CHAPTER
4
The Measurement of Compulsive Buying and Its Application to Internet Buyers NANCY M. RIDGWAY, PHD, MONIKA KUKAR-KINNEY, PHD, AND KENT B. MONROE, PHD
Contents Introduction Definition and Positioning of Compulsive Buying Disorder Compulsive Buying and the Internet Motivations to Shop and Buy on the Internet versus from Bricks-and-Mortar Stores Ability to Buy Unobserved on the Internet Product and Information Variety Immediate Positive Feelings Survey Findings Implications of Internet Buying General Conclusions and Public Policy Implications References
51 52 55 55 56 56
57 57 58 59
60 61
Introduction It has been more than 20 years since the issue of compulsive buying behavior was introduced to the consumer research literature (Faber, O'Guinn, &
Krych, 1987). This pioneering research has helped to awaken researchers' interest in a troubling issue in consumer behavior. The incidence of compulsive buying (CB) was estimated to range between 2 percent and 8 percent of consumers in the United States 15 years ago (Faber & O'Guinn, 1992). 51
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More recently, 5.8 percent of U.S. consumers were estimated to have CB (Koran et al., 2006). However, other researchers believe that these estimates are too low and that there is an increasing tendency by consumers to buy compulsively in both the United States and other developed countries (Miiller & de Zwaan, 2004; Neuner, Raab, & Reisch, 2005). The continuous stream of research articles, books, television documentaries, and Web sites addressing CB and the problems it creates shows that the issue remains a concern (Benson, 2008; Chaker, 2003; McElroy, Phillips, & Keck, 1994; Mellan & Christie, 1997; www.stoppingovershopping.com). Therefore it is imperative that consumer researchers better understand and accurately measure the tendency of consumers to compulsively buy. Definition and Positioning of Compulsive Buying Disorder
In this chapter, CB is defined as a consumer's tendency to be preoccupied with buying that is revealed through repetitive buying and a lack of impulse control over buying. Many researchers believe that CB should be considered as exhibiting elements of both obsessive-compulsive and impulse-control disorders, calling this theory obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorder (Hollander & Allen, 2006; Hollander & Dell'Osso, 2005; McElroy, Phillips, & Keck, 1994). Other conditions within this spectrum include anorexia nervosa, binge eating, impulsive Internet addiction, pathological gambling, trichotillomania, and kleptomania (Hollander, 1999). The definition and measurement of CB used in this chapter are based on this emerging theoretical foundation and incorporate both impulse-control disorder (ICD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) characteristics. An ICD is characterized by irresistible impulses to repeatedly perform harmful behaviors. On the other hand, OCD is an anxiety disorder, with obsessions (thoughts, preoccupations) and compulsions (behavior) that cause distress and anxiety, consume large amounts of time, and interfere with an individual's everyday functioning (McElroy et al., 1994). The rationale for classifying CB as an obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorder is that, like OCD, the consumers' thoughts are preoccupied with buying, and repetitive buying behavior is performed to reduce anxiety. Moreover, like ICD, these consumers lack control over the urge to buy. Both disorders involve an urge to perform an act followed by a loss of control over the urge (Hollander & Dell'Osso, 2005). Recognizing this overlap, CB should be classified as a disorder with elements of both OCD and ICD (Ridgway, Kukar-Kinney, & Monroe, 2008). There is strong evidence for considering CB as an obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorder. McElroy and colleagues (1994) found that 80 percent of those identified with CB had lifetime diagnoses of anxiety disorders (OCD
The Measurement of CB and Its Application to Internet Buyers • 53 is classified as an anxiety disorder in DSM-IV-TR 2000), and 40 percent had an ICD. Also, Christenson, Faber, de Zwaan, Raymond, Specker, Eckern et al. (1994) found that 67 percent of those with CB were diagnosed with OCD and 96 percent were diagnosed with ICD. Clearly, there is overlap between the two disorders, and characteristics of both disorders should be included in a conceptualization and measurement of CB. Thus these definitions and measurement of CB include the extent to which consumers' buying behaviors are repetitive and consuming (characteristics of OCD) and the extent to which consumers are unable to control repeating harmful behavior (characteristic of ICD). Both of these dimensions are reflective of the underlying consumer tendency of being preoccupied with buying. Although there are currently six separate scales to measure CB, a new measure of CB that includes both aspects of the obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorder construct-ICD and OCD-is needed. In addition, the existing CB scales possess several other limitations (Christenson et al., 1994; d'Astous, 1990; Valence, d'Astous, & Fortier, 1988-developed together; Edwards, 1993; Faber & O'Guinn, 1982; Lejoyeux, Tassain, Solomon, & Ades, 1997; Monahan, Black, & Gabel, 1996). The shortcomings include a sole focus on either ICD or OCD but not both, difficulty administering the scale (personal interview format only tested only on psychiatric patients), wording problems (such as referring only to shopping not buying, items that ask two questions in one, making it impossible to tell which question the respondent is answering), inadequate reliability and validity (with some scales not testing these at all), arbitrary cutoffs for classifying those with CB, and the inclusion of consequences (especially financial) of CB in the scale itsel£ The major problem with this last shortcoming is that by including outcomes within the scale (or trait) measure itself, one is not able to separate compulsive buying tendency from financial consequences. According to Benson (2005), there are many individuals with CB who can "afford" their buying and who suffer no financial consequences. She refers to these individuals with CB as being psychologically or emotionally bankrupt. Thus financial harm should not be included in the scale measure itselfbut should be considered a possible outcome ofCB. The scale used in the compulsive Internet research was rigorously tested using three very different samples, multiple analytical approaches, and nomological correlates to show its psychometric properties (see Ridgway, Kukar-Kinney, & Monroe, 2008). One of the samples contained actual buying data to add confidence to the usual self-report measures on which all other studies have depended. The current scale proved to be both reliable and valid. The final formatted scale as presented to the respondents is comprised of four seven-point agree-disagree scales and two 7-point frequency (never-very often) scales (see Table 4.1). In the three studies that were conducted, 15.5 percent, 8.9 percent, and 16 percent of the respondents were
Ridgway, Kukar-Kinney, and Monroe
54 • Compulsive Buying Table 4.1 Compulsive Buying Scale
Strongly Disagree 1
Strongly Agree 2
3
4
5
6
7
1. My closet has
unopened shopping bags in it. 2. Others might consider me a shopaholic. 3.Muchofmy life centers around buying things. 4. I consider myself an impulse purchaser. Very Often
Never 2
3
4
5
6
7
5. I buy things
I don't need. 6. I buy things I did not plan to buy. Note: Scoring 25 or higher is considered compulsive buying.
classified as having CB. These percentages are much higher than what has been reported in the past. Next, the applicability of the newly developed measure of CB is demonstrated by examining a widely used form of buying for many consumers-the Internet. As the Internet grows in importance in consumer behavior, it is critical to study its relationship to CB. One study in particular links CB to the Internet (Lejoyeux, Mathieu, Embouazza, Huet, & Lequen, 2007). In this study, French women were questioned as they entered a famous Parisian department store. Interestingly based on a different measure of CB, the incidence was 32.5 percent. Of most importance, however, was the fact that those with CB had a connection to online shopping sites that was longer and more frequent than those without CB. Similar connection was also shown in another study (Wang & Yang, 2007), where it
The Measurement of CB and Its Application to Internet Buyers • 55 was found that consumers with an obsessive passion went online more days per week, spent more hours per day shopping online, enjoyed their online shopping experience more, and felt dependent on their online shopping. 1he purpose of the following application linking CB to the Internet is to determine what attracts those with CB to buying on the Internet in comparison with those without CB (Kukar-Kinney, Ridgway, & Monroe, 2009). Compulsive Buying and the Internet In addition to the current interest in and importance of CB, use of the Internet for retailing purposes also has been growing steadily. Reports indicate that approximately 86 percent of Internet users are using the Internet to buy products. Total retail Internet sales (excluding travel) were estimated to reach $146 billion in 2008, with an annual growth rate at 14.3 percent (eMarketer.com, 2009}. Moreover, relative to bricks-and-mortar sales, the percentage of Internet sales is increasing. In this research, the purpose is to further investigate how consumers' motivations to shop and buy on the Internet differ depending on their CB tendencies (as measured with the new CB scale). Investigating the relationship between Internet buying and CB is important because the Internet retail environment possesses characteristics that seem to encourage CB. For example, the Internet offers the opportunity to buy frequently, at any time, and unobserved. Also, the Internet allows consumers to satisfy an urge to buy more quickly. Indeed, many Internet retailers encourage "Express Checkout," which means that once a customer enters their e-mail and password, just one click completes the order. In addition, Internet retailers send e-mails to their customers (especially their heavy users} frequently, as often as once a day. Many e-tailers offer a "what's new" category so that those customers who frequent the site often and know the product offerings can check only the newest merchandise. Finally, many Internet retailers provide persistent shopping carts, which save items that have been placed in the cart but not purchased. Some of these e-tailers send reminders to consumers with items in their cart asking if they would like to purchase the items now (e.g., www.urbanoutfitters.com). Motivations to Shop and Buy on the Internet versus from Bricks-and-Mortar Stores Retail shopping motivations include product-oriented motives, experiential and hedonic motives, shopping convenience, information search, recreational shopping, and variety seeking (e.g., Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Dawson, Bloch, & Ridgway, 1990}. One typology focusing specifically on Internet shoppers includes the convenience shopper, the variety seeker, the
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store-oriented shopper, and the balanced buyer (Rohm & Swaminathan, 2004). Further researchers found significant differences between Internet shoppers with utilitarian and hedonic motives (To, Liao, & Lin, 2007). Noble, Griffith, and Adjie (2006) compared information search, price comparison, uniqueness seeking, product assortment, convenience seeking, social interaction, and browsing as Internet shopping motives. The present research focuses on the shopping motivations that would most likely differ across those with and without CB. Rationale for the likely relationships between the chosen shopping motivations and CB is discussed next. Ability to Buy Unobserved on the Internet
Those with CB experience shame, guilt, and regret because of their frequent buying episodes (O'Guinn & Faber, 1989). Because of these feelings, they may not want others (including family members) to see what, how frequently, and how much they buy. Consequently these consumers may feel the need to hide their buying activities. They may also fear that instant recognition by sales clerks labels them as having CB (Lee, Lennon, & Rudd, 2000). Compared to the bricks-and-mortar stores, the Internet enables consumers to be alone while shopping and buying, and offers a low to nonexistent level of social interaction. Because of these features, the motivations to shop and buy unobserved and to avoid social interactions were expected to be more strongly associated with preferences for Internet buying by those with CB versus those without CB. Product and Information Variety
Those with CB desire to experience positive, stimulating feelings while buying (Faber & O'Guinn, 1992). When feeling down, buying can help them relieve the negative feelings by producing a temporary "high" (Ridgway, Kukar-Kinney, & Monroe, 2008). Greater product variety provides those with CB with a way to achieve more positive feelings, as it offers a more stimulating and exciting buying experience (McAlister & Pessemier, 1982). In addition, given a positive relationship between CB and fashion interest (Park & Burns, 2005), the desire to be aware of the most current fashiori trends is relatively more important to those with CB. The ability to find the newest fashions as well as information about and reviews of the newest fashions on the Internet and being able to receive continuous electronic updates about new product offerings should thus be an important online shopping motivator for those with CB. Relative to bricks-and-mortar stores, the Internet enables consumers to access information and shop for and buy products across a much larger number and variety of stores, products, and brands that may otherwise be inaccessible.
The Measurement of CB and Its Application to Internet Buyers • 57 Immediate Positive Feelings
Experiential or hedonic motives are a well-known driver of shopping and buying behavior. Those with CB experience an emotional lift from buying (Faber & O'Guinn, 1992). As such the positive feelings obtained during the buying process motivate these consumers to buy more. Thus those with CB strongly focus on the buying process and the immediate relief of prior negative feelings along with the stimulation of the positive feelings that it brings. When feeling blue, Internet (as compared to bricks-and-mortar) buying may elicit these positive feelings more quickly, given the speed and ease of making a purchase (e.g., most fashion e-tailers offer express checkout by "remembering" your personal and payment information). Hence it was expected that the online buying of those with CB should be more strongly motivated by the immediate positive feelings associated with the Internet shopping and buying experience than would be for those without CB. Survey To examine tile relationship between shopping and buying motivations and CB, a survey of customers of an Internet women's clothing retailer was conducted. An invitation to participate with the link to the survey was successfully sent to 1294 customers, from which 314 people from 42 states responded, resulting in a response rate of 24.3 percent. The sample consisted of 98.5 percent women, 63 percent of the respondents were married, average age was 53 years (range 28 to 75 years), and average household income was $82,000. The survey contained questions about general shopping and buying behavior (including CB) at Internet and bricks-and-mortar stores, shopping motivations, individual consumer characteristics, and demographics. Consumers' tendency to buy compulsively was measured using the six-item CB scale shown in Table 4.1. In the present research, reliability (Cronbach's alpha) for the scale was .85, and all items displayed item-to-total correlations above .50. An index of CB was composed by summing the responses to the six items. Shopping and buying motivations were measured with 16 seven-point disagree-agree statements (Kukar-Kinney, Ridgway, & Monroe, 2009). The respondents provided answers to the following general statement: "In comparison to retail stores, I shop on the Internet when buying clothing and accessories for myself because ..." Sample responses to this statement were: "No one can see me buy" (a sample item for ability to buy unobserved); "I can avoid other shoppers in retail stores" (a sample item for avoiding social interaction); "There are more product choices" (a sample item for
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product and information variety); and "I can get more immediate pleasure from buying" (a sample item for immediate positive feelings). Construct reliabilities for individual motivational factors were .94 for ability to buy unobserved, .75 for avoiding social interaction, .82 for product and information variety, and .88 for immediate positive feelings. Findings
To analyze the relationship between CB and motivations to shop and buy on the Internet, linear regression analysis was conducted. Social desirability bias was significantly correlated with CB, and was used as a covariate in all analyses. The findings indicate that the greater the CB tendency, the stronger the consumers' motivation to shop and buy on the Internet in comparison to bricks-and-mortar stores due to the ability to hide buying behavior (i.e., buy unobserved) (p = .34, p < .01). In addition the results confirm that motivation to avoid social interaction is positively associated with respondents' CB tendencies (p = .13, p < .05). Data also provide evidence that motivation to quickly obtain positive feelings has a positive association with respondents' CB tendencies (~ = .42, p < .01). However, even though the correlation between product and information variety motive and CB index is significant, regression results indicate that this relationship does not significantly contribute to explaining CB behavior above and beyond other investigated motives (~ = .06, p > .10). To offer additional insights into the differences between shopping and buying behavior of consumers with different levels of CB tendencies, variabies such as average monthly amount spent on clothing and accessories at Internet and bricks-and-mortar stores, average amount spent at the top five retail and top five brick-and-mortar stores per month, and frequency of buying from the top five retail and top five Internet stores per month were examined. A positive relationship existed between all of these behavioral variables and the CB scores. Specifically those respondents who scored highest on the CB index reported spending more on clothing as well as buying more frequently at both traditional retail and Internet stores than the respondents with lower levels on the CB index. To determine whether a CB segment can be identified based solely on their motives to shop and buy online, the next step was to conduct cluster analysis. The goal was to uncover existing consumer segments relative to online shopping motivations and to see whether any segments match the shopping motivations of those identified with CB. Four clusters (segments) resulted from the analysis. Using data from two sources, self-report and actual (provided by the e-tailer), the four segments on four dimensions were examined: CB index, total dollar amount spent at the Internet retailer in question over the period 2001-2004, total number of purchases from
The Measurement of CB and Its Application to Internet Buyers • 59 this e-tailer during the same period, and the highest amount of any single purchase from this retailer. There was a segment identified only by their shopping motivations as having CB that indeed scored the highest on all variables. In contrast, the "bricks-and-mortar buyers" scored the lowest on the CB index, total Internet dollars spent, and total number of Internet purchases from the retailer, as anticipated. These findings use actual consumer purchase data to support the existence of the identified segments and show that shopping and buying motives can serve as an Internet shopper segmentation technique. The motives can also predict whether a consumer exhibits CB tendencies.
Implications oflnternet Buying The research findings indicate that consumers' preferences for shopping and buying on the Internet as opposed to bricks-and-mortar stores indeed differ depending on their tendency to buy compulsively. All motives and additional behavioral variables but the product and information variety showed a significant positive relationship with CB. Therefore, people who exhibit strong tendencies to buy compulsively experience stronger feelings with respect to' shopping and buying, stronger buying and shopping motivations, and exhibit more extreme shopping and buying behaviors. Overall, the findings show that as their CB tendency increases, consumers are more strongly motivated to buy on the Internet than at retail stores. This motivation appears to be due to the consumers' ability to buy unobserved and avoid social interaction while shopping and buying online, as well as the immediate positive feelings associated with their Internet buying experience. To buy unobserved and to quickly experience strong positive feelings during buying are two motivations most common to those with CB. While prior research indicated that the lack of social interaction on the Internet was a limitation of the online shopping environment (Grewal, Iyer, & Levy, 2004), it was found here that it may, in fact, not be a limitation for those with CB. The Internet allows these consumers to buy secretly and without contact with others. Moreover, although an Internet shopping experience may be considered as less stimulating than shopping in the bricks-and-mortar retail stores, it may still produce positive feelings in some consumers. In fact, those with CB may find it more stimulating due to a greater variety of products they can access online. Further, because they are preoccupied with buying and lack impulse control, individuals with CB desire an immediate release of negative feelings and an accompanying surge of positive feelings that the Internet buying brings them. Also, they are willing to exchange this immediacy of positive feelings for postponing the actual receipt and consumption of purchased products to a later time.
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The present research also has implications for public policy officials. Since the Internet retail environment allows for ease of shopping, enables consumers to buy unobserved, and provides a stimulating experience, it may encourage CB. This claim is supported by our finding that consumers in the CB cluster segment reported spending 50 percent more of their fashion dollars on the Internet than at traditional retail stores (i.e., 60/40 percent), compared to consumers in the noncompulsive cluster segments, who reported spending about equally across the two retail channels (50 percent of fashion budget spent on the Internet versus 49 percent in retail stores). The Internet appears to be the preferred buying medium for individuals with CB and may in fact further contribute to conversion of more vulnerable consumers into developing CB. In addition, the Internet has been found to stimulate an addiction to online buying (e.g., Black, Belsare, & Schlosser, 1999). This finding could be due to the ease of accumulating a large number of items in a shopping cart and the ease of paying (e.g., express checkout). This relative ease may, in turn, lead to a greater accumulation of consumer debt. General Conclusions and Public Policy Implications
In contrast to previous research, we argue that CB should not be defined or measured in terms of its consequences (e.g., the extent of financial harm incurred by CB). Thus separating the consequences of CB from the measure itself allows us to demonstrate that this buying disorder may affect a larger percentage of consumers than has been identified previously. As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, using the new scale, in study one, 15.5 percent of student respondents were classified as compulsive buyers. In study two, 8.9 percent of university staff respondents were classified as having CB, while in study three, the Internet sample, the CB estimate was 16 percent. The current research also has important public policy implications. As our findings suggest, the CB tendency may affect a larger percentage of consumers than has been previously documented. Moreover, CB appears to be increasing in the United States, in Europe, and elsewhere. Thus many people worldwide are either currently affected or are at risk of becoming so and may consequently experience negative emotional, social, economic, or even legal consequences because of their CB tendencies. Public policy officials should work on determining what can be done to stem this increasing trend as well as to establish help programs for affected consumers. Concerted efforts could be made to publicly inform consumers of the characteristics of CB and problems it may cause (e.g., using public service announcements that lead consumers to helpful Web sites). These
The Measurement of CB and Its Application to Internet Buyers • 61 Web sites could provide links to CB chat rooms, to symptoms lists and outcomes, self-help books, and free online content.
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