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap) is an alternative and exceptional way to obtain a university degree or a degree of a college of higher education (hogeschool) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001f). For the preparation and correction of the exams, teachers from secondary education are invited to join the different sections. Civil servants may pass administrative exams for different levels of promotion at the “Selor“, a selection office of the Belgian government (see: http://www.selor.be). 7.13.1.
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP)
A Centre for Adult Education has to organise at least one exam at the end of each module in the modular system. In the linear system the centre has to organise at least one exam for each subject at the end of the school year. (Decree of 2 March 1999).
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
7.13.2.
Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)
BIS (Online) offers (on line) guided courses but organises no exams. During the course of the programme each course participant is assigned a mentor who corrects among others the tasks and who evaluates and marks them objectvely and motivated. The mentor also evaulates the participant’s progression and gives pedagogical advice. The time needed to finish a written BIS-course depends on several factors: the number of learning packages per course, the volume per learning package, the degree of difficulty of the educational matter, the study time at the disposal of the participant, … There is no obligatory time frame in which a BIS-course has to be finished. A registration remains valid for only 3 years, and the course participant is expected carry out one task per year. The online courses as well can be followed at one’s own pace. 7.13.3.
Basic Education
Throughout the training course participants are intensively guided at their level. The course offer of the branches of study mentioned in paragraph 7.10.3. comprise several levels which follow closely the different entrance levels of the course participants. Generally, within the system of levels, a distinction is made between an elementary basis (level 1 and 2) and a level of broadening and deepening (level 3 and 4). The organisation in levels of the branch of study does not imply that the course participants have to go through all four levels. Depending on their entrance level and their educational needs they can enter and leave at any level. A few times per
year
participants
can
enter.
(VOCB,
http://www.vocb.be,
2004;
Centra
voor
basiseducatie,
http://www.basiseducatie.be, 2004). 7.13.4.
Flemish
Service
for
Employment
and
Vocational
Training
(Vlaamse
Dienst
voor
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) There is no formal evaluation in this form of education. Nor is there a fixed moment on which the courses start or finish, and the duration varies from course to course. 7.13.5.
the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig
Ondernemen) (VIZO) Below we briefly discuss the evaluation system in the system of apprenticeship of VIZO. An apprenticeship training usually takes 3 years. Depending on the age and previous education a shorter training is possible. During the apprenticeship learners are permanently evaluated, which means that the youngsters, beside the transition exam and the final exam, are also assessed by means of interim evaluations related to the performance at the tutor’s company (4 days per week). The progression of the practical training is also assessed. The transition exam is organised at the end of the first and the second year. The final exam takes place in the last year of the apprenticeship. The final exam consists of an integrated practical test (the so-called C-test) in which the learner has to prove he/she masters the vocational and the general subjects. The learner that does not pass the exams for the social-oriented and/or vocational subjects, gets the opportunity to take a second exam in the same year. A second integrated practical test is only possible in the next year.
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
7.13.6.
Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO)
In the course of the school year an evaluation is made in writing of each learner at the academies for music, wordcraft and dance and at the academies for plastic arts minimally twice a year, which is submitted to the learner by means of an evaluation form. Within the academies for plastic arts transition exams or final exams are organised between 1 June and 30 June at the end of the lower stage, at the end of the fifth and sixth year of the middle stage and at the end of each year of the other stages. The final examinations are organised in the last year of the middle stage, of the higher stage and of the specialisation stage. Within the academies for music, wordcraft and dance transition and final exams are organised between 15 May and 30 June. Here the final exams are organised in the last year of each stage; the transition exams in the other years. Occasional or partial exams may be organised upon request to the inspectorate. For certain subjects no exams are organised, or there is no obligation to take transition exams. Between 15 August and 15 September delayed exams are organised for all subjects for the learners who have for a legitimate reason not participated in the exams at the end of the year. The organising body may decide to organise second examinations as well during this period. The learners are obliged to participate in the exams organised at the end of the year in which they are registered. The learners who have not attended 1/3 of the classes without a legitimate reason, are not allowed to the exams and have therefore not passed. 7.13.7.
Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk)
Characteristic is the lack of any form of formal evaluation of the course participants. The training institutes do sometimes make a self-evaluation, for the benefit of the participants as well as to the their own benefit.
7.14.
Certification
In this paragraph we go more deeply into the certification within adult education (OSP, BIS and basic education), the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB), the Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO), part-time art education, vocational training in agriculture and social-cultural adult education. 7.14.1.
Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP)
There are different types of certificates in Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP), each linked to different study results: an attestation, a partial certificate, a certificate, a certificate of competence and a diploma. An attestation ratifies a unity of modules in the according ot the preliminary structural schemes modularly organised education. A partial certificate ratifies a (sub) module in modular education. Apart from a few exceptions, a certificate ratifies a modular course or option. A certificate of competence ratifies a course programme of pedagogical higher education and a linear course or option (except for the options of the general education course programme ASO of the third stage of the branch of study general education). A diploma ratifies: 1) an option of the general education course programme ASO of the third stage of the branch of study general education; 2) a general education course programme TSO or BSO of the third stage of the branch of study general education, combined with a certificate or a certificate of competence of a course or
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
option of the third stage of another branch of study, insofar as this diploma is issued in full-time secondary education; 3) a course programme TSO or BSO of the third stage of another branch of study than general education, if the course participant at enrolment is holder of a diploma of secondary education insofar as this newly acquired diploma can be issued in full-time secondary education; and a course in higher education except for pedagogical higher education. The Decree on education XIV (February 2003) provides for the simplification and harmonisation of terminology used on certificates issued by the compulsory education and adult education sectors. In a transitional period, a supplement may be added to the certificate stating the former title and that the qualification is of equal value (Flemish government press release 2003). 7.14.2.
Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS)
If all tasks of a BIS-course are carried out, an attestation is issued automatically at the end. However, this is not an accredited proof of study. Indirectly BIS does contribute to the acquirement of accredited certificates. BIS offers a course programme in which a European Computer Driving License (Europees Computer Rijbewijs) (ECDL) can be obtained, or a certificate Prevention and Safety at Work (Preventie en Bescherming op het Werk). A number of BIS-courses were also introduced as a preparation for selection exams for statutory personnel and for promotion exams of Selor, the selection office of the federal government. Moreover, courses are offered to prepare for exams of the Examinations Board of the Flemish Community, general secondary education (ASO), formerly called “middenjury� (Decree of 2 March 1999 for regulating a number of issues in adult education; Ministry of the Flemish Community, http//www.ond.vlaanderen.be, 2004). 7.14.3.
Basic Education (basiseducatie)
The course structure of basic education provides a system of certification in which a module entitles to a partial certificate and a course is ratified with a certificate. Courses can be offered until the level of the first stage of secondary education, taking into account the specific target group. This is the case for Dutch as native language, mathematics and social orientation. These courses belong to the so-called analogue offer and lead to a certificate. The other courses are classified as non-analogue: Dutch as second language, alphabetisation in the proper language, ICT and the entrance courses French and English. The non-analogue offer leads to (partial) certificates which provide access to a higher level of the same course at a centre for adult education (CVO) or another training provider. 7.14.4.
Flemish
Service
for
Employment
and
Vocational
Training
(Vlaamse
Dienst
voor
Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) Participants may obtain a certificate for certain courses they have attended (in weblearning a certificate is always issued). These certificates have no formal or legal value: they are not recognised as equivalent to accredited proofs of study from the formal education sector.
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
7.14.5.
Flemish Institute for the Independent Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig
Ondernemen) (VIZO) On successful completion of the apprenticeship, the apprentice receives a certificate that gives him/her access to the entrepreneur training. With this certificate, one also meets certain establishment requirements concerning professional knowledge of the regulated professions. This certificate is not, however, equivalent to a diploma of full-time secondary education. On successful completion of an entrepreneur training, the learner receives a diploma that meets the legal establishment requirements. Besides one receives a certificate of basic knowledge of business administration, complying with the programme law on the requirements of business administration (VIZO, http://www.vizo.be, 2004). Certain courses offer the opportunity to obtain of officially recognised certificates/diploma (Syntra Provinces Antwerpen and Vlaams Brabant vzw, http://www.syntra-ab.be, 2004). 7.14.6.
Part-time art education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO)
On successful completion of each year and each stage the learner receives respectively a final attestation and a certificate (of competence). This document has no formal or legal value but only proofs a certain level of education. The training does ofcourse offer youngsters, who wish to start a course within higher art education, a steady base (e.g. Music Conservatory, theatre and cabaret courses, dance courses) (Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, 2001). In some cases the certificates issued are equivalent to the certificates of secondary education. 7.14.7.
Vocational Training in Agriculture (Landbouwvorming)
On successful completion of a number of courses, one obtains an installation attestation for the benfit of the Flemish Agricultural Investment Fund (Vlaams Landbouwinvesteringsfonds). The Chambers of Commerce and Industry (Kamers van Ambachten en Neringen) accept the installation attestation as sufficient proof of basic knowledge of business administration for obtainal of a trade register number. An installation attestation is obligatory as from 1 January 1997 for persons who do not hold a diploma of a full cycle in agri- or horticultural education of minimally the level higher secondary education (thus also after lower secondary agri- and horticultural education or 4 years vocational secondary education) and wish to appeal to the compensations of the Flemish Agricultural Investment Fund for the first installation as agri- or horticultural company (Ministry of the
Flemish
Community,
policy
field
Agriculture
&
Fishery,
http://www2.vlaanderen.be/ned/sites/landbouw/nieuws/landvorm.html, 2004). 7.14.8.
Social-cultural adult education (Sociaal-cultureel volwassenenwerk)
Participants can at their own request and/or initiative receive a proof of attendance from the organisation after attending a course or other educational activity. In a limited number of courses tests – theoretical and/or skill tests – are organised. In this case a proof of competence will be issued in future, following the ‘Advice on Recognition of Acquired Competences’ which was submitted to The Flemish government by DIVA.
7.15.
Education/Employment Links
In this paragraph we discuss by means of examples the specific guidance services of Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB)
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–which does not belong to adult education (see introduction of chapter)- aimed at improving the trainingemployment relationship. Beside training and education the VDAB offers a number of other efficient services: a service for employment, a service for career guidance and a service for outplacement. Next to the classic media especially the WISterminals and the extensive internet applications are important working aids. WIS is a jobcomputer which offers yearly more than 120,000 jobs. As regards internet applications the KISS applicant database needs to be mentioned, a free database with CV’s of more than 60,000 applicants. Moreover, there are also ‘Local Job Shops’ which combine all services one can consult when looking for a job. In view of supporting people who want to manage their own career, the VDAB offers career guidance in competence centres. In these centres VDAB-consultants assist people in determining career choices and in formulating a personal development plan. This career guidance is often requested by the employer. Thus, the VDAB career advice and guidance contributes to the mutual optimal tuning of the needs and competences of the employees to the needs of the relevant company. An employee can also address the VDAB at his/her own intiative. For the unemployed the VDAB offers the opportunity to receive course guidance or “tailor-made job guidance”. The method of this course guidance was introduced since the beginning of the 90’s. It implies in-depth and personal guidance of the unemployed person and consists of several steps: introduction, training, guidance towards the job-market, help with the commencement of employment and help and guidance on the workfloor. In 2002 209 employees and 5,235 unemployed persons participated in the course guidance; 38 employees and 8,204 unemployed persons in the training and guidance for applicants; and 3,457 employees and 6,759 unemployed persons in the personal training (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003). Beside course guidance, an unemployed person can in its search for an adequate job through the VDAB website also appeal to the CO.BR.A. database (COmpetentie- en BeroepenRepertorium voor de Arbeidsmarkt), which contains 550 professional profiles. Evidently, this database is also accessible for employed people. Another instrument is the VDAB vocational orientation which clarifies which professions fit a person by means of a questionnaire. Finally, the VDAB also provides commercial services (t-interim and t-consult), which were combined and privatised in the autumn of 2002 in t-groep NV. This group houses two services: the office for temporary employment, t-interim, and Ascento, which integrates the complete package of ‘human capital services’. Ascento helps a company in selecting the most suitable candidate for a job and thus in attaining its company objectives.
7.16.
Private Education
The private sector has also become involved in correspondence courses and set up ‘schools’ or centres in different towns and cities, in particular in fields such as languages and information technology. This private education (written or not) –which does not belong to adult education (see introduction of chapter)- is not officially regulated, though, and therefore does not receive any financing or subsidisation from the government. No official data are available. The certificates granted by these facilities have no legal value. The course offering within this private education is very diverse, in the content of the courses as well as in teaching modalities and price (SIDIN 2004-2005, http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/sidin/wnhso/ wnhso2004-2005.pdf).
7.17.
Statistics
The following tables contain statistical data regarding contiuing education and training for young school leavers and adults (including adult education) in Flanders.
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
Table 27: Number of students in the Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie ) (registration period: 1 February 2002 - 31 January 2003) Community
Grant-Aided Free
Education
Education
Grant-Aided Official
Total
Education
Secondary Linear
21.725
39.495
23.138
84.358
60.495
69.326
51.420
181.241
2.841
5.707
2.018
10.566
4.086
8.275
3.165
15.526
Secondary Modular Higher Education Linear Higher Education Modular
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 28: Participation in the Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) in 2002 Courses
Participants in 2001
Languages
13.528
Information Science
5.745
Sciences
1.665
Miscellanea
811
Administration
831
Mathematics
794
Economics
1.329
Technics
122
Total
24.825
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 29: Number of participants in basic adult education (basiseducatie ) (year 1999-2003) Males
%
Females
%
Total
1999-2000
7,788
40.0
11,684
60.0
19,472
2000-2001
8,460
39.9
12,753
60.1
21,213
2001-2002
10,462
39.3
15,925
60.4
26,387
2002-2003
10.456
42,4
14,206
57.6
24,662
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
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Table 30: Number of participants in Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) on the 1st February 2003, by organising body and branch of study Visual Arts
Music/Dance/Word craft
Community Education
2.464
6.752
Grant-aid. Official Education
48.639
86.837
Grant-aided Free Education
3.029
2000
Total
54.132
95.589
Total Part-time Art Education
149.721
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 31: Number of educational institutions in Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) in 2002-2003 Visual Arts Music/Dance/Word craft
Total
Community Education
5
10
15
Grant-aid. Official Education
5
3
9
Grant-aided Free Education
56
88
143
Total
66
101
167
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 32: Obtained certificates/diploma’s in the Examination board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie Vlaamse Gemeenschap) for full-time secondary education in 2002
%
First
Second
examination
examination
period
period
1st division: certificate of the 1st stage
15
10
1st division: certificate of the 2nd stage
39
27
2nd division (general secondary education)
65
47
3rd division (technical, art and vocational secondary education)
150
151
4th division: diploma hospital nursing *
4
4
4th division: diploma psychiatric nursing *
_
1
Total
273
240
&''
!" # !" '(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
!"$ %
Table 33: Number of completed training at the VDAB, by activity and employee/job-seeker (2002) Employers
Unemployed
Total
42.400
98.763
VDAB-Centres Sectoral training
56.363
#
Chapter 7: Continuing education and training for adults
Personal directed formation
3.457
6.749
10.206
Sollicitation training and guidance
38
8.204
8.242
Path determination
209
5.235
5.444
On-the-job guidance and training
-
48
48
-
144
144
Aknowledged centra
-
532
532
Individual training
_
7.755
7.755
Defining profiles
_
23.412
23.412
Other centres Centers opgericht m.m.v. Entrepreneurship
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 34: Education provided by the “Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen”: courses, periods and participants in 2002-2003 Courses
Periods
Participants
- General training
429
45.628
5.500
- Vocational training
659
72.049
5.958
- Business administration
496
49.454
7.158
- Vocational knowledge
1.880
208.770
23.330
Apprenticeship
Entrepreneur training
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 35: Number of socio-cultural organisations and core realisations 2002 Associations Number
56
Number of local branches and groups*
12.870
Number of hours of executive/management training
4.491.50.00
Socio-cultural training institutions Number
42
Number of hours performed
159.994
Number of participant hours
2.643.037
Number
38
Number of realised core functions
271
Services
Of which basic functions ‘educational activities’ ** 46 * a local branch is ‘active’ if it organises at least 6 activities for 12 participants. ** a basic function ‘educational activity’ = 150 hours (Jaarverslag 2002 Afdeling Volksontwikkeling en Bibliotheekwerk, samenvatting SoCiuS)
155
CHAPTER 8: TEACHERS AND EDUCATION STAFF In general, four different kinds of teachers are to be distinguished in basic and secondary education (Decree of 16 April 1996): •
the ‘pre-school teacher’ who provides general and social-pedagogical education to children between three and six years;
•
the ‘secondary school teacher’ who provides general and social-pedagogical education to children between six and twelve years;
•
the ‘secondary school teacher – group 1’ who is trained to teach in the first and second stage of secondary education, in some course programmes of the third stage of technical secondary education, and in the third and fourth stage of vocational secondary education;
•
the ‘secondary school teacher – group 2’ who is trained to teach in the second, third and fourth stage of secondary education.
The initial teacher trainings are aimed at acquiring basic competences for a certain type of teacher. A distinction is made between the initial teacher training and the academic initial teacher training. The initial teacher training for the first three types of teacher is organised at the colleges of higher education. The ‘secondary school teacher – group 2’ follows an initial teacher training at the universities or in two-cycle education (for the branches of study ‘commercial sciences and business administration’, ‘audiovisual and plastic arts’ and ‘music and dramatic arts’). The positions of the educational staff at the colleges of higher education are divided in three groups. Group 1 comprises the junior practical lector (praktijklector), the senior practical lecturer (hoofdpraktijklector), the junior lector (lector) and the senior lector (hoofdlector). Group 2 comprises the assisting personnel; the research assistant (assistent), the doctor-assistant (docter-assistent) and the practical assistant (werkleider). Group 3, finally, comprises the junior lecturers (docenten), the senior lecturers (hoofddocenten) and (full) professors ((gewoon) hoogleraars). The positions of the first group can only be assumed in one-cycle higher education , those of the second group only in two-cycle higher education, whereas the positions of the third group can be assumed in one-cycle higher education as well as in two-cycle education. Since the Decree of 12 June 1991 there is no longer an educational staff at the universities. There is an academic staff instead that beside conducting scientific research also provides academic research, in a subordinate relation or not. Within the independent academic staff the following positions exist: junior lecturer (docent), senior lecturer (hoofddocent), professor (hoogleraar), full professor (gewoon hoogleraar) en associate professor (buitengewoon hoogleraar). Within the auxiliary academic staff the positions ‘research assistant’ (assistent) and ‘doctor-assistant’ (doctor-assistant) can be found. The members of the independent academic staff are assigned among other things to provide academic education in the subject area(s) assigned to them. The educational assignment can consist partially or completely of assisting students with papers or dissertations, and students taking their doctor’s degree with the preparation of their doctoral dissertation. The members of the assisting staff help the members of the academic staff in their assignment. Within the composition of auxiliary academic personnel the universities can appoint research assistants or junior practical lectors who are exclusively assigned to provide practical education. Also doctor-assistants, promoted researchers of the universities and of the Fund
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for Scientific Research Flanders (Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek Vlaanderen) can be assigned to provide education. For the academic personnel at universities and the educational personnel at colleges of higher education, there is no formal initial teacher training programme.
8.1.
Initial training of teachers
In this paragraph we go more deeply into the initial training of basic school teachers and secondary school teachers group-1 or group-2. Tertiary education will not be discussed, as there is no formal initial teacher training for the educational staff at colleges of higher education and at universities. 8.1.1.
Historical overview
In this paragraph we look at the initial training for basic school teachers and secondary school teachers in Flanders from a historical perspective. 8.1.1.1.
Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers group-1.
Historically, teacher training for the pre-school, primary and the first stage of secondary education level was organised in separate institutes, namely teacher training colleges (normaalscholen). Originally, it was organised as a kind of ‘upper secondary education‘. Later on it became higher education. From 1970 on, the teacher training colleges were integrated into the structural framework of higher education. After the 1995 merger in higher education (see 6.3.), these institutes became teaching training departments of the colleges of higher education. 8.1.1.2.
Secondary school teachers group-2
A minimalist part-time scheme for teacher training at the university, complementary to discipline-oriented study, was set by law in 1929. For many years, attempts were made to change this law but without success prior to 1996. The current organisation of the teacher training was formed by the Decree concerning the teacher training and in-service training of 16 April 1996. 8.1.2.
Ongoing debate
At this moment debates are ongoing on the reform proposal for the initial training of teachers in Flanders. An important question is whether the teacher training can be fitted into the new structure of higher education, in which a distinction is made between the degrees of bachelor and master (cfr. Decree of 4 April 2003). 8.1.3.
Specific legislative framework
In this paragraph we go more deeply into the educational legislation concerning the initial training of teachers in Flanders.
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
8.1.3.1.
Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers – group 1
Following Decrees and decisions regulate the initial teacher training for pre-school teachers, primary school teachers and secondary school teachers – group 1. •
The Decree of 13 July 1994 relating to colleges of higher education in the Flemish Community.
•
The Decree of 16 April 1996 on Teacher Training and In-service Training.
•
The Decision of the Flemish Government of 15 July 1997 concerning the reorganisation of the teacher trainings of the colleges of higher education in Flanders.
•
The Decree of 15 December 1998 concerning the Decision of the Flemish Government of 29 September 1998 concerning the professional profiles of teachers.
8.1.3.2.
Secondary school teachers – group 2
Secondary school teachers – group 2 follow an academic initial teacher training at a university or at a college of higher education. The legal framework of this academic initial teacher training consists of following Decrees and decisions. •
The Decree of 12 June 1991 concerning the universities in the Flemish Community (only for the initial academic teacher training at the university).
•
The Decree of 13 July 1994 concerning the colleges of higher education in the Flemish Community (only for the initial academic teacher training at the colleges of higher education).
•
The Decree concerning the teacher training and in-service training of 16 April 1996.
•
The Decree of the Flemish Government of 15 July 1997 concerning the reorganisation of the teacher trainings at the colleges of higher education in the Flemish Community (only for the initial academic teacher training at the colleges of higher education).
•
The Decree of 15 December 1998 for the ratification of the Decision of the Flemish Government of 29 September 1998 concerning the professional profiles of the teachers.
•
The Decree of 8 June 2000 concerning urgent measures with regard to the teaching profession.
•
The Decree of 4 April 2003 concerning the restructuring of higher education in Flanders.
8.1.4.
Institutions, level and models of training
In this paragraph we discuss following aspects of the initial training of teachers: the study centres, the level of qualification, the duration of studies and the training method. 8.1.4.1.
Basic school teachers and secondary teachers – group 1
The initial teacher training at this level is organised by the organising bodies (inrichtende machten) responsible for the colleges of higher education offering 1-cycle higher education. They offer this training in the form of a one-cycle basic course (branch of study ‘education’). The course takes 3 years and uses the concurrent model. The Decree of 8 June 2000 concerning urgent measures with regard to the teaching profession regulates the independent practical training for the student in the third year of an initial one-cycle teacher training in a school for practical training. During the independent school practice the student independently takes over the teacher’s tasks. The college of higher education signs an agreement with the school for practical training and the student which arranges following: the duration (minimally 6 and maximally 9 weeks); the period of the school year in
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which the school practice will take place; the practical trainee’s tasks; who will exercise supervision over the school practice and how, at the college of higher education and at the practical training school; the practical training school’s conditions for the trainee; who will evaluate the trainee in consultation with the college of higher education; and which course components replace the school practice for the student involved. The independent school practice applies to the school years 2001-2002, 2002-2003 and 2003-2004. 8.1.4.2.
Secondary school teachers – group 2
Academic initial teacher training is organised by either the faculties or departments that are also responsible for the organisation of the basic course at the universities or the colleges of higher education. The academic initial teacher trainings use the consecutive model. As regards the academic teacher training at universities, minimum 270 teaching periods of educational and other study activities are offered during the second cycle for the academic initial teacher training. For graduates who have not followed this course component, it has to be organised as a part-time course. Moreover, between 600 and 750 teaching periods of educational and other activities are organised, partially or completely simultaneously or after the second cycle, for the academic initial teacher training, of which minimally 1/3 for guided school practice (Decree of 12 June 1991). The practical training is an important course component. At the University of Antwerp (UA) some forms of school practice take place at the university (institutional practice), other at schools (school practice). Within the school practice, the student is linked as quickly as possible at the beginning of the course to one or two schools for practical training, in order to be confronted with the school practice as soon as possible. The practice consists of educational and didactic assignments (120 teaching periods) aimed at getting acquainted with diverse aspects of school life (e.g. course and class observations, class council, interaction with problem pupils, etc.); as well as class practice (150 teaching periods) (Studiegids academische lerarenopleiding UA 2003-2004). As regards the academic initial teacher training at colleges of higher education, an initial teacher training of academic level can be organised following the two-cycle basic courses in the branches of study commercial sciences and business administration, audiovisual and plastic arts or music and dramatic arts (Decree of 13 July 1994). The academic initial teacher training at the colleges of higher education can be followed during or after the basic course. The concrete spreading and duration of studies varies depending on branch of study and institution. 8.1.5.
Admission requirements
In this paragraph we briefly discuss the admission requirements for the initial training of teachers. 8.1.5.1.
Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers – group 1
The admission requirements are exactly the same as for higher education in general (see paragraph 6.6.). For enrolment in a bachelor course the general admission requirement is to be holder of a diploma of secondary education, a diploma of short-form higher education with full curriculum, a diploma of social advancement higher education or a diploma or certificate which is recognised as being equivalent by law, Decree, European directive or another international treaty (Decree of 4 April 2003).
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
8.1.5.2.
Secondary school teachers – group 2
For enrolment in an academic initial teacher training at university being holder of a diploma of a first cycle academic course is sufficient as admission requirement. The university governing board may also allow holders of a final diploma of a foreign university – insofar as this diploma finalises a course of at least 4 years – for enrolment in an academic initial teacher training. In this case the university’s governing board may request from the student to first follow some components of an academic course (Decree of 12 June 1991). For enrolment in an academic initial teacher training at a college of higher education being holder of a diploma of a basic course of academic level is the general admission requirement (Decree of 13 June 1997). 8.1.6.
Curriculum, special skills, specialisation
In this paragraph we elaborate on the curriculum and the specialization within the initial training of teachers in Flanders according to the educational level. 8.1.6.1.
Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers – group 1
It is determined by Decree that teacher trainers define the course programme on the basis of the basic competences of the different teacher trainings. The course programmes of the teacher trainings comprise at least the two components which are also found in the basic competences. For the training of pre-school teachers, primary school teachers and secondary school teachers group-1, the minimum size of the common part of the basic competences consists of 45 study points (Decree of 16 April 1996). In the training of qualified secondary school teachers - group 1 (leraar secundair onderwijs - groep 1) different options or specialisations are possible. Every curriculum will be split up into core modules and a study-in-depth module. Each core module counts for 3 points. The in-depth-subjects should always be chosen among the main subjects chosen by the candidate. This gives him/her the right also to teach this subject in the second or third stage of secondary education. Such core modules are theoretically a free combination of different units representing a common value of 3 points (Decree of 16 April 1996). In reality, the choice depends on what the teacher training course is able to offer: •
1-point units are: Geography, history, English, mathematics, physics, Latin, biology, French, Dutch, religion, non-denominational ethics, economics, technology, information technology, sewing, recreation gymnastics, general education (for vocational secondary education).
•
2-points units are: A. Mechanics-electricity, nutrition and nursing, sewing, business, beauty care and hairdressing, timber and construction, and biotechnology, agriculture, and horticulture; B. Music, plastic arts education, and physical education.
The course unit ‘recreation gymnatics’ may only be chosen in combination with physical education. One of the components of the core module (with the exception of Latin and technology) may be chosen as a supplementary in-depth-subject. In addition, other equivalencies to in-depth courses are possible: •
German,
•
Chemistry (only for candidates who have chosen physics and biology as the core module).
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In some cases, two components may be chosen as supplementary in-depth-subjects: general education in combination with a component of the following group: geography, history, English, mathematics, physics, biology, French, Dutch, religion, non-denominational ethics, economics. For each of the chosen subjects, beside the theoretical knowledge, also the didactics and teaching practice are taught and learned. 8.1.6.2.
Secondary school teacher group-2
Also as regards the academic initial teacher training it was determined by Decree that the teacher trainers define the course programmes on the basis of the basic competences (Decree of 16 April 1996). At the College of Higher Education for Sciences and Arts (Hogeschool voor Wetenschap en Kunst) (VLEKHO) for example the academic initial teacher training in the academic year 2002-2003 consists of face-to-face instruction (general didactics, didactics of the commercial sciences, historical didactics and educational legislation), guided school practice (simulation classes, capita selecta didactics and school practice) and study activities of the basic course (management and personnel policy, seminar career perspectives and planning and company ethics) (brochure academic initial teacher training commercial sciences VLEKHO). At the university of Antwerp the academic initial teacher training consists of – beside the bridging subjects – 7 specific modules, namely: educational theory-orientation, educational theory-education and psychology, educational theory-extension and deepening, educational theory-education and society, didactics per discipline (part 1), didactics per discipline (part 2) and school practice (from: Studiegids academische lerarenopleiding UA 2003-2004). 8.1.7.
Evaluation, certificates
In this paragraph we go more deeply into the evaluation and certification of the initial training of teachers in Flanders. In order to function as full beginning teacher, each graduate has to dispose of the relevant basic competences (knowledge, skills and attitudes). These basic competences enable the teacher to progress to the professional profile (knowledge, skills and attitudes of the teacher when practicing his profession). Each profile consists at least of competencies common to all teachers (knowledge, skills, attitudes) and competencies specific to a particular educational level. The common core competencies represent a study load of at least 45 study points. The Decree of 1996 concerning the teacher training and in-service training suggests the following 10 profiles: the teacher as a guide in processes of learning and development; the teacher as an educator; the teacher as an expert in a particular field of study; the teacher as an organiser; the teacher as innovator and researcher; teacher as a partner of parents or care suppliers; the teacher as a member of the school team; the teacher as a partner of people offering initiatives valuable for education; the teacher as a member of the teaching community; and the teacher as a participant in culture. Each profile refers to specific skills the teacher must master. Moreover the Decree mentions ten attitudes that should be inculcated in future teachers: 1) the capacity to decide; 2) openness for relations with others; 3) a critical attitude; 4) eagerness to learn; 5) the capacity to organise; 6) openness for collaboration; 7) a sense of responsibility; 8) creativity; 9) flexibility; and 10) eagerness for correct language usage and communication.
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
In 2002 the Department for Educational Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling (DVO)) was commissioned to refine and grade the formulation of core competencies (initial competencies/core competencies). The general rule at Flemish colleges of higher education is that nobody can be allowed by the examinations board of a specific year to pass for that year, unless he/she takes all exams belonging to the course programme of that year. The student can take the same exams or parts of the exams maximally twice in the course of the same academic year (Decree of 4 April 2003) (see paragraph 6.1.4.). 8.1.7.1.
Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers group-1
The initial pre-school teacher training leads to the diploma of bachelor (initial pre-school teacher training’. The initial primary school teacher training leads to the diploma of bachelor ‘initial primary school teacher training’. The initial secondary school teacher training group-1 leads to the diploma of bachelor ‘initial secondary school teacher training group-1’. 8.1.7.2.
Secondary school teachers group-2
The academic degree to be obtained after finishing the academic initial teacher training is the one of ‘qualified teacher for secondary education group-2’. Originally, this kind of teacher is referred to by means of his discipline-oriented title licence, equivalent to four or five years of academic level study (licentiaat) or master (meester). 8.1.8.
Alternative training pathways
Within social advancement education (OSP) (see chapter 7) a course is organised at the level of short-form higher education for obtaining the Certificate Pedagogical Competence (Getuigschrift Pedagogische Bekwaamheid) (GPB-course). This course is – as a from of alternative initial teacher training – aimed at all persons wishing to fulfill a function as teacher, and is by the way a requirement for permanent appointment. The Certificate Pedagogical Competence is proof of pedagogical competence and gives in combination with a basic diploma educational authority in stages and forms of education of secondary education, special education, parttime vocational education and adult education. The GPB-course is modularly organised, meaning the educational matter is divided into a number of modules. Thus, the course participant can compose himself the study package and define the duration of studies. The centre for adult education may freely spread a modular course over a part of the year or over a whole year. This means also that the courses can start at different times in the year. The teachers-to-be receive beside general education a thorough psycho-pedagogical and didactic training. In order to be enrolled as regular participant for the GPB-course one needs to hold one of the following study certificates: diploma of secondary education; certificate of complementary secondary vocational education; diploma of full-time higher education; certificate or diploma of a higher secondary technical course; or diploma or certificate which is recognised as being equivalent by law, Decree, European directive or another international treaty. A potential course participant not holding one of these certificates may be admitted if he/she is minimum 21 years of age in the calendar year in which he/she enrolls for the first time, and passes an entrance examination or a complementary course programme.
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8.2.
Conditions of service of teachers
The school board is responsible for the personnel policy. They are the ‘employers’ of the teaching staff. The modalities for recruitment, evaluation, appointment, dismissal, etc. are established by Decree by the Flemish government in the capacity of financer (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001). The statute of the teacher is regulated by two Decrees, one for community education and one for grant-aided education (both of 27 March 1991). These Decrees apply to the teaching staff of basic education (basisonderwijs), secondary education, special education, Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs), adult education, the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) and the boarding schools. The teachers’ working conditions in higher education are regulated by the Decree of 13 July 1994 for the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) and the Decree of 12 June 1991 for the universities. Members of the teaching staff in special and normal basic and secondary education can be divided into those fulfilling a recruitment function (e.g. teacher, supervisor …), a selection function (e.g. deputy school head, technical advisor, …) or a promotion function (e.g. school head, technical advisor-coordinator). In higher education the functions of the educational staff are divided in three groups: junior practical lector (praktijklector), senior practical lector (hoofdpraktijklector), junior lector (lector) and senior lector (hoofdlector) (group 1); assisting personnel; research assistant (assistent), doctor-assistant (doctor-assistent) and practical assistant (werkleider) (group 2); junior lecturers (docenten), senior lecturers (hoofddocenten), professors (hoogleraren) and full professors (gewoon hoogleraren) (group 3). The functions of group 1 are only found in one-cycle higher education, whereas the functions of group 2 are only found in two-cycle higher education and the functions of group 3 in both (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). In the academic personnel at universities a distinction is made between the independent academic personnel and the auxiliary academic personnel. The independent academic personnel can be divided in the following degrees: junior lecturer (docent), senior lecturer (hoofddocent), professor (hoogleraar), full professor (gewoon hoogleraar) and associate professor (buitengewoon hoogleraar). The auxiliary academic personnel is divided in following degrees: research assistant (assistent), doctor-assistant (doctor-assistant) and practical assistant or lector (praktijkassistent of –lector) (Decree of 12 June 1991). 8.2.1.
Historical overview
In this paragraph we discuss the current working conditions of teachers from a historical perspective. In community education as well as in grant-aided education a statute that has been established by Decree in 1991 regulates the personnel’s career. For community education this Decree replaced the statutes of the sixties. For grant-aided education an initiative which was already announced in 1973 was realised. Both statutes are characterised by an attempt to define the rules in a less rigid way and by the granting of autonomy to the local organising bodies. Since 1991 these Decrees have been regularly modified and fundamentally adapted following structural changes in some educational levels: •
reorganisation of secondary education;
•
reorganisation of the PMS-centres and the MST in centres for educational guidance (CLB);
•
the Decree concerning adult education;
•
the Special Decree of 14 July 1998 (for community education).
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
The consecutive modifications strived for simplification and unification between the educational levels. However, a few differences still exist (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). 8.2.2.
Ongoing debates
At the beginning of April 2004 the Commission Education of the Flemish Parliament adopted the reform proposal for a prolongation of the replacement pool (see 8.2.5.), an important theme within the working conditions of teachers. The introduction of the replacement pool (vervangingspool) was prolonged with one school year. The pool will also be evaluated and it will be established whether the objectives as creating better working conditions for (young) relief teachers and helping schools in their search for relief teachers are met. The other temporary measures as re-appointment, better remuneration of overtime and additional jobs and the independent practical trainings are prolonged for the same reason. 8.2.3.
Specific legislative framework
In this paragraph we go more deeply into the legislation concerning the conditions of service of the teacher (wider: the educational staff) in Flanders. 8.2.3.1.
Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers
The legal framework for the conditions of service of basic school teachers and secondary school teachers consists of following Decrees. •
Decree of 27 March 1991 concerning the legal status of particular members of staff in the Community education.
•
Decree of 27 March 1991 concerning the legal status of some members of staff in the grant-aided educational networks (onderwijsnetten) and the grant-aided Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding).
•
Decree of 25 February 1997 on basic education.
•
Special Decree of 14 July 1998 concerning Community Education.
•
Decree of 14 July 1998 determining various measures concerning the secondary education and modifying the Decree of 25 December 1997 on the basic education.
•
Decree of 8 June 2000 concerning urgent measures with regard to the teaching profession (and additionally the Decree of 13 July 2001 concerning changes of the Decree of 8 June 2000).
•
Decree of 13 July 2001 concerning Education XIII- Mosaic.
8.2.3.2.
Educational staff at the colleges of higher education
The Decree of 13 July creates the legal framework of the conditions of service of the educational staff at the colleges of higher education. Title III of this Decree specifically deals with the regulation on the legal statute of the personnel at the colleges of higher education. The common stipulations relate to the administrative functions (service activity, non-activity and availability), the evaluation, the discipline, the access to the functions, the dismissal and the final resignation; whereas the stipulations specifically intended for the educational staff relate to the composition, the function description and the assignment, the recruitment, promotion and change of function, the access to the functions, the salary regulations and the accumulation regulations.
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
8.2.3.3.
Academic personnel at the universities
The Decree of 12 June 1991 and the Decision of the Flemish government of 1 December 1998 stipulating the regulations concerning the absences, the discipline, the administrative functions, the leave, the dismissal, the investigation of the physical suitability and the medical supervision for the academic personnel at the universities in the Flemish Community create the legal framework of the working conditions of the educational personnel at the universities. The Decree among other things goes more deeply into the composition and assignments of the academic personnel, the (permanent) appointment of the academic personnel, the salary scales, compensations and allowances, and finally also the evaluation. 8.2.4.
Planning policy
The Decree contains three measures to relieve the shortage. First, the Decree provides for better remuneration of overtime and additional jobs. This is more important for teachers of secondary education than for primary school teachers. At the primary school level, this measure concerns only teaching at home. The second measure is the possibility of calling back certain staff members who are on leave, have been assigned non-active status, have taken an early retirement, or are retired but younger than 65. The condition is that the person in question agrees to come back. Third and most important, the Decree establishes a replacement pool (vervangingspool) of teachers (see paragraph 8.2.5.). As a reaction to the problems of finding teachers to replace absent teachers, the government has created a pool of teachers who provide short-term replacement. In this way, young teachers are guaranteed work and a salary for a period of a year. The governing body (inrichtende macht) of schools decides whether or not to ascribe to the pool. Except for these measures concerning the working conditions of teachers, there is no explicit system of educational planning in Flanders concerning demand and supply of teachers. 8.2.5.
Entry to the profession
In this paragraph we discuss the recruitment requirements for the teaching profession, as well as the recruitment method (cfr. replacement pool). These aspects as well are part of the working conditions of the teacher in Flanders. 8.2.5.1.
Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers
The access to the profession of pre-school teacher, primary school teacher and secondary school teacher requires the certificate which is obtained on successful completion of the teacher training. Especially for secondary education, a distinction is made between three types of qualifications: required qualifications (vereiste bekwaamheidsbewijzen), qualifications deemed to be sufficient (voldoend geachte bekwaamheidsbewijzen), and other qualifications (andere bekwaamheidsbewijzen). The list of required qualifications spells out exactly what teaching qualifications are required to pursue a given activity. The qualifications deemed to be sufficient state what qualifications will be accepted for a specific post in the absence of the required qualifications. The required qualifications and those deemed to be sufficient may both lead to a permanent post after a temporary appointment of at least 240 days. The third category of qualifications, ‘others’, may be taken into consideration for an appointment, but solely on an ad hoc and temporary basis.
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
Other requirements are (Decrees of 27 March 1991): •
being a citizen of the European Union (exceptions are possible because the government can grant exemptions);
•
enjoying civil and political rights (exceptions are possible because the government can grant exemptions);
•
being holder of a certificate of competency determined by the Flemish government;
•
complying with the linguistic legislation (Dutch being the official teaching language);
•
being of irreproachable character;
•
complying with the military service laws.
Recently, the government has created a replacement pool (vervangingspool) of teachers partly in order to facilitate access to the teaching profession. This replacement pool is a group of teachers who provide short-term replacements and are available for the entire Flemish region and all educational networks (onderwijsnetten) of ordinary and special primary and secondary educational level. The teachers of this pool are at the disposal of all the schools that ascribe to the pool. The pool was established in the school year 2000-2001 for a period of three years. Every year the government announces the number of teaching posts of the replacement pool and the manner of appointment for the following school year. The Flemish unemployment agency (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) is responsible for the creation and the functioning of the pool. The Flemish unemployment agency assigns each admitted candidate to an anchor school (ankerschool) and an educational area (onderwijszone). The anchor school is the school to which the teacher is appointed during the periods he or she is not working as a short-term replacement. In this school, the teacher is charged with nonregulatory replacements, in-service training or other pedagogical tasks. The aim of the pool is twofold. First, it is to enable the schools to find more easily substitutes for absent teachers (see paragraph 8.2.7.). Second, the pool guarantees young graduates work and a salary for at least one year (see paragraph 8.2.8.). However, the pool concentrates not only on this kind of teachers but also on re-entering teachers and other employees who are considering a teaching career. After one school year the replacement pool (vervangingspool) is being adjusted. A number of small changes were made which, however, do not change the general principles of the replacement pool (vervangingspool). For the school year 2001-2002 24% of the basic schools (basisscholen) in the grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs) have registered. 99% of the basic schools of the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) have registered. In the grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs) 89% of the basic schools join in. For the school year 2001-2002 almost all schools at secondary education participate in the replacement pool (vervangingspool). In the grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs) 96% of the secondary schools have registered. All of the secondary schools of the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) have registered. In the grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs) 99% of the secondary schools joined in (Persdienst Minister Vanderpoorten, 15.06.2001). Approximately 27% of the candidates selected for the first batch of the replacement pool 2002 - 2003 are older than 35 years. This confirms the trend that considerable numbers of graduates who took up employment in business in the time that there was a surplus of teachers are returning to education. The number of teachers younger than 25 years increased as well, by 29.6%.
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8.2.5.2.
Educational staff in colleges of higher education
For access to a function of the personnel at the colleges of higher education the following general admission requirements apply: 1) being a citizen of the European Union or of the European Free Trade Organisation; 2) enjoying civil and political rights; 3) being holder of a required certificate of competence; 4) complying with the relevant linguistic legislation; 5) being of irreproachable character; 6) complying with the military service laws; and 7) disposing of the physical suitability required for practicing the profession (Decree of 13 July 1994). Formal qualification requirements are (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996): •
junior practical lector (praktijklector) and senior practical lector (hoofdpraktijklector): diploma from a 1-cycle basic course;
•
junior lector (lector), senior lector (hoofdlector), research assistant (assistent), and senior research assistant (werkleider): a university or a 2-cycle course diploma;
•
doctor-assistant (doctor-assistent), junior lecturer (docent), senior lecturer (hoofddocent), professor (hoogleraar), and full professor (gewoon hoogleraar): the degree of doctor.
The required proofs of competency are supplemented by additional seniority conditions. The latter may be combined with relevant professional experience which then forms part of the required proofs of competency. Candidates for the position of full professor have to meet additional criteria (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996): •
the appointing institute needs to be involved in a joint research agreement with a university within the disciplinary field concerned;
•
he/she has to have at least six years of seniority in a group 3 or equivalent position;
•
the scientific competence of the candidate has to be evaluated by a commission comprising three full professors at three different Flemish universities.
Four administrative positions are possible: temporary appointment, extension of contract, permanent appointment, and promotion. Recruiting for a vacancy must be preceded by publication in the Belgian Gazette (Belgisch Staatsblad), except for appointments of less than one year. The members of the educational staff who are responsible for religious education or ethics are appointed by the board of governors of the college (hogeschoolbestuur) in consensus with the proper authorities of the ideology concerned. Recruiting for a vacancy must be preceded by publication in the Belgian Gazette, except for appointments of less than one year. 8.2.5.3.
Academic personnel at universities
Formal qualification requirements are the following (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996): •
An important condition to be appointed a member of the Independent Academic Personnel (IAP) is to hold a diploma of doctor with doctoral thesis or a diploma which is deemed equivalent according to the directives of the European Union or a bilateral agreement. In exceptional cases the university’s board of governors may (permanently) appoint, upon advice and on the basis of an extensive motivation, persons who show extraordinary scientific merit or a specific expertise to part-time staff member of the IAP.
•
To be appointed a member of the Auxiliary Academic Personnel (Assisterend Academisch Personeel) (AAP), one must hold a second-cycle university diploma of licentiate (licentiaat) or a diploma deemed equivalent according to European Community directives or a bilateral agreement. For an appointment to
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
practical work supervisor a diploma of long-form second-cycle higher education or a diploma which is deemed equivalent according to the directives of the European Union or a bilateral agreement is sufficient. In exceptional cases the university’s board of governors may appoint, upon advice and on the basis of an extensive motivation, holders of a foreign final diploma, other than mentioned before, of an institution of academic education, to assistant. To the benefit of the education or the research the university board of governors may also (permanently) appoint non-citizens of the European Union to educational staff member. 8.2.6.
Professional status
Another aspect which makes up an integral part of the working conditions of the teacher in Flanders is related to his statute. Therefore, we elaborate on the occupational status of the basic school teachers and secondary school teachers, and the educational staff at the colleges of higher education and at the universities in this paragraph. 8.2.6.1.
Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers
Teaching staff members are employees in the private educational institutions and civil servants of a kind in public educational institutions. However, in the capacity of financer, the Flemish government has established the modalities for recruitment, evaluation, appointment, dismissal, etc. (see the following sections). The statute of the teaching staff is regulated by two Decrees, one for community education and one for grant-aided education, both consisting of the same basic principles. So, in fact, a specific statute is provided by Decree to the teaching staff different from the ordinary statute of personnel in the public and private sector because of the singularity of the field of education and its specific needs. On the basis of the type of labour contract a distinction can be made between contractual, temporary and permanently appointed staff members (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). On 1 January 2002 four types of contractual staff members existed in Flemish education: the contractual staff members of the department for education (CODO’s – GECO’s), who have a contract of unlimited duration at the expense of the department for education (almost completely disappeared since 1 September 2003); the subsidized contractual staff members appointed at conventions, agreed between the Flemish Minister for Education and the Flemish Minister for Employment; the subsidized contractual staff members appointed on the basis of individual conventions between an organising body and a minister responsible for employment; and the contractual staff members appointed on the basis of the working aids of the school (COW’s – GECO’s). The temporary staff members can be temporarily appointed for a fixed duration or for an unlimited duration (see paragraph 8.2.13). An appointment of fixed duration is valid for maximum 1 year. An appointment for an unlimited duration on the contrary is valid beyond the school years. The benefits of a permanent appointment compared to a temporary appointment are the guarantee of a steady position and salary, the availability in case of lack of position, the right to reaffectation and re-employment, the access
to
a
number
of
leave
systems
and
the
right
to
a
government
pension
(source:
www.ond.vlaanderen.be/gidsvoorleraren/).
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
8.2.6.2.
Educational staff at colleges of higher education
Contractually, members of the teaching staff are employees in subsidised colleges of higher education or a kind of civil servant in funded colleges of higher education. The college staff is paid by the Flemish government. Although the legal statute of teaching staff at the subsidised and funded colleges of higher education is not totally the same, the difference of the legal statute between them is small. In colleges of higher education, the Board of Governors (Raad van Bestuur) or the board of governors of the college may assign vacancies to candidates on a temporary or permanent basis. Only research assistants are always temporary. Assignment to a position takes place through recruitment, promotion, or changing jobs (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1998). 8.2.6.3. Educational staff at universities Contractually, academics are employees in private higher education institutes or a kind of civil servant in public higher education institutes. The academic staff is paid by the universities. Although the legal statute of the academics of private and public higher education institutions is not totally the same, the difference of the legal statute between them is small. The university boards may assign vacancies to candidates on a temporary or/and permanent basis. Auxiliary Academic Personnel (Assisterend Academisch Personeel) (AAP) are appointed temporarily. Independent Academic Personnel (Zelfstandig Academisch Personeel) (ZAP) are appointed permanently, except for extraordinary professors (buitengewoon hoogleraren) as they are part-time university staff (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1998). 8.2.7.
Replacement measures
In this paragraph we treat the possibilities for (temporarily) replacing teaching staff members by substitute staff. These ‘replacement measures’ can also be considered as part of the working conditions of the teacher in Flanders. 8.2.7.1.
Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers
On 4 September 2000 the Decree of 8 June 2000 introduced in Flanders the replacement pool (vervangingspool) (see paragraph 8.2.5.). The pool members form a mobile team of teachers which can be employed in a flexible and network-exceeding way, in the first place for short regulatory replacements. Schools can consequently dispose more quickly of a relief teacher. In its third year, the number of schools in the replacement pool remains more or less stable: 67%. Only in the province of Limburg has there been a clear increase, 74% compared with 58% in 2001. Almost all community and official education and free secondary education schools participate in the pool. Participation of free primary education remains low in most provinces, especially in East-Flanders (8%), Antwerp (23%) and West-Flanders (25%). Free primary education in Limburg is going against the current: compared with 2001 (13%), the number of schools has increased by 36% to 49%. The participation of free primary education is highest in Brussels: 76%. As from 2003-2004 it is possible for schools to present (without having preference) candidate-pool members for functions/subjects/specialisations for which they have the required competences. The intention is to encourage the school’s participation in the qualitative composition of the replacement pool (Circular Letter GD/2003/02).
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
8.2.7.2.
Educational staff at colleges of higher education
As mentioned in paragraph 8.2.3.2. the Decree of 13 July 1994 creates the legal framework of the conditions of service of the educational staff at colleges of higher education. This Decree, however, does not mention any measures for replacement of (temporarily( absent educational staff members at colleges of higher education. 8.2.7.3.
Academic personnel at universities
The university’s board of governors makes its own regulations for the temporary replacement of academic staff members. A temporary replacement of an independent academic staff member by an external person is exceptional and can never last longer than one academic year and ends in any case at the end of the academic year. These replacements are maximum four times a year renewable per member of the substitute staff. In order to provide for temporary personnel needs or for temporary substitute staff members, the university’ board of governors can recruit personnel but only on temporary basis. The duration of vacancies in anticipation of permanent appointments may be maximum two years (Decree of 12 June 1991 and Decision of 1 December 1998). 8.2.8.
Supporting measures for teachers
In this paragraph we briefly discuss another aspect of the conditions of service of the teacher in Flanders, namely the specific supporting measures to the benefit of the educational staff in basic and secondary education. The Decree concerning the teacher training and the in-service training of 16 April 1996 (B.S. 12/06/1996) states that the school where the beginning teacher fulfills its assignment is responsible for the organisation of the beginners’ guidance. When defining its personnel’s assignments, the school explicitly takes this into account. In basic education the means for in-service training can be applied to organise beginners’ guidance. These means can for the same reason be converted in additional teaching periods. The Flemish government sets the modalities for the conversion The replacement pool (8.2.5.) offers beginning teachers the outlook at a steady position. Freshly graduated teachers are assigned to an anchor school which takes care of them and guides them. 8.2.9.
Evaluation of teachers
In this paragraph we go more deeply into yet another aspect of the working conditions of the teacher, i.e. the evaluation of the educational staff in basic education, secondary education, at the colleges of higher education and at the universities in Flanders. 8.2.9.1.
Basic school teachers
For basic education no evaluation has been worked out on the basis of the function description. Moreover, the system of function descriptions has not yet been introduced in basic education (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003).
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8.2.9.2.
secondary school teachers
The Decrees of 27 March 1991 of the Flemish government set the rules concerning evaluation of the educational staff in secondary education. These Decrees introduce an evaluation system which corresponds closely with the system of function descriptions. A function description consists of three parts: the tasks and institution-related assignments and the way in which the staff members has to fulfill them, the institution-related objectives and the personal and developmental objectives and the the rights and duties concerning continuing and in-service training. Each staff member has to be evaluated minimum every each three years. If the staff member has no function description, an evaluation is not possible. The organising body or the school community (grant-aided education) and the board of directors (community education) negotiates on the general arrangements concerning evaluation with the local committee. The evaluation report describes carefully the complete performance of the staff member compared to the function description agreed on, including the specific objectives and development objectives as agreed on for the relevant evaluation period. The evaluation is carried out in the school where the staff member teaches. Each staff member has two evaluators, of which one is the school head and/or deputy school head. Only in case of an evaluation report that concludes with the final note “insufficient’, the staff member can appeal to a college of appeal for evaluations. As long as the college of appeal does not function, evaluations with final note ‘insufficient’ are not possible. If the permanently appointed staff member or the staff member appointed for indefinite duration has received an evaluation with final note ‘insufficient’, a new evaluation has to be conducted. This new evaluation has to comprise a period of minimum eight and maximum twelve months of actual performance (Decrees of 27 March 1991). So far the Flemish government has not yet imposed the function description and the evaluation by Decree. The ultimate dates on which the function description and the evaluation in special and normal secondary education will apply are respectively 1 September 2004 and 1 September 2006 (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). 8.2.9.3.
Educational staff at colleges of higher education
The regulations for the evaluation are determined by the college’s board of governors (Decree of 13 July 1994). The evaluation is obligatory for each staff member and is carried out at least every five years. There are, however, exceptions. First, when the evaluation is ‘insufficient’, another evaluation has to be conducted the next year. Second, when the member of the staff has just been appointed, permanently appointed, or promoted, he/she shall be evaluated after three years. If an evaluation is ‘insufficient’ the staff member concerned can appeal against this decision to a college of appeal for evaluations within a period of fifteen calendar days. The ‘insufficient’ evaluation is definite if the period in which appeal is possible is over or after a definite decision has been taken in appeal. To each evaluation which is not ‘insufficient’ the staff member can react in writing. This written reaction is added to the evaluation file. 8.2.9.4.
Academic personnel at universities
In fact, there are some evaluation moments in an academic career: temporary appointment, extension of contract, permanent appointment, and promotion. In the framework of the quality assurance system, individual lecturers
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
are included in the evaluation, and the information obtained can be used in the context of staff appointments and promotion (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1998). The university’s board of governors sets the regulations for the evaluation of the performance and the functioning of the academic staff members (Decree of 12 June 1991). An evaluation of the manner in which the staff member has fulfilled its assignment in the previous period has to be conducted at least every five years. After each new or permanent appointment or promotion an evaluation has to be conducted after three years. The evaluation procedure has to foresee a possibility of appeal to an independent college of appeal. The procedure has to maximally guarantee the staff member’s rights. If the performances and results are evaluated as insufficient, the university’s board of governors may decide that the accumulation of seniority is halved during one year in view of the next salary increase. If the final conclusion of an evaluation is ‘insufficient’, the university’s board of governors can stop the seniority increase during one year in view of the next salary increase. If the final conclusion of two consecutive evaluations is ‘insufficient’ or three times ‘insufficient’ in the course of the professional career, the university’s board of governors may decide to dismiss the staff member. In these cases a period of notice is granted of which the duration equals the period necessary to enjoy the advantages of social security and unemployment benefits. During this period of notice the staff member is regarded as being temporarily appointed and the university’s board of governors can give the staff member involved another assignment. The staff member involved then receives the gross salary related to the function in which he was appointed. The staff member can completely or partially waiver this period of notice. The first evaluation for every member of staff should be carried out by 31 December 2002 at the latest. The board of governors of the university must inform the Flemish Government about the evaluation procedures. The effects and results of the evaluation procedures used by the universities will be evaluated in 2006 by the Flemish Government (Decree of 18 May 1999). Note that Independent Academic Personnel (Zelfstandig Academisch Personeel) (ZAP) are also evaluated outside the statutory context of the university, such as in the competition for national and international research funds. 8.2.10.
In-service training
In this paragraph we discuss an important theme concerning the working conditions of the teacher in Flanders, i.e. further training for teachers. The Decree concerning teacher training and in-service training of 16 April 1996 (B.S. 12/06/1996) states that the organising body of the school where the teacher fulfills his/her assignment, has to provide guidance in further training for each teacher. This Decree introduced a demand-driven scheme of in-service training. The schools have the responsibility and receive the funding for their own in-service training policy. Apart from the schools, the Community Education (Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (previously the Independent Council for Community Education (Autonome Raad voor het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (ARGO) and the representative organisations of the organising bodies (inrichtende machten) of grant-aided education receive funds for the training of personnel who do not come under the in-service training policy at school level (personnel of the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding)) or pedagogical support services (pedagogische begeleidingsdiensten) for example), and for initiatives of in-service training, specific for their own educational projects. Furthermore, the Flemish
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
government may finance on its own initiative projects of in-service training on the basis of the established policy priorities. Projects for in-service training which correspond with the policy objectives – formulated by the Minister for Education and training – are funded by the government. The priority theme for in-service training for the school year 2003-2004 is ‘ a caring school’. Recently, the government has also made some initiatives to stimulate the in-service training concerning ICT. Therefore regional expertise networks (regionale expertisenetwerken - REN) are established. The REN provide in-service training and support for the pedagogical use of ICT in education and address all educational levels and forms (Decree concerning education XII Ensor of 20 October 2000; Decision of the Flemish Government of 10 December 1999). This networks will continue to exist until 2004. As from the school year 2003-2004 one network will be established that takes care of the administrative follow-up and communication to the target groups. The helpdesk function will be omitted, the focus will be on in-service training, shifting from offer-driven to demand-driven in-service training. The Educational department of the Flemish government also established a database for all in-service programs for
teaching
staff.
(For
more
information
see:
http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be
/nascholing/database/zoekscherm.asp). The legal framework which regulates the in-service training of educational staff members consists of following Decrees and decisions. •
The Decree of 16 April 1996 on Teacher Training and In-service Training.
•
The Decision of the Flemish Government of 22 October 1996 on the regulation of the procedure for the allocation of in-service training projects at the initiative of the Flemish Government.
•
The Decision of the Flemish Government which modifies the Decision of 22 October 1996.
•
The Decision of the Flemish Government of 10 December 1999 concerning the procedure and the conditions guaranteeing an in-service supply on the new media.
•
The Decree of 20 October 2000 concerning education XII-Ensor.
There are no fixed rules for the structural organisation of in-service programmes. All variations are organised (at school, in training centres, one day, several days). The methodological approaches come under the authority of the organising bodies. Therefore, no official rules have been issued. A school is obliged to draw up an in-service training plan each year. In this plan the needs for in-service training are determined. The definition of the needs can result in a priority plan in the short and the long term. Within the legislation in-service training is broadly interpreted, as long as the funded initiatives proof to contribute to the professionalisation of the teacher. The school board as well as all staff members. It needs to be proven that the in-service training is useful for the staff member’s tasks. The in-service training programmes bear no costs for the participating teachers (no registration fee and reimbursement of the transport costs). However, a school can refuse a teacher’s request to follow an in-service training if it does not fit into the in-service training plan. In principle these refusals will mainly have practical reasons, e.g. lack of replacement. A school can in that case also refuse to reimburse the in-service training. The means supplied by the Flemish government for the year 2003 for the basic schools and the secondary schools amount to (not-indexed) respectively 4.214.189,92 EURO and 5.949.444,59 EURO. In Spring all schools will receive a map with an overview of all free in-service training projects for the next school year, offered by the Flemish government (cfr. Priority in-service training themes).
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
8.2.11.
Salaries
The teacher’s remuneration forms an integral part of the working conditions of the teacher. In this paragraph we go more deeply into the salary of the educational personnel in the different educational levels, without explicitly going into the wage index. 8.2.11.1. Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers The staff members in community education receive a salary, and the staff members in grant-aided education a salary allowance, which is paid directly and monthly by the Flemish Community. The amount of the pay depends on various elements (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003): •
the sort of post;
•
whether the appointment is temporary or permanent;
•
the administrative situation (active, non-active, etc.);
•
the required certificates and the pay scales that are related to it;
•
the nature (additional post, main post, etc.) and assignment of the post (full-time, part-time, etc.);
•
the previous performance (seniority);
•
personal and family situation (additional financial benefits like holiday pay, family allowances, compensation for travel expenses, and the-end-of-the-year premium);
•
other compensations (compensation for child care before and after school time, compensation for supervision at noon, etc.).
The pay scales are linked to a specific proof of competence and consists of a beginners’ salary (minimum), a number of periodical increases (yearly, two-yearly and at the end) and a maximum salary, according to the salary seniority; The salary seniority only starts after reaching the minimum age. The amounts of the pay scales are adapted to the increase of the consumption prices. The pay scales can be consulted on the website of the Department for Education (http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/wedde/weddenschalen/overzicht.htm). Beside the actual salary a staff member can, under specific circumstances, appeal to following allowances: 1) allowance for commuting expenses, 2) allowance for special certificates and diplomas, 3) holiday pay, 4) theend-of-the-year premium, 5) compensation for child birth, 6) compensation for child care, 7) allowance for travel expenses, 8) allowance for a funeral, 9) trade union premium, and 10) allowance for supervision at noon and before and after school hours. Since 1 September 1983 overtime and additional tasks are no longer compensated in education, unless as departure is granted by the Minister for Education and Training (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). The expenditures for salaries amounted in 2002 to 69,17 % (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003) of the total educational expenditures (higher education not included). In Flanders as well people are saying that the assignment should be revalued, especially the teachers’ salaries. Consequently, a linear pay raise was determined in the Collective Employment Agreement VI (CAO VI). The pay scales valid as from 1 December 2001 were increased with 1% on 1 December 2001 and on 1 June 2003 with twice that amount. This linear wage measure applies to all staff members paid by the Department for Education, except for the universities. This pay raise is also valid for the contractual staff members since signature of an agreement with the same content in the authorised bodies. In order to address the problems which arose in the first phase of an extensive comparing wage study (HayGroup, 2001), in the CAO VI – beside the linear pay raise – also a number of specific measures
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were taken. Consequently, school heads in basic education receive an extra pay raise since 1 September 2002, whereas administrative and educational staff members in primary education in the Brussels capital with a profound knowledge of French receive an additional salary since 1 September 2002. Meanwhile the second phase of the wage study has been finalised (HayGroup, 2003). In 2004 during the negotiations on the next Collective Employment Agreement (CAO VII) attention will be paid among other things to establishing a new salary policy, on the basis of the recommendations formulated in the second phase of the comparing wage study. On closer examination, teachers do appear to have a special salary status in the sense that they are paid according to the amount of services provided (that is by the number of course hours), but they are not at liberty to choose how many hours of courses they give. The political measures proposed to make the rules on services (and therefore on salaries) less rigid ran into opposition from the trade unions. Another problem that needs to be considered has to do with the professional costs incurred by teachers: in most cases they have to pay out of their own pockets for manuals and teaching aids. The teachers’ wage claims could also be interpreted to some extent as a call for extra operating resources for schools. Belgium’s spending on salaries as a percentage of total expenditure on education is reported to be higher than in most other countries of the European Union, which is as good as saying that the operating and capital resources are relatively low (European Commission, 1996). Finally, problems to do with teachers‘ salaries are inextricably linked with their status. On the one hand, the budgetary resources to increase teachers’ wages are limited, and, on the other, teachers are being assigned nonactive status, which represents an extra cost that is difficult to reduce. Teachers assigned non-active status are expected to take over as temporary teachers, but this is only true to a limited extent for there are all sorts of obstacles (barriers between the networks, levels, and specialised subjects) that impede movement within the teaching profession. This leads to a paradoxical situation in which the number of teachers assigned non-active status and the number of teachers hired on temporary contracts stay more or less constant. An attempt to solve this kind of problems is the creation of the replacement pool (vervangingspool) which operated across educational networks (see paragraph 8.2.5.). 8.2.11.2. Educational staff at colleges of higher education The salaries of the educational staff at the colleges of higher education are fixed by Decree (see tables with statistical data). The salaries are calculated following the same principles as for the educational staff of the other educational levels. The colleges of higher education have the right to pay staff members, who are entrusted with additional administrative tasks, a bonus of up to 20% of a normal salary (Decree of 13 July 1994 and Decision of 3 May 1995). 8.2.11.3. Academic personnel at universities The salaries of the independent academic personnel, the auxiliary academic personnel and the lectors at the universities are fixed by Decree and decision (Decree of 12 June 1991, Decision of 30 June 1998, Decision of 4 May 2001, and Decision of 31 January 2003). The salaries of members of the teaching staff are presented in the tables at the end of this chapter. In principle, universities may, in addition, reward staff for special achievements. Universities do use the possibility of merit pay related to scientific services, postacademic training and emeritus professors younger than 65 who continue
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
their activities. However, only a limited number of staff members seem to get those merit pays (Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department). 8.2.12.
Working time and holidays
In this paragraph we go more deeply into the responsibility and the holiday regulations, as integral part of the working conditions of the teacher and the educational personnel in Flanders. The volume of the teachers’ assignment in basic and secondary education is expressed in teaching periods of 50 minutes and not in hours of work. In one-cycle higher education the volume of the assignment is usually also expressed in teaching periods of 50 minutes, but there is a tendency to transfer to 60 minutes (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). 8.2.12.1. Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers The Decree on basic education has introduced 3 notions in basic education: the assignment, the school assignment and the principal assignment. The assignment comprises all tasks fulfilled by the staff member, inside as well as outside school (e.g. at home). The school assignment consists of the tasks of a teacher inside school, being the principal assignment (the teaching assignment) and a number of other tasks. The government has determined (Decision of 17 June 1997) that the weekly school assignment consists of maximum 26 hours and that participation in parents associations or personnel meetings is not included in the school assignment. The weekly principal assignment is determined by Decree on minimum 24 and maximum 27 teaching periods in normal primary education, and – since 1 September 2003 – maximum 26 teaching periods in normal pre-school education. In special education the weekly principal assignment consists of minimum 22 teaching periods, and maximum 27 and 26 teaching periods in respectively primary and pre-school education. The school head defines the weekly number of teaching periods for the principal assignment and the number of hours for the school assignment (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). In secondary education an official working week in Flanders comprises 38,5 working hours. The working hours of teachers are still the hours of actual teaching. Proposals have been presented to change this system in the near future. In normal secondary education the weekly teaching time, depending on the stage in which the teacher teaches and the function (general subjects, technical subjects, art subjects or practical subjects), amounts to minimum 20 teaching periods and maximum 30 teaching periods of 50 minutes. In special secondary education the weekly teaching time amounts to minimum 22 teaching periods for the teacher of general and social subjects and 24 teaching periods for the teacher of vocational subjects, and maximum 24 and 28 teaching periods respectively. The yearly holidays comprise the official holidays, and some days which each educational institution decides freely. The yearly holiday period consists of the Christmas holiday (2 weeks), the Easter holiday (2 weeks), the summer break (2 months), the relaxation holidays (twice a week) and a number of legal and regulatory holidays (appr. 4 days). The secondary schools may add one optional holiday; the basic schools and special secondary schools two optional holidays. The holidays are compensated and count as as a period of service. Temporary teachers do possibly leave service on 30 June (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). Moreover, there is the possibility to take social leave (maximum eight days per year, in case of marriage, childbirth, decease of a family member, …) and exceptionally leave due to force majeure (illness or accident of a family member living under the same roof). Absence is also legitimate for assuming civil duties (court cases, local elections, …), and for caring for children in case of adoption or custody. Moreover, the permanently
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appointed teachers can give still other reasons for legitimate leave such as leave for reduced performance due to social or family reasons or for personal reasons, leave for the execution of certain public functions, political leave, … (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). As in other sectors, the teaching career may be interrupted. Under certain conditions, temporarily and permanently appointed staff members may interrupt their professional activities for a certain period of time and receive a benefit. The most important condition is related to the way the concerned staff member is replaced (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001). A career break must be allowed when a substitute teacher holds a required qualification and meets the requirements of the school’s educational project. In return, the organising body is given more freedom in the selection of a substitute. The obligation to appoint a TBS/OB or someone who is entitled to unemployment benefit has been cancelled. The new scheme for time-off in lieu on the other hand does not apply to teachers. Only contractual staff working in free education, who are paid by the organising body, come under the new time-off in lieu scheme. 8.2.12.2. Educational staff at colleges of higher education The college’s board of governors determines the assignment and the function description of the educational staff. A full-time position comprises 38,5 to 40 hours per week (including class preparation). The full-time availability of a member of staff does not imply, however, full-time presence; for full-time members of staff presence is not required for two half days per week. Most colleges of higher education signed a protocol with the personnel representatives concerning the task load and the time schedule. In this protocol guidelines are included concerning the number of teaching periods and hours for other tasks (e.g. thesis assistance, carrying out projects of scientific research, …). The college’s board of governors can opt for giving beginning educational staff less teaching periods because they need more time for preparation. Thus, the number of teaching periods can vary from person to person, and from college to college. Full-time members of staff may not have any other function or job. They can ask for an exemption if these other professional commitments are also beneficial to the educational institution and do not exceed two half days a week. Legislation provides for the teaching staff at least 9 weeks of holidays. The regulation concerning holidays is defined by the board of directors of the college (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). Furthermore, the Decree on the colleges of higher education states that the Flemish Government will establish the conditions for leave. For the time being, the current regulations still apply (see 8.2.1.9.). 8.2.12.3. Academic personnel at universities Each member of staff has an individual job description of his/her teaching and other duties. Full-time members of staff may not have any other function or job. They can ask for an exemption if these other professional commitments are also beneficial to the educational institution and do not exceed two half days a week. Regulations concerning holidays and leaves are established by the board of directors of the university.
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
8.2.13.
Promotion, advancement
In this paragraph we discuss another aspect of the working conditions of the teacher in Flanders, namely the usual procedure for advancement of educational staff per educational level. 8.2.13.1. Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers The three most important steps in a teacher’s career in basic education or in secondary education are the temporary appointment of limited duration, the temporary appointment of unlimited duration and the permanent appointment. At the beginning of his/her career the teacher is always temporarily appointed. The legal regulations set out priority rules for appointment. First of all, the school boards (schoolbesturen) have to take into account staff members with a permanent appointment who are available in the same or another educational institution - because of reasons of loss of some part of their teaching assignment - for filling up the vacant teaching periods. Afterwards the seniority is used as criterion. Three main categories can be distinguished in grant-aided education. They are listed in order of priority below (Devos et al., 1999): 1. those who have accumulated at least 240 seniority days of service in a major position under the same school board distributed over at least two school years; 2. those who have accumulated at least 480 seniority days of service (mainly for the same school board) in whatever major position, distributed over at least three school years; 3. all other candidates. For the community education, the following categories can be distinguished (Devos et al., 1999): 1. those who have accumulated at least 480 seniority days of service in the same position in the same school group (scholengroep); 2. those who have accumulated at least 240 seniority days of service in a position in the same school group (scholengroep) or those who have accumulated at least 720 seniority days of service in a major position; 3. all other candidates. The temporary appointment of unlimited duration (TADD) has been introduced on 1 September 2003 as unified priority system in grant-aided education and in community education. An appointment of unlimited duration continues across the school years and can relate to a vacant as well as a non-vacant position. The staff members can claim their right to a TADD if they have not received an evaluation with final conclusion ‘insufficient’ at the last evaluation; if they have not been dismissed and if they have accumulated at least 720 seniority days of service spread over at least three school years of which 600 have actually been achieved (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). A permanent appointment is only possible in community and in grant-aided education if a person has accumulated at least 720 seniority days of service in a major position (at least 360 in the concerned position). Here, too, the ‘available’ personnel are first considered. As a consequence of the Decree of 14 July 1998 relating to the secondary education, an additional condition for a permanent appointment in secondary education is that on the 31st of December preceding the permanent appointment, the staff member is temporary appointed for continuous duration. In permanent appointments there is a (hierarchical) distinction between the permanent appointment in a vacant recruitment function and a permanent appointment in a selection or promotion function (see paragraph 8.2.). Decisions about career perspectives have to be taken by the school board of the school. An inspector might be asked for advice, but his opinion is not ‘legally’ binding as such.
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8.2.13.2. Educational staff at colleges of higher education The positions of senior practical lector (hoofdpraktijklector), senior lector (hoofdlector), and senior research assistant (werkleider) may only be obtained by promotion or changing jobs (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1998). In colleges of higher education, seniority combined with useful professional experience is required for promotion to the posts of senior practical lector (hoofdpraktijklector), senior lector (hoofdlector), senior research assistant (werkleider), senior lecturer (hoofddocent), and professor (hoogleraar). In the case of internal promotion, candidates must have at least two years’ seniority as practical lector (praktijklector) to become senior practical lector (hoofdpraktijklector). In the case of external promotion to senior lecturer (hoofddocent), candidates need to have at least four years’ relevant professional experience outside education or at least two years’ seniority as lecturer (docent) at another college or university. Promotion to full professor (gewoon hoogleraar) requires the following conditions. First, the college of higher education must be actively involved in scientific research in cooperation with a university within the field of the vacancy. Second, the candidate must have been a lecturer (docent), senior lecturer (hoofddocent), or professor (hoogleraar) for six years at a college or university and, during that time, have been responsible for quality research. The competence of candidates within their specific scientific field is judged by a jury or committee of three full professors (gewone hoogleraren) from different universities (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1998). 8.2.13.3. Academic personnel at universities University academic staff almost invariably start as lecturers. Concerning the promotion to Independent Academic Personnel departmental and/or faculty assessment committees evaluate applications for promotions. Other criteria besides that of a diploma, determine promotion. Those seeking to become lecturers (docenten) must, on the basis of their prior achievements, be able to demonstrate that they will be able to engage in effective research and have good teaching skills. Individuals wanting to become senior lecturers (hoofddocenten) must have proven research records and be effective teachers. Indicators include publications, participating in conferences, being members of editorial boards, and attending relevant training courses. Those promoted to professor (hoogleraar) are expected to be creative and productive researchers, as shown by heading research projects and acquiring research funding, to be effective teachers, and to have broad educational experience. To become ordinary or extraordinary professors (gewone of buitengewone hoogleraren) candidates must be firstrate researchers with national or international reputations in their academic discipline. As educators, they are expected to have the necessary teaching skills, broad educational experience, and leadership qualities. The Flemish government has made universities responsible for determining seniority conditions for appointment to a given ZAP rank (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). The Decree of July 1991 on the universities only specifies minimum requirements for promotion concerning seniority: a lecturer (docent) has to be at least 2 years on that post for the promotion to senior lecturer (hoofddocent). An appointment or recruitment as professor (hoogleraar) requires membership of the Independent Academic Personnel for at least 4 years; the same holds for the posts of ordinary and extraordinary professor (gewoon en buitengewoon hoogleraar). The Decree of 18 May 1999 concerning Education specifies these requirements. Promotion may be made after internal publication and after the selection procedure determined by the board of directors of the university. As an exception to this, promotion to an immediately higher academic degree and the subsequent degree can be made without the internal publication and without selection if this promotion is part of a previously determined
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
career plan and is within the limits of the staff allocation. This exception only applies to people who function and achieve very well. The first promotion to an executive function should always take place after internal publication and selection. The promotion has to be justified, which means that the board of directors of the university has to consider the knowledge, experience, technical and personal skills, and potential of the candidates in function of the job description and function profile (Decree of 18 May 1999). The Decree of 18 May 1999 concerning Education X further determines that at the definition of the staff allocation and the budgeted yearly number of allocated functions, the number of functions of the independent academic personnel, expressed in full unities, may amount to maximum 70% of the total number of functions within the academic staff. As long as this number is exceeded, there may be no appointment or recruitment in the relevant category of personnel. 8.2.14.
Transfers
In this paragraph we go more deeply into another aspect of the working conditions of the teacher in Flanders, namely the occupational mobility and the possible transfer between the different educational levels. 8.2.14.1. Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers Horizontal occupational mobility is rather limited at the time. Permanently appointed members of the teaching staff can move to another school. In grant-aided education, mutation is possible but it is not a right. In community education, the school groups, functioning as organising bodies, have the authority to agree. The Decree on Education VIII of 15 July 1997 permits permanently appointed staff members to suspend, with permission, the execution of their assignment partially or entirely for another assignment in another post on a temporary basis. Permanently appointed staff members who lose (part of) their assignment and who are therefore made available, fulfill in anticipation of a re-affectation or re-employment pedagogical tasks in their own school for the proper organising body or possibly for another organising body (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). 8.2.14.2. Educational personnel at colleges of higher education Horizontal occupational mobility in colleges of higher education (hogescholen) is very limited which is mainly caused by the individual connection between the staff member and the school. Usually, the staff member is appointed at one specific college of higher education and that appointment can not simply be transferred to another college of higher education. Although few information is available, it may be assumed that vertical occupational mobility in colleges of higher education is also limited (Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department). 8.2.14.3. Academic personnel at universities Horizontal occupational mobility in universities is rather limited.
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8.2.15.
Dismissal
In this paragraph we go more deeply into various aspects of the teacher’s dismissal, as part of the working conditions of the teacher, at the different educational levels. 8.2.15.1. Basic school teachers and secondary school teachers A temporarily appointed staff member may voluntarily leave his job on his own initiative, if a notice period of 7 calendar days is observed. The school head (community education) or organising body (grant-aided education) can agree to a shorter notice period. Permanently appointed staff members can also leave their job on their own initiative. In this case a notice period of 15 calendar days applies, unless another period has been agreed on with the organising body (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). The school head (community education) or organising body (grant-aided education) can also temporarily dismiss a staff member for urgent reasons without notice period. This includes the serious fault which leads to the immediate and definite interruption of a temporary appointment. Temporarily as well as permanently appointed staff members can officially and without notice period be dismissed. This is for example the case if they do not resume their function after a legitimate leave without a legitimate reason, except for force majeure, and are absent during an uninterrupted period of more than ten calendar days. Only permanently appointed staff members can be dismissed for disciplinary reasons. On dismissal (community education) or on lay-off (grant-aided education) the permanently appointed staff member is definitively discharged from his function. In this case a notice period is observed depending on the number of working days required to be eligible for unemployment benefits (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). In grant-aided education a permanently appointed or a teacher appointed for unlimited duration can be dismissed if he/she has received two successive evaluations with final conclusion ‘insufficient’ or three definite evaluations with final conclusion ‘insufficient’ in his career (within the same organising body or within the same school community, for one specific function). A temporarily appointed teacher in grant-aided education is dismissed if the evaluation with final conclusion ‘insufficient’ is definite (Decree of 27 March 1991). In community education the appointment of a temporary staff member is terminated by the local governing body if the staff member has received an evaluation with final conclusion ‘insufficient’. The permanent appointment of a staff member is terminated if he/she has received an evaluation with final conclusion ‘insufficient’ during two successive school years (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). 8.2.15.2. Educational staff at colleges of higher education Under normal conditions, members of the teaching staff may be dismissed with a notice period of 3 months for each period of 5 years of service (a new period of five years just started is considered to be a full period). A staff member may be dismissed (with a notice period) as a consequence of a disciplinary measure or when he has received a negative evaluation two years in a row or five times in his career at the college of higher education. The teaching certification of staff members entrusted with religious education or ethics can be legally withdrawn on the decision of the proper authorities of the ideology concerned. This decision has to be justified with explicit reasons (Decree on Education X).
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A permanently appointed staff member may leave his job on his own initiative with a notice period of at least sixty days. Temporary appointed staff members have to respect a notice period of thirty days. Under exceptional conditions (e.g. fraud), no notice period has to be applied. 8.2.15.3. Academic personnel at universities The board of directors of the university can dismiss a member of the staff if the final judgement of two successive evaluations are ‘insufficient’ or when this member has had three negative evaluations during his/her career. In these circumstances a period of notice is granted the length of which is equal to the period needed to enjoy the benefits of Social Security and unemployment insurance. During this period of notice, the member of staff is considered to be appointed temporarily, and the board of directors of the university give the member of staff other assignments. The member still receives the same gross salary as in the office he/she was previously appointed. The member of staff can relinguish this period of notice entirely or partially (Decree of 18 may 1999). 8.2.16.
Retirement and pensions
In this paragraph we discuss the next element in the working conditions of the teacher; the retirement and pension, for the regulations are identical for all educational levels. All teachers receive a pension based on the principles laid down in the (Belgian) national legislation. The pension system in the education sector is one of the elements over which the Flemish Community has no authority. The pension is based on the years of service and the salary. Different schemes have been set up for teachers who want to retire earlier. To receive a pension, a teacher must (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001): •
submit an application (a personal application is always required even when the person is compelled by law to end his professional career);
•
be permanently appointed;
•
reach the required age (60 years);
•
have the required number of years of service (5 years).
The average pay of the last 5 years of service (always considered as in full-time and active state) is taken as the basis for the calculation of the pension. The calculated sum may never be higher than three fourths of the average pay of the last 5 years. Besides, there is an absolute maximum amount which does not only apply for a certain pension but also for the accumulation of several pensions: 5.155,15 EURO gross per month (since 1 July 2003. Moreover, guaranteed minima are also established and differ according to the ‘cause’ of retirement. The guaranteed minimum (on 1 June 2001) for a pension following age or seniority amounts to 994,90 EURO gross per month for a single person 1.243,63 EURO for married persons. The person has to have reached the age of 60 years and have 20 years of service. A pension ‘because of physical incapacity’ guarantees 50% for single persons and 62.5% for married persons of the average pay during the last five years (if the pay was less than 23.877,67 (1 July 2003)) then this amount will be taken as reference). Other incomes of the person and his wife are subtracted from this sum but this is limited. A supplement of
1.603,44 a year is provided to persons who
are retired because of a severe handicap incurred during their career that has led to the ending of their career (Heyvaert & Janssen, 2003).
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At the time that there was a teacher surplus, a temporary measure was introduced for staff 55 years and over working in education and Centres for Educational Guidance (CLBs), and this involved the full-time placement prior to retirement. As a result of the Decision of the Flemish government of 22 February 2002, the retirement age has been increased to 58 years as from 1 September 2002, except for pre-primary school teachers for whom the retirement age has been set at 56 years. The measure forms part of the Flemish government policy to tackle the teacher shortage as a priority. By raising the retirement age, the annual early exit of thousands of teachers with valuable experience and educational know-how, was to be reduced. The teachers and the teachers’ unions were not very keen on this measure. They perceived the temporary measure as an acquired right. Only after long and laborious negotiations with the unions and other government parties was this measure (TBS58+) adopted, although several transitional provisions were included in the Decision (source: Circular Letter of 29/03/03 Decision of 11/2/00 and the Decree of 22/2/02).
8.3.
Educational Staff responsible for Administration and/or Management within Schools
This paragraph discusses the non-teaching staff in Flanders, and more specifically the function of headteacher (or school head) and deputy school head. The function of school head is a promotion function within the category governing and educational staff of normal and special basic education and special secondary education, and within the category of governing staff of normal secondary education. The function of deputy school head is a selection function within the category of governing and educational staff of normal and special secondary education. The function of governor at a college of higher education can only be assigned by mandate (Heyvaert en Janssens, 2003). 8.3.1.
Requirements for appointment as a school head
In this paragraph we go more deeply into the access to employment as headteacher (or school head), which comes under the category of the non-teaching staff. In community education the selection and promotion functions are subject to a trial period of 12 months, which can be prolonged once with 12 months. During this period the staff member has to actually perform in the function in which he/she has been admitted for the trial period. The staff member has to, for admission to the trial period, be holder of the required certificate of competence or of a certificate of competence that is deemed to be equivalent, has not received a final conclusion of ‘insufficient’ during the last evaluation, has to comply with the general recruitment conditions (see paragraph 8.2.5.1.), has to dispose of the required competences for the function, tested in an exam, and has to have declared him/herself as a candidate with the board of governors. After successful completion of the trial period, the staff member is permanently appointed by the board of governors (Heyvaert en Janssens, 2003). In grant-aided education there is no such trial period. The staff member is permanently appointed in the selection or promotion function if he/she is holder of the required certificate of competence or of a certificate of competence that is deemed to be equivalent, if the final conclusion of the last evaluation was not ‘insufficient’ and if the candidate complies with the general recruitment conditions (see paragraph 8.2.5.1.) (Heyvaert en Janssens, 2003). A permanent appointment is only possible for the main function. As from 1 September 2002 a full-time job can, however, be given to one or two staff members, who are each entrusted with a part-time assignment. Beside a
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
permanent appointment in the function of school head it is also possible to give a permanently appointed staff member (grant-aided education) or staff member (community education) the function of observing (deputy) school head (Heyvaert en Janssens, 2003). 8.3.2.
Conditions of service
As regards working conditions of the headteacher (school head) and the deputy school head – functions which come under the category of non-teaching staff – we refer to 8.2.. As to the evaluation procedure there is a difference compared to paragraph 8.2., in the sense that the (deputy) school head is evaluated by the board of governors (community education) or the organising body (grant-aided education).
8.4.
Educational Staff responsible for Monitoring the Quality of Education
In this paragraph we go more deeply into the requirements for the appointment as an inspector and the working conditions of the inspector. Just like the (deputy) school heads inspectors in Flanders come under the category of the non-teaching staff. 8.4.1.
Requirements for appointment as an inspector
As mentioned before we discuss in this paragraph the access to employment of the non-teaching staff and more specifically of the inspector. Not all categories of staff members are eligible for the function of inspector. For admission to the educational inspectorate, one has to belong to one of the following categories: governing and teaching, paramedical, social, medical, orthopedagogical and psychological personnel; staff members of the departments for pedagogical guidance; the technical personnel of the grant-aided free and official centres, of the centres for community education and of the centre for state education; school heads and advisors to the Department for Educational Development (DVO); the independent and auxiliary academic personnel at the universities and the teaching staff at the colleges of higher education. For admission to the inspectorate of the centres for educational guidance following categories of staff members are eligible: school heads, if they are holder of the diploma that grants access to the function of physician or psycho-pedagogical consultant -; physicians; psycho-pedagogical consultants; paramedical workers; and social workers of the centres for educational guidance as well as staff members of the departments for pedagogical guidance (Decree of 17 July 1991). When a function of inspector is vacant, it is published in the Belgian Gazette and sent to the schools through a circular letter and the website of the department for education. For admission to the examination the candidate has to be a citizen of the European Union, being of irreproachable character, enjoying civil and political rights, have at least 10 years of seniority, be (permanently) appointed in one of the above mentioned personnel categories. Moreover, the candidate has to submit a dossier concerning his/her curriculum vitae, with mentioning of all elements used to expand and deepen his/her educational insight, agogic skills and subject-didactic expertise. The Flemish government can if necessary define additional diploma requirements. The selection procedure consists of 2 phases and is executed by a selection commission in which officers, members of the inspectorate and university professors have a seat. In a first phase the candidates have to write a dissertation on an educational issue. Only the candidates who pass this test with 60% of the points are admitted to the second phase, in which an oral examination is organised. This oral exam has to be passed with 60% of the points as
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well. The candidates passing both tests with 60% of the points are categorised and the selection commission presents two candidates per function. The Minister decides who of both presented candidates is appointed. Candidates who passed both tests but were not appointed are entered in a recruitment database (werfreserve) during four years. After appointment as an inspector in a vacant position one has first to finish a trial period of one year. The authorised inspector-general (inspecteur-generaal) appoints a mentor amongst the members of the inspectorate. In the course of the last month of the trial period the staff member involved has to submit a report that has to be evaluated by the authorised inspector-general and the mentor. The evaluation of the trial period by the mentor and the authorised inspector-general leads to a report that ends with a motivated proposal for permanent appointment or for dismissal of the staff member involved. 8.4.2.
Conditions of service
In this paragraph the focus is on the working conditions of the non-teaching staff, more specifically on the working conditions of the inspector. In Flanders the legal statute of the members of the inspectorate is regulated for the larger part by the Decree of 17 July 1991 concerning the inspectorate, department for educational development and the departments for pedagogical guidance. In this paragraph we only discuss the evaluation procedure for the members of the inspectorate and the consequences of such an evaluation. The members of the inspectorate normally go through a trial period of one year and are then – on positive evaluation – definitively appointed (see above). For the inspectors-general (inspecteurs-generaal) and for the coordinating inspectors a mandate formula applies: they have a mandate of 4 years, that can only be prolonged in case of a positive evaluation. The Decree stipulates that each staff member that actually performs more than three months per year at the departments of the inspectorate is evaluated. Each staff member is evaluated once a year in the first three years of his/her career; afterwards at least every two school years, unless the staff member requests to be evaluated in two successive school years. The evaluation is done on the basis of the function description (tasks and objectives) and is the assessment of the total performance of the staff member involved. In the course of the evaluation period the staff member can address his/her evaluators for follow-up or guidance in order to achieve the expected results. All members of the inspectorate entrusted with evaluations, are by the way obliged to follow a training for evaluators, and the evaluators themselves are evaluated regarding the quality of their evaluations. The evaluation is subject to a strict procedure. The holder of a function first prepares a selfevaluation; then there is an evaluation conversation; and finally the evaluation is motivated in an evaluation report. When a staff member receives the final conclusion ‘insufficient’, he/she needs to be evaluated again after one year. The staff member is dismissed for reason of professional incompetence if he/she receives a final conclusion ‘insufficient’ during two successive years or three times during his/her career (for a permanently appointed staff member), or once (for a contractual or temporarily appointed staff member).
8.5.
Educational staff responsible for support and guidance
In this paragraph we briefly mention a number of elements concerning the guidance officers in Flemish education. We make a distinction between the personnel responsible for guidance and support of the governing and teaching personnel on the one hand, and the personnel of the Centres for Educational Guidance on the other hand. Both categories come under the category of the non-teaching staff.
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
The personnel in the departments for pedagogical guidance (see 9.3.3.) is divided into pedagogical advisors and pedagogical advisor-coordinators. The latter head the department for pedagogical guidance. Both functions of pedagogical advisor and advisor-coordinator are promotion functions, and can be full-time or part-time positions. Beside the pedagogical advisors and advisor-coordinators, there is a specific category of educational staff members who have been granted leave for a special assignment (i.e. a guidance assignment). As regards the admission requirements for a function within the department for pedagogical guidance, small differences can be detected between the departments for guidance in grant-aided education and those in community education. Generally the candidate needs to have at least 10 years of seniority to be eligible for a temporary or permanent appointment. The Flemish government may always define additional diploma requirements (Decree of 17 July 1991). The personnel of the centres for educational guidance (CLB) consists of a number of permanent functions, from governor (promotion function), over physician, consultant, psycho-pedagogical consultant, social worker, administrative employee, paramedical worker, psycho-pedagogical worker, to collaborator. Since 1 September 2000 each new governor of a CLB – except for the permanent support group (permanente ondersteuningscel) – is appointed with a mandate (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). The administrative employees and the collaborators form the administrative staff of a CLB, whereas the remaining functions form the technical staff of a CLB. For admission and appointment to the functions within the CLB certain proofs of competence are required (decision of 13 October 2000, modified by the Decision of 11 January 2002 and the Circular Letter CLB/2002/07). Staff members of a CLB can also be permanently appointed. The staff member as well as the function have to comply with certain conditions (see Circular Letter CLB/2002/11). As to the legal statute of the staff members of the centres for educational guidance we refer to 8.2.. The centres’ personnel is per definition on holiday on the days that the centres are closed. For the school year 2002-2003 the centres are closed at weekends, on legal holidays, on holidays determined by Decree, from 15 July until 15 August, and during Christmas holidays (except for 2 days) and Easter holidays (Decree of 1 December 1998 and Circular Letter 13AD/CLB/P/01/2). Besides the personnel can claim 21 extra holidays. Each full-time staff member of the centres for educational guidance can also claim a number of training days per school year to be defined by the Flemish government (Decree of 1 December 1998).
8.6.
Other educational staff or staff working with schools
Beside the governing and teaching staff there are a number of other categories of non-teaching staff in the Flemish educational system. In basic education a category of policy and support personnel (policy collaborator (beleidsmedewerker), administrative employee (administratief medewerker)) is distinguished, as well as a category of paramedical personnel (child carer). In special basic education following categories are added: medical personnel (physician), orthopedogogical personnel (remedial educationalist), paramedical personnel (ergotherapist, child carer, kinesitherapist, speech therapist, nurse), psychological personnel (psychologist) and social personnel (social worker). In secondary education administrative personnel and educational personnel can be found. The first category consists of the function of junior clerk or clerk-typist (opsteller of klerk-typist), the second of educator-caretaker (opvoeder-huismeester), the management assistant (directiesecretaris), the assistant-librarian (secretarisbibliothecaris) and the supervisor-educator (studiemeester-opvoeder). In special secondary education following
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categories are added: medical personnel (physician), orthopedogogical personnel (remedial educationalist), paramedical personnel (ergotherapist, child carer, kinesitherapist, speech therapist, nurse), psychological personnel (psychologist) and social personnel (social worker). In the category of administrative personnel the messenger-caretaker (bode-kamerbewaarder), the first clerk-typist (eerste klerk-typist) and the first junior clerk (eerste opsteller) are additionally distinguished; in the category educational auxiliary personnel, supervisoreducator boarding school (studiemeester-opvoeder internaat) and governor (beheerder) (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). In higher education distinction is made, beside the board of governors, between the teaching staff, administrative and
technical staff and
mandates (general governor
(algemeen directeur),
head
of department
(departementshoofd), librarian). During the transition measures for the school years 1999-2000 until 2005-2006, the staff members of the supporting and administrative personnel are transferred to the category of the auxiliary personnel on the basis of new standards (Decree of 18 May 1999).
8.7.
Statistics
This paragraph contains tables with statistical data concerning teachers and education staff in Flanders.
Table 36: Administrative and teaching staff by level of education: number of full-time equivalents (January 2003), by gender and post gender
post
male
female
total
permanent
temporary
total
Primary education
9.301
37.690
46.991
34.406
12.585
46.991
Special primary education
1.139
4.093
5.232
3.895
1.337
5.232
Secondary
24.512
30.331
54.843
41.043
13.800
54.843
Special secondary
2.170
2.543
4.713
3.526
1.187
4.713
Colleges
4.370
3.603
7.973
5.389
2.584
7.973
Social advancement
1.366
2.104
3.470
1.703
1.767
3.470
(secondary) Social advancement. (higher)
388
250
638
266
372
638
Part-time arts ed.
1.611
1.729
3.340
2.596
744
3.340
Total
44.857
82.343
127.200
92.824
34.376
127.200
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 37: Administrative and teaching staff by level of education: number of persons (January 2003), by post and employment Number of persons with a
Number of persons with a
fulltime employment
part-time employment
Total
permanent
temporary
permanent
temporary
permanent
temporary
Primary education
25.310
6.925
14.112
3.998
39.422
10.923
Special primary
3.112
809
1.212
313
4.324
1.122
education
Chapter 8: Teachers and education staff
Secondary
30.920
7.771
15.522
3.698
46.442
11.469
Special secondary
2.967
769
867
278
3.834
1.047
Colleges
4.384
1.613
1.243
1.705
5.627
3.318
Social advancement
999
620
1.064
2.011
2.063
2.631
171
90
142
918
313
1.008
Part-time arts ed.
1.502
125
1.684
904
3.186
1.029
Total
69.365
18.722
35.846
13.825
105.211
32.547
(secondary) Social advancement. (higher)
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 38: Administrative and teaching staff (number of persons) in all levels of education, by age, post and gender (January 2003) permanent
temporary
Total
age
male
female
total
male
female
total
male
female
total
20-29
704
2.865
3.569
4.001
11.828
15.829
4.705
14.696
19.398
30-39
5.501
16.978
22.479
3.330
6.908
10.238
8.831
23.886
32.717
40-49
12.482
23.928
36.410
2.171
2.919
5.090
14.653
26.847
41.500
50-59
16.014
22.363
38.377
759
470
1.229
16.773
22.833
39.606
60+
2.426
1.950
4.376
137
24
161
2.563
1.974
4.537
Totaal
37.127
68.084
105.211
10.398
22.149
32.547
47.525
90.233
137.758
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 39: Administrative and teaching staff in colleges of higher education, by post and gender (January 2003) Number of fulltime equivalents permanent
Number of persons
temporary
permanent
temporary
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
3.120
2.269
1.250
1.334
3.088
2.539
1.832
1.486
Total: 7.973
Total: 8.945
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 40: Number of staff (full-time units) at the universities (1 February 2003), by gender male
female
total
Independent academic personnel (ZAP)
2.152,2
380,4
2.532,5
Auxiliary academic personnel (AAP)
975,0
850,2
1.825,2
Total
3.127,2
1.230,6
4.357,7
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
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Table 41: Annual gross salaries of members of teaching staff (full-time) in EUR (1 September 2003) Start
End (max. years of seniority)
Primary education
17,347.42
29,671.30
Secondary education (first stage)
17,347,42
30,212.35
Secondary education (diploma of
21,726.55 38,312.63 licentiate) (MVG, departement onderwijs, http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/wedde/weddenschalen/overzicht.htm) Note: The salary scale (barema) is the minimum and maximum salary in proportion of 100 % and the minimum age.
Table 42: Annual gross salaries of academic staff (full-time) at colleges of higher education (hogescholen) and at universities in EUR (1 June 2003) Grade
Start
End (max. years of seniority)
Colleges of higher education Practical lector
22,498.03
35,362.96
Senior practical lector
23,405.66
38,313.47
Lector
24,177.08
40,763.16
Senior lector
26,695.63
43,281.71
Universities Assistant
23,468.58
39,716.10
Doctor assistant
29,069.73
45,317.25
Lecturer
29,914.33
47,443.60
Senior lecturer
34,255.87
58,402.56
Professor
40,109.00
61,224.38
Full professor
44,924.78
68,633.08
(Heyvaert & Janssens, 2003). Note: The salary scale (barema) is the minimum and maximum salary in proportion of 100 % and the minimum age.
In below paragraphs the evaluation of the quality of education in Flanders is discussed.
9.1.
Historical overview
The monitoring of the education system involves an interplay among different parties, including the Inspectorate and the organising bodies. The latter are involved on the basis of their special role in curriculum development. Since 1989, the relations between the different partners have changed dramatically. For this reason, a brief overview from a historical perspective on evaluation and quality of education in Flanders is usefull. The supervisory power of the authorities over the education system and especially the outcomes has been a very sensitive issue in Belgian and now Flemish education. The sentence about control being subject to permanent attention on behalf of the Government in the Dutch Constitution was explicitly rejected in the preparation of the first Belgian Constitution in 1830. Special emphasis was placed on freedom of choice for parents and, in this connection, the freedom to organise schools by organising bodies (inrichtende machten). Therefore, some educational networks had their own Inspectorate until the Decree of 17 July 1991. State inspectors have long played a key role in monitoring and optimising education. The monitoring procedure is carried out indirectly during the preparation of syllabuses and the assessment of the standard of diplomas and directly by verifying the level of studies. The organising bodies take responsibility for preparing syllabuses and submitting them for approval to the minister. Its application was controlled by the Inspectorate. The inspectors also attended classes. However, this approach was changed by the new Decree of 17 July 1991. At the same time, a clear distinction was introduced between the monitoring of the education system by the Inspectorate and the school-support function by the newly established network-related pedagogical support services (pedagogische begeleidingsdiensten).
9.2.
Ongoing debate
The most important ongoing discussions and reform proposals on the educational quality care system and evaluation in the Flemish Community relate to following aspects: •
The strengthening of the school’s position within the quality care system: in this respect work is done towards the recognition and assessment of self-evaluation projects at school level (This can a.o. imply the “integration” of self-evaluation results in the screenings);
•
The strengthening of the operational autonomy of the educational Inspectorate: thoughts are to sign a ruling agreement between the government and the Inspectorate, which should allow the Inspectorate to come to a greater responsibility in return for more transparency regarding objectives and resources;
•
Following the Andersen audit at the Inspectorate and the support services (see extensive Andersen report) there is a reform proposal for the Decree concerning the inspection and support. This has lead to a social debate on quality care. On the basis of this debate the new definitions, tasks and statute of the Inspectorate and the support services will be worked at.
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
•
The creation of a system of performance measurement in order to control the quality of education. In order to control the quality of education on different levels (micro, meso, macro) it is necessary to gain insight in the performance and progression of the pupils. The government is looking for a system to gain insight in the pupils’ performance and progression without resulting in a system of central exams and other excesses such as rankings of school. Schools as well ask for adequate evaluation material to follow pupils and data to which they can compare the performance of the pupils in order to gain insight in their quality.
•
To seek alliance with a European educational policy with international indicators and benchmarks, and quality control through open coordination linked to the development of a proper Flemish educational policy aimed at the realisation of the Flemish attainment targets and developmental objectives and an evaluation of the degree in which schools and pupils reach theses socially supported minimum objectives.
9.3.
Administrative and Legislative Framework
Insight in the administrative framework and educational legislation regarding the evaluation of the educational system asks for a description of the three most important pillars of educational quality control and monitoring in Flemish education: the educational Inspectorate (see paragraph 9.3.1.), the Department for Educational Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (see paragraph 9.3.2.) and the Pedagogical Support Services (pedagogische begeleidingsdiensten) (see paragraph 9.3.3.). 9.3.1.
The Inspectorate
The educational Inspectorate of the Flemish Community is an organisation which works for the Flemish government and is entrusted with the quality control of education. The Decree of 17 July 1991 organises the structure and functioning of the Inspectorate for all educational levels, excluding the universities and 2-cycle education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) (Michielsens, 1993; MVG, Departement Onderwijs, 1995b). In below paragraphs we go more deeply into a number of relevant aspects of the Flemish educational Inspectorate. 9.3.1.1.
Organisation of the Inspectorate
Members of the Inspectorate are recruited from teaching staff. They are divided into several groups: basic education (basisonderwijs), secondary education, higher education (one-cycle courses), adult education and Parttime Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO). Furthermore, there is also an Inspectorate for the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding). Article 113 of the new Flemish Decree of 14 July 1998 concerning Education IX modifies the Decree of 17 July 1991. This article stipulates that the general control and management of the Inspectorate is entrusted to an inspection council (inspectieraad). This Inspection Council consists of the inspectors-general of the several divisions of the Inspectorate and the director of the Department of Educational Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO). The chief coordinating-general of the Inspectorate is the chairman of the Inspection Council. The Inspection Council has, as its main concerns, the effective functioning of the educational Inspectorate and the management of the quality-assurance tasks that the Inspectorate, on the order of the Flemish Government, executes with respect to the educational institutions and the centres. Therefore, the Inspection Council promotes co-operation between the divisions of the Inspectorate. The Inspection Council is
Chapter 9: Evaluation of educational institutions and the education system
also regularly in contact with the Education Department and, if necessary, makes suggestions in accordance with educational policy. The Inspection Council co-ordinates and manages the concepts, instruments, and procedures that are used within the framework of the tasks of the Inspectorate. The Inspection Council also co-ordinates the preparation of the annual report of the Inspectorate on the state of the education system. The Inspectorate checks if the school is performing its social assignment and/or if the resources of the Community (Gemeenschap) are being used in a judicious way (the school inspection). For that, the Inspectorate advises on whether the school may be recognised or subsidised or not. Moreover, the Inspectorate has an advisory function towards educational policy. Information about the effects of the policy on the school level and as regards education in general are crucial for the further development of educational policy. One of the ways this is provided is in the annual reports of the Inspectorate on the state of the education system. The inspections in basic and secondary education are lead by an inspector-general. The inspector-general for basic education is entrusted with the management for basic education, including special basic education. There is one coordinating inspector per province in normal basic education. Each province is divided into a number of official territories (ressorten) for each of which one inspector is responsible. Special basic education is included in the tasks of these coordinating inspectors. Formally the possibility exists to assign one coordinating inspector to special basic education for the whole of Flanders. The inspector-general for secondary education is entrusted with the management of the Inspectorate, including special secondary education and part-time vocational education. The coordinating inspector-general leads the inspection of the CLB, DKO and the VWO. 9.3.1.2.
Tasks of the Inspectorate
The Inspectorate checks through school screenings if the educational institution is performing its social assignment and/or if the resources of the Community are being used in a judicious way (the school inspection). For that, the Inspectorate advises on whether the school may be recognised or subsidised or not.
The
Inspectorate has full authority for all subjects taught at school except for philosophical and religious subjects. Moreover, the Inspectorate has an advisory function towards educational policy. Information about the effects of the policy on the school level and as regards education in general are crucial for the further development of educational policy. One of the ways this is provided is in the annual reports of the Inspectorate on the state of the education system. (Maes, 1998). By law, the tasks of the Inspectorate are (Maes, 1998): •
monitoring compliance with and implementation of the curricula by the educational institutions that are approved by the government;
•
checking if the subject or subject area-related attainment targets (vak- of leergebiedgebonden eindtermen) are being achieved and if the development objectives and/or the cross-subject or subjectarea attainment targets (vak- of leergebiedoverschrijdende eindtermen) are being striven for with sufficient zeal by the educational institutions;
•
checking on the application of school time;
•
inspecting the hygiene of the school accommodations, compliance with the language laws, the teaching equipment and the school equipment;
•
advising on the funding of the educational institutions;
•
advising on educational policy.
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The Inspectorate not only checks if a number of legal prescriptions regarding education have been respected but also examines the broader school context such as the school climate, the relations between the different groups, and the infrastructure. The Inspectorate is not qualified to evaluate the teaching methods or the school development plan (schoolwerkplan) of the educational institution, which are covered by the principle of educational freedom, or to inspect the courses of religion or non-denominational moral education. The legal representative bodies of each recognised philosophical or religious community themselves organise the inspection and support of the philosophical and religious courses taught at school. They are also responsible for the development of the curricula and the organisation of in-service training for the teachers involved. 9.3.1.3.
Monitoring procedures
The working method of the educational Inspectorate is to a certain degree specific per level. The concrete procedure for the screening of basic schools is described in paragraph 9.4.2.1, the procedure for secondary schools in paragraph 9.4.2.2.. The next sections give a general overview of the working method consisting of a number of successive steps. The first phase involves gathering data on the school, which are then analysed. These data are derived from several sources: information provided by the general administration, previous Inspectorate visits, and so on, and also by the schools themselves, both directly and in writing. The inspector-reporter (inspecteur-verslaggever) draws up an overview of the data, which can be considered an initial introduction to the school ‘from a distance’ (Laumen, 1992; MVG, Departement Onderwijs, 1995b). In the second phase, the inspector-reporter (inspecteur-verslaggever) visits the school and compares the information report with the reality. Thus, the report is supplemented and the risk of a distorted interpretation is reduced. In particular, in the second phase, the school’s own interpretation of its own activities plan is verified. The intention, therefore, is to acquire information about the objectives of the school activities plan, whether they can be realised or not, and the reasons for this. The second phase is concluded by making final revisions in the information report. The third phase constitutes the essence of quality monitoring. An inspection team - three or four inspectors in basic education (basisonderwijs) and three to six inspectors in secondary education - goes to the school to analyse the functioning of the school by means of a number of indicators and general standards. This takes about a week. Although in principle the Inspectorate operates as a team, individual inspectors visit classrooms because a group of inspectors would make objective observation of classroom activities impossible. It is important, in consultation with the local school, to draw up a work plan for the school visit. In the fourth phase, all the data gathered are compiled and thoroughly discussed by the inspection team. This discussion leads to the preparation of the final report describing the weak and strong points of the school. Finally, in the fifth phase, the draft report of the fourth phase is discussed with the school concerned, and the definitive final report is prepared. The concluding part of the inspection report may be (Maes, 1998): •
favourable;
Chapter 9: Evaluation of educational institutions and the education system
•
favourable, but limited in time: in this case a number of shortcomings were determined which have to be eliminated within the period agreed on. After at least 60 days a follow-up inspection is carried out regarding the shortcomings concerned.
•
unfavourable. This leads to withdrawal of the recognition of (part of) a school.
In some case other procedures are used, e.g. for Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP). The inspection is not carried out by a team during one extended visit to the school. Instead, a ‘consecutive method’ is applied. Here, the inspection procedure is spread over a longer period and is conducted by one or more members of the Inspectorate, sometimes assisted by external experts. This enables another kind of monitoring to be applied. This method is also used for Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO). The Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s) are also inspected according to their proper method. In the period 2000-2002 all centres were screened by the CLB-Inspectorate. The regulations stipulate that the centres are normally periodically visited by a review commission (visitatiecommissie) which monitors the execution of the policy plan or policy contract signed with the school and the quality policy. The Inspectorate is part of this review commission, completed with external persons, making sure that the members represent the psycho-pedagogical, the medical, the paramedical and the social disciplines. In each screening the schools belonging to the territory of the centre for educational guidance are involved. For that, arrangements are made with the educational Inspectorate. After completion of the screening procedure for a centre for educational guidance, each school involved receives a copy of the results relating to the centre’s functioning and execution of the policy plan or policy contract. The educational Inspectorate is also informed of these results. The report of a screening of a centre for educational guidance is distributed to the management of the centre for educational guidance and to the government, but not to the schools involved and the educational Inspectorate. 9.3.1.4.
Evaluation of the Inspectorate
An evaluation system for the staff members of the Inspectorate and the Department of Educational Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO) has also recently been introduced by the Decree of 14 July 1998 on Education IX. In effect, this Decree stipulates that an evaluation must be conducted of every staff member who works for more than three months in one year in the services of the Inspectorate or the Department of Educational Development (DVO). The evaluation consists of the assessment of the performance of the staff member in his or her present position in function of previously set expectations. The evaluation is performed on the basis of a job description. The expectations are established at the beginning of the evaluation period by mutual agreement between the evaluators and the staff member. Two aspects can be distinguished: the relatively permanent task and the periodbounded objectives. The task is established in a job description containing two parts: the result areas, which are the tasks that have to be performed, and the competencies, which are the skills and qualities needed by the staff member to do the tasks. Annual objectives can also be agreed upon. In principle, the evaluation is conducted annually. All staff members of the Inspectorate and the Department of Educational Development (DVO) are evaluated by at least two superiors. The evaluators have at least two different ranks. A training programme for evaluators is compulsory for all the members of the Inspectorate and the Department of Educational Development who will evaluate other staff members.
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The evaluation procedure itself proceeds as follows. First, the staff member prepares a self-evaluation. During an evaluation discussion between the staff member, who explains his or her self-evaluation, and one or more evaluators, all aspects of the performance of the staff member are discussed. The evaluation is written down by the evaluator(s) in an evaluation report with justifying reasons. This report contains no final conclusion, except in the case of the evaluation “insufficient”. The staff member receives the report after the evaluation discussion and is allowed to add his or her remarks. The evaluation report, including the remarks, is kept in a personal evaluation dossier. A staff member who does not agree with an evaluation of “insufficient” can appeal to the Council of Appeal (Raad van Beroep). This Council of Appeal issues a recommendation with justifying reasons. However, the ‘Inspection Council (Inspectieraad) is entitled to decide definitively about the assignment of the rating “insufficient”. The inspectors-general, the chief co-ordinating-general, or the director of the Department of Educational Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO) who does not agree with an evaluation of “insufficient” can appeal to the Flemish government. The decision of the Flemish government in such a case is binding. The decision accompanied by the reason for it that is appealed, is also added to the evaluation report of the staff member. A permanently appointed staff member of the Inspectorate or the Department of Educational Development can be dismissed due to professional incompetence if he or she has received an evaluation of “insufficient” for two continuous years or three times in his or her career at the Inspectorate or the Department of Educational Development (DVO). The temporarily or contractually appointed staff member of the Inspectorate or the DVO is dismissed if he or she has received one evaluation of “insufficient”. 9.3.2.
Department of educational development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO)
In order to implement the Inspectorate tasks in the best possible manner, a special service has been created by the Decree of 17 July 1991: the Department of Educational Development. At its establishment in 1991 the DVO was a study centre of the Inspectorate. Originally this new department had four tasks: 1) the formulation of proposals regarding attainment targets, 2) the development of instruments for analysis and evaluation to screen schools among other things regarding reaching attainment targets, 3) the development of methods for drawing up curricula and timetables, among other things in view of professional profiles, and 4) the formulation of advice on the introduction and in-service training of members of the Inspectorate. In 1999 the assignment and statute determined by Decree of the department were slightly adapted. The DVO became a study centre for the Minister and the Flemish government. The modified Decree concerning the Inspectorate, the Department for Educational Development and the pedagogical support services defines the new assignment of this department as follows: ‘Within the framework of the policy preparing assignment of the Department for Education, the Department for Educational Development is assigned to formulate scientifically motivated advice for the benefit of the Flemish government and the Minister for Education.’ The assignment basically comprises the following tasks: the formulation of proposals concerning the development of the training structure; the development of criteria for approving curricula and working plans; the formulation of proposals concerning development objectives, attainment targets and basic competencies; and the development of instruments for analysis and evaluation to screen schools and centres. The Decree concerning the
Chapter 9: Evaluation of educational institutions and the education system
teacher training and the in-service training of 16 April 1996 gives the Department for Educational Development the following assignment as well: ‘The Flemish government determines the professional profile and the basic competencies of each type of teacher upon the advice of the Flemish Education Council. To that end, the Department for Educational Development formulates a proposal for the Flemish Education Council.’ The assignment of the Department for Educational Development determined by Decree translates at this moment in the following activities (DVO, 2004): the development of attainment targets, developmental objectives and specific attainment targets; the development of basic competencies for the teacher training; the development of study profiles; the development of instruments for quality monitoring; the preparation of a training structure; advice and input of expertise; preparation of policy by means of study work; cooperation with other departments and organisations regarding educational issues; international cooperation; publications on contents, evaluation and implementation of curricula. These activities relate to basic education, special education, secondary education, adult education and higher education as regards the teacher training. Besides, a number of themes exceed the different educational levels. Within the framework of a Better Governing Policy (Beter Bestuurlijk Beleid) the Ministries of the Flemish Community will be thoroughly restructured in the near future. The Department for Education, the Inspectorate and the Department for Educational Development will also be involved. The DVO will probably be included in the administration of the Department for Education and the tasks of the department will focus on the theme ‘curriculum’. The DVO as a department for curricula would then focus on a number of big themes such as curriculum, objectives and contents, arranging of curricula in a training structure and evaluation of curricula. 9.3.3.
Pedagogical support services (Pedagogische Begeleidingsdiensten)
Since the Decree of 17 July 1991 thoroughly modified the authorities of the Inspectorate and of the networkrelated pedagogical support services, the most important controlling tasks were assigned to the educational Inspectorate and the network-related pedagogical services were entrusted with an advising and supporting task. The pedagogical support services promote the quality of education and support teachers, school administrations, schools etc. to realise pedagogical projects which are specific for the school boards (organising bodies). The services are organised for each educational network separately. Pedagogical consultants are usually teachers who are granted leave for their supporting work during one or more years. More concretely the pedagogical support services of community education are entrusted with following tasks (Decision of the Flemish government of 9 July 1996, B.S. 12/09/1996): the external support of the educational institutions involved according to their own pedagogical concept, among other things in the drawing up of the school work plan; the development of initiatives for the promotion of the educational quality of the institutions involved; the encouraging of initiatives for the strengthening of the professional competence of the staff members in the institutions involved; the drawing up of a yearly support plan and the drafting of an annual activity report. As far as moral and religious courses are concerned, these support services have no authority. For them, special procedures apply.
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9.3.4.
Special arrangements
Below we describe some special procedures regarding quality monitoring. 9.3.4.1.
Control and support in relation to moral or religious courses
The Constitution guarantees to all pupils enrolled under the conditions of the Compulsory Education Law two weekly periods of moral or religious education at school as part of the curriculum. These courses are not subject to any government supervision whatsoever, as long as the fundamental principles of democracy are respected. Nevertheless, the Decree of 1 December 1993 organises a framework for inspection and educational support in these subjects at the basic and secondary education level and in teacher training at the colleges of higher education (hogescholen). For each recognised or religious community, one association or authority is acknowledged as the legal representative of that community. Those representative bodies organise the inspection and support of the moral and religious courses taught at school. They are also responsible for the development of the curricula and the organisation of in-service training for the teachers. The appointed inspector-advisors (inspecteur-adviseur) have several well-defined tasks and responsibilities, including inspection of all learning materials used and the physical conditions of classrooms used for teaching philosophical or religious courses. 9.3.4.2.
City-based Inspectorate
A few larger cities (e.g. Antwerp, Ghent) have their own Inspectorate staffs. They are considered senior civil servants of the municipal education authority as organising body (inrichtende macht) of grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs).
9.4.
Evaluation of Schools/Institutions
The evaluation of educational institutions is based on two methods: on the one hand the internal evaluation methods at the initiative of the schools themselves or of their organising bodies (see paragraph 9.4.1.), and on the other hand the external evaluation of the quality of education by the educational Inspectorate (see paragraph 9.4.2.). 9.4.1.
Internal evaluation
The Flemish education system does not have a strong institutional tradition of formal self-evaluation. As a matter of fact, self-evaluation has been encouraged with the new inspection system and the current schemes for external support to schools; this principle is also established in the most recent laws on higher education (both universities and colleges of higher education (Decree of 12 June 1991 and the Decree of 13 July 1994). Materials for self-evaluation were developed but the implementation of self-evaluation procedures will remain under the exclusive authority of the organising bodies (Van Petegem, 1996). Self-evaluation systems at the preschool, primary and secondary level have been developed (Van Petegem, 1998; Devos, Verhoeven e.a., 2000; Laevers, s.d.); the Decrees related to the colleges of higher education and the universities provide a system of quality assurance in which the principle of self-evaluation is an essential element.
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9.4.1.1.
Internal evaluation in primary and secondary education
There is an international growing tendency among schools to question themselves critically and to investigate the realisation of their proper objectives in a more systematic way (Michielsens, 2002). The performance of selfevaluations has also within Flemish education become an important aspect in quality assurance. In selfevaluation the question is whether the basic school or the secondary school complies with its own objectives which it has formulated following its pedagogical project. In a screening by the educational Inspectorate on the other hand the question is in the first place whether the school complies with the minimum expectations of the society (i.e. the policy) towards the school (Michielsens, 2002). The larger part of the self-evaluations are initiated by the schools themselves, without any official obligation. To that end, schools can appeal to a large number of instruments which have been developed in view of the performance of self-evaluation in basic and secondary education. The diversity in self-evaluation instruments relates to the different interpretations of the educational level, the aspects to be questioned, the methods used, the functions of self-evaluation, the guidance for schools and so on. Thus, schools usually decide autonomously whether to evaluate themselves and how they will proceed. The Decree concerning equal educational opportunities - I (GOK-I) (B.S. 14/09/02) awards the performance of self-evaluation for the first time the statute of legal expectation towards schools. Basic schools and secondary schools, which dispose of GOK-resources, are expected to perform a self-evaluation of the relevant policy in the course of the duration of the policy for equal educational opportunities. However, it belongs to the school’s autonomy to concretely interpret this self-evaluation. 9.4.1.2.
Internal evaluation in higher education
The Decrees related to the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) and the universities have established the framework of the quality assurance system at the higher level; this system of quality control differs greatly from the system for pre-school, primary, and secondary education. The Decrees on the universities and on the colleges of higher education impose a dual quality-assurance structure. The Decrees on the colleges of higher education and the universities require them to engage in quality assurance themselves, while the government assumes responsibility for monitoring quality at these institutions. As such, a distinction is drawn between internal and external quality assurance. As far as internal quality assurance is concerned, each institution has a duty to monitor its education and research activities on a continual basis. In below paragraphs we go into the internal quality assurance at the colleges of higher education (see paragraph 9.4.1.3.1.) as well as into the internal quality assurance at universities (see paragraph 9.4.1.3.2.). 9.4.1.2.1.
Internal quality assurance in colleges of higher education
Each college of higher education is expected to assess permanently the quality of the teaching and the research of the college, and the actions to improve the situation should be reported in the annual report of the college. Students should be actively involved in this process. It should also be sought as much as possible to incorporate into the self-evaluation process the views of graduates and people from the professional field to which the course is linked. Self-evaluation should result in a report, the status and distribution of which is determined by the college board. At present, most of the colleges apply the EFQM (European Foundation for Quality Management) system, although different applications are used.
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One of these evaluation instruments is PROZA (Projectgroep Ontwikkeling Zelfanalyse -instrument kwaliteitszorg = Project group for the development of a self-evaluation instrument for quality assessment). Different steps have to be taken by the administration and the evaluation team of the college of higher education: •
Preparation of the self-evaluation: Who will be the co-ordinator? What has to be assessed? How should be scored? Etc.;
•
Composition of the evaluation team;
•
Steps to be taken, e.g. individual self-evaluation, discussion of the individual questionnaires in group; plan of actions to be taken to improve the situation (Schoofs, 1997-98, Decree of 18 May 1999 concerning Education X).
A study by the Flemish Council for Higher Non-University Education (Vlaamse Hogescholenraad (VLHORA)), “Optimisation of the Non-University Higher Education” (2000) shows that most colleges of higher education (hogescholen) choose a system of Integral Quality Assurance (Integrale Kwaliteitszorg (IKZ)). This means that not only education and scientific research but also the systematic control and continuous improvement of the working of the college of higher education (hogeschool) in total are covered by the quality assurance program. Consequently, Integral Quality Assurance (Integrale Kwaliteitszorg (IKZ)) concerns all aspects of the organisation of the college of higher education (hogeschool) and becomes a matter for all sections (Rottiers, 2001; Bronders, 2001). 9.4.1.2.2.
Internal quality assurance in universities
In Flanders the universities have established in 1991 a system of internal and external quality assurance in return for more autonomy. The government has given the institutions full responsibility and ownership of the system for quality assurance. Just like the colleges of higher education the universities take care of the internal and external quality assurance of their educational and research activities. They permanently and at their own initiative monitor the quality of their educational activities. The Decree concerning the restructuring of higher education in Flanders (B.S. 4 april 2003) advocates the involvement of the students, the graduates and external professional experts in these processes of internal quality assurance. A central aspect in the quality assurance of higher education are the so-called reviews (visitaties) coordinated by the Flemish Interuniversity Council
(Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad) (VLIR).
The system of reviews
(visitatiestelsel) consists of three phases (see paragraph 9.4.2.3.). In a first phase the focus is on the internal evaluation, a critical self-analysis by the persons involved within the courses to be reviewed. The results of this self-analysis, which takes about one year and in which academic, administrative and technical personnel, students, graduates and representatives of the professions are involved, are assembled in an extensive report, the self-evaluation report. Self-evaluation, which is viewed as a form of monitoring within the overall system of internal quality assurance, should be carried out with a frequency established by the university board with account being taken of factors such as the duration of the course and the frequency of external quality assurance. This entails the amendment of the Decree. It should be noted once again that this was not the first time the universities have taken steps to examine and improve the quality of their education.
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9.4.2.
External evaluation
The external quality assurance is based on the screening of schools in basic education, secondary education, adult education (including basic education), part-time art education and on a system of external reviews (visitaties) in higher education. In below paragraphs we discuss consecutively the methods of external inspection by the Inspectorate in basic education (see paragraph 9.4.2.1.) and secondary education (see paragraph 9.4.2.2.). Finally we discuss the external evaluation in higher education (see paragraph 9.4.2.3.). 9.4.2.1.
Basic education
The Inspectorate strives for the screening of each school minimally every six years. In order to maintain uniformity, all screening teams use the same instruments. Moreover, the procedure for screenings is the same in the whole of the Flemish Community. 9.4.2.1.1.
Instruments
For carrying out its assignment for quality assurance the Inspectorate uses the CIPO-model (context, input, process, output) as structuring framework in which the results can be evaluated in their mutual relation. The interpretation of these aspects is as follows: •
Context: the totality of demographic, structural, material, financial, legal, governing and pedagogicaldidactic data which (can) have an influence on the input, the process and the output of the school.
•
Input: the totality of personal data of each person participating directly in the educational process, namely the group of pupils and the school tem (the school head and the teachers).
•
Process: the totality of educational and organisational features which indicate which efforts the school makes to reach the objectives determined by the government.
•
Output: the totality of features which indicates the qualifications of children related to the objectives determined by the government.
The choice for this model implies that the Inspectorate looks at the performance of the teacher and school head within the total performance of the school and that the performance of a school is situated within the local context. Working with this model originates from a justifying and school development perspective. The school screening is an opportunity to verify the data in the school (justifying) as well as an opportunity for schools to improve their educational quality (development). Additionally, the screening team checks whether the school’s infrastructure is sufficient and if the legal regulations are carefully respected. 9.4.2.1.2.
Procedure
The following description of the screening procedure is based on the information the Inspectorate gives to basic schools in preparation of a visit of the Inspectorate (MVG, 2002, p.12-23). A screening of a school is always announced in a letter to the school board and the school head. For the schools of community education the Council for Community Education is informed as well. The number of inspectors screening a school depends on the number of school team members and the number of school seats. Each screening is performed by at least two inspectors. The inspector-reporter (inspecteur-verslaggever) is responsible for the organisation of the screening and for reporting.
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In the period preceding the school phase, the inspector-reporter gathers a number of basic data on the school. Then a preparatory discussion takes place in which in the first place the practical organisation is discussed. During the screening the inspectors will follow the activities, have discussions with team members and the school head, consult documents and inspect the school building. This phase, the school phase, will take maximally about four days. In this school phase the inspectors have minimally two discussions with the school head: one more towards the beginning and one more towards the end of the school phase (both take about half a day). Other governing persons (deputy school head, policy supporter …) can be involved. The inspectors also look for extensive information with a selection of teachers. The intention is to get a first, as correct as possible, global view on school life. The inspectors also observe during the activities with the children. The inspectors interact with the children and can have informal conversations with the children and take a look in their books, assignments and at their work. Besides, they inspect the team members’ documents. With the information from the questioning of the school board, the parents and the local community the inspection team completes its view on the school. After the school phase each inspector arranges and selects his information on the basis of the analysis framework in order to achieve an as objective as possible total view on the school. At the latest 60 days later the Inspectorate reports in any case to the school board and the school head in a conversation. The inspection team finally plans a verification discussion. The school board decides who participates. The Inspectorate hopes that (a) representative(s) of the personnel will also participate. The school board can for example also invite the persons who assisted with the screening. 9.4.2.1.3.
The final use of the screening report
The discussion of the screening report has to be put as an item on the agenda of a personnel meeting within thirty days after receipt (MVG, 2002, p. 50-51). It has to be discussed in its totality. A copy of the complete report can be consulted at the school’s secretarial office. For the school and the school board the report is a reference document because of the concrete reference points which can guide the school and school board in the future. Other participants in the education such as the members of the basic consultation committee (basisoverlegcomité) (BOC), the local negotiation committee (onderhandelingscomité) (LOC), the works council (ondernemingsraad), the separate special committees (afzonderlijke bijzondere comités) (ABC), the participation and school councils and the parents’ association can receive a copy of the screening report upon request to the school board. The school boards can also make the report available for their pedagogical support service. Within the framework of an open administration persons without any immediate concern can consult the screening report as well. They have to request this through the inspector-general (inspecteur-generaal) of basic education. They will in addition to the report receive a short introductory note, in which is stated among other things that the report cannot be used for commercial reasons nor for ranking schools. The note also emphasizes the time-related nature of a screening report. The right to insight does not apply for unfavourable conclusions, because they are subject to an appeal procedure and a definitive decision still has to be taken. 9.4.2.2.
Secondary education
In order to maintain the uniformity, all screening teams use the same instruments. Moreover, the procedure for screenings is the same in the whole of the Flemish Community.
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9.4.2.2.1.
Instruments
The information dossier used by the Inspectorate was structured on the basis of the CIPO-model for analysis, which means that the data are assembled from the same reference frame as in basic education (see paragraph 9.4.2.1.1.). 9.4.2.2.2.
Procedure
The following description of the screening procedure is based on the information the Inspectorate gives to secondary schools in preparation of a visit of the Inspectorate (MVG, 2003, p.12-23). The inspector-general announces the screening of the school in a letter to the school board, the chairman of the organising body, the coordinating school head and the general school head. The school board and a member of the assisting personnel are invited to an information session a few weeks after the announcement. The topics of the information session are the CIPO-model for analysis and the preparation, the process of the screening and the reporting. At the same time the assisting personnel receives practical support for completing the different dossiers. The actual screening by the inspection team takes in principle one working week, starting with an acquaintance of the inspection team with the school head. The school board is invited to briefly introduce the school. The first day of the screening the inspectors assemble additional information available at the school. The extensive information phase is finalised with a team discussion and results in a clear planning of the screening activities. The actual activities of the inspectors is listed below: •
Discussions (gesprekken): the discussions aim at completing and refining the information in the information dossier and the observations. The discussions with the pupils deal with general themes, based on the scales and subscales of the scientifically developed questionnaire ‘well-being of pupils’. These discussions are not intended to be evaluations of the staff members. Discussions with teachers aim among other things at refining the already acquired information, possibly find new aspects or important issues, guarantee the teacher’s personal contribution and initiative in the screening, and give information on the observations. Discussions with the teachers responsible for a subject or a group of subjects are at the beginning of the actual screening useful to clarify observations and information from documents (e.g. the subject or branch of study information dossier) and at the end of the actual screening for discussing the findings. Discussions with parents and externals aim at checking the perception of school life by third people.
•
Class observations (lesobservaties): The inspectors attend classes. These class visits do not aim at assessing the individual teacher, but contribute to observations regarding the efficiency of the teaching of the subjects.
•
Partial investigations (deelonderzoeken): For some aspects, such as among other things the attainment targets and developmental objectives across subjects, the safety, the well-being and language policy, the Inspectorate uses specific instruments. These instruments are available for the schools on the Inspectorate’s website.
•
Participation in school life (Deelname aan het schoolleven): visiting the pupils’ restaurant and the playground, informal meetings with teachers in the staff room, participation in class councils.
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•
Subject meetings (vakvergaderingen): At the end of the screening the findings concerning subjects or branches of study can be discussed between the inspectors involved and the subject groups in a meeting or with individual teachers.
After the school phase each inspector arranges and selects his information on the basis of the analysis framework in order to achieve an as objective as possible total view on the school. At the end of the processing period the inspector-reporter organises a meeting with all team members. This meeting has a deliberating function and leads to the final report and advice. At the initiative of the inspector-reporter at least 60 calendar days after the school screening an appointment is made with the organising body and the school board for the discussion of the findings on the basis of the preliminary report. After this finalizing discussion the final report is made out. 9.4.2.1.3.
The final use of the screening report
The discussion of the screening report has to be put as an item on the agenda of a personnel meeting within thirty days after receipt (MVG, 2002, p. 50-51). It has to be discussed in its totality between the school head and the personnel. The personnel has a right to insight and can if necessary receive from the school a copy of the report. The Flemish government has determined in a Decision these obligations of the school to provide accessibility to the screening report for staff members, pupils and parents (B.S. 01/04/1999). It is not prohibited for the school board to distribute the report to whomever is interested. In any case the report should always be distributed in its entirety and not only partially. This regulation does not relieve the government itself from its obligation to make all documents available which can lead to administrative acts with regard to the parties involved. In this respect a complete screening report can be obtained by everyone at the Department for Education. The department may ask a compensation. Despite the open character of the screening report it may not be used for ‘commercial purposes’, e.g. school propaganda in view of the recruitment of pupils. It is not allowed to make a ranking of schools on the basis of a comparison of data from screening reports. This would harm the private character of a school screening, in which the inspectors try to maximally respect the school’s individuality. The screening of centres for adult education, centres for basic education and institutions for part-time art education is comparable to the screening in basic and secondary education. The instruments used correspond also with the CIPO-frame for analysis and the screening processes are also comparable. The screening reports are also public. 9.4.2.3.
Higher education
The colleges of higher education and the universities provide themselves a regular external assessment of the quality of their educational activities. This can be done per course or per group of courses. The external evaluation is carried out at least every eight years for the bachelor and master courses (Decree concerning the restructuring of higher education in Flanders (B.S. 18.08.2003)). In those institutions for higher education where the internal quality assurance comes under the autonomy of the institutions themselves, the VLHORA and the VLIR (see paragraph 2.7.2.2.) were entrusted with the organisation and coordination of the external quality care, the so-called reviews (visitaties) of courses. The coordination refers in any case to the development and the definition of a protocol of quality care that the review commissions (visitatiecommissies) use when assessing the quality. It is the review commissions that carry out the external evaluation of a course or group of courses. All institutions which offer a course or a group of courses
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to be evaluated, are involved in the review. The review is carried out by a commission of external experts and starts from the self-evaluation report made up by the institutions (see paragraph 9.4.1.2.). The review commission visits the institution involved (VLOHRA, 2001). On the basis of the review the commission reaches a consensus on the strong points and the points for which it needs to formulate recommendations for improvement. The visiting phase is finalized with an oral report of the most important findings for the persons responsible for the policy of the educational institution involved. The review is aimed at the process of quality improvement. The review commissions writes a public report based on the findings of their assessment. If, in the opinion of the Flemish government, the results of a quality evaluation of the external review commission is below a certain level, the board of directors of the institution has to present a plan within six months thereafter in which it indicates the measures it intends to take to rectify the shortcomings. Subsequently, the board of directors of the institution reports annually on the implementation of the plan and about the effects of the implemented measures. Thanks to a.o. the Bologna Declaration the development of a third phase in the quality assurance (beside evaluation and review) namely the accreditation (accreditatie) was accelerated (VLOHRA, 2001). The term ‘accreditation’ refers to the granting of a ‘quality label’ (keurmerk) which states that certain qualitative standards have been met. Accreditation is in Flanders a prerequisite for funding of a bachelor or master course by the government and for the right to issue recognised diplomas. The institution for higher education has to take the initiative for a request for accreditation. The (preliminary) accreditation framework defines that for the benefit of the accreditation a course has to be evaluated on the basis of six criteria: objectives of the course, programme, the personnel’s performance, provisions, internal quality care and results. Flanders has signed an agreement with the Netherlands concerning the cooperation on accreditation. The objective of this agreement is to come to an accreditation organisation which will accredit Flemish as well as Dutch courses in higher education. The accreditation organisation will be called NVAO (Nederlands Vlaamse Accreditatie Organisatie) (see www.nvao.net).
9.5.
Evaluation of the Education System
Flanders does not have a system of national examinations. This does not mean that there are no other channels to enable evaluation of the quality of education in the educational system. We refer to the so-called periodical achievement test and the participation in international comparative research. Of course also the educational Inspectorate plays an important role in this. 9.5.1.
The annual report of the educational Inspectorate
On the basis of the findings of their evaluations of the educational institutions (see paragraph 9.4.2.) the Inspectorate yearly writes a report on the situation in education. This Inspectorate’s annual report (the so-called education mirror (onderwijsspiegel)) describes the situation of education in the previous school year and includes a number of policy recommendations, at general policy level as well as at school level (Onderwijsinspectie, 2004). 9.5.2.
Periodical achievement test
The government conducts periodical (yearly) achievement tests into a group of attainment targets. Through representative random checks the pupils’ performances are anonymously investigated and results are calculated
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at the level of the educational system. Different achievement tests for diverse branches of study in basic education and subjects in secondary education have been developed. On the basis of the achievement tests the Minister for Education and Training (Vanderpoorten, 2003) wants to get insight into the realisation of the attainment targets in Flemish education. The achievement tests provide necessary information on the achievements of education in terms of what the pupils really learn, what they know and what they are able to do. The reliable national data on the pupils’ performance are used in the improvement and control of the quality of the educational system. The information from achievement tests can – beside other information on the implementation of the attainment targets – be used to evaluate and possibly review these targets. The achievement test can also be used to adjust the educational offering and the teaching and educational methods used and to get an idea of the need for training and in-service training for teachers. 9.5.3.
Participation in international comparative research
Flanders very regularly participates in international comparative research. On the basis of an international comparison of different features of the Flemish educational system information is obtained which makes evaluation of the functioning of the educational system possible. Output information is important but is systematically completed with context, input and process information. The most important international comparative research projects in which Flanders has recently participated are: •
International Survey of Upper Secondary Schools (ISUSS). ISUSS is an international comparative research project into the functioning of schools in higher secondary education (the second stage and the first two years of the third stage).
•
Third International Mathematics and Science Study TIMSS-R(epeat). The most recent part of TIMSS mapped the knowledge and attitudes of 14 year old pupils regarding mathematics and sciences. Beside performance data information was gathered on pupils, teachers and school heads, on the curriculum and the teaching of mathematics and sciences but also on wider school features and the school policy.
•
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is an international research project into the knowledge and skills of 15 year old pupils. More than on the knowledge of a school curriculum, PISA focuses on the degree in which pupils understand notions and concepts, master processes and can apply knowledge and skills in different situations. It deals with the literacy of pupils regarding reading, mathematics and sciences.
Moreover, data are gathered in Flanders in view of the comparison of aspects of the educational system in international publications such as Education at a Glance (OESO) and Key data (Europese Commissie). A specific Flemish publication is being made up which situates the features of the Flemish educational system in an international context (“Flemish education indicators in an international context”). The indicators in international publications are indeed usually qualified at the level of Belgium.
9.6.
Research on Education
Each year the Minister for Education and Training spends a part of the budget on educational research, ‘Educational Scientific Research aimed at Policy and Practice’ (‘Onderwijskundig Beleids- en Praktijkgericht Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek’) (OBPWO). The budget for OBPWO has, however, been drastically reduced. In 2002 the amount to be spent amounted to 1,5 million
whereas the amount for a number of years amounted to
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2,5 million . The scientific research projects mostly last two years and concern subjects determined by the Minister for Education on the proposal of the Education Department of the Ministry of the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) and with the recommendation of the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR). In 2003 research projects concerning the following themes were approved; the recruitment policy for teachers in technical and practical subjects in TSO/BSO schools; migrants in higher education; study funding for higher education; participation of teachers and parents; the well-being and functioning of school boards in basic education and the power to pursue a policy in basic and secondary schools. The intention is for research and policy to mesh as well as possible. The research projects are part of the educational policy, and the scientific quality of the research projects and the translation of the results in policy advice are structurally guaranteed. Therefore, a committee of policy makers, scientific experts, and people in education follows the evolution of the research project and participates in the discussion on the final report (see: http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/obpwo). Relevant regarding educational research and the evaluation of the quality of education is also the support centre ‘Careers of pupils and students in education and the transition from education to the labour market’ (Steunpunt 'Loopbanen van leerlingen en studenten in het onderwijs en de overgang van onderwijs naar arbeidsmarkt'). This support centre is an initiative funded by the Flemish government with the central objective to set up data bases which allow to check which course youngsters follow from the beginning of basic education until their entrance in the labour market. Focus is in the first place on the creation of specialised surveys relating to basic education and the transition from school to work. Moreover, the Department for Education supports research into the support centre for intercultural education (Steunpunt Intercultureel Onderwijs (ICO)), the support centre for Dutch as second language (Steunpunt Nederlands Tweede Taal (NT2)) and the expertise centre for experience-oriented education (Expertisecentrum voor Ervaringsgericht Onderwijs (ECEGO)). Finally, research groups at the different Flemish universities conduct fundamental and practice-oriented research into the functioning of (aspects of) the Flemish educational system.
9.7.
Statistics
In the following tables we present a selection of statistical data on aspects of the evaluation of the quality of education in Flanders. Table 43: Overview of the number of screenings by the Inspectorate in the school year 2002-2003 Basic education
394
Centres for educational guidance
75
Secondary education
127
Centres for adult education
20 (Source: Educational Inspection (2004))
The inspection staff consists of 154 persons (143 inspectors, 8 coordinating inspectors and 3 inspector-generals). On average there is one inspector per 25,5 schools and one inspector per 754 teachers in basic and secondary education.
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CHAPTER 10: SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT In Flanders, beside special education which is organised in separate provision from ordinary education (see 10.6), also a system of education in integrated provision (GON) (see 10.5.) is available for pupils with specific educational needs. Moreover, based on the provisional programme ‘educational priority’ (onderwijsvoorrang) (only in special education) and the recent policy for equal educational opportunities (GOK-beleid), steps are being taken to adapt education to the needs of pupils with specific educational needs.
10.1.
Historical overview
In this paragraph we discuss special education from a historical perspective. Although some special schools have been in existence for over a hundred years (for example, schools for the visually and the hearing impaired), the State became aware of its duty towards physically and mentally handicapped children when education became regarded as a universal right (Broekaert et al., 1993). In 1901, Ovide Decroly founded an ‘Institute for Abnormal Children’. He estimated that 3 to 4% of the school population had special educational needs. By the 1930s, several specialised institutions existed for the more serious ‘cases’. In 1956, courses were created for children suffering from brain damage and were attached to teacher-training colleges. At that time, approximately 6,000 children attended specialised schools, which were only on the primary level. In 1968, 46,000 pupils attended special schools. At that time special primary education (Buitengewoon Lager Onderwijs) (BLO) reached its saturation point, and it became apparent that there was a detrimental confusion between children with learning disabilities and handicapped children in need of special education. The need for legislation to benefit handicapped children became apparent. However, political difficulties (in 1965, in 1966, and in 1968 even leading to the fall of the Government) prevented such a bill from being introduced until 1970. This bill was finally passed on 6 July 1970. It defined the policy intended to meet the educational needs of handicapped children and adolescents. It stipulated who would benefit from this form of education and specified the admission procedures for the pupils as well as the organisation of the various educational levels. It established staff categories and decided on the principle of the different State interventions and also various councils and commissions. In 1980 Integrated Education was introduced as an experiment for pupil integration. A modification to the 1970 Law in 1986 set out the basic organisation of Integrated Education (GON) (integrated in the Decree on Basic Education of 25 February 1997), to be further specified by implementation Decrees. The Decree on Education VIII of 15 July 1997 provides Integrated Education (Geïntegreerd Onderwijs) (GON) for secondary education and determines the conditions which have to be met. The Decree of 13 July 1994 concerning the colleges of higher education in the Flemish Community stipulates the conditions which have to be met for GON in the colleges of higher education.
10.2.
Ongoing debates
See paragraph 3.2 for a discussion of reform proposals regarding special education.
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10.3.
Definition and diagnosis of the target group(s)
In this paragraph we discuss the target group of special education in Flanders. In the Decree concerning equal educational opportunities-I the target group is defined on the basis of so-called ‘equal opportunities indicators’ (gelijkekansenindicatoren). For ordinary basic education and the first stage of ordinary secondary education these are the same (see paragraph 3.13). For the second and third stage of ordinary secondary education the equal opportunities indicators are: 1) the pupil shows a delay in schooling of at least two years; 2) the pupil is a pupil who is, in the school year involved, enrolled in a year of the second or third stage of vocational secondary education, respectively technical education, and was not enrolled in the school during the previous year and received at the end of the previous school year an orientation attestation B or C (neveninstromer); and 3) the pupil attended reception classes during the previous year (education for foreign speaking newcomers). The Royal Decree of 28 June 1978 (confirmed by the Decree on Basic Education (basisonderwijs) of 25 February 1997) specified the different types of special education in relation to the nature and degree of the main disability affecting a particular group. Summarized there are eight types, of which each type is adapted to the pedagogical and educational needs of a specific target group: •
Type 1: children with a minor mental (= psychic) handicap;
•
Type 2: children with a moderate or serious mental handicap;
•
Type 3: children with serious emotional and/or behavioural problems;
•
Type 4: children with a physical handicap;
•
Type 5: children suffering from protracted illness;
•
Type 6: children with a visual handicap;
•
Type 7: children with an auditory handicap;
•
Type 8: children with serious learning disabilities.
Education of type 1 and type 8 is not organised in special pre-school education. At the secondary level, four forms of education (opleidingsvormen) are organised that can combine pupils of different types according to the nature and severity of their disability (Broekaert e.a., 1993). Education of type 8 is not organised at the level of secondary education. •
Form of education 1 (opleidingsvorm 1) (OV1) applies to pupils for whom social adaptation alone and self-reliant living are not possible.
•
Form of education 2 (opleidingsvorm 2) (OV2) is intended for children who, apart from a certain social adaptation, may receive training to prepare them for a working life in a protected environment.
•
Form of education 3 (opleidingsvorm 3) (OV3) is intended for pupils who are able to attend vocational training to prepare for a job in a normal working environment.
•
Form of education 4 (opleidingsvorm 4) (OV4) is intended for pupils whose intellectual capacities are sufficient to enable them to attend ordinary educational programmes provided the teaching methods and facilities are adapted to their particular disability.
Chapter 10: Special educational support 10.4.
Financial support for pupils’ families
Special education involves a certain financial burden for the parents. The system of grants and family allowances does not differ, however, from that in ordinary education: pupils in secondary and tertiary education receive financial support through the regular system of family allowances (see 5.9 and 6.8). See also 3.5 regarding the organisation of transport to and from school.
10.5.
Provision for pupils/students with special educational needs within mainstream education
In this paragraph we go more deeply into Integrated Education (GON) on the one hand, and the policy for equal educational opportunities on the other hand. Integrated Education (GON) provides special educational support, which is aimed at pupil integration in regular education. The policy for equal educational opportunities applies to ordinary education (10.5.) as well as to special education (10.6.), but is only discussed below. 10.5.1.
Specific legislative framework
Integrated Education (GON) is regulated by following educational legislation: •
Law of 6 July 1970 concerning special and integrated education (inclusive execution decisions);
•
Decree of 13 July 1994 concerning the colleges of higher education in the Flemish Community which determines among other things the admission requirements for integrated higher education and the possible exemptions;
•
Decree on basic education of 25 February 1997 which among other things determines the additional admission requirements for integrated education;
•
Decree of 15 July 1997 concerning education VIII which among other things determines the admission requirements for integrated secondary education and the possible exemptions;
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 12 December 2003 concerning the integration of pupils with a moderate or serious intellectual handicap in ordinary primary and secondary education (B.S. 02/03/2004).
The Decree concerning equal educational opportunities-I of 28 June 2002 forms the legal framework for the policy for equal educational opportunities. The policy for equal educational opportunities is further regulated by a number of Decisions. The Decision of the Flemish government of 28 June 2002 provides as from 1 September 2002 the establishment of local consultation platforms (lokale overlegplatforms); the Decision of the Flemish government of 19 July 2002 regulates the integrated support offering in ordinary basic education; the Decision of the Flemish government of 6 September 2002 regulates the temporary projects regarding art initiation for deprived and/or migrant minors (see 10.7.); the Decision of the Flemish government of 6 September 2002 regulates the integrated support offering in ordinary secondary education; the Decision of the Flemish government of 27 September 2002 finally established the Commission on Pupils’ Rights (Commissie inzake leerlingenrechten). 10.5.2.
General objectives
For the general aims of education and teaching objectives underlying the system of Integrated Education (GON) –a form of special education-, we refer to 4.15.2. The policy for equal educational opportunities aims at the realisation of optimal learning and development opportunities for all pupils, at avoiding exclusion, segregation and discrimination and at the promotion of social
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cohesion (Decree of 28 June 2002). The focus of the Decree is on deprived indigenous and migrant families (Circular Letter BaO/2003/01). 10.5.3.
Specific support measures
The Integrated Education (GON)- a form of special education- focuses on remedial teaching. It institutes a new step toward the integration of special education into ordinary education. Children with a handicap and/or learning difficulties may attend class in ordinary schools on a permanent or intermittent and a partial or complete basis. Additional teaching periods and/or additional hours and/or additional resources are provided to realise this integration (Decree of 15 July 1997). The Integrated Education aims at combining the educational opportunities of ordinary and special education. A distinction is made between a complete and partial integration depending on whether the pupil attends all or at least two half days of classes in ordinary education. When the integration starts on 1 October at the latest and lasts an entire school year, it is called permanent integration, otherwise it is called a temporary integration. The GON is organised on the basis of an integration plan. This plan includes among other things a description of the issues and the requests for help of the pupil, the parents and the school team; the content of the collegiate support (team-oriented working), pupil-oriented working and parent-oriented working; the planning (intensity, evolution throughout the school year, disciplines involved, place …); material adjustments and material support (special educational teaching aids). The GON-support is provided by a school for special education. This institution receives financial resources and a GON-package. The financial resources take the form of an integration allowance, which pays among other things the transport of the staff members from the institution for special education to the institution for ordinary education. The GON-package is used for the appointment of GON-assistants (GON-begeleiders). These assistants offer the teachers (collegiate consultation) and schools, pupils and/or parents educational and/or paramedical, medical, social, psychological and/or orthopedagogical support. For the education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) similar requirements and regulations are in force, although there are no schools for special education on this level. Thus, the student participates in ordinary education with the necessary adaptations and guidance that are characteristic for the Integrated Education. The centre for educational guidance (Centrum voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB) can –if necessary- be included for the guidance of GON-pupils. Concretely, this guidance concerns learning and studying, the educational career, precautionary healthcare and psychic and social functioning (Decree of 1 December 1998). The policy for equal educational opportunities starts from an integral educational view on issues of deprivation and is based on three important principles: 1) the right to enrolment; 2) the legal protection (the local consultation platforms and the Commission on Pupils’ Rights); and 3) the integrated support offering. We briefly discuss the 3 principles: (1) Each pupil complying with the general admission requirements (at educational level, branch of study and year in which the pupil wants to enrol) has a fundamental right to enrolment in the school of choice. In future the school will only be allowed to refuse an enrolment in 2 well-defined cases (if the school or part of the school is full and if the pupil was expelled from school in the previous year for disciplinary reasons). Refusals on the basis
Chapter 10: Special educational support of colour of skin, national or ethnic origin or gender cannot be allowed. In this way migrant and deprived children are guaranteed a right to access to all schools. (2) Local consultation platforms (lokale overlegplatforms) (LOP’s) were established to help implement the policy for equal educational opportunities at the local level. In these platforms education providers and local actors such as representatives of migrant and deprived indigenous communities, of the integration sector, of socio-economic partners, etc. have a seat. The schools are obliged to participate in this consultation. Moreover, there is an autonomous Commission on Pupils’ Rights across the different levels, which –since 1 January 2003is entrusted with monitoring the legal protection of the pupils. (3) The existing support measures –namely the provisionary projects concerning educational priority (onderwijsvoorrang), extension of special needs provision (zorgverbreding), special needs, gypsies and travelling population- have been gathered in one transparent support offering as from 1 September 2002 (Decisions of 19/07/02 and 06/09/02). Within ordinary basic education the system of the provision for special educational needs (zorgbegeleiding) (see 3.13.) has been introduced since the school year 2003-2004. The temporary project ‘educational priority’ (onderwijsvoorrang) continues in special education (school years 2002-2004) in anticipation of a re-orientation of special education (see 10.7). The support measures for Dutch-speaking basic schools in the suburb and facility municipalities and for schools with foreign-speaking newcomers are separately retained, and can be accumulated with the integrated support offering. Schools can on the basis of the policy for equal educational opportunities receive additional support for a period of three successive years, if the school has in its pupil population minimum 10% target group pupils (in basic education and in the 1st stage of secondary education) or 25% target group pupils (in the 2nd and 3rd stage of secondary education) that correspond with one or more indicators (see 10.3.). The Flemish government grants a school –on certain conditions- additional teaching periods or extra teaching periods-teacher on the basis of a certain value the government allocates to each equal opportunities indicator. The school defines on the basis of an environmental analysis which concrete objectives it wants to reach with the extra resources, with which method and how the school will evaluate itself. The objectives can be chosen from following themes: prevention and remedial of development and learning disadvantages, language education, intercultural education, transition and orientation, socio-emotional development, pupils’ and parents’ participation. Contrary to the provisionary projects, teachers can be appointed for teaching within the policy for equal educational opportunities of basic education and of the 1st stage of secondary education. 10.6.
Separate provision for pupils/students with special educational needs
In this paragraph we discuss special education in Flanders or education for pupils with special educational needs, in special schools. For the policy for equal educational opportunities which also applies to special education we refer to the previous paragraph 10.5. 10.6.1.
Specific legislative framework
The following educational legislation regulates special education in Flanders: •
Schools Pact Law of 29 May 1959.
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•
Law of 6 July 1970 concerning special and Integrated Education (applies only to special secondary education).
•
Royal Decree of 28 June 1978 defining the types and organisation of special education including admission requirements (applies only to special secondary education).
•
Royal Decree nr. 439 of 11 August 1986 concerning rationalisation and programming of special education.
•
Decree on the basic education (basisonderwijs) of 25 February 1997 as modified.
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 24 June 1997 concerning the authority, the composition and the functioning of the advisory commissions for special education.
•
Decree of 14 July 1998 determining varied measures concerning the secondary education and modifying the Decree of 25 December 1997 on the basic education as amended.
•
Decision of the Flemish Government of 1 December 1998 defining the development objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) of special primary education type 2 and the Decree of 2 March 1999 for ratification of the Decision of the Flemish government of 1 December 1998 for the definition of the developmental objectives for special basic education type 2.
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 27 April 2001 for the determination of the developmental objectives for special basic education type 8 and the Decree of 18 January 2002 for ratification of the Decision of the Flemish government of 27 April 2001 concerning the definition of the developmental objectives for special education type 8.
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 23 November 2001 concerning the definition of the developmental objectives for special basic education type 1 and the Decree of 22 March 2002 for ratification of the Decision of the Flemish government of 23 November 2001 concerning the definition of the developmental objectives for special basic education type 1.
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 1 March 2002 concerning experimental secondary education according to a modular system.
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 19 April 2002 concerning the definition of the developmental objectives for general and social training in special secondary of form of education 3 (B.S. 26/07/02) and the Decree of 19 July 2002 for ratification of the developmental objectives for general and social training in special secondary of form of education 3 (B.S. 10/09/02).
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 6 December 2002 concerning the organisation of special secondary of form of education 3 (B.S. 06/02/03).
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 31 January 2003 concerning the definition of the developmental objectives for special basic education type 7 and the Decree of 23 May 2003 for ratification of the Decision of the Flemish government of 31 January 2003 concerning the definition of the developmental objectives for special basic education type 7.
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 24 January 2003 for the definition and division of the functions in special education (B.S. 11/04/03)
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 14 March 2003 Concerning the concordance of the specializations in form of education 3 of special secondary education (B.S. 09/07/03).
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 14 March 2003 concerning the determination of the performance of a function in special secondary education (B.S. 09/07/03).
•
Decision of the Flemish government of 21 November 2003 concerning the percentage of application of the extra package of teaching periods of educational priority in special secondary education for the school year 2003-2004.
Chapter 10: Special educational support For the legal framework of the policy for equal educational opportunities we refer to paragraph 10.5.1. . 10.6.2.
General objectives
In this paragraph we go more deeply into the general aims of education and teaching objectives of special education. The Law on Special Education of 6 July 1970 as well as the Decree on Basic Education (basisonderwijs) of 25 February 1997 defines special education: “it is a type of education that on the basis of an educational project delivers teaching, education, care, and therapy suited to the capacity of the pupils of whom the development of the total personality is not or insufficiently assured by the ordinary education, temporarily or permanently” (Decree of 25 February 1997). This definition is based on a true concept of special needs. The Decree refers primarily to the difficulties and incapacity of the mainstream school to provide for the optimum personal and social development of all pupils rather than just to the child’s disability. For the general objectives of the policy for equal educational opportunities we refer to paragraph 10.5.2.. 10.6.3.
Geographical accessibility
For the school distribution of the institutions for special education we refer to paragraph 3.5. 10.6.4.
Admission requirements and choice of school
In this paragraph we go more deeply into the admission requirements and the choice of school in special education in Flanders. For admission to a special pre-school the child has to be at least 2,5 years and 6 months. The five entrance dates for ordinary pre-school education (see 3.6.) do not apply for special pre-school education (Circular Letter BaO/97/14). Children can be enrolled in special pre-school education until the age of 6 or exceptionally until the age of 7 or 8 if they are deriving any benefit from their attendance. Entry to primary school is normally at the age of 6. As from 1 September 2001 pupils who become 5 years old before 1 January of the school year can be enrolled in special primary education. This will only happen in a few cases. As regards special secondary education, ‘form of education 1’ (OV1) and ‘form of education 2’ (OV2) are accessible for youngsters with an attestation for type 2,3,4,6 or 7; ‘form of education 3’ (OV3) is accessible for pupils with an attestation for type 1,3,4,6 or 7; and ‘form of education 4’ (OV4) is accessible for pupils whose intellectual capacities are sufficient for following educational programmes of ordinary education. They have an attestation for type 3,4,5,6 or 7 (Broekaert, e.a., 1993). The Law of 6 July 1970 and the Royal Decree of 28 June 1978 – taken from the Decree of 25 February 1997 – regulate in detail the admission requirements for special education. Whereas the admission procedure is more or less the same as for ordinary education as regards the age requirements, an enrolment in an institution for special education also requires always a registration report. This registration report consists of 2 parts: on the one hand an attestation informing on the type of education and/or form of training and the educational level which the child follows; on the other hand the justification protocol reporting on a multidisciplinary investigation and justifying the attestation issued. For the types 5,6 and 7 the medical investigation is carried out by a medical specialist recognised by the Minister for Health. This report is made up by a centre for educational guidance
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(CLB) or by an institution which offers the same guarantees regarding choice of study or occupation. The Flemish Minister for Education each year compiles a list of the institutions which may issue these attestations (Circular Letter CLB/2003/07). The attestation is given to the parents, which allows them to enrol their child in a school of their choice, which organises the specific type and/or form of special education (in case of secondary education) which their child needs. The school returns the attestation to the parents when the child leaves the school (Broekaert, e.a., 1993). In certain cases additional advice is required before a pupil can be allowed to a special school. To this end an Advisory Commission for Special Education (Commissie van Advies voor het Buitengewoon Onderwijs) (CABO) is established in each province by the Decision of the Flemish government of 24 June 1997. These commissions are responsible for: •
taking a motivated decision on a temporary or permanent exemption from compulsory education for a youngster or on the abolition of this exemption;
•
advising on the granting of the advantages of the law on special and integrated education outside the age boundaries;
•
advising on the transfer of a pupil enrolled in an ordinary school to a special school;
•
advising on the transfer of a pupil enrolled in special education to ordinary education;
•
advising on the transfer of a pupil to another special school where a more suitable level, type or form of special education is organised;
•
advising on the right to permanent home education.
Apart from the parents and the adult handicapped person or his/her legal representative, a member of the inspectorate, a school head or a physician of the Centre for Educational Guidance may also ask for advice. If the parents or the handicapped adult refuse to cooperate or profoundly disagree with the decision of the CABO, an appeal procedure is possible. After the publication of the results of a Flemish research project regarding the transfer of ordinary to special education (OBPWO 98.09), the Minister decided to set up an ad-hoc workgroup to find alternatives for the problems in the procedure for orienting pupils towards special education. This ad-hoc workgroup has meanwhile created a framework in which the guidance path and transfer of pupils with special educational needs to special education was newly interpreted. Teachers, the school team, the centres for educational guidance (CLB’s), parents and pupils are regarded as full partners. The project is spread over two school years. The experimental phase ends at the end of school year 2004-2005. An evaluation of the project will be determining for its further development. Following the new regulations concerning equal educational opportunities (see 10.5.) it is no longer allowed that schools refuse the enrolment of pupils with a legitimate attestation for the type and form of education which is offered, as the school aims at a specific target group within that type and that form of education. The registration and application procedure in special education is concretely as follows: The pupils’ applications have to be chronologically noted down and lead automatically to an enrolment if the parents consent to the pedagogical project and the school regulations. These enrolments continue until the school/seat/the type (basic education)/the form of education (secondary education)/the administrative group/the group of pupils (secondary education)/ the pedagogical unit is possibly complete and enrolment can be refused because of material circumstances. From then onwards the application register continues although there are no more actual enrolments. An application is therefore a registration which has not been realised. The school has to prove with the application register, in
Chapter 10: Special educational support which all applications are chronologically noted down, that after refusal no new pupils were registered (Circular Letters BaO/2000/10 en BaO/2003/01). Generally special education is organised in schools that are independent from the ordinary schools; they are often linked though to other social and pedagogical institutions for the handicapped. A child that is not attending school has two possibilities: or exemption from compulsory education (in basic and secondary education) and therefore no education; or permanent home education (in basic education). Within the framework of what is called ‘Permanent Home Education’ (Permanent Onderwijs Aan Huis) (POAH), a child that because of its handicap cannot attend basic school, follows 4 teaching periods of home education provided by the nearest basic school. 10.6.5.
Age levels and grouping of pupils
This paragraph discusses the class composition and the grouping of pupils in special education. Special education is organised for the levels pre-school, primary and secondary education. Type 1 and type 8 though do not exist in special pre-school education. There is no special secondary education (BuSO) for youngsters from type 8 neither (Broekaert, e.a., 1993). At the primary school level eight types of special education have been defined, with the intention to meet as closely as possible the general and individual needs of the children and youngsters (see 10.3). At the level of secondary education four additional forms of education are organised which can assemble pupils of several types – such as defined at the level of basic education – according to the nature and degree of their handicap (see 10.3). On the basis of the justification protocol the class council assigns the pupil to the most suitable class group. Thus, the school board decides on the grouping of pupils in pedagogical units within the types and forms of education. The pupil normally leaves primary education at the age of 13 years, or possibly at the age of 14 or 15 years. Secondary education can be followed until the age of 21 years (Law of 28 June 1983). Departures from the age boundary of 21 years can be allowed upon advice of the Advisory Commission for Special Education (CABO). 10.6.6.
Organisation of the school year
In this paragraph we discuss an number of elements relating to the organisation of the school year in special education, namely the arrangement of school time, the school year and the time-table. The organisation of the school year, week, and day is comparable to that of the corresponding ordinary education levels , as described in chapters 3, 4 and 5, although the daily activities are much more oriented to the individual needs of the pupils. As to secondary education, the form of education 1 consists of only one part of minimum four years of study. The form of education 2 consists of two parts each comprising minimum two years of study. The form of education 3 – in contrast with the former year group system – consists of three phases and an optional integration phase: 1) the observation phase: comprises the first year and is limited to one full year; 2) the education phase: comprises two school years; 3) the qualification phase: comprises at least two school years; 4) the optional integration phase. This phase comprises one full school year in the form of an alternating vocational training (Decision of the Flemish government of 6 December 2002). The time-tables of the form of education 4 are
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exactly the same as those of the corresponding ordinary schools, as this form of education obligatory has a structure identical to the structure of secondary education (Broekaert, e.a., 1993). 10.6.7.
Curriculum, subjects
In this paragraph we go more deeply into the curriculum and curriculum subjects of special education. Depending on the education level considered (pre-school, primary, or secondary), clear distinctions have been made between various aspects and the relative importance of different educational activities: general and social education, physical education, technical and vocational training, ‘compensation’ techniques for coping with specific handicaps, religion or non-denominational ethics, mathematics, language, training aiming at the integration of the pupil in a workplace, activities stimulating sensomotor movements, and so on. Those aims have been confirmed by the Flemish government on 27 June 1990. Just like for ordinary basic education and the first stage of ordinary secondary education the Department for Educational Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO) develops developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen).
Developmental objectives for full-time special secondary education are objectives
regarding knowledge, insight, skills and attitudes which the government regards as necessary for as many pupils as possible in the pupil population. In consultation with the centre for educational guidance (CLB) and, if possible, in consultation with the parents and possible other persons involved, the class council selects the developmental objectives that will be offered to individual pupils or groups of pupils and which will explicitly be strived for. The selection of these developmental objectives has to be written down and worked out in an individual educational plan (handelingsplan), a step-by-step programme that matches the individual situation of the pupil, in which is defined what and how the pupil will learn and how this is to be organised. The objectives are clearly defined, and it is stipulated when they have to be reached. The individual educational plan, which can be adapted any time to the real and feasible evolution of the pupil, forms a daily guide for teachers and paramedical staff. An individual educational plan can fit in an educational plan (groepswerkplan) for the pedagogical unit in which the pupil participates (Broekaert, e.a., 1993). At present, developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) (OD) are defined for special basic education of type 1 (Decision of the Flemish government of 23 November 2001, ratified by the Decree of 22 March 2002), type 2 (Decision of the Flemish government of 1 December 1998, ratified by the Decree of 2 March 1999), type 7 (Decision of the Flemish government of 31 January 2003, ratified by the Decree of 23 May 2003), type 8 (Decision of the Flemish government of 27 April 2001, ratified by the Decree of 18 January 2002); and for the general and social training in special secondary education of form 3 (Decision of the Flemish government of 19 April 2002, ratified by the Decree of 19 July 2002). In form of special education 4 the attainment targets (eindtermen), the developmental objectives and the specific attainment targets of the corresponding level of ordinary secondary education apply. The time-tables of form of education 4 are therefore exactly the same as those of the corresponding ordinary schools. For certain other forms of education or types of education the class council can adopt the attainment targets and/or developmental objectives and/or specific attainment targets of the corresponding level of ordinary secondary education, of other types of special secondary education or of ordinary or special basic education. In both cases the class council, taking into account the pupil-related characteristics, assess the equivalence of performances in the type or form of education concerned with the performances required by the attainment targets and/or developmental objectives and/or specific attainment targets of the corresponding level of special secondary education.
Chapter 10: Special educational support Within the form of education 3 (education and qualification phase) and form of education 4 (second and third stage) of special secondary education experiments are conducted with modular education as from 1 September 2001 (Decision of 1 March 2002). 10.6.8.
Teaching methods and materials
Teaching is highly individualised in special education. For each child, an individual educational plan (handelingsplan) is worked out (see 10.6.7.). The decision on concrete teaching methods and teaching aids, however, comes under the freedom of the organising bodies (inrichtende machten). Consequently, there are no official guidelines in this respect. 10.6.9.
Progression of pupils from one class to the next
The evaluation and guidance of pupils are strongly linked with each other. In special education, assessment is mainly formative. The class council (klassenraad) assisted by the Centre for Educational Guidance (CLB) decides on the composition of the classes, whether a particular pupil should be kept in a specific group, and on the promotion to the next class or to a particular form and/or type of education. 10.6.10.
Educational/vocational guidance, education/employment links
Apart from the school board and the teaching staff, the staff in special education also consists of paramedical, medical, social, psychological and orthopedagogic staff members. These categories of personnel are among other things responsible for the guidance of the pupils in special education. Moreover the centres for educational guidance (CLB’s) are also involved in the guidance of pupils in special education (Decree of 1 December 1998). The centre for educational guidance assists special education among other things with development difficulties and the decrease of risky behaviour, the adequate and qualitative referral of pupils from ordinary education to special education and vice versa, and the safety at school (especially the safety and hygiene and the impact on health of the practical subjects) (Decree of 1 December 1998). In form of education 3 of special secondary education the pupil is guided during the integration phase by a team of guiders. The team consists of staff members of the educational institution on the one hand, and external persons from the professional world, of social organisations or other experts, who can meaningfully guide the pupil on the other hand (Decision of 6 December 2002). One of the measures taken to improve the training-employment relationship is the practical training. Pupils in the qualification phase in form of education 3 or in the second stage of form of education 2 follow a practical training during their education. In the qualification phase of form of education 3 this practical training is obligatory, in the second phase of form of education 2 it is not. Practical trainings in the observation and education phases of form of education 3 and in the first phase of form of education 2 are forbidden, in view of the age of the pupils and the objectives of these structure components. All pupils in the qualification phase in form of education 3 or in the second phase of form of education 2 have to be able to be allowed to the practical training without distinction. Even persons without a residence permit of more than three months can be employed in Belgium under the form of a practical training for pupils as from the school year 2003-2004 (Royal Decree of 6 January 2003). For the pupils of form of education 1 who have reached the age of 18 years or will reach this age in the course of the school year, a social training can be organised of maximum 21 calendar days
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or 28 calendar days during the school year in which they will probably follow special education for the last time. The objectives of the social training towards school, pupil and parents are comparable to those of a practical training. The social training can only take place in institutions which are recognised (or which are in the recognition phase) for the acceptance of adult handicapped persons who will not perform labour aimed at production (e.g. a day centre, an institution for occupational therapy, ‌) (Circular Letter SO/2002/11). For pupils leaving OV4, there are no special arrangements. They enter the labour market just like everyone else. Larger firms, however, are required by law to employ at least a few handicapped people (depending on the number of employees). So as an example, many people with visual disabilities find a job as telephone operators. 10.6.11.
Certification
As regards certification in special education, pupils can in certain cases also obtain a certificate. This certificate has the same value as a certificate obtained in ordinary basic education. 10.6.12.
Private education
Private education organised by grant-aided private education is described in paragraph 10.6. For fully private education and its financing we refer to paragraph 3.14.
10.7.
Special measures for children/pupils of immigrants
In this respect three measures are important: the policy of educational priority (OVB) which as provisionary project for migrant pupil integration still continues in special education on the one hand; and reception education and the integrated support offering of the policy for equal educational opportunities (see 10.5.) which only apply to ordinary education on the other hand. The policy of educational priority (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid) (OVB) aims at migrant children in special education, who because of their ethnic origin and because of their social, cultural and economic circumstances have learning and development difficulties or risk to become educationally disadvantaged. OVB applies to intercultural education, language skills Dutch, and prevention and remedial of learning and development difficulties. The objective of intercultural education is the development of skills and attitudes to interact in a positive and efficient way with people of another ethnic and/or cultural background. The educational project Dutch for foreign speaking pupils wants to systematically improve the necessary Dutch language skills, so that the pupils can optimally participate in education. Finally, migrants need specific guidance due to their specific socio-cultural and ethnic background, in which the typical approach of learning and development difficulties is re-interpreted in function of the target group (Circular Letter BaO/99/3). Reception education (onthaalonderwijs) specifically aims at pupil integration of foreign speaking newcomers in ordinary basic and secondary education. The objective is to prepare them for the transition to ordinary education. During the reception year the foreign speaking newcomers intensively learn Dutch, so that they can understand the educational learning processes in an ordinary class situation ( Circular Letters BaO/2001/09 and SO75). In this the centre for educational guidance (CLB) is an important partner. Moreover, schools receiving foreign speaking newcomers can be supported by the support centre for Dutch as second language (Steunpunt Nederlands Tweede Taal) and the support centre for intercultural education (Steunpunt Intercultureel Onderwijs).
Chapter 10: Special educational support On 28 June 2002 the Flemish government adopted the Decree concerning equal educational opportunities-I. The integrated support offering has already been discussed in paragraph 10.5.3. Within the framework of this Decree the Flemish government also grants additional teaching periods and/or teaching periods-teacher and/or resources during the school years 2002-2003, 2003-2004 and 2004-2005, for projects regarding art initiation for deprived and/or migrant minors (Decision of the Flemish government of 6 September 2002). The projects aim at the transition, on an experimental basis, of these minors to part-time art education (see 7.7.6.). Finally, the Flemish educational policy wants to join the Flemish policy regarding ethnic-cultural minorities (Decree of 28 April 1998) by guaranteeing the right to education for all children, also those without a legal residence permit. These pupils can also apply for the support defined by the Decree concerning equal educational opportunities, according to its principles (Circular Letter GD/2003/03).
10.8.
Statistics
This paragraph contains some statistical data concerning special education in Flanders. The teacher-pupil ratio
in pre-school and primary education11 is 5.5, and in secondary education12 3.5 (2002-2003) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003).
Table 44: Number of pupils in special pre-school and primary education according to type (school year 2002-2003) Primary education
Type 2
Type 3
Type 4
Type 6
Type 7
Community Education
418
32
68
4
/
Grant-Aided Free Education
562
125
158
30
223
Grant-Aided Official Education
40
12
7
4
8
1.020
169
233
38
231
Total Overall Total: 1,691
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2002)
Table 45: Number of pupils in special primary education according to type (school year 2002-2003) Special primary education Community Education
11
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Type 4
Type 6
Type 7
Type 8
2.271
949
264
273
15
/
1.956
Number of pupils in special pre-school education and special primary education in the school year 2001-2002 divided by the number of budgetary full-time equivalents in January 2002 in special pre-school education and special primary education.
12
Number of pupils in special secondary education in the school year 2001-2002 divided by the number of budgetary full-time equivalents in January 2002 in special secondary education.
221
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
Grant-Aided Free Education
6.253
2.155
1.089
514
94
455
6.242
Grant-Aided Official Edu.
2.073
168
98
40
11
30
1.923
Total
10.597
3.272
1.451
827
120
485
10.121
Overall total: 26,901
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Table 46: Number of pupils in special secondary education according to form of education (school year 2001-2002) Special secondary education
OV1(1)
OV2(1)
OV3(1)
OV4(1)
553
743
2.195
12
1.693
1.605
6.991
280
131
136
1.635
66
2.377
2.484
10.821
358
Community Education Grant-Aided Free Education Grant-Aided Official Education Total Overall total:16.040
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003) Table 47: Number of pupils in special secondary education according to type in form of education 1 (school year 2002-2003) Special secondary education (OV1) Community Education Grant-Aided Free Education Grant-Aided Official Education Total
Type 2
Type 3
Type 4
Type 6
Type 7
366
/
184
3
/
1.189
8
332
76
88
102
/
29
/
/
1.657
8
545
79
88
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003) Table 48: Number of pupils in special secondary education according to type in form of education 2 (school year 2002-2003) Special secondary education
Type 2
Type 3
Type 4
Type 6
Type 7
Community Education
650
14
72
6
1
Grant-Aided Free Education
1.277
32
139
106
51
Grant-Aided Official Education
135
/
1
/
/
Total
2.062
46
211
112
52
(OV2)
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003)
Chapter 10: Special educational support Table 49: Number of pupils in special secondary education according to type in form of education 3 (school year 2002-2003) Special secondary education
Type 1
Type 3
Type 4
Type 6
Type 7
Community Education
1.975
191
29
/
/
Grant-Aided Free Education
6.001
777
25
17
171
Grant-Aided Official Education
1.529
98
2
1
5
Total
9.505
1.066
56
18
176
(OV3)
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003) Table 50: Number of pupils in special secondary education according to type in form of education 4 (school year 2002-2003) Special secondary education (OV4)
Type 3
Type 4
Type 6
Type 7
Community Education
12
/
/
/
Grant-Aided Free Education
34
161
12
73
Grant-Aided Official Education
66
/
/
/
Total
112
161
12
73
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003) Table 51: Evolution in the number of pupils in special pre-school education (1990-2003) Community
Grant-Aided Free
Grant-Aided
Education
Education
Official Education
90-91
268
787
87
1,142
91-92
319
934
84
1,337
92-93
317
1,012
84
1,413
93-94
340
1,234
110
1,508
94-95
388
1,058
115
1,631
95-96
425
1,128
121
1,721
96-97
420
1,175
118
1,784
97-98
456
1,233
122
1,811
98-99
472
1,177
131
1,780
99-00
467
1,178
122
1,767
00-01
471
1,105
125
1,701
01-02 02-03
490 522
1,086 1,098
110 71
1,686 1,691
Year
Total
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003) Table 52: Evolution in the number of pupils in special primary education (Buitengewoon Lager Onderwijs, BLO) (1990-2003) Community
Grant-Aided
Grant-Aided
Education
Free Education
Official Education
90-91
3,013
12,017
3,058
18,088
91-92
3,362
12,888
3,533
19,783
Year
Total
223
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
92-93
3,576
13,228
3,658
20,462
93-94
3,640
13,590
3,824
21,054
94-95
3,932
13,927
3,893
21,752
95-96
4,123
14,429
3,976
22,528
96-97
4,308
14,866
3,947
23,121
97-98
4,658
15,352
4,062
24,072
98-99
4,909
15,865
4,161
24,935
99-00
5,081
16,345
4,301
25,727
00-01
5,215
16,578
4,419
26,212
01-02
5,415
16,849
4,541
26,794
02-03
5,728
16,802
4,343
26,901
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003) Table 53: Evolution in the number of pupils in special secondary education (Buitengewoon Secundair Onderwijs) (BuSO) (1990-2003) Community
Grant-Aided Free
Grant-Aided
Education
Education
Official Education
90-91
2,543
8,570
2,587
13,700
91-92
2,518
8,802
2,589
13,909
92-93
2,580
9,044
2,598
14,222
93-94
2,664
9,301
2,893
14,558
94-95
2,685
9,591
2,685
14,961
95-96
2,771
9,926
2,660
15,357
96-97
2,879
9,962
2,707
15,548
97-98
3,159
9,976
2,512
15,647
98-99
3,159
10,045
2,455
15,659
99-00
3,219
10,099
2,456
15,774
00-01
3,266
10,045
2,452
15,763
01-02
3,250
10,045
2,510
16,084
02-03
3,503
10,569
1,968
16,040
Year
()*+&#
, # $ -&
Total
.
Table 54: Number of Schools for special education in 2002-2003 (1) Community
Grant-Aided Free
Grant-Aided
Education
Education
Official Education
Pre-school
23
60
6
90
Primary
36
122
30
189
Secondary
19
74
15
108
Total
(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2003) Note: (1) Some special pre-school institutions also have special primary education. Therefore, some institutions are counted twice in this table. (2) Institutions, which provide type 5 education, are not included in the figures. There are 6 of those schools in special pre-school education, 6 schools in special primary education and 4 schools in buitengewoon secundair onderwijs (special secondary education).
CHAPTER 11. THE EUROPEAN AND INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION IN EDUCATION Participation in international programmes has since long been an important issue in international education in Flanders. In this chapter this will not be further discussed in detail. Flanders participates very actively in a large number of European programmes. On relevant occasions we will refer to websites where detailed information on the Flemish achievements in the European programmes can be found. In this chapter on ‘the European and international dimension in education’ we go more deeply into the international and bilateral cooperation outside the European programmes.
11.1.
Historical Overview
This paragraph discusses the European dimension and international (dimension in) education in historical perspective. In the years after World War II, Belgium signed several cultural agreements to stimulate the mobility and exchange of the different partners. Since the State reform of Belgium of 1982 the Communities of Belgium have been competent for the elaboration of these treaties. In 1993 Flanders got the competence to sign treaties itself, and since then agreements have been negotiated on all the fields Flanders is competent for. Through co-operation programmes, these treaties offer the possibility of a broader elaboration than education and culture; they allow different ways of financing and project-based co-operation. These agreements are bilateral, but the significance varies according to the supranational level. When, for example, the European programmes (e.g. Socrates) become more important, the impact of the bilateral exchanges will decrease, because the Department of Education prefers to integrate these into the European programmes. Important bilateral treaties in the field of education which are still in vigour but were signed before 1993 are these with the Netherlands and the Russian Federation. Later, the Agreement with South-Africa was signed and more recently one with Morocco. More details can be found in the following chapters. The European education policy in the period 1960-1980 was mainly an intergovernmental co-operation. At the end of the 80s, the European programmes started, in which Flanders has actively participated right away. During the Flemish Presidency (end 2001) the “Concrete future objectives of Education and Training” further developed. Flanders also played an initiating role in the starting of the Copenhagen-process (originally the Bruges-process). These issues are discussed in chapter 11.2. For its multilateral co-operation (Unesco, Council of Europe and OESO) Flanders often takes into account the opportunities these structures can offer to the Department of Education. Participation mostly occurs on project basis, so partners often change. Flanders prefers projects that are related to the Flemish education policy or those it can give a structural contribution to.
11.2.
Ongoing Debates
In this paragraph on the European dimension and international (dimension in) education, a number of current reform proposals are discussed in two subparagraphs (11.2.1 and 11.2.2). In the first paragraph we discuss the
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
current European influence on the Flemish educational system; the second paragraph deals with the European cooperation. 11.2.1.
Current European Influence on the Flemish Educational System
Some examples of striking European influence on the Flemish educational system are the following: The reform of higher education outside the university in 1994 aimed at among other things an improvement of the participation of the colleges of higher education in international programmes. Each university and college of higher education has established a department for international relations to administratively support the extension of international contacts and relations. The Decrees concerning the universities (12 June 1991) and colleges of higher education (13 July 1994) e.g. provide the possibility to follow course components in a foreign language as well as to recognise courses followed at foreign institutions as equivalent within the frame of European action programmes (Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs, 1996a). The possibility to follow courses in a foreign language is e.g. provided for courses in a foreign language, for course components in the second cycle where a foreign lecturer teaches, and for post-academic and post-college education. At the universities the students of the second cycle can follow up to twenty percent of their course components in another language. Students in the second cycle of a college of higher education and students in the last year of a college of higher education of one cycle or students following a further training can follow maximum twenty percent of their course programme in another language, on condition that the subjects are taught by a foreign speaking guest professor. The students always have the right of taking their exams in Dutch. The introduction of some principles of the European ECTS-system (European Credit Transfer System) in the regulations applying to higher education (universities included), simplifies an adaptation to the course programmes of institutions in other European countries and is an important instrument for the recognition of credits (studiepunten). Furthermore it should be mentioned that Flanders follows a number of trends at international level. Flanders has introduced an international dimension in its system of quality control. In cooperation with the Netherlands review committees, consisting of experts from both countries, evaluate the branches of study of university education as well as education at the colleges of higher education (cooperation VLHORA – HBO-Council) which are offered in Flanders as well as in the Netherlands. There is cooperation with the Netherlands in the screening of the other educational levels as well (Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs, 1996a). Since 1998 Flemish schools participated in EU pilot projects on quality guarantees and selfevaluation in primary and secondary education (Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, departement Onderwijs, 2001). The Dutch-Flemish cooperation at the level of the inspections took concrete shape in the intensive exchange of output measurements of school screenings. 1.2.2.
European Cooperation
In this paragraph concerning cooperation with a European dimension we discuss the Bologna Declaration (Verklaring van Bologna), the European Objectives Report (Europees Doelstellingenrapport) and the Bruges/Copenhagen-process.
Chapter 11: The European and international dimension in education 11.2.2.1. The Bologna Declaration (De Verklaring van Bologna) In 1999 the Ministers for Education of 29 European countries signed the Bologna Declaration, which aims at creating a European higher education area to further unify Europe at educational level. By 2010 the new European education should be a fact. The most important features of this new educational landscape are: •
Increased comparability of the course programmes as regards their structure and their academic degrees.
•
More mobility of students and professors.
•
Preparation of the education for the international competition.
•
Harmonisation of education in a two-cycle-structure (the bachelor-master-structure), of which the first cycle (the bachelor) should take at least three years and for some students already leads to a professional qualification. The second cycle (the master) is either aimed at a professional qualification, or at a scientific training which possibly leads to a doctorate.
•
Lifelong Learning (Levenslang Leren) as a structured occupation recognised by the ECTS – the European Credit Transfer System.
This initiative wants to create a unified system, the credits
(studiepunten), for assessing educational components and to link them together, regardless whether they are obtained inside or outside the classic training circuit. •
Bologna wants to establish an international transparent system of quality control as well, the accrediting (accreditering).
•
Finally, Bologna wants to considerably increase the cooperation between European educational institutions.
For more information see www.ond.vlaanderen.be – higher education – international education. 11.2.2.2. The European Objectives Report (Het Europees Doelstellingenrapport) In connection with the policy priority ‘offer an answer to the challenges of the future’, the Flemish government and the representatives of the Flemish “midfield” have signed a so-called Pact of Vilvoorde (Pact van Vilvoorde) on 22 November 2001. In this pact 21 concrete long-term objectives (to be realised by 2010) for the 21st century are defined. Three of these objectives relate specifically to education and can also be found in the European Objectives Report: •
By 2010 at least 10% of the Flemish inhabitants, between 25 and 65, will participate in continuing education.
•
The number of youngsters leaving school without sufficient start qualifications will be at least halved by 2010.
•
Each youngster in Flanders gets the opportunity to gain experience abroad, among others within the framework of cooperation development, cultural education or training.
The European Ministers for Education and the European Commission have taken the assignment of the ‘Summit of Lisbon’ (Top van Lissabon) to become the most dynamic and competitive knowledge-based economy of the world to heart. The objectives which the Ministers have approved are ambitious and involve consequences for the Flemish government. Through the open method of coordination the European Union wants to monitor the progress in the realisation of the 3 strategic objectives:
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
•
Improvement of the quality and the efficiency of the education and training structures in the EU through among other things the improvement of education and training of teachers and educators, optimal use of financial resources, access to ICT for everyone, etc.
•
Better access to the education and training structures for everyone, by making learning more attractive, active participation of citizens in society, etc.
•
Opening up the education and training structures for the outside world through the stimulation of entrepreneurship, improvement of foreign language education, strengthening of mobility and exchange, etc.
Flanders actively participates in the different expert workgroups. Moreover, Flanders has taken communication actions to make the report known in the Department and in the educational field. 11.2.2.3. The Bruges/Copenhagen-process The European Council of Barcelona called on the member states to set up an initiative for vocational education and vocational training, similar to the Bologna Declaration for higher education. This Bruges-process was initiated in Bruges during a meeting of the directors-general of the vocational training. Actions will be taken for following four partial aspects of European cooperation regarding vocational education and training: 1.
European dimension;
2.
Recognition of competencies and qualifications;
3.
Transparency, information and guidance;
4.
Quality control.
The wider social and international context of vocational education and training implies that consultation with social partners and links with the employment strategy have to be ensured. Flanders participates in several of the workgroups and seats actively in the coordination group.
11.3.
National Policy Guidelines/Specific Legislative Framework
This paragraph discusses the following 2 topics regarding the European dimension and international (dimension in) education: educational legislation and international cooperation. International cooperation forms an essential dimension of education. It contributes to the quality promotion of the educational policy as well as of the educational practice. Following the evolutions in international education broadens the horizon for the preparation of the policy and educational legislation. The development of Flemish education can no longer be regarded separately from the perspective of international developments. Exchanging information on educational systems is inspiring. Moreover, mutual tuning of the educational policy and the educational practice creates an education area which exceeds the Flemish context. International exchanges and projects lead to a larger European and international awareness in the pupils, students and course participants and teach them to participate in an internationally oriented and multicultural society and international labour market.
Chapter 11: The European and international dimension in education As from 1989 Flanders has full authority to sign international agreements. For some of the Belgian agreements, Flanders itself also set up international cooperation with those countries or regions in the years 1980’s. The diverse bilateral cooperation Flanders has initiated is inspired by following basic principles: •
Flanders wants to establish priority cooperation with its neighbouring countries;
•
Flanders gives priority to cooperation with countries or regions with the same language.
On the basis of criteria it is then decided with which other countries bilateral agreements will be signed. In order to increase the impact of the bilateral cooperation, the Flemish government intended with its policy in 1999 to strive for a larger geographical concentration. The intention was to work with a more defined set of priority countries which are chosen on the basis of clear criteria. The list of priority countries for educational cooperation was discussed with the foreign policy. Special attention was paid to the choice of countries on the basis of criteria such as contributions to the international solidarity or to the permanent development. The current Minister for Education has continued the cooperation with Russia. After the collapse of the Berlin Wall Flanders wanted to give a signal and contribute to the reconstruction. Besides, in 2000 the Treaty between Flanders and South-Africa was extended to all fields of policy and thus a part on education was added. At the end of 1994, after the inauguration of the South-African government of national unity, the Flemish government decided to recognise the policy towards South-Africa as a priority of foreign policy in South-Africa. Moreover, it was decided on the basis of the criteria to work out a cooperation agreement with Morocco. The other communities in Belgium, the Netherlands, the border regions and nearby and comparable countries (Wallonia, German-speaking Community, the Netherlands, France and Germany) remain of course priority partners for the Flemish educational policy. Moreover, the Flemish government supports several projects within the framework of bilateral cooperation.
11.4.
National Programmes and Initiatives
In this paragraph we go more deeply into the following topic regarding the European dimension and international (dimension in) education: international cooperation of Flanders, and more specifically bilateral programmes and initiatives on the one hand, and multilateral programmes and initiatives on the other hand. 11.4.1.
Bilateral programmes and initiatives
The bilateral cooperation of the Department for Education with partner countries is based on: •
Cultural agreements (at the time signed by Belgium and now by Flanders) paragraph 11.4.1.1.);
•
Flemish treaties (relate to several Flemish authorities) (paragraph 11.4.1.2.);
•
Educational agreements signed by the Flemish Minister for Education and Training (paragraph 11.4.1.3.);
•
Circular Letters regarding educational cooperation across borders per educational level (paragraph 1.4.1.4.).
In order to increase the impact of the bilateral educational cooperation, this cooperation aims at a limited number of priority countries and themes. These countries were determined in close consultation with the foreign policy.
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
The neighbouring countries are of course priority partners for the Flemish educational policy. Important themes for the cooperation are language education, the follow-up of the Bologna Declaration and the (r)evaluation of the teachers. Special attention is paid to the choice of other countries on the basis of criteria such as contributions to the international solidarity or the permanent development. 11.4.1.1. Cultural Agreements Cooperation is also possible within the framework of cultural agreements and cooperation agreements. Some agreements have been signed by Belgium, but are carried out by the regions. Other agreements have been signed by Flanders, after it received the authority to conclude agreements. In 2003 the carrying out of about 30 agreements was started. Such cooperation relates to all educational levels, but is most intense at the level of higher education. It comprises specialisation and research grants for students in a post-academic course in higher education, the exchange of professors and lecturers, the organisation of courses taught in foreign languages at the Flemish universities, … 11.4.1.2. Flemish Treaties In 2000 the cooperation treaty between Flanders and South-Africa – which existed since 1996 – was renewed and extended to all fields of policy for which Flanders is authorised. The three provinces Vrijstaat, KwaZuluNatal and Limpopo were designated as geographical priority areas. The Department for Education concentrates its efforts for a number of projects on these priority areas. At the moment projects are carried out concerning entrepreneurial skills, life skills, autism spectrum disorders in education and an integrated school policy for ensuring values in education. 11.4.1.3. Educational Agreements This paragraph concerning bilateral cooperation of the Department for Education with partner countries based on educational agreements, discusses more specifically the cooperation with the Netherlands, the Agreement with Russia and the Agreement with Morocco. 11.4.1.3.1.
Cooperation with the Netherlands
Since 1990 the official cooperation between Flanders and the Netherlands on education is organised by the socalled ‘Ghent Agreements’ (GENT-akkoorden). The first Ghent Agreements (Ghent-1 and Ghent-2) only related to higher education. Since the third Ghent Agreement (Ghent-3) all educational levels are involved. The actions consist of seminars, the development of cooperation between educational institutions, joint studies and publications, exchange of good educational practice and information. The themes that occur most are: ICT, mobility, increasing of cooperation between institutions, quality control, teacher policy, administrative innovation and target group policy. For a number of these themes good information is necessary. Therefore, as from the school year 1995-1996 yearly and as from the school year 1998-1999 every two years, a special count of border traffic (grensverkeertelling) is organised in view of understanding the mutual educational mobility. The inspectorates of
Chapter 11: The European and international dimension in education both countries also cooperate closely; among other things a comparable study on the methods of school screening has been carried out. After the positive evaluation of the Ghent-5 agreement, the Ghent-6 agreement was signed on 13 October 2003 by the Dutch and Flemish Minister for Education. The Dutch Ministry OCW and the Flemish Department for Education from now on aim at policy exchange in all fields they regard as important. Besides, they will jointly prepare –if possible – their positions in multilateral organisations such as the EU and OESO. In 1995 the GROS-project (Cooperation across borders) (Grensoverschrijdende samenwerking) with the Netherlands started at the level of basic and secondary education. Since 1995 the GROS-programme between the Netherlands and Flanders allows the Flemish and Dutch primary school pupils to exchange classes on the basis of cooperation agreements. Within this framework teachers receive subsidies from the Flemish Community to prepare and realise these exchanges. In order to jointly manage a number of concerns regarding the Dutch language, such as language training and education, the Netherlands and the Flemish Community created the Dutch Language Union (Nederlandse Taalunie). This supranational organisation offers the possibility to act as one language community at international level (Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs, 1996a). More concrete info on what is being done in this respect within the different educational levels, can be found in paragraph 11.3. 11.4.1.3.2.
Agreement with Russia
Since 1991 various cooperation agreements and protocols have been concluded between the Flemish and Russian Ministers for Education. For carrying these out, tens of projects were drawn up. The fields in which is cooperated are a.o. education for children with special needs, guidance of pupils, vocational education,… Negotiations are ongoing concerning a prolongation of the cooperation. 11.4.1.3.3.
Agreement with Morocco
The important presence of Moroccan children in the Flemish schools was one of the reasons to conclude a cooperation agreement with Morocco in 2001. The cooperation is mainly situated in following fields: strengthening of secondary technical education and its orientation to the labour market; and partnerships between schools from the 2 countries. 11.4.1.4. Cooperation across borders In 1995 Flanders, the Netherlands and the bordering German Länder Nordrhein-Westfalen, Niedersachsen and Bremen signed an agreement to stimulate the mutual cooperation concerning higher education in view of the creation of one large open educational area (Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs, 1996a). This is called the policy of the border countries (Grenslandenbeleid). As from 1999 GROS disappeared in basic education and cooperation projects between Flemish schools and schools in the Netherlands, France, Great-Britain, Germany and Luxemburg were subsidised within the framework of the policy of the border countries (Grenslandenbeleid). Since 1995 the GROS-programme (Cooperation across borders) (Grensoverschrijdende samenwerking) gives Flemish and Dutch secondary schools the opportunity to exchange classes. As from the school year 2004-2005
231
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
this programme will be made available for the neighbouring countries of Belgium: the Netherlands, Luxemburg, Germany, France and Great Britain. Each year the Department for Education organises in cooperation with the French embassy in-service trainings in France for 40 teachers of French per school year in basic education. In cooperation with the French authorities yearly further trainings are organised for teachers of French in secondary education. In cooperation with the German authorities there are in principle several exchange activities and further trainings yearly; a summer course for Flemish pupils in Germany and vice versa; 2 further trainings for Dutch teachers of German in Germany; and 2 further trainings for German teachers in Flanders. More concrete info on what is being done in this respect within the different educational levels, can be found in paragraph 11.6. 11.4.2.
Multilateral programmes and initiatives
This paragraph discusses the multilateral programmes and initiatives, and more specifically the cooperation within the Council of Europe (11.4.2.1), the cooperation within OESO (11.4.2.2), the cooperation within UNESCO (11.4.2.3), and the EU-programmes (11.4.2.4). 11.4.2.1. Cooperation within the Council of Europe As to the Council of Europe, the Department for Education participates in the activities of the Education Committee and the Committee for Higher Education and Scientific Research for projects relating to: •
human rights, democracy and tolerance;
•
legal help for the countries of Central and Eastern Europe.
11.4.2.2. Cooperation within OESO Within the OESO the Department for Education participates in the Education Committee, the IMHE (Institution for Management of Higher Education) and the CERI (Centre for Educational Research and Innovation). The Department for Education has since years contributed to following OESO-projects: •
education for tomorrow;
•
education indicators (INES);
•
lifelong learning;
•
screening of aspects of our educational system.
11.4.2.3. Cooperation within UNESCO The International Bureau of Education, a specialised UNESCO-institution organises every few years an international conference on education where all Ministers for Education and other people involved meet. This conference on education was organised for the 46th time in September 2001 in Geneva with the theme: ‘Education for all for learning to live together’. In September 2004 the next international conference on education will take place, with the theme ‘Quality education for all youngsters: challenges, trends and priorities’.
Chapter 11: The European and international dimension in education Every member state was asked to write up beforehand a national report on the educational system and the latest educational developments. For Belgium Flanders as well as the French-speaking Community have written a report that was published in Dutch, French and English. Since a few years the Communities seat for Belgium in the International Bureau of Education. The secretary-general of the Department for Education seats in this Bureau for Flanders. Furthermore, officials of the Department for Education participate on a regular basis in the general conference of the UNESCO (thus not only in the one on education) and in specific gatherings (higher education, …). 11.4.2.4. EU-Programmes The European Union has initiated a number of educational and training programmes in view of the promotion of the European dimension and the improvement of educational quality through cooperation between countries. The most important programmes are the SOCRATES-programme, the LEONARDO DA VINCI- programme, and the TEMPUS- programme.
11.5.
European/International Dimension through the National Curriculum
This paragraph discusses the following topic regarding the European dimension and international (dimension in) education: the curriculum. Citizenship means that someone is open to the political, economic, social and cultural environment in which he/she lives and in which he/she wants to participate. Citizenship means that the citizen has insight in the four aspects below and has knowledge of the basic rules of our legal and democratic system. An important element of citizenship is included in the human rights and liberties as determined in the Constitution and in several charters. Citizenship implies: •
Awareness that one is part of a community of citizens with rights and duties, including responsibilities and tasks;
•
Readiness to honour these rights and make them correspond with the duties;
•
Taking initiative to bear responsibility;
•
Readiness to acquire attitudes, such as tolerance, sense of justice, awareness of general well-being and readiness to cooperate and a sense of right and wrong.
The teaching of citizenship aims at transforming youngsters into critical citizens ready to and competent for thinking and acting constructively in a democratic constitutional state, as these function nowadays within an international community. Education for citizenship, in the broadest sense of the word, comprises in Flanders: •
Provision of facts and insight relating to (1) the economic, social and cultural reality; (2) the mechanisms leading to this reality and defining the reality; and (3) the political decision process that can be used to intervene in this reality, and this at all levels of society.
•
Having a feeling for the values of the democratic system in which we live;
•
Mastering skills to shape the above mentioned knowledge, and having insight in and a feeling for values in one’s own life.
In the Flemish educational system (basic and secondary) attainment targets are defined. The teaching of citizenship is part of the subject-exceeding attainment targets in secondary education. The ultimate objective of
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education for citizenship is the acquirement of a number of basic skills enabling the youngster to participate in a constructive and critical way in social life (broad meaning). Children and youngsters should be acquainted with certain aspects of : •
The political and legal domain (including power, consultation, representation of views, decision making, institutions and procedures);
•
The social-economic domain (including labour, commerce and well-being);
•
The social-cultural domain (with aspects such as training, spare time, family and group forming).
These 3 domains form the framework in which choices are made, which specific situations or contents will be taught. Per phase other contents are taught. In the curriculum of the first phase (first stage of secondary education) four realities were chosen, namely youngsters and school, the situation at home, the media and democratic administrative forms. In the curriculum of the second phase (second stage of secondary education) two socially relevant themes were chosen: the human rights and active citizenship & decision making. The themes for the curriculum of the third phase are: democratic parliaments, ‘social services’ and global citizenship. A youngster has mastered the theme ‘global citizenship’ of the third phase of citizenship, if that youngster: •
Can illustrate the role of the international institutions;
•
Can illustrate that the global dimension of our society is more and more visible, between the other issues at economic, political and cultural level. And is aware that this can lead to problems and conflicts as well as additional opportunities;
•
Can explain the complexity of the international cooperation;
•
Can illustrate that there are different views on prosperity and how wealth can be re-distributed;
•
Is subject to personal conviction to improve global wealth and well-being.
11.6.
Mobility and Exchange
As regards the European dimension and international (dimension in) education; in many bilateral and multilateral agreements Flanders has helped to initiate or in which Flanders participates, actions of international mobility and international exchange are included. These actions were discussed in paragraphs 11.1 tot 11.3. Besides, all available statistical data concerning the mobility programmes was added to paragraph 11.4. This paragraph is limited to the part on ‘recognition and validation of foreign diplomas and qualifications’. The procedures applying to the different educational levels are regulated in several decisions and circular letters. These can all be found on the website of the Department for Education (www.ond.vlaanderen.be). The procedures are followed in more or less the same way across the educational levels. The procedure always contains 4 steps: submitting of an application, the administrative investigation into the completeness of the dossier, the request for advice and the decision to grant the equivalence or not. Making up an application dossier also relates to the same 3 aspects across the educational levels: providing information on the content of the course followed, submitting of proofs of study, providing sworn translations of documents that have not been drafted in Dutch, French, German or English. In each procedure solutions are included for applicants that cannot submit proofs of study. In the new structural Decree which restructures Flemish higher education following the European Bologna Declaration and is adopted by the Flemish government, the principles of the "Lisbon Recognition Convention"
Chapter 11: The European and international dimension in education are used for recognitions in Flanders. The structural Decree stipulates that the Flemish government will establish a recognition procedure. 11.6.1.
Mobility and Exchange of Pupils/Students
As to student mobility, a distinction is made between basic, secondary and higher education. 11.6.1.1. Basic education At the level of basic education there is on the one hand the neighbouring countries policy (buurlandenbeleid) and on the other hand the programme called ‘Klavertje drie’. 11.6.1.1.1.
NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES POLICY (BUURLANDENBELEID):
The neighbouring countries policy subsidises contacts between Flemish schools and schools from Germany, France, Great Britain, Luxemburg and the Netherlands. The subsidies are granted for ordinary and special basic education. The objective is: •
the improvement of the knowledge of the cultures of the neighbouring countries,
•
a confrontation with one’s own culture,
•
a contribution regarding content to several branches of study,
•
the improvement of skills exceeding the branches of study.
There are two possibilities of cooperation with schools from a neighbouring country: without the framework of an educational project concerning the neighbouring country and within the framework of an educational project concerning the neighbouring country. The intention is that the Flemish pupils actively participate in the school life of the school in the neighbouring country. The subsidies are only available for a visit to a school in one of the above mentioned neighbouring countries. The visits take at least three successive days (two overnight stays). A basic school for special education receives a higher grant. It concerns travel and accommodation costs of pupils, teaching staff and (possibly) parents. For receiving a class from one of the neighbouring countries in Flanders, the Department for Education offers package funding. For the granting of this subsidy two overnight stays are necessary. 11.6.1.1.2.
The KLAVERTJE DRIE program
This is an exchange programme within Belgium that cooperates with the “Prins Filipfonds” and was established as a form of cooperation between the three Communities. The programme regulates exchanges of pupils from the fifth and the sixth year of primary school and in the three different Belgian Communities. The programme of such an exchange has to take at least three full days (with two overnight stays). It is preferred that all pupils of the class involved participate in the exchange. In any case at least 75% should join in.
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
11.6.1.2. Secondary education At the level of secondary education we can distinguish the programmes ‘GROS’, ‘Euroklassen’ (Euroclasses), and ‘Klavertje drie’. 11.6.1.2.1.
GROS
This programme provides class exchanges and preparatory visits of school boards, parents and teachers. The class exchanges (in which in principle the complete class has to participate) are based on reciprocity and take preferably place in the same school year of a stay in the Netherlands of minimum 4 full days (3 overnight stays). For teachers, school boards and parents’ associations minimum one full day is foreseen to prepare the exchanges on content. The cooperation aimed at should fit in a common educational project which is defined together with the partner school as regards objectives, methods and reach. 11.6.1.2.2.
EUROKLASSEN (Euroclasses)
This programme, available for all secondary schools, aims at the strengthening of the European dimension in education through the exchange of classes of pupils. Within its application come the exchanges of classes or groups of pupils as from the 4th year of secondary education. The exchanges are organised within the framework of a project with a European dimension between the proper school and a foreign school belonging to a country which is eligible for participation in the Socrates-programme. 11.6.1.2.3.
KLAVERTJE DRIE
This is an exchange programme within Belgium that cooperates with the “Prins Filipfonds” and was established as a form of cooperation between the three Communities. The programme regulates exchanges of pupils from the fifth and the sixth year of primary school and in the three different Belgian communities. Reciprocity of the exchange is not necessary, but a stay of minimum 5 successive full days (4 overnight stays) is required. It is preferred that all pupils of the class involved participate in the exchange. In any case at least 75% should join in. 11.6.1.3. Higher Education Erasmus Belgica is a new programme which gives university students or students at the colleges of higher education the opportunity to follow part of their course at a university or a college of higher education in another Community. The programme uses the same principles as the European Erasmus programme. The project was initiated in February 2004 and the first exchanges are foreseen for the academic year 2004-2005. The intention is that the three Ministers responsible for higher education work out a cooperation agreement later. Within the Administration for Higher Education and Scientific Research (Administratie Hoger Onderwijs en Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek) a recognition centre is active (NARIC-Vlaanderen: National Academic (& Professional) Recognition Information Centre). This centre is part of the NARIC-Network, an initiative of the European Commission, established in 1984, which wants to promote the recognition of diplomas and study periods in the member states of the European Economic Area (EEA). NARIC-Flanders is responsible for the academic recognition procedure and asks at least twice the advice of as many institutions of higher education in the Flemish Community before taking a decision. A possible recognition
Chapter 11: The European and international dimension in education of
equivalence
is
granted
in
the
form
of
a
Ministerial
Equivalence
Decision
(ministerieel
gelijkwaardigheidsbesluit). The new structural Decree of 4 April 2003 restructures Flemish higher education in correspondence with the European Bologna Declaration and confirms that the recognition of foreign diplomas of higher education in Flanders follows the principles of the "Lisbon Recognition Convention�. 11.6.2.
Mobility and Exchange of Teaching and Academic Staff
As to the teacher mobility, again a distinction is made according to the educational level. 11.6.2.1. Basic Education Each year the Department for Education organises in cooperation with the French embassy in-service trainings in France for 40 teachers of French per school year in basic education. Within the framework of the programme for the neighbouring countries, the Department for Education supports the presence of school boards or teachers of a Flemish school in a school of a neighbouring country. This assistance is situated at the level of the language or the management of the school. There are no regulations as to the duration: the schools involved work out an arrangement. Preferably it concerns a few days. The subsidy is granted to meet possible shortage of resources for travel and accommodation costs. In the same programme there is a subsidy for workgroups across borders with a programme of educational themes of at least one full day. The subsidy is granted to staff members of Flemish education who travel to a neighbouring country for attending a workgroup. It concerns workgroups composed of staff members from the schools of the different countries. Another form of teacher mobility are the personnel visits. For teachers and school boards visits are possible for exploration or as preparation of an educational project with a neighbouring country. The visit takes at least one full day. Per visit in a neighbouring country the school receives from the Department for Education a subsidy per person, for a maximum of four persons. This number can be increased to eight if it concerns a school team that in a certain region cooperates intensively with several basic schools. The Department for Education subsidises maximum two personnel visits per year. In principle these exchanges of people responsible in the field are meant as an introduction in the educational system of the country visited and in the concrete school organisation of the partner school. This introduction should break down barriers for the organisation of possible educational projects. Not each exchange will lead to an educational project. The school also keeps the subsidy if no international cooperation is set up. 11.6.2.2. Secondary Education In cooperation with the French authorities in-service trainings are organised each year for teachers of French in secondary education. In cooperation with the German authorities in principle two in-service trainings are organised yearly for Flemish teachers of German in Germany; and two in-service trainings for German teachers in Flanders.
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
11.7.
Statistics
The following tables contain statistical data concerning the European dimension and international dimension (international education) in the Flemish education system.
Table 55: Socrates Comenius for primary education Action 1.1. School projects
*
Year
Number of projects
Budget (euro)*
1999-2000
92
130.316,31
2000-2001
103
196.807,44
2001-2002
97
304.186,91
2002-2003
73
256.704,72
budget really spent (Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education
Department, 2004)
Table 56: Socrates Comenius for primary and secondary education Action 1.3. School development projects (Socrates II)
*
Year
Number of projects
Budget (euro)*
2001-2002
3 (primary); 11 (secondary)
59.976,15
2002-2003
6 (primary); 16 (secondary)
89.249,24
budget really spent (Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education
Department, 2004)
Table 57: Socrates Comenius for primary education Action 3.2.c (until 1999), Actie 2.2c (as from 2000) Year
Study grants
1996
2
1997
3
1998
15
1999
3
2000
3
2001
14
2002
3
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2004)
Table 58: Socrates Comenius for secondary education - Action 1 Year
Number of visits
Number of
Number of teacher
Number of teacher
preparatory visits
exchanges
placements
1995-1996
5
85
-
-
1996-1997
5
167
1
10
Chapter 11: The European and international dimension in education 1997-1998
42
151
9
9
1998-1999
51
80
7
8
1999-2000
23
40
5
3
2000-2001
31
26
8
0
2001-2002
42
38
16
1
2002-2003
13
28
14
2
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2004)
Table 59: Socrates Comenius for secondary education Actieon 2.2c In-service training Year
Number of study grants
2001-2002
46
2002-2003
32
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2004)
Table 60: Evolution in number of participants in the Erasmus programme (1988-2002) Year
Number of study grants
Number of months abroad
1988-1989
254
1.126
1990-1991
777
4.022
1992-1993
1.336
7.542
1994-1995
2.024
11.614
1996-1997
2.438
13.119
1998-1999
2.694
14.666
2000-2001
2.574
14.005
2001-2002
2.728
14.433
2002-2003
2.675
14.088
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2004)
Table 61: Participation in Socrates- Adult education / Grundtvig-1 Year
Number of projects
1997-1998
13
1998-1999
13
1999-2000
9
2001
9
2002
5
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2004)
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Flemish Eurydice report 2003
Table 62: Participation in Socrates- Adult education / Grundtvig-2 Year
Number of projects
2001
5
2002
13
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2004)
Table 63: Participation in Socrates- Adult education / Grundtvig-3 Year
Number of projects
2001
28
2002
25
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2004)
Table 64: Participation in Socrates- Minerva, open and distance education Year
Number of projects
1997-1998
9
1998-1999
12
1999-2000
9
2001
9
2002
21
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2004)
Table 65: Participation in Lingua Action C- higher education (transition year with ‘ex-Lingua C’ in 20012002, as from 2002-2003 Comenius 2.2.b “Language assistents”) year
Number of apprenticeships
1995-1996
8
1996-1997
12
1997-1998
15
1998-1999
15
1999-2000
13
2000-2001
6
2001-2002
18
2002-2003
16
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2004)
Chapter 11: The European and international dimension in education Table 66: Participation in Lingua Action E- secondary and higher education (transition year with “exLingua E” in 2000-2001, as from 2001-2002 Comenius 1.2. “Language projects”) Number of
Year
projects
Pupils
Teachers
Teachers participating in preparatory visits
1994-1995
24
545
69
54
1995-1996
21
412
49
45
1996-1997
18
418
48
60
19997-1998
21
382
50
51
1998-1999 (estimation)
18
427
43
74
1999-2000
27
565
72
37
2000-2001
22
475
58
20
2001-2002
11
163
22
4
2002-2003
8
84
11
3
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2004)
Table 67: Participation in Euroklassen - secondary education Year
Schools
Flemish pupils
Teachers
Foreign pupils
Budget (euro)
1995-1996
25
-
-
-
72.062,65
1996-1997
22
465
56
461
67.625,35
1997-1998
26
532
66
532
73.624,38
1998-1999
20
435
54
402
64.412,50
1999-2000
27
504
69
499
70.153,87
2000-2001
20
423
53
436
60.027,42
2001-2002
23
455
61
398
66.794,91
2002-2003
15
316
39
307
45.402,00
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2004)
Table 68: Participation in Gros - secondary education Year
Number of projects
Budget (euro)
1996-1997
16
24.789,35
1997-1998
10
12.022,84
1998-1999
18
20.637,14
1999-2000
15
17.228,60
2000-2001
11
12.270,73
2001-2002
14
17.104,65
2002-2003
12
13.640.00
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2004)
241
Flemish Eurydice report 2003
Table 69: Participation in Gros-Buurlandenbeleid (as from 1999) – primary education Year
Number of projects
Budget (euro)
1998
10
6.445,23
1999 (tot 4/1999)
14
12.146,78
1999 – Buurlandenbeleid
6
3.619,25
2000 – Buurlandenbeleid
31
38.026,87
2001
32
32.727,55
2002
34
31.403,33
(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2004)
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Onderwijsinspectie. Onderwijsinspectie (2000b). Onderwijsspiegel. Verslag over de toestand van het onderwijs 1999-2000. Deel B: Het secundair onderwijs, het volwassenenonderwijs en de CLB’s. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs, Onderwijsinspectie. Onderwijsinspectie, (2004). Onderwijsspiegel - Kwaliteit van het onderwijs 2000-2003 - Doorlichtingen 20022003. Brussel: MVG. Pauwels, S. (1999). ‘Noot: Recht op onderwijs, vrije keuze en leerlingenvervoer’, Tijdschrift voor onderwijsrecht en onderwijsbeleid, 1998-1999 (4): 272-277. Peeters, K. (1992). Na scholing, nascholing! Naar een professionalisering van de nascholing voor leraren. Leuven-Apeldoorn: Garant. Peeters, K., A. Van Cauwenberghe, R. Schollaert & H. Coucke (1996). Spiegel-effecten. De Vlaamse decretale navorming doorgelicht. Leuven-Apeldoorn: Garant. Peeters, S., A. Blondeel & M Scheck (1994). ‘Het deeltijds kunstonderwijs - Ontmoeting tussen cultuur- en onderwijsbeleid’, Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht en Onderwijsbeleid, 4 (1993-1994): 54-63. Persconferentie Minister Vanderpoorten (20 september 2002). “Onderwijsbudget 2003”, Brussel. Persconferentie Minister Vanderpoorten (21 oktober 2002). “Onderwijs en inburgering”, Brussel. Persdienst Minister Vanderpoorten (15.06.2001). Persmededeling van het kabinet van Minister Marleen Vanderpoorten, Hervorming vervangingspool in onderwijs.
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OVERVIEW OF LAWS
The first date is the date of promulgation of the regulation. The second date is the date of publication in the Belgisch Staatsblad. -
18.03.38,
* Belgian Law organising the Royal Military College. -
20.09.48,
* Belgian Law organising Works Councils in all firms (in 1975 extended to the non-profit, non-public sector). -
30.04.57 (a),
* Belgian Royal Decree co-ordinating legislation on technical and vocational education. B.S. 07/07/1957. -
30.04.57 (b),
* Belgian Royal Decree co-ordinating and integrating all laws and circular letters on (traditional) general academic secondary education. B.S. 12/08/1957. -
20.08.57,
* Belgian Royal Decree co-ordinating legislation on primary education. B.S. 06/11/1957. -
29.05.59,
* Belgian Law known as the Schoolpact Law (Schoolpactwet) modifying some provisions of education legislation. B.S. 19/06/1959. -
01.04.60,
* Belgian Law organising centres for psycho-medico-social guidance of pupils. B.S. 18/05/1960. -
13.08.62,
* Belgian Royal Decree organising the functioning of the PMS-guidance centres (offering psychological, medical and social counselling and advice to pupils and students, including study career advice). B.S. 25/08/1962. -
30.07.63,
* Belgian Law confirming the use of the regional language (Dutch, French, German) in the three languages zones in Belgium. Brussels and a limited number of smaller communities around the capital and along the linguistic border got a special status. B.S. 22/08/1963. -
21.03.64,
* Belgian Law organising health and medical monitoring of the school population. The PMS Centres are also involved in some aspects of health care. This comprises prevention with regard to sensory and motor problems (from pre-school school onwards), dealing with pupils who have fallen behind, dealing with educational and social adaptation problems, preventive health checks and proposed remedies to be followed by supervision. All this has to be done in collaboration with the school medical supervision. B.S. 15/04/1964. -
08.06.64,
* Belgian Law known as “Omnivalentiewet� (Omnivalence Law) and regulating a more free and equal access to higher education (replaced in 1984). B.S. 02/07/1964. -
05.03.65,
* Belgian Law on Distance Education. B.S. 23/10/1965. -
27.10.66,
* Belgian Royal Decree modified in 1984 enabling more local autonomy for basic education introducing a fund of course periods for schools replacing the old rules on fixed class size norms. B.S. 20/12/1966, as modified B.S. 05/06/1984. -
15.07.69,
* Royal Decree concerning the establishment of the tasks of the administrators, educators-caretakers and executive secretaries in the educational institutions of the basic, special, secondary and technical education, and in the teacher training schools. B.S. 25/07/1969. -
06.07.70,
* Belgian Law on special and Integrated Education. This Law specifies the different types of special education in relation to the nature and degree of the main disability affecting a particular group and specifies the criteria and the conditions of admission to the various types. B.S. 25/08/1970. -
07.07.70,
* B.S. 30/07/1970. Belgian Law on higher education. -
23.11.70,
* Belgian Royal decree concerning the establishment of the tasks of the deputy school head in the educational institutions of the official education. B.S. 31/01/1971. -
19.07.71,
* Belgian Law introducing the so called (till 1990) type I (comprehensive) secondary education structure. The first attempts at reform within secondary education go back to the school year of 1969-1970. In spite of controversies which, moreover, did not cease with the passing of the law, a new type of secondary education, which was called type I, was brought into being and passed by the law dated July 19, 1971. B.S. 28/08/1971. -
23.08.74,
* Belgian Royal Decree organising agricultural training. B.S. 04/09/1974. -
19.12.74,
* Belgian Law regulating the relations between the authorities and the unions representing their civil servants. B.S. 24/12/1974. -
20.06.75,
* Belgian Royal Decree relating to the recruitment and training of officer cadets trained to be doctors, pharmacists, dentists and veterinary surgeons. B.S. 26/06/1975. -
04.10.76,
* Belgian Royal Decree organising vocational training programmes for the self-employed classes. B.S. 11/11/1976. -
28.06.78,
* Belgian Royal Decree defining types and organisation of special education including admission requirements. B.S. 29/08/1978. -
28.06.83,
* Belgian Law on compulsory education. This law prescribes that minors, Belgians and foreigners alike, shall be subject to compulsory education attendance for a period of 12 years, starting in the school year during which the child reaches the age of six and ending at the end of the school year during which he reaches the age of 18. B.S. 07/07/1983. -
29.06.83,
* Belgian Royal Decree, based on a European Directive, promoting mixed (secondary) education and decreeing exemptions. It reinforces the principle of equal participation of man and women in vocational training. B.S. 25/08/1983. -
20.30.84,
Overzicht van de wetgeving * Flemish Decree concerning the foundation of the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (VDAB). B.S. 12/05/84. - 20.30.84, * Flemish Decree concerning the expansion of competences of the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (VDAB). B.S. 12/05/84. -
22.01.85,
* Belgian Law adopting social initiatives, et al. paid educational leave, within the framework of an economic recovery plan. B.S. 24/01/1985. -
15.07.85,
* Belgian Law integrating naval education into the higher education structures. B.S. 27/07/1985. -
23.07.85,
* Belgian Royal Decree giving guidelines for the application of educational leave to employees. B.S. 10/08/1985. -
30.07.85,
* Decision of the Flemish Government affirming the tasks of medical monitoring in schools and principles for funding the monitoring bodies or centres. The 1964 Law and the specifications in a Flemish Government Decision dated July 30th, 1985 clarify in great detail the different tasks of the school-related medical supervision. B.S. 15/11/1985. - 11.08.86, * Royal Decree number 439 concerning the rationalization and the programming of special education. B.S. 30/08/86. -
01.10.86,
* Belgian Mandatory Royal Decree applying principles of a Government overall austerity plan to the sector of the PMS guidance centres (including rules for staff enrolment and conditions for access to school building funding. B.S. 18/10/1986. -
06.11.87,
* Belgian Royal Decree introducing the possibility of a modular system in Social Advancement Education. B.S. 28/01/1988. -
19.12.88,
* Flemish Decree organising a new autonomous body as organising body (inrichtende macht) for official schools (former state schools). This decree stipulates that from the 1st January 1989 (federalisation of education), the language Community, represented by the Minister, will no longer act as the organising body of Community education (formerly State education). B.S. 29/12/1988. -
21.12.88,
* European Directive on the equivalence of higher education diplomas. -
16.01.89,
* Belgian Special Law on the financing of the Communities and Regions. B.S. 17/01/1989. -
05.07.89,
* Flemish Decree including various parts of education legislation, including a new framework for the organisation of secondary education. B.S. 25/08/1989. -
29.07.89,
* Royal Decree concerning the school communities for secondary education and concerning the rationalisation plan and the plan for the establishment of schools for the secondary education with full-time curriculum. B.S. 28/09/1989. -
03.10.89,
259
* Belgian Royal Decree relating to the recruitment and training of certain officer cadets of the Land, Air and Naval Force and the Medical Service. B.S. 19/10/1989. -
20.11.89,
* International Convention on the Rights of the Child. B.S. 13/07/1991. -
27.06.90,
* Decision of the Flemish Government on the learning and educational activities in special pre-school, primary and basic education and in the educational forms (opleidingsvormen) 1, 2 and 3 of special secondary education. B.S. 04/01/1991. -
12.07.90,
* Flemish Decree adopting a structure for training programs focused on adults with little education. This Flemish Decree established twenty-eight local centres and one support centre for adult education. B.S. 15/08/90. -
18.07.90,
* Decision of the Flemish Government in execution of the Decree adopting a structure for training programs focused on poorly educated adults. B.S. 04/10/90. -
31.07.90,
* Flemish Decree including various parts of legislation et al. concerning the organisation of secondary education. B.S. 18/08/1990. -
31.07.90,
* Circular Letter. Part-time vocational secondary education is established permanently after a experimental period of 6 years. -
31.07.90,
* Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the organisation of part-time vocational secondary education. B.S. 26/09/90. -
31.07.90,
* Decree concerning Education -II. B.S. 18/08/90. -
31.07.90,
* Decision of the Flemish Government holding various matters concerning the personnel in institutions in parttime art education, in the field of Music, Wordcraft and Dance. B.S. 29/03/91. - 31.07.90, Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the organisation of part-time art education, in the field of Music, Wordcraft and Dance. B.S. 29/03/91. -
31.07.90,
* Decision of the Flemish Government concerning various administrative matters with regard to the personnel in institutions in part-time art education, in the field of “Plastic Art". B.S. 29/03/91. - 31.07.90, * Decision of the Flemish Government to define and group the offices of the personnel in institutions in parttime art education. B.S. 29/03/91. - 31.07.90, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the organisation of part-time art education, in the field of Plastic art. B.S. 29/03/91. -
23.01.91,
* Decree related to the training and guidance of private and small and medium-sized enterprises. B.S. 16/02/91. -
13.03.91,
* Decision of the Flemish Government decreeing the principles of certification in secondary education. B.S. 17/05/1991.
Overzicht van de wetgeving -
27.03.91,
* Flemish Decree on the conditions of employment of certain staff members in the official schools. B.S. 25/05/1991. -
27.03.91,
* Flemish Decree on working conditions of certain staff members in grant-aided (official and free) schools and grant-aided “Psycho-Medisch-Sociale centra” (guidance centres) (PMS). B.S. 25/05/1991. - 17.04.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government holding the determination of the statute and the degree of the leading public servant and the adjunct- leading public servant of the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO). B.S. 09/05/91. - 17.04.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government to arrange the school year in primary education, in part-time education and in Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) organised, recognised or subsidized by the Flemish Community. B.S.11/07/1991. - 05.06.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government that modifies the Decision of the Flemish Government of 17 April 1991. - 05.06.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the appointment of the President and the members of the board of directors to the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO). B.S. 04/09/91. - 05.06.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government that includes the staff of the V.Z.W. Nederlandstalig Instituut voor Voortdurende Vorming in the staff of the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO). B.S. 04/09/91. - 05.06.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the appointment of the commissionaires of the Flemish community to the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO). B.S. 04/09/91. - 05.06.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government to decide the date of coming into force of some determinations in the Decree of 23 January 1991 concerning the education (vorming) and the supervision of self-employed persons and SMEs (KMO’s). B.S. 04/09/91. - 05.06.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the appointment of the president and the members of the practically oriented committee (praktijkcommissie) to the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO). B.S. 22/08/91. - 05.06.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the organisation of secondary sea fishery education (zeevisserijonderwijs). B.S.27/08/91. -
12.06.91,
* Flemish Decree on the universities in Flanders. This Decree regulates and simplifies the design of universitylevel education and outlines the task of the universities in terms of three aspects: to conduct scientific research, to reinforce university-level education and to render services to society on the basis of the expertise at their disposal. B.S. 04/07/1991. -
26.06.91,
* Flemish Special Decree concerning the university of Gent and the university centre of Antwerp. This Special Decree provides the organisational framework for public institutions providing university education. B.S. 29/06/1991. -
03.07.91,
261
* Decision of the Flemish Government regarding the determination of special conditions under which welldefined positions are to be conferred in the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO). B.S. 17/07/91. -
03.07.91,
* Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the determination of special conditions under which the positions of management consultants and pedagogical advisors (pedagogisch adviseurs) are to be conferred in the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO). B.S. 17/07/91. -
17.07.91,
* Flemish Decree organising a community based inspectorate and school-related external support services, including some principles of school system monitoring and quality control. This decree, modified in 1996, organises the structure and functioning of the inspectorate for all education levels, excluding the universities and 2-cycle higher education. B.S. 31/08/1991. - 31.07.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government holding several matters concerning additional schooling to become an entrepreneur (ondernemersopleiding). B.S. 17/10/91. - 31.07.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government that fixes the date of coming into force of some determinations of the Decree of 23 January 1991 concerning the education (vorming) and the supervision of self-employed persons and of the staff of SMEs (KMO’s). B.S. 27/08/91. - 31.07.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the conditions for the acknowledgment of the educational secretary (leersecretaris), the contract with the committee of practice (praktijkcommissie) and the subsidization of the acknowledged educational secretary (leersecretaris), according to contract. B.S. 18/10/91. - 31.07.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the conditions as mentioned in article 14 of the Decree of 23 January 1991. B.S. 22/10/91. - 31.07.91, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the conditions as mentioned in article 16 of the Decree of 23 January 1991. B.S. 29/10/91. - 21.12.92, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning continual education (permanente vorming) of persons working in agriculture. B.S. 14/05/93. -
23.10.91(a),
* Flemish Decree organising participation of parents, teachers, organising bodies (Inrichtende Machten) and the local community at the school level in subsidised schools. B.S. 14/11/1991. -
23.10.91(b),
* Flemish Decree concerning colleges of higher education in the Flemish Community. -
01.07.93,
* Circular Letter. This Circular letter treats the ‘Integrated Education’, a co-operation between ordinary and special basic education. - 01.07.93, * Circular letter about the spreading in time of the curriculum of Special Education type 4, OND/II/2.3- BuSO. -
22.07.93,
* Decision of the Flemish Government establishing consultative commissions for special education including their composition and functioning. B.S. 12/10/1993. -
01.12.93,
* Flemish Decree organising the Community inspectorate and the school related support services for courses based on a philosophy of life (including religion). This Flemish Decree organises nevertheless a framework
Overzicht van de wetgeving for inspection and educational support in these subjects at the basic and secondary education level and teacher training (outside the university). B.S. 08/02/1994. -
17.01.94,
* Flemish Circular Letter on the criteria for approval of the curricula. -
17.02.94,
* Constitution. Official Dutch version of the Belgian Constitution including all changes from 1831 on. The Belgian Constitution is also voted by the Parliament in a French and German version. -
25.03.94,
* Circular Letter. The Circular Letter is about the possibility of temporal projects (tijdelijke projecten) in the first degree of secondary education. -
13.07.94,
* Flemish Decree on the reorganisation of higher education organised outside the universities. B.S. 31/08/1994. -
20.07.94,
* The Circular Letter is about the provision of facilities for children who are not familiar with the Dutch language. - 21.12.94, * Flemish Decree concerning Education -VI. B.S. 16/03/95. -
22.02.95,
* Flemish Decree concerning attainment targets and development objectives in ordinary pre-school and primary education -
05.04.95,
* Flemish decree organising consultation procedures at the school level between staff (incl. teachers) and the organising bodies (Inrichtende Machten) within subsidised free schools. B.S. 08/06/1995. - 19.04.95, * Decree concerning subsidization for associations involved in national development (verenigingen voor volksontwikkelingswerk). B.S. 09/08/95. - 19.04.95, * Decree regarding an arrangement concerning subsidies available for associations involved in national development (verenigingen voor volksontwikkelingswerk) B.S. 15/06/95. - 19.04.95, * Decree holding the arrangement of subsidies for services in social cultural work for adults and holding the adaptation of the Decree of 2 January 1976 to acknowledge and subsidize the Dutch speaking umbrella organizations for policy-making consultation in the sector of social cultural work for adults. B.S. 05/08/95. - 03.05.95, * Decision of the Flemish Government to determine the salary scales of the members of the teaching staff in the colleges of higher education in the Flemish Community. B.S. 29/08/95. - 13.12.95, * Decision of the Flemish Government to modify the Decision of the Flemish Government of 21 December 1992 concerning continual education (permanente vorming) of persons that work in agriculture. B.S. 02/03/96. -
15.12.95,
∗ Flemish Decree concerning modifications of several decrees concerning the University of Antwerp. B.S. 01/01/1996. -
21.12.95,
* Flemish Decree establishing a confederal structure for the Antwerp universities. The unification of the three university centres in Antwerp has recently been reinforced by Decree. B.S. 01/02/1996.
263
-
10.01.96,
* Flemish Circular Letter on the (financial) support of international co-operation. Apart from the European financial support, additional Flemish funding is available for each of the activities according to a Flemish ministerial circular letter. -
16.04.96,
* Decree on Teacher Training and In-service Training. B.S. 12/06/1996. -
30.04.96,
* Circular letter. The circular letter is about “zorgbreedte�, a special needs programme or scheme in mainstream basic education involving expertise from special needs education -
05.06.96,
* Flemish Decree on supporting parents associations at the school level including other recognised social organisations organising training for parents of pupils. B.S. 09/08/1996. -
08.07.96,
* Flemish Decree including various small parts of legislation et al. concerning monitoring compulsory education. B.S. 05/09/1996. -
24.07.96 (a),
* Flemish Decree adopting the final and developmental objectives for the first stage of ordinary secondary education. B.S. 14/08/1996. -
24.07.96 (b),
* Flemish Decree modifying the definitions of final and developmental objectives to be adopted by the Flemish Parliament as minimum standards for curriculum development. B.S. 26/09/1996. -
24.07.96 (c),
* Flemish Decree introducing entrance exams for university level studies in the medical disciplines (medicine and dentistry). B.S. 19/09/1996. -
24.07.96,
* Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the composition of the councils and departments of the Flemish Council of Education (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad). B.S. 06/12/96. -
04.08.96,
* Belgian Law on the Well-being of Employees on the Workplace. This law establishes the Committees for Prevention and Protection on the Workplace. B.S. 18/09/1996. - 15.10.96, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the establishment and composition of the department Parttime Plastic Art Education of the Flemish Council of Education (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad). B.S. 21/11/96. -
22.10.96,
* Decision of the Flemish government on the regulation of the procedure for the allocation of in-service training projects on the initiative of the Flemish government. -
24.10.96,
* Decision of the Flemish Government to determine the way of executing the SOCRATES- decision for the Flemish Community. B.S. 13/12/1996. -
26.11.96,
* Decison of the Flemish government concerning the criteria for approval of the curricula in secondary education. B.S. 06/02/1997. -
25.02.97,
Overzicht van de wetgeving * Decree on basic education, that renews and reorganises the existent legislation on basic education. B.S. 17/04/1997. -
06.05.97,
* Circular letter. Circular letter concerning measures related to the non-discrimination policy in the field of education. -
27.05.97,
* Decision of the Flemish Government adopting the final and developmental objectives for ordinary basic education. B.S. 28/08/1997. -
17.06.97,
* Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the norms on programming and rationalisation in pre-school and primary education (Basisonderwijs). B.S. 19/07/1997. -
17.06.97,
* B.S. 11/09/97 Decision of the Flemish government concerning the task of the staff in pre-school and primary education (Basisonderwijs). -
17.06.97,
* Decision of the Flemish government concerning the establishment in the ordinary basic education (basisonderwijs). B.S. 12/9/1997. -
17.06.97,
*
Flemish Circular Letter concerning admission requirements for pupils in special education, BaO/97/14.
-
24.06.97(a),
* Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the tasks, composition and the functioning of the consultative commissions for special education. B.S. 17/09/1997. -
15.07.97 (b),
* Flemish Decree including various parts of legislation et al. concerning Integrated Education at secondary and higher level. B.S. 21/08/1997. -
15.07.97,
* Decree confirming the developmental objectives and the final objectives for ordinary basic education (basisonderwijs). B.S. 28/08/1997. - 15.07.97, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the transformation of teacher training in colleges of higher education in the Flemish Community. B.S. 02/09/97. -
15.07.97,
* Decree concerning the establishment of a Child’s Rights Commissionership and a Child’s Rights Commissioner. B.S. 07/10/1997. -
08.08.97,
* This Decision of the Flemish Government regulates the minimum scope of the “voortgezette opleidingen” (complementary courses in tertiary education), given in the colleges of higher education of the Flemish Community. B.S. 02/09/1997. -
16.09.97,
* Decision of the Flemish government concerning the control on the enrolment of pupils in the secondary education. B.S. 31/10/1997. -
10.03.98,
* Decision of the Flemish government to change the Decision of the Flemish government of 31 July 1990. B.S. 10.06.1998.
265
-
28.04.98,
* Decree concerning the Flemish policy regarding ethnic and cultural minorities. B.S. 19/06/98. -
08.06.98,
* Circular letter. The circular letter is about the education for foreign pupils who do not fully understand Dutch. -
23.06.98,
* Decision of the Flemish government concerning the educational checks. B.S. 18/08/1998. -
30.06.98,
* Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the determination of the salary scales of the lectors (lectoren) of the universities of the Flemish communities. B.S. 06/08/98. - 07.07.98, * Decree that modifies and cancels some determinations in decrees and laws concerning several Flemish Public Institutions (Vlaamse Openbare Instellingen) and that also cancels legal determinations regarding recruitment with priority in Flemish Public Institutions (Vlaamse openbare instellingen). B.S. 20.10.98. - 14.07.98, * Decree regarding several measures concerning secondary education and that modifies the Decree of 25 February 1997 concerning primary education. B.S. 29/08/98. -
14.07.98,
* Flemish Special Decree concerning the reformation of community education. B.S. 30/09/1998. - 14.07.98 (a), * Decision of the Flemish Government. B.S. 03/10/1998. - 14.07.98 (b), * Decision of the Flemish Government. B.S. 20/10/1998. -
14.07.98 (c),
∗ Decision of the Flemish Government amending the decision of the Flemish government of 22 October 1996 to arrange the procedures for the appointment of in-service projects on the Flemish Government’s initiative. B.S. 11/09/1998. -
14.08.98 (a),
* Flemish Decree determining varied measures concerning the secondary education and modifying the Decree of 25 December 1997 on the basic education (basisonderwijs). B.S. 29/08/1998. -
14.08.98 (b),
* Flemish Decree including various parts of legislation et al. concerning the organisation of several levels of education. B.S. 29/08/1998. -
19.08.98,
∗ Belgian Royal Decision to settle the learning fee’s maximum that applies to pupils whose apprenticeship contract is covered by the Belgian Law of 19 July 1983. B.S. 05/09/1998. - 01.12.98, * Decision of the Flemish Government that determines the arrangements concerning absence, disciplinary measures, administrative states, leave of absence, termination of mandates, the examination of physical fitness and the medical control of the academic staff (academisch personeel) in universities in the Flemish Community. B.S. 13/02/99. -
01.12.98 (a),
∗ Decree regulating the integration of the ‘Psycho-Medisch-Sociale Centra’ (PMS Centres) and the Centres for Health Supervision in Schools (Medisch Schooltoezicht) into integrated Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s). B.S. 10/04/1999. -
01.12.98 (b),
Overzicht van de wetgeving ∗ Decision of the Flemish Government to stipulate the developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) for special primary education “type 2”. B.S. 18/05/1999. - 15.12.98, * Decree ratifying the Decision of the Flemish Government of 29 September 1998 concerning the professional profiles (beroepsprofielen) for teachers. B.S. 24/02/99. -
15.12.98,
∗ Belgian law amending the Belgian Law of 19 December 1974 concerning the arrangement of the relations between the government and the personnel unions and the Belgian Law of 1 September 1980 concerning the attribution and the payment of a union premium to some staff members of the government sector and to the unemployed persons of that sector. B.S. 19/01/1999. -
02.02.99 (a),
∗ Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the way in which some of the authorities of the Inspectorate of the Flemish community are executed. B.S. 01/04/1999. -
02.02.99 (b),
∗ Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the working and the organisation of the paritar college of Inspectors which is authorised to give advice about the recognition of a school, an educational institution or a part of it. B.S. 27/03/1999. -
05.02.99,
∗ The circular letter is about the study offering in full-time secondary education. The circular letter SO/2002/60 added some new elements (concerning new study courses) -
23.02.99,
∗ Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the entrepreneur training as stipulated in the Flemish Decree of 23 January 1991 concerning the training and guidance of the self-employed persons and the small and medium-sized firms. B.S. 06/05/1999. -
02.03.99 (a),
* Flemish Decree organising a number of matters concerning adult education. B.S. 21/08/1999. -
02.03.99 (b),
* Flemish Decree of ratification of the Decision of the Flemish Government of 1 December 1998 defining the developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) for special primary education type 2. B.S. 26/05/1999. -
20.03.99,
* Flemish Decree. Flemish Decree concerning the “student/pupil councils” in secondary education. B.S. 11/05/1999. -
29.03.99,
* Flemish Circular Letter concerning catering for a wider range of educational needs. Actions for the school years 1998-1999 and 1999-2000. -
30.03.99,
* Decree concerning the subsidising of students- and pupil-umbrella organisations. B.S. 15/09/1999. -
13.04.99,
* Decree to modificate the Decrees concerning the inspectorate and educational guidance services. B.S. 05/05/1999. - 16.05.99, * Ministerial Decision that defines the conditions for the application of a curriculum in part-time art education and its treatment, the conditions for the announcement of a structural change in the existing studies in part-time art education, infrastructural requirements regarding the field of study ‘dance’ in part-time art education. B.S. 11/08/99. -
18.05.99,
267
* Flemish Decree including various parts of legislation et al. concerning the staff, evaluation procedures, appraisal, etc. of the colleges of higher education and the universities. B.S. 20/09/1999. -
18.05.99,
* Flemish Decree including various small parts of legislation et al. concerning the staff of community education, secondary education, participation councils, ed.. B.S. 31/08/1999. -
25.05.99,
* Belgian Royal Decree concerning the determination of the date for the elections for the indication of the representatives of the personnel from the “ondernemingsraden” (Works Councils) and from the committees for prevention and protection at work. B.S. 30/06/1999. - 08.06.00, * Decree concerning urgent measures regarding the teaching profession (het lerarenambt). B.S. 25/08/00. -
08.06.99,
* Decision of the Flemish government that changes the Decision of the Flemish government of 31 July 990 and the Decision of the Flemish government of 7 July 1993. B.S. 28/09/1999. -
25.06.99,
* Flemish Circular Letter concerning the structure and the organisation of full-time secondary education, SO 64. -
30.06.99,
* Flemish Circular Letter concerning the organisation of part-time vocational secondary education (DBSO), SO 66. -
09.07.99,
* Flemish Circular Letter concerning the Organisation of education for Social Promotion. -
19.07.99,
* Flemish Circular Letter concerning the alteration of the decision concerning certificates, salary scales and the salary regulations in secondary education. -
07.09.99,
∗ Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the stipulation of the models of certificates in Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) and the modalities for the presentation of these certificates by the Adult Education Centres (Centra voor Volwassenenonderwijs). B.S. 03/02/2000. -
10.12.99,
∗ Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the arrangement of the procedures and conditions for an inservice offer about the new media policy. B.S. 15/12/2000. - 20.12.99, * Flemish circular letter 'Educational policy for immigrants. Measurements for the school-year 2000-2001 and the school-year 2001-2002' (BaO/99/3). -
24.12.99,
∗ Belgian Law for the promotion of employment. B.S. 27/01/2000. -
01.03.00,
* Circular letter about compulsary education in secondary education. Some clarification was added in 2002 by the circular letter SO/2002/68 -
17.03.00,
∗ Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the stipulation of the arrangement of the transfer of study areas between the Adult Education Centres (Centra voor Volwassenenonderwijs). B.S. 11/05/2000. -
01.05.00,
Overzicht van de wetgeving ∗ The circular letter is about special secondary education form of education 3 (opleidingsvorm 3) (OV3): guidelines concerning an alterning vocational training, school year 2000-2001. -
19.05.00,
∗ Ministerial Decision concerning the establishment of the in-service projects at the initiative of the Flemish Government for the school year 2000-2001. B.S. 30/05/2000. -
23.05.00,
∗ Belgian Law stipulating the criteria of article 39, §2 of the Belgian Special Law of 16 January 1989 concerning the financing of the communities and regions. B.S. 30/05/2000. - 08.06.00, ∗ Flemish Decree concerning urgent measures concerning the teaching profession. B.S. 25/08/2000. -
23.06.00,
∗ Decision of the Flemish Government on the settlement of the attainment targets (eindtermen) of the second and third stage of ordinary secondary education. B.S. 29/11/2000. -
30.06.00,
∗ Decision of the Flemish Government on the arrangement of a number of affairs concerning the Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS). B.S. 05/08/2000. -
25.07.00,
* This circular letter is about the special secondary education, form of education 3, the guidelines concerning alterning vocational training, school year 2000-2001. - 13.10.00, * Decision of the Flemish Government to determine the qualifications (bekwaamheidsbewijzen) and the salary scales of the staff in the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding). B.S. 01/09/00. - 16.10.00, * Flemish Circular Letter about supervision (begeleiding) of pupils in special primary education, BaO/2000/10. -
20.10.00,
∗ Flemish Decree concerning education XII Ensor. B.S. 16/12/2000. - 12.01.01, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the temporary project of computerization of the Centres for Educational Guidance. B.S. 22/03/2001. - 20.04.01, * Decree that changes the regulation of tertiary education. B.S. 13/07/2001. - 27.04.01, * Decision of the Flemish Government to decide on the developmental goals (ontwikkelingsdoelen) in special primary education type 8. B.S. 18/09/01. - 01.03.01, * Circular letter concerning the indexation of the enrolment fees for the academic year 2001-2002. - 12.04.01, * Ministerial Decision concerning the arrangement of the in-service projects of the Flemish government for the school year 2001-2002. B.S. 05/05/2001. - 18.05.01, * Special Decree that changes the Special Decree of 26 June 1991 concerning the University of Ghent and Antwerp. B.S. 05/07/2001. * *
12.06.01, Circular letter concerning the organisation of the school year in secondary education. 13.07.01, Decree concerning Education XIII- Mosaic. B.S. 27/11/2001.
269
- 15.06.01, * Circular letter concerning child care workers in ordinary basic education. -
28.06.01,
* Flemish Circular Letter concerning the arrangement of holidays (vakantieregeling) in the Centres for Educational Guidance (centra voor leerlingenbegeleiding) (13AD/CLB/P/01/2). - 02.07.01, * Circular letter about the action programme PC/KD: computerization of schools in basic and secondary education. -
02.07.01,
* Circular letter ‘introductory courses for new non Dutch speaking immigrants (onthaalonderwijs voor anderstalige nieuwkomers)’ (BaO/2001/09). - 13.07.01, * Decision of the Flemish Government introducing the obligation to make a child effect report for all Flemish authorities. B.S. 20/10/2001. - 13.07.01, * Decree ratifying the agreement between the Netherlands and the Flemish Community of Belgium concerning the trans-national university. B.S. 08/08/2001. - 13.07.01, * Decree that changes the Decree of 8 June 2000 concerning urgent measures concerning the teaching profession. B.S. 22/08/2001. - 23.07.01, * Flemish circular letter concerning introductory courses for new non Dutch speaking immigrants (onthaalonderwijs voor anderstalige nieuwkomers) in full-time secondary education (SO 75). - 26.07.01, * Circular Letter about experimental secondary education in a modular system. - 10.08.01, * Circular letter concerning the admission requirements for pupils in ordinary basic education. - 14.08.01, * Decision of the Flemish government concerning the temporary project “guidance” in part-time vocational secondary education. B.S. 26/10/2001. - 31.08.01, * Decision of the Flemish government concerning the organisation of the school year in secondary education. B.S. 24/10/2001. - 14.09.01, * Decision of the Flemish government about the temporary project ‘guidance’ in part-time vocational secondary education. B.S. 26/10/2001. - 23.11.01, * Decision of the Flemish government concerning the attainment targets for special basic education – type 1 B.S. 10/04/02. - 07.12.01, * Decree concerning the revision of the financing of universities in the Flemish community and accompanying measures. B.S. 12/02/2002. - 14.12.01, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning cheques that can be used for schooling (opleidingscheques). B.S. 25/05/02. - 11.01.02, * Decision of the Flemish Government to modify the Decision of the Flemish Government of 13 October 2000 to define the qualifications (bekwaamheidsbewijzen) and the salary scales of the staff in the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (B.S. 09/03/2002).
Overzicht van de wetgeving - 15.01.02, * Royal Decision ratifying the collective labour agreement 77bis of 19 December 2001 to introduce a system of ‘time credit’, ‘career break’, and reduction of the labour performance to a part-time job. B.S. 16/02/2002. - 18.01.02, * Decree concerning the attainment targets, the developmental objectives and the specific attainment targets in full-time ordinary and special secondary education. B.S. 08/02/2002. - 18.01.02, * Decree ratifying the Decision of the Flemish government of 27 April 2001 stipulating the developmental objectives for special basic education type 8. B.S. 16/02/2002. - 08.02.02, * Decision of the Flemish Government “modifies the Decision of 22.9.98 concerning the allowance for nonDutch speaking newcomers in primary education. B.S. 09/04/2002. - 08.02.02, * Circular letter concerning information which is given whilst a first enrolment en which is included in the school regulation. - 26.02.02, * Circular letter concerning the subsidies en allowances for the ordinary and special financed or subsidised primary education. - 01.03.02, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the experiment modular system in secondary education. B.S. 19/06/2002. - 05.03.02, * Ministerial Decision concerning the designation of the Centres for part-time secondary vocational education. - 06.03.02, * Circular letter. Announcement of the Minister about the Flemish tests to measure the extent to which the attainment targets mathematics and reading comprehension are obtained. - 22.03.02, * Flemish Parliament , Decree which ratifies the Decision of the Flemish Government on the settlement of the development targets for special primary education – type 1. B.S. 27/04/02. - 19.04.02, * Flemish Government, Decision for the settlement of the development targets general and social education in special secondary education – form 3. - 24.05.02, * Flemish Government, Decision concerning the career break for the personnel of the higher education institutions in the Flemish Community and the Higher School for Seamanship. - 24.05.02, * Flemish Government, Decision concerning the organisation of reception education for non-Dutch speaking newcomers in ordinary full time secondary education . B.S. 11/09/02. - 10.06.02, * Circular letter Pers/2002/04: ‘defining the FTE for teachers practical courses from the school year 2002-2003 on. - 12.06.02, * Ministerial Decision concerning the determination of the in-service training projects for the school year 2002-2003 on the initiative of the Flemish Government Flemish Government. B.S. 27/06/02. - 15.06.02, * Circular letter SO/2002/08 BuSO: ‘new structure of education form 3’. -
28.06.02,
271
* Flemish Government, Decision about the percentage of the allocation of the extra teaching hours educational priority policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid) in special education secondary education for the school year 2002-2003. - 28.06.02, * Flemish Parliament, Decree concerning equal opportunities – I. B.S. 14/09/02. - 28.06.02, * Flemish Government, Decision concerning the local consultative equal opportunities platforms. B.S. 24/09/02. - 03.07.02, * Circular letter PV/2002/06: ‘organisation of education social promotion (OSP)’. - 07.07.02, * Royal Decision concerning the use of the national registered number by the department of education as a unique pupil’s number. B.S. 17/09/02. - 10.07.02, * Flemish Circular Letter about Qualifications (Bekwaamheidsbewijzen) in part-time art education: modifications from 1 September 2002, PV/2002/07. - 15.07.02, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the determination of the proportional application of the number of hours a teacher has to perform in part-time art education. B.S. 10/09/02. - 15.07.02, * Circular letter GD/2002/06 ‘Action programme ICT in education – budget 2002. -
19.07.02,
* Flemish Parliament, Decree which ratifies the Decision of the Flemish Government on the settlement of the development targets general and social education in special secondary education – form 3. - 19.07.02, * Decision of the Flemish Government that modifies the Decision of the Flemish Government of 14 December 2001 concerning cheques that can be used for schooling (opleidingscheques). B.S. 19/11/02. - 19.07.02, * Flemish Government, Decision concerning the organisation of full time secondary education. B.S. 4/12/02 - 19.07.02, * Flemish Government, Decision concerning the integrated support offer in ordinary primary education. B.S. 4/12/02 -
12.08.02,
* Flemish Circular Letter concerning the qualifications (bekwaamheidsbewijzen) and the salary scales in the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) from 1 September 2002 (CLB/2002/07). - 12.08.02, * Circular letter GD/2002/07 ‘ICT – co-ordination in the school year 2002-2003 - 15.08.02, * Circular letter, absences and enrolments in ordinary full time secondary education. - 15.08.02, * Circular letter, absences and enrolments in ordinary part time vocational secondary education. - 06.09.02, * Flemish Government, Decision concerning the integrated support offer in ordinary secondary education. B.S. 7/11/02 - 06.09.02, * Flemish Government, Decision about the temporary projects concerning art initiation for disadvantaged or migrant minors. B.S. 6/11/02
Overzicht van de wetgeving - 13.09.02, * Flemish Government, Decision concerning the support of the interface activities of the universities in the Flemish Community. B.S. 7/11/02 - 16.09.02, * Flemish Circular Letter concerning traineeship for pupils (leerlingenstages) and social and societal training in special secondary education (BuSO), SO/2002/11 - 16.09.02, * Flemish Circular Letter concerning traineeship for pupils (leerlingenstages) in full-time secondary education, SO/2002/09. - 20.09.02, * Flemish Government, Addition to the decision which determines the attainment targets of the third year of the third grade of secondary vocational education. B.S. 28/11/02 - 27.09.02, * Flemish Government, Decision concerning a pupils’ Right Committee. B.S. 31/10/02 - 08.11.02, * Decision of the Flemish Government to regulate some concerns in Supervised Distance Learning (Begeleid Individueel Studeren). B.S. 24/12/02. - 06.12.02, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the organisation of special secondary education type 3. B.S. 06/02/03. - 13.12.02, * Flemish Government, approval of the draft Decree Participation. - 20.12.02, * Flemish Government, Decree “ temporary measures for the organisation of part time art education, study course ‘Visual art courses, Music, Word craft, Dance. B.S. 31/12/02. - 20.12.02, * Flemish Government, Decree “for the ratification of the attainment targets of the third year of the third grade of ordinary full time vocational secondary education. B.S. 28/01/03. - 06.01.03, * Belgian Royal Decree that modifies the Belgian Royal Decree of 9 June 1999 concerning the execution of the Law of 30 April 1999 concerning the employment of foreign employees. - 10.01.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the concordance and that modifies the Decision of the Flemish Government of 1 December 2000 concerning the determination of the courses and the grouping of courses in general, technical and practical courses in Secondary Social Advancement Education (Secundair Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie). B.S. 20/03/03. - 31.01.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government to determine the salary scales of the Independent Academic Staff (Zelfstandig Academisch Personeel) in the universities of the Flemish community. B.S. 11/04/03. - 14.02.03, * Decree concerning Education-XIV. B.S. 01/07/03. - 21.01.03, * Flemish Circular Letter about the policy concerning equal opportunities in primary education, BaO/2003/01. - 24.01.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government to determine and to arrange the offices in special education. B.S. 11/04/03. - 31.01.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government of 31 January 2003 to determine the developmental goals (ontwikkelingsdoelen) in special primary education type 7. B.S. 01/04/03.
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- 24.02.03, * Flemish Circular Letter about the right to education for children that have no legal residence permit, GD/2003/03. - 14.03.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the concordance of the specializations in special education type 3. B.S. 09/07/03. - 14.03.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the determination of the demanded performances in offices in special secondary education. B.S. 09/07/03. - 14.03.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government to modify the Decision of the Flemish Government of 4 May 2001 to determine the salary scales of the Auxiliary Academic Staff (Assisterend Academisch Personeel) of the universities in the Flemish Community. B.S. 16/07/2003. - 04.04.03, * Special Decree regarding the cancellation of the Special Decree of 26 June 1991 concerning the Universiteit Gent and the Universitair Centrum Antwerpen, concerning the Universitair Centrum Antwerpen. B.S. 16/07/03. - 04.04.03, * Decree regarding the determinations to found a united University of Antwerp and to modify the Decree of 22 December 1995 concerning the modification of several Decrees that concern the University of Antwerp. B.S. 14/07/2003. - 04.04.03, * Decree concerning the Restructuring of higher education in Flanders. B.S. 14/08/03. - 04.04.03, * Special Decree concerning the participation of community institutions in the associations of institutions in higher education. B.S. 06/07/03. - 04.04.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning continued education (voortgezette vorming), as meant in article 11 in the Decree of 23 January 1991 concerning the education (vorming) and the supervision of selfemployed persons in SMEs (KMO’s). B.S. 30/05/03. - 04.04.03, * Decree concerning social and cultural adult education. B.S. 28/05/03. - 14.05.03, * Flemish Circular Letter about the replacement pool (vervangingspool) for the school-year 2003-2004, GD/2003/02. - 23.05.03, * Decree to ratify the Decision of the Flemish Government of 31 January 2003 to determine the developmental goals (ontwikkelingsdoelen) for special primary education type 7. B.S. 16/07/03. - 10.06.03, * Flemish Circular Letter concerning annual information for the school-year 2003-2004 – School management, PV/2003/01 (DKO). - 02.07.03, * Flemish Circular Letter concerning the Organisation of Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie), PV/2003/03. - 04.07.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the temporary project “stimulating employment skills in parttime vocational secondary education”. B.S. 03/09/03. - 10.07.03, * Decree concerning the scenery in primary education (landschap basisonderwijs). B.S. 24/10/03. - 18.07.03,
Overzicht van de wetgeving * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the programming in secondary adult education for the schoolyear 2003-2004. B.S. 27/08/03. - 18.07.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the cheques for the training and supervision of employees. B.S. 25/08/03. - 18.07.03, * Flemish Circular Letter about an announcement concerning the coordination of ICT for the school-year 20032004, GD/2003/04. - 05.09.03., * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the determination of the list of supervising tasks of the commissioners of the Flemish government at the universities. B.S.21/10/2003 - 05.09.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning “projects of godfathering� (peterschapsprojecten). B.S. 22/10/03. - 17.09.03, * Flemish Circular Letter Institutions that may deliver attestations for enrolment in special education. Schoolyear 2003-2004, CLB/2003/07. - 10.10.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government regarding the organisation of the Flemish Service for Employment and Vocational Training (VDAB) and the (institute dependant) arrangement of the legal status of the staff. B.S. 16/12/03. - 17.10.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning structural modifications in Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie). B.S. 13/11/03. - 21.11.03, * Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the proportional use of the extra lesson periods regarding educational priority (onderwijsvoorrang) in special secondary education for the school-year 2003-2004. B.S. 21/01/04. - 12.12.03, * Rough draft of a decree concerning flexibility of higher education.
275