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Juriste International 2024 - 2

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DEEP

OUR ENVIRONMENT

NOTRE ENVIRONNEMENT

NUESTRO MEDIO AMBIENTE

THE PARIS BAR ASSOCIATION

AT THE SERVICE OF LAWYERS AND CITIZENS AT NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVEL MISSIONS USEFULNESS

AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL

ï‚ą Organising the profession

ï‚ą Regulating lawyer-client relations

ï‚ą Ensuring compliance with professional ethics

ï‚ą Promoting access to law and justice

ï‚ą Defending the Rule of law

ï‚ą Making life easier for lawyers

AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

ï‚ą Ensuring the defence of defence throughout the world

ï‚ą Simplifing the exercice of the profession abroad

ï‚ą Raising the profile of the paris legal and arbitration centre

ï‚ą Encouraging the development of relations between the bars and business activity

ï‚ą Contributing to strengthening the attractiveness of the law

Table of Contents Sommaire Indice

3 6 82 62 74 28 8 15 22

President’s Message I Le mot du PrĂ©sident I Mensaje del Presidente

Editorial I L'édito I Editorial

Interviews I Entretiens I Entrevistas

 Using VRT to Treat Trauma Victims

New Frontiers I Nouveaux horizons I Nuevas fronteras

 IA, mode et perspectives lĂ©gales  Sustainability and Greenwashing in EU Agri-Food: Legal Framework and Use of Innovative Technologies

What Matters I L’essentiel I Lo Importante

 Juger les crimes environnementaux devant la CPI : menaces ou promesses ?

 Harnessing Neurodiversity in the Legal Field

Arc of the Law I Évolution du droit I Panorama jurídico

 The Ascent of Women and Women Lawyers in North America

Deep Dive - Our Environment I Le dossier - Notre environnement I El informe - Nuestro Medio Ambiente

 28 Un jugement qui fait le tour du monde  32 Droit de l‘environnement et bail commercial : un engagement durable !  35 Energy Justice and the Global Transition to Clean Energy  39 Cinco enfoques para el control y la prevenciĂłn de la deforestaciĂłn  43 The Sustainability Reporting of Law Firms: Insights from the First Market Experiences  46 Climate Change: A Lawyer’s Professional Responsibilities in the Age of Environmental Degradation  50 Derecho de la sostenibilidad corporativa  53 KDIPA Law in Kuwait Includes Promoting Investments in Environmental Services Sector  56 Combatting Climate Change and Species Protection: An Indian Perspective  58 Greenwashing : une nouvelle directive pour lutter contre certaines allĂ©gations environnementales des entreprises

The Wider View I Grand angle I VisiĂłn amplia

 EU to Address Digital Platform Risks with New Security and Democracy Rules

 Protection de l’investissement Ă©tranger et protection des droits humains : Ă  la recherche d’un juste et nĂ©cessaire Ă©quilibre  Droit et LittĂ©rature

My Own Backyard I Autour de moi I Mi entorno

 Justice privĂ©e, dĂ©cisions publiques : la favor arbitrandum en droit libanais

 Swiss Law Considerations for a Foreign Family Lawyer   Fiscalidad de la venta de SPV en el sector de las renovables: cambio de criterio

Legal Spotlight I BrĂšves juridiques I Breves jurĂ­dicos

JURISTE INTERNATIONAL

Editorial Policy

The Juriste International offers robust and diverse perspectives on subjects of interest to lawyers. The views expressed herein are the views of the authors and do not necessarily imply UIA policy or editorial concurrence. Publication or dissemination of advertising or support of any product, service or organization does not constitute an endorsement.

Politique éditoriale

Juriste International offre des perspectives approfondies et diverses sur des sujets d’intĂ©rĂȘt pour les avocats. Les opinions exprimĂ©es ici sont celles de leurs auteurs et n’impliquent pas que l’UIA et/ou le ComitĂ© Ă©ditorial, en les publiant et les diffusant, les partagent, ni les soutiennent. L’UIA n’avalise pas nĂ©cessairement le matĂ©riel publicitaire ou promotionnel de tout produit, service ou organisation publiĂ© ou diffusĂ© par le Juriste International.

PolĂ­tica editorial

Juriste International ofrece perspectivas sólidas y diversas sobre temas de interés para los abogados. Las opiniones aquí expresadas son las de sus autores y no implican que la UIA y/o el Consejo Editorial, al publicarlas y difundirlas, las compartan o apoyen. La publicación o difusión de publicidad o soporte de cualquier producto, servicio u organización no constituye un respaldo.

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JURISTE INTERNATIONAL

UIA PUBLICATION I PUBLICATION DE L’UIA I PUBLICACIÓN DE LA UIA

Publication Director I Directeur de la publication I Director de la publicaciĂłn

Présidente Jacqueline R. Scott, Washington DC, USA

Editor-in-Chief I Rédactrice en chef I Redactora jefa Barbara Gislason, Minneapolis, MN, USA, barbara@gislasonlaw.com

Deputy Editors I Rédacteurs adjoints I Redactores adjuntos

English Language: Ashu Thakur, Mumbai, India, ashu@ataindia.co.in

French Language: Agathe Blanc, Paris, France, ablanc@ftmsavocats.com

Fannie Bruneau, Paris, France, fanniebruneau@fcaavocat.com

Spanish Language: JesĂșs Granados, Marbella, Spain, jesus.granados@jglex.com

Executive Director I Directrice exécutive I Directora ejecutiva Marie-Pierre Richard, Paris, France - mprichard@uianet.org

Editors I Éditeurs I Editores

north america i amérique du nord i américa del norte

Pierre G. Bélanger, Ottawa, Canada, pbelange@gmail.com

Hon. Peter M. Reyes, Jr., Minneapolis, MN, USA, petermreyes@gmail.com

Rebacca Salazar, Princeton, NJ, USA, rebecca.salazar@rutgers.edu

Mira Vats-Fournier, Minneapolis, MN, USA, MVats-Fournier@Taftlaw.com

Angela Velez, Brooklyn, NY, USA, angela.n.velez@gmail.com

central and south america i amérique centrale et du sud i américa central y del sur

Eugenio M. Curia, Buenos Aires, Argentina, Emcuria@yahoo.com

Juan Eduardo Palma Jara, Santiago, Chile, jpalma@palma.cl

Jaime Alberto Sandoval Mesa, Bogota, Colombia, jaisandoval@yahoo.com

Alan de la Torre Lobera, Mexico DF, Mexico, delatorre@quct.net

Wilfrido FernĂĄndez, AsunciĂłn, Paraguay, w.fernandez@zafer.com.py

europe i europa

Kato Aerts (Revenue Officer), Brussels, Belgium, kato.aerts@lydian.be

Juan Pablo Correa Delcasso, Barcelone, Spain, juanpablo.correa@laguardlegal.com

Romina Bossa Abiven (UIA IROL Liaison), Paris, France, rbossa@uianet.org

Clémence Colin, Paris, France, ccolin@jpkarsenty.com

Marine Parmentier, Paris, France, mparmentier@woogassocies.com

Camille Vuillemin-Loup, Geneva, Switzerland, camille.vuillemin-loup@crsblaw.com

Marco Imperiale, Milan, Italy, marco.imperiale@betteripsum.net

Paolo Lombardi (UIA News), Torino, Italy, paolo.lombardi@elexi.it

David Greene, London, UK, david.greene@edwincoe.com

africa i afrique

Fayçal Drioueche, Algiers, Algeria, cabinetdrioueche@gmail.com

Olufemi Sunmonu, Lagos, Nigeria, fsunmonu@aliantlaw.ng

Olajide J. Ajana, Nigeria, unlimitedsolicitors@gmail.com

Aboubacar Fall, Dakar, Senegal, a.fall@aflegal.sn

Mbula E. Nzuki, Kenya, mbula@mnlegal.net

Mohamed Hassanein, Cairo, Egypt, m.hassanein@elattarlawfirm.com

asia i asie

Jansy Wang, Beijing, China, wangxiujuan@anjielaw.com

Yoshihisa Hayakawa, Tokyo, Japan, haya@rikkyo.ac.jp

Jumanah Behbehani, Kuwait City, Kuwait, lawyer_jbehbehani@hotmail.com

Typesetting and Printing I Composition et impression I ComposiciĂłn e impresiĂłn

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Circulation - Distribution I Tirage - Distribution I Tirada - DistribuciĂłn

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Tél. : +33 1 44 88 55 66 - Fax : + 33 1 44 88 55 77 - E-mail : uiacentre@uianet.org Site Web : www.uianet.org - ISSN : 0758-2471

PRESIDENT‘S MESSAGE

One of the most pressing issues of our time is the environment. Our planet faces unprecedented and potentially life-altering challenges, ranging from climate change and deforestation to pollution and biodiversity loss that impact our health, economy, natural resources, and future generations. We, as lawyers, have a vital role in addressing these challenges.

Lawyers are agents for change, who advocate for environmental justice by working to shape and enforce laws that protect our air, water, and land. We help draft legislation that promotes sustainable practices and combats environmental degradation. We are defenders of rights who represent those who suffer from environmental harm and ensure that vulnerable populations are heard. We serve as negotiators between stakeholders, striving for solutions that meet environmental concerns while also considering economic and social factors. Finally, lawyers are innovators who are instrumental in developing creative legal approaches to new challenges resulting from climate change and ever-changing technological advances.

Let us embrace our unique and important role and work together to ensure the health of our planet.

Jacqueline R. Scott

LE MOT DE LA PRÉSIDENTE

L’environnement est l’une des problĂ©matiques les plus urgentes de notre Ă©poque. Notre planĂšte est confrontĂ©e Ă  des dĂ©fis sans prĂ©cĂ©dent et susceptibles de changer la vie, allant du changement climatique et de la dĂ©forestation Ă  la pollution et Ă  la perte de biodiversitĂ©, qui ont un impact sur notre santĂ©, notre Ă©conomie, nos ressources naturelles et les gĂ©nĂ©rations futures. En tant qu’avocats, nous avons un rĂŽle essentiel Ă  jouer pour relever ces dĂ©fis.

Les avocats sont des agents pour ce changement. Ils dĂ©fendent la justice environnementale en travaillant Ă  l’élaboration et Ă  l’application de lois qui protĂšgent l’air, l’eau et la terre. Nous contribuons Ă  l’élaboration de lois qui encouragent les pratiques durables et luttent contre la dĂ©gradation de l’environnement. Nous sommes des dĂ©fenseurs des droits qui reprĂ©sentent ceux qui souffrent en raison des atteintes Ă  l’environnement et veillent Ă  ce que les populations vulnĂ©rables soient entendues. Nous servons de nĂ©gociateurs entre les parties prenantes, nous efforçons de trouver des solutions qui rĂ©pondent aux prĂ©occupations environnementales tout en tenant compte des facteurs Ă©conomiques et sociaux. Enfin, les avocats sont des innovateurs qui contribuent Ă  dĂ©velopper des approches juridiques crĂ©atives face aux nouveaux dĂ©fis rĂ©sultant du changement climatique et des avancĂ©es technologiques en constante Ă©volution. Acceptons notre rĂŽle unique et important et travaillons ensemble pour garantir la santĂ© de notre planĂšte.

MENSAJE DE LA PRESIDENTA

Uno de los problemas mås acuciantes de nuestro tiempo es el medio ambiente. Nuestro planeta se enfrenta a retos sin precedentes y potencialmente alteradores de la vida, que van desde el cambio climåtico y la deforestación hasta la contaminación y la pérdida de biodiversidad y que repercuten en nuestra salud, economía, recursos naturales y generaciones futuras. Nosotros, como abogados, tenemos un papel vital a la hora de abordar estos retos.

Los abogados somos agentes del cambio que abogamos por la justicia medioambiental trabajando para elaborar y aplicar leyes que protejan nuestro aire, nuestra agua y nuestra tierra. Ayudamos a redactar leyes que promuevan prĂĄcticas sostenibles y combatan la degradaciĂłn medioambiental. Somos defensores de los derechos que representamos a quienes sufren daños ambientales y garantizamos que se escuche a las poblaciones vulnerables. Actuamos como negociadores entre las partes interesadas, esforzĂĄndonos por encontrar soluciones que respondan a las preocupaciones medioambientales sin dejar de tener en cuenta los factores econĂłmicos y sociales. Por Ășltimo, los abogados son innovadores que desempeñan un papel decisivo en el desarrollo de enfoques jurĂ­dicos creativos para los nuevos retos derivados del cambio climĂĄtico y de los avances tecnolĂłgicos en constante evoluciĂłn. Asumamos nuestro papel Ășnico e importante y trabajemos juntos para garantizar la salud de nuestro planeta.

Barbara Gislason

Imagine stepping through a wardrobe portal in C.S. Lewis’ Chronicles of Narnia and finding a world where animals talk, and a wise lion protects them. In this fantastical place, animals have names, personalities, and emotions. While our reality may not mirror Narnia exactly, many animals exhibit impressive communication abilities and complex behaviors. Species like bees, whales, elephants, chimpanzees, octopuses, parrots, and of course dogs, show intelligence that challenges our understanding of animal cognition.

Astronomer Neil deGrasse Tyson proposes an intriguing thought experiment: Humans share 99% of their DNA with chimpanzees, yet the 1% difference is significant. If we met a life form with DNA just 1% more advanced than ours, how would that affect our treatment? This question urges us to reconsider our own interactions with animals, and to acknowledge their cognitive capacities.

Linguistic studies reveal that the language we speak influences our thoughts, beliefs, and culture. For instance, many Native American languages use the same grammatical structures to refer to both humans and animals, fostering a view of animals as “kin.” By contrast, English often uses “it” for animals, thus distancing them from humans. Research shows that native Japanese speakers process insect sounds in the same brain hemisphere as they do human speech, unlike speakers of other languages,

who process these sounds similarly to music. This may explain why insects are prevalent in Japanese art and culture, but not in English speaking countries.

While it is clear that some animals possess linguistic abilities, we are only beginning to understand them. Toshitaka Suzuki at Kyoto University found that the Japanese tit bird uses specific calls for different predators and requires a certain sequence for the message to be understood, much like syntax in human language. It is also interesting to speculate about how the linguistic structures of click languages, found predominantly among the Khoisan peoples of southern Africa, and in some Bantu languages, can reflect deep ecological knowledge and use terms reflecting respect for nature.

It is time to change our relationship with the natural world. Lawyers can help by changing outdated legal frameworks so that the dignity and well-being of animals become a priority. This journey, much like stepping into Narnia, invites us to awaken and enrich ourselves in following with other living beings.

Imaginez que vous franchissiez le portail d’une armoire dans les Chroniques de Narnia de C. S. Lewis et que vous dĂ©couvriez un monde oĂč les animaux parlent et oĂč un lion sage les protĂšge. Dans ce monde fantastique, les animaux ont des noms, des personnalitĂ©s et des Ă©motions. MĂȘme si notre rĂ©alitĂ© ne reflĂšte pas exactement celle de Narnia, de nombreux animaux font preuve de capacitĂ©s de communication impressionnantes et de comportements complexes. Des espĂšces comme les abeilles, les baleines, les Ă©lĂ©phants, les chimpanzĂ©s, les pieuvres, les perroquets et, bien sĂ»r, les chiens, font preuve d’une intelligence qui remet en question notre comprĂ©hension de la cognition animale.

L’astronome Neil deGrasse Tyson propose une expĂ©rience de pensĂ©e intrigante : l’homme partage 99 % de son ADN avec le chimpanzĂ©, mais la diffĂ©rence de 1 % est significative. Si nous rencontrions une forme de vie dont l’ADN est Ă  peine 1 % plus avancĂ© que le nĂŽtre, comment cela affecterait-il notre traitement ? Cette question nous incite Ă  reconsidĂ©rer nos propres interactions avec les animaux et Ă  reconnaĂźtre leurs capacitĂ©s cognitives.

Les Ă©tudes linguistiques rĂ©vĂšlent que la langue que nous parlons influence nos pensĂ©es, nos croyances et notre culture. Par exemple, de nombreuses langues amĂ©rindiennes utilisent les mĂȘmes structures grammaticales pour dĂ©signer Ă  la fois les humains et les animaux, ce qui favorise la perception des animaux comme des « proches ».

“ Lawyers can help by changing outdated legal frameworks so that the dignity and well-being of animals become a priority.
”

En revanche, l’anglais utilise souvent le mot « it » pour dĂ©signer les animaux, ce qui les Ă©loigne des humains. Les recherches montrent que les locuteurs natifs japonais traitent les sons des insectes dans le mĂȘme hĂ©misphĂšre cĂ©rĂ©bral que la parole humaine, contrairement aux locuteurs d’autres langues, qui traitent ces sons de la mĂȘme maniĂšre que la musique. Cela pourrait expliquer pourquoi les insectes sont trĂšs prĂ©sents dans l’art et la culture japonaise, mais pas dans les pays anglophones.

S’il est clair que certains animaux possĂšdent des capacitĂ©s linguistiques, nous commençons Ă  peine Ă  les comprendre. Toshitaka Suzuki, de l’universitĂ© de Kyoto, a dĂ©couvert que la mĂ©sange japonaise utilise des cris spĂ©cifiques pour diffĂ©rents prĂ©dateurs et qu’elle a besoin d’une certaine sĂ©quence pour que le message soit compris, un peu comme la syntaxe du langage humain. Il est Ă©galement intĂ©ressant de spĂ©culer sur la maniĂšre dont les structures linguistiques des langues Ă  clics, que l’on trouve principalement chez les Khoisan d’Afrique australe et dans certaines langues bantoues, peuvent reflĂ©ter des connaissances Ă©cologiques approfondies et utiliser des termes reflĂ©tant le respect de la nature.

Il est temps de changer notre relation avec le monde naturel. Les juristes peuvent y contribuer en modifiant les cadres juridiques obsolĂštes afin que la dignitĂ© et le bien-ĂȘtre des animaux deviennent une prioritĂ©. Ce voyage, un peu comme l’entrĂ©e dans Narnia, nous invite Ă  nous Ă©veiller et Ă  nous enrichir Ă  la suite des autres ĂȘtres vivants.

ïƒź EDITORIAL

Imagina que atraviesas el portal de un armario en las Crónicas de Narnia de C. S. Lewis y encuentras un mundo donde los animales hablan y un león sabio los protege. En este lugar fantåstico, los animales tienen nombre, personalidad y emociones. Aunque nuestra realidad no sea exactamente igual a la de Narnia, muchos animales muestran impresionantes capacidades de comunicación y comportamientos complejos. Especies como las abejas, las ballenas, los elefantes, los chimpancés, los pulpos, los loros y, por supuesto, los perros, muestran una inteligencia que desafía nuestra comprensión de la cognición animal.

El astrónomo Neil deGrasse Tyson propone un intrigante experimento mental: Los humanos compartimos el 99% de nuestro ADN con los chimpancés, pero la diferencia del 1% es significativa. Si nos encontråramos con una forma de vida con un ADN sólo un 1% mås avanzado que el nuestro, ¿cómo afectaría eso a nuestro trato? Esta pregunta nos insta a reconsiderar nuestras propias interacciones con los animales y a reconocer sus capacidades cognitivas.

Los estudios lingĂŒĂ­sticos revelan que la lengua que hablamos influye en nuestros pensamientos, creencias y cultura. Por ejemplo, muchas lenguas nativas americanas utilizan las mismas estructuras gramaticales para referirse tanto a los humanos como a los animales, fomentando una visiĂłn de los animales como

«parientes». En cambio, el inglĂ©s suele utilizar «it» para referirse a los animales, distanciĂĄndolos asĂ­ de los humanos. Las investigaciones demuestran que los hablantes nativos de japonĂ©s procesan los sonidos de los insectos en el mismo hemisferio cerebral que el habla humana, a diferencia de los hablantes de otras lenguas, que procesan estos sonidos de forma similar a la mĂșsica. Esto puede explicar por quĂ© los insectos son frecuentes en el arte y la cultura japoneses, pero no en los paĂ­ses de habla inglesa.

Aunque estĂĄ claro que algunos animales poseen capacidades lingĂŒĂ­sticas, sĂłlo estamos empezando a comprenderlas. Toshitaka Suzuki, de la Universidad de Kioto, descubriĂł que el herrerillo japonĂ©s utiliza reclamos especĂ­ficos para distintos depredadores y requiere una secuencia determinada para que se entienda el mensaje, de forma muy parecida a la sintaxis del lenguaje humano. TambiĂ©n es interesante especular sobre el modo en que las estructuras lingĂŒĂ­sticas de las lenguas clic, presentes sobre todo en los pueblos khoisan del sur de África y en algunas lenguas bantĂșes, pueden reflejar profundos conocimientos ecolĂłgicos y utilizar tĂ©rminos que reflejan el respeto por la naturaleza. Es hora de cambiar nuestra relaciĂłn con el mundo natural. Los juristas pueden ayudar cambiando los marcos jurĂ­dicos obsoletos para que la dignidad y el bienestar de los animales se conviertan en una prioridad. Este viaje, parecido a entrar en Narnia, nos invita a despertar y enriquecernos en el seguimiento de otros seres vivos.

Using VRT to Treat Trauma Victims

Ô Skip Rizzo est Directeur de recherche Ă  l’UniversitĂ© de Californie du Sud (USC) pour les technologies crĂ©atives, en particulier la thĂ©rapie par la rĂ©alitĂ© virtuelle. Psychologue clinicien, il est Ă©galement professeur chercheur au dĂ©partement de psychiatrie et de sciences comportementales de l’USC et Directeur scientifique de Cognitive Leap Solutions, une entreprise de santĂ© mentale Ă  la pointe de la crĂ©ation de solutions numĂ©riques et thĂ©rapeutiques liĂ©es aux problĂšmes de santĂ© mentale. GrĂące Ă  Bravemind, les personnes originaires de zones de guerre et souffrant du syndrome de stress post-traumatique reçoivent un traitement en rĂ©alitĂ© virtuelle contre l’anxiĂ©tĂ© et la peur, basĂ© sur la vue, les sons, les vibrations et une thĂ©rapie fondĂ©e sur des tĂ©moignages afin de soulager l’anxiĂ©tĂ© et la peur aiguĂ«s.

Editor’s Note

Skip Rizzo is the Research Director at the University of Southern California (USC) for Creative Technologies, particularly virtual reality therapy. A clinical psychologist, Professor Rizzo is also a Research Professor with the USC Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, and the Chief Scientific Officer for Cognitive Leap Solutions, a mental health company at the forefront of creating digital and therapeutic solutions related to mental health problems. Through Bravemind, those from war zones with PTSD receive virtual reality treatment for anxiety and fear with sight, sounds, vibrations, and evidence-based therapy to relieve acute anxiety and fear.

Introduction

When meeting with Skip Rizzo, the Research Director at the University of Southern California’s (USC) Institute for Creative Technology for Medical Virtual Reality on Zoom, he presents himself as a casual California man with shoulder length hair and a well-groomed beard and mustache. Rizzo speaks with a low key and methodical cadence and reveals a compelling blend of humor and resolute faith in the effectiveness of his work. His words resonate deeply. Behind him, he displays dazzling backgrounds from outer space, and when he talks about what excites him, he infuses his enthusiasm as if he is almost sparkling on the screen. This is a rare ability.

While working as a clinical psychologist and neuropsychologist in the 1990s, Rizzo was an early user of what was then “primitive” virtual reality (VR). He foresaw that as this technology evolved, it could be used to help with trauma recovery through using “compelling visual experiences as a treatment modality” in simulation environments, not

Ô Skip Rizzo es el Director de investigaciĂłn de la Universidad del Sur de California (USC) para tecnologĂ­as creativas, en particular la terapia de realidad virtual. PsicĂłlogo clĂ­nico, el profesor Rizzo es tambiĂ©n catedrĂĄtico de investigaciĂłn del Departamento de psiquiatrĂ­a y ciencias del comportamiento de la USC, y Director cientĂ­fico de Cognitive Leap Solutions, una empresa de salud mental a la vanguardia de la creaciĂłn de soluciones digitales y terapĂ©uticas relacionadas con problemas de salud mental. A travĂ©s de Bravemind, las personas procedentes de zonas de guerra con TEPT reciben tratamiento de realidad virtual para la ansiedad y el miedo basado sobre la vista, sonidos, vibraciones y terapia fundada sobre pruebas para aliviar la ansiedad y el miedo agudos.

unlike simulations used to train airplane pilots. Rizzo has already helped treat American soldiers who experienced prolonged trauma in Afghanistan and Iraq, including sexual trauma, by placing them in simulation environments where the clinician can control stimuli while communicating with the person in the virtual world. In Afghanistan, Rizzo helped create 14 virtual worlds that ranged from the Afghan village in the mountains, to an operating base, to a marketplace in a city. Rizzo refined his treatment methods to help his clients process their environments, manage frightening experiences, and manage their trauma symptoms, thereby treating their underlying conditions.

Golden Age in Brain Research

Rizzo and I discussed the golden age in brain science while I described a program that I had just watched on Science Friday. There, Ed Lein of the Allen Institute for Brain Science, explained that we have 170 billion brain cells and they have already typed more than 3,000 different kinds of cells in the brain based upon what the gene inside each cell activates. This type of breakthrough, which Rizzo regards as akin to improved hardware, then informs Rizzo’s efforts in the development of effective software code to treat traumatic symptoms.

Often, the “way people think about their trauma isn’t necessarily so accurate as to what actually happened because the memory was coded during the event,” he said. Rizzo went on, “Initially
you get them to talk about the experience and then as they talk about it, you know more about what simulation elements would benefit

them, such as intensity, or having the simulation be at nighttime.” While the simulations are not exact replicas of the explosion, fires, sounds, and destruction, “it is enough to activate those emotions as patients actively narrate the trauma experience with the clinician rather than avoiding thinking about it and avoiding going to places that are actually safe in the civilian world because it reminds them of the trauma,” he said. Trauma focused therapy enables the patient to gradually confront and process the emotional memories of their trauma, “not to run away from it, and not to smoke a joint and forget about it,” he continued.

Rizzo and his team are developing software code specifically designed to help those suffering from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Ukraine. Rizzo said that he felt as if he has been getting ready to help Ukraine for the last 20 years.

Rizzo’s team at USC has donated their time to work with Ukrainian developers and clinicians on Ukraine relevant content by building two virtual worlds important for treatment needs. The first is a rural village that “has been bombed and attacked, and maybe Russian tanks come through, or Russian soldiers are walking around and looking at houses, which creates an experience like the Russians are coming for them.”

The second simulation has a woman looking out of a highrise window seeing missiles coming and blowing up the building in front of her, and then hitting her building. “But you don’t start at that point as they need to get used to being in that space in that way, and then the clinician systematically brings an explosion,” Rizzo explained. “The patient can talk about their experience, and the clinician can freeze the virtual world in that moment“ to give individuals time to process it.

On the clinician side, virtual reality software coding enables clinicians working with practitioners to observe the individual’s “brain activation,” so that the clinician can further systematically manipulate the pace and type of the stimulus presentation “while looking at measurements of brain activation in real time.”

As the person narrates, the clinician may ask them when that happened to them, what they felt, and what they are thinking about now. “We can take it to the logical conclusion, many missiles flying, and missiles hitting the floor below. We hope we don’t have to make it that provocative to still get the therapeutic exposure,” said Rizzo.1 Substantial funds will enable them to develop many more software simulations to help both soldiers and civilians in Ukraine.

To support Skip Rizzo’s development of software to treat trauma victims in Ukraine, consider donating to www. aidacrossborders.org. ■

1.

the Russian invasion.

The author serves as President of Aid Across Borders. The inspiration for creating Aid Across Borders came from a presentation by lawyers Pavlo Lutsyuk of Ukraine and Joanna Wsolek of Poland at the UIA Governing Board meeting in Warsaw shortly after

IA, mode et perspectives légales

SOLÈNE DAGUIER

Ô AI is revolutionizing fashion by influencing business practices and raising major legal issues. Though AI enhances personalization and efficiency, it raises intellectual property concerns. Legislative loopholes require adjustments that lend themselves to new legal reasoning. Regulatory measures are underway, notably in Europe, to ensure responsible use. The fashion industry is thus called upon to balance innovation and preserve its integrity, while capitalizing on the advantages offered by this technology.

Ô La inteligencia artificial estĂĄ revolucionando la moda, influyendo en las prĂĄcticas comerciales y planteando importantes cuestiones jurĂ­dicas. Mejora la personalizaciĂłn y la eficacia, pero tambiĂ©n suscita inquietudes, sobre todo en materia de propiedad intelectual. Las lagunas legislativas requieren ajustes que se presten a nuevos razonamientos jurĂ­dicos. Se estĂĄn tomando medidas reguladoras, sobre todo en Europa, para garantizar un uso responsable. AsĂ­ pues, la industria de la moda estĂĄ llamada a equilibrar la innovaciĂłn para preservar su integridad, aprovechando al mismo tiempo las ventajas que ofrece esta tecnologĂ­a.

Depuis ces derniĂšres annĂ©es, le systĂšme d’Intelligence Artificielle (ci-aprĂšs dĂ©signĂ©e « IA ») est en plein essor. DĂ©fini sur le territoire europĂ©en comme « un systĂšme automatisĂ© qui est conçu pour fonctionner Ă  diffĂ©rents niveaux d’autonomie et peut faire preuve d’une capacitĂ© d’adaptation aprĂšs son dĂ©ploiement, et qui, pour des objectifs explicites ou implicites, dĂ©duit, Ă  partir des entrĂ©es qu’il reçoit, la maniĂšre de gĂ©nĂ©rer des sorties telles que des prĂ©dictions, du contenu, des recommandations ou des dĂ©cisions qui peuvent influencer les environnements physiques ou virtuels »1, il s’immisce

1. Article 3 du Rectificatif Ă  la position du Parlement europĂ©en arrĂȘtĂ©e en premiĂšre lecture le 13 mars 2024 en vue de l’adoption du rĂšglement (UE) 2024/ du Parlement europĂ©en et du Conseil Ă©tablissant des rĂšgles harmonisĂ©es concernant l’intelligence artificielle et modifiant les rĂšglements (CE) n° 300/2008, (UE) n° 167/2013, (UE) n° 168/2013, (UE) 2018/858, (UE) 2018/1139 et (UE) 2019/2144 et les directives 2014/90/UE, (UE) 2016/797 et (UE) 2020/1828 (rĂšglement sur l’intelligence artificielle) P9_TA(2024)0138 (COM(2021)0206 – C9-0146/2021 – 2021/0106(COD)).

dans de nombreux secteurs d’activitĂ© pour rĂ©volutionner les pratiques et modĂšles Ă©conomiques Ă©tablis. « ChatGPT », « Midjourney » ou plus rĂ©cemment le français « Mistral » en constituent des applications de rĂ©fĂ©rence, dĂ©sormais intĂ©grĂ©es dans le quotidien de nombreux utilisateurs.

L’industrie de la mode n’échappe pas Ă  cette tendance et fait face Ă  des transformations profondes sous l’impulsion de l’IA. Les applications sont multiples et variĂ©es, allant de la crĂ©ation de vĂȘtements Ă  la personnalisation de l’expĂ©rience client, en passant par l’optimisation de la logistique.

Afin de mieux apprĂ©hender la situation, un rappel de quelques chiffres clĂ©s s’impose. Selon une Ă©tude rĂ©alisĂ©e par le spĂ©cialiste de l’analyse de marchĂ© et de prospective Kantar2, le marchĂ© mondial de l’habillement devrait enregistrer une progression de 3,9 % chaque annĂ©e d’ici 2025, et donc croĂźtre de 64 milliards de dollars au total en cinq ans. Ce secteur emploie plus de 300 millions de personnes dans le monde et constitue un enjeu Ă©conomique majeur pour de nombreux pays. Cette industrie reste toutefois confrontĂ©e Ă  des sujets importants, tels que la surproduction, la pollution et les conditions de travail prĂ©caires, qui appellent Ă  une transformation profonde de ses pratiques.

Dans ce contexte, l’IA apparaĂźt comme une solution prometteuse pour relever ces dĂ©fis et amĂ©liorer la compĂ©titivitĂ© des acteurs du secteur. Cette technologie prĂ©sente un impact significatif sur toute la chaĂźne de valeur, de la conception des produits Ă  l’expĂ©rience de vente et de consommation.

Ces avancées technologiques soulÚvent néanmoins de nombreuses questions juridiques, notamment en matiÚre de propriété intellectuelle, de responsabilité ou encore de protection des données personnelles.

De quelle maniĂšre protĂ©ger et encadrer les crĂ©ations assistĂ©es par l’IA ? Qui est responsable en cas de dommages causĂ©s par ce systĂšme ? Comment garantir la conformitĂ© aux rĂ©glementations sur la protection des donnĂ©es personnelles ?

2. Marion Deslandes, « Le marchĂ© mondial de l’habillement va progresser de 3,9 % par an d’ici 2025 », article paru le 7 fĂ©vrier 2020 sur le site fr.fashionnetwork.com.

Autant de questions qui appellent une analyse des enjeux et dĂ©fis juridiques liĂ©s Ă  l’insertion de l’IA dans le secteur concernĂ© (I) afin d’aborder les perspectives et solutions rĂ©glementaires (II).

I. Les dĂ©fi(lĂ©)s juridiques d’une mode connectĂ©e

Les algorithmes d’apprentissage des systĂšmes d’IA peuvent facilement intĂ©grer tout processus de crĂ©ation et de design, ce qui constitue une aubaine pour le secteur de la mode. Pour ceux fonctionnant Ă  partir de requĂȘtes dites prompts, ils matĂ©rialisent la pensĂ©e de l’utilisateur Ă  grande vitesse en interprĂ©tant les instructions fournies afin de gĂ©nĂ©rer des rĂ©ponses pertinentes en temps rĂ©el.

Cette technologie est d’abord prĂ©cieuse en matiĂšre de crĂ©ation. Selon les lignes directrices communiquĂ©es par l’utilisateur, certaines applications permettent de concevoir des motifs et formes inĂ©dits, inspirĂ©s d’une base de donnĂ©es de modĂšles prĂ©existants ou explorant de nouvelles pistes originales. L’application « Style-Transfert » dĂ©veloppĂ©e par Google reprĂ©sente une avancĂ©e supplĂ©mentaire puisqu’elle propose de transposer le style d’une crĂ©ation ou la patte d’un styliste pour concevoir un nouvel article. Enfin, la possibilitĂ© offerte par cette technologie de rĂ©aliser des vĂȘtements « intelligents » et connectĂ©s constitue une autre illustration d’exploitation novatrice.

L’IA joue Ă©galement un rĂŽle croissant dans l’optimisation de la production et de la chaĂźne d’approvisionnement. Le logiciel « AiDA » se prĂ©sente par exemple comme un assistant pour accĂ©lĂ©rer le processus crĂ©atif en passant rapidement des croquis aux dĂ©filĂ©s tandis que d’autres systĂšmes aident les entreprises Ă  anticiper les tendances et ajuster leur production en consĂ©quence, en tenant compte des donnĂ©es relatives aux ventes, aux stocks et aux prĂ©fĂ©rences des consommateurs.

Par ailleurs, elle peut ĂȘtre utilisĂ©e afin d’amĂ©liorer la traçabilitĂ© des produits et partant, lutter contre la contrefaçon,

en utilisant des technologies telles que la chaĂźne de blocs ou les puces RFID. Dans cette perspective, les groupes LVMH, Prada et Richemont se sont alliĂ©s pour mettre en place la plateforme baptisĂ©e « Aura », laquelle vise Ă  garantir l’authenticitĂ© et la provenance des produits de leurs diffĂ©rentes marques3. Cette avancĂ©e offre en outre de nouvelles opportunitĂ©s en matiĂšre de personnalisation et d’expĂ©rience client, particuliĂšrement exploitĂ©es dans le secteur de la mode. Les algorithmes de recommandation et d’agents conversationnels permettent aux marques de proposer des expĂ©riences d’achat sur mesure, en fonction des prĂ©fĂ©rences de leur clientĂšle. La start-up française « Heuritech »4 a ainsi dĂ©veloppĂ© une solution d’IA destinĂ©e aux marques qui souhaitent prĂ©dire les tendances et adapter leur offre en consĂ©quence (sur la base de millions de donnĂ©es provenant des rĂ©seaux sociaux, blogs et sites marchands).

L’IA joue Ă©galement un rĂŽle croissant dans l’optimisation de la production et de la chaĂźne d’approvisionnement.

Pour finir, l’IA s’avĂšre un outil intĂ©ressant en matiĂšre de communication puisqu’elle permet de gĂ©nĂ©rer des contenus personnalisĂ©s et interactifs, notamment des vidĂ©os ou des images conçues en fonction des prĂ©fĂ©rences des consommateurs. Le gĂ©ant de la cosmĂ©tique L’OrĂ©al a ainsi dĂ©veloppĂ© une application mobile baptisĂ©e « ModiFace », laquelle permet aux utilisateurs d’essayer virtuellement des produits de maquillage avant de les acheter5

3. Dominique Muret, « LVMH, Prada et Cartier (Richemont) lancent Aura, leur propre blockchain », article paru le 20 avril 2021 sur le site fr.fashionnetwork.com.

4. Article « Heuritech, quand l’intelligence artificielle chasse les tendances » paru le 17 septembre 2019 sur le site thegoolife.fr.

5. https://www.loreal.com/fr/science-et-technologie-beaute/beautytech/ deouvrez-modiface/.

NEW FRONTIERS I NUEVAS FRONTERAS

Ce rapide panorama met en lumiĂšre les avantages indĂ©niables que reprĂ©sente l’IA pour cette industrie. Ces avancĂ©es fulgurantes, arrivĂ©es sur le marchĂ© sans se soucier des rĂšgles lĂ©gales, ne vont pas sans soulever des problĂ©matiques juridiques d’envergure appelant une adaptation rapide du droit pour faire face aux enjeux Ă©mergents.

L’une des prĂ©occupations principales concerne sans doute la protection des crĂ©ations assistĂ©es par l’IA. En effet, la lĂ©gislation actuelle en matiĂšre de propriĂ©tĂ© intellectuelle ne prĂ©voit pas explicitement la protection des Ɠuvres gĂ©nĂ©rĂ©es par des algorithmes, ce qui soulĂšve des questions quant Ă  la titularitĂ© des droits et aux conditions de leur exercice, outre des questions en matiĂšre de responsabilitĂ© civile. Dans ce contexte, il semble nĂ©cessaire d’adapter rapidement le cadre juridique actuel pour prendre en compte les spĂ©cificitĂ©s des crĂ©ations assistĂ©es par cet intermĂ©diaire et garantir un Ă©quilibre entre protection et innovation.

L’une des prĂ©occupations principales concerne sans doute la protection des crĂ©ations assistĂ©es par l’IA.

Le recours Ă  l’IA implique par ailleurs le traitement de donnĂ©es personnelles, notamment pour personnaliser l’expĂ©rience client, optimiser la production ou cibler les campagnes marketing. Les acteurs du secteur doivent donc veiller Ă  respecter les dispositions du RĂšglement gĂ©nĂ©ral sur la Protection des DonnĂ©es (RGPD) et autres textes applicables en la matiĂšre. Les entreprises doivent notamment s’assurer de recueillir le consentement des personnes concernĂ©es avant de collecter et de traiter leurs donnĂ©es, de mettre en place des mesures de sĂ©curitĂ© adaptĂ©es pour protĂ©ger les donnĂ©es contre les accĂšs non autorisĂ©s et de garantir l’exercice effectif de leurs droits (droit d’accĂšs, de rectification, d’opposition, etc.).

Un besoin de clarté se pose pareillement en matiÚre de concurrence déloyale et parasitisme [
].

L’utilisation de cette technologie peut enfin occasionner des risques en matiĂšre de responsabilitĂ©, notamment en cas de dommages causĂ©s par des systĂšmes d’IA dĂ©fectueux ou mal configurĂ©s. Cela Ă©tant, il est important de dĂ©terminer les responsabilitĂ©s respectives des diffĂ©rents acteurs impliquĂ©s dans le dĂ©veloppement, la commercialisation et l’utilisation de l’IA. L’objectif Ă  cet Ă©gard est de garantir une rĂ©partition Ă©quitable des risques et des coĂ»ts.

II. Un catwalk juridique et l’émergence de solutions sur mesure

Face aux dĂ©fis juridiques posĂ©s par l’IA, les pouvoirs publics et les acteurs du secteur du monde entier ont engagĂ©

plusieurs initiatives visant à adapter le cadre juridique et promouvoir une IA éthique et responsable.

Au niveau europĂ©en, l’adoption historique du RĂšglement du Parlement europĂ©en et du Conseil Ă©tablissant des rĂšgles harmonisĂ©es concernant l’intelligence artificielle le 13 mars 2024, constitue une avancĂ©e significative dans la rĂ©gulation de ce systĂšme. PremiĂšre loi du genre sur le plan international, elle a notamment pour vocation de mettre en place des garanties relatives Ă  l’IA, outre des exigences de transparence. Pour les systĂšmes Ă  hauts risques par exemple, l’article 52 leur impose de notifier les personnes qu’elles sont en train d’interagir avec une IA, sauf si cela est Ă©vident.

Les systĂšmes d’IA Ă  usage gĂ©nĂ©ral, et les modĂšles sur lesquels ils sont basĂ©s, devraient dĂ©sormais publier des rĂ©sumĂ©s dĂ©taillĂ©s des contenus utilisĂ©s dans le cadre des processus par lesquels ils sont formĂ©s. Les systĂšmes d’IA plus puissants seront soumis Ă  des exigences supplĂ©mentaires afin de mesurer les risques et les attĂ©nuer le cas Ă©chĂ©ant, tout en signalant les Ă©ventuels incidents. De plus, les images et les contenus audio et vidĂ©o artificiels ou manipulĂ©s (aussi appelĂ©s deep fakes) doivent ĂȘtre clairement signalĂ©s comme tels.

Reste que cette lĂ©gislation se concentre sur une apprĂ©ciation des risques liĂ©s Ă  l’utilisation de l’IA dans nos sociĂ©tĂ©s et sur une dĂ©finition de la responsabilitĂ© qui incombe aux entreprises qui crĂ©ent les logiciels concernĂ©s. Il ne statue pas clairement sur les problĂ©matiques liĂ©es Ă  la propriĂ©tĂ© intellectuelle et aux Ă©ventuelles violations des rĂšgles en la matiĂšre.

La jurisprudence europĂ©enne devrait contribuer Ă  l’émergence de grands principes. Pour l’heure, un seul jugement a pu ĂȘtre identifiĂ© en matiĂšre de droit d’auteur. En l’occurrence et selon jugement dĂ©finitif rendu en octobre 20236 , le Tribunal municipal de Prague a pu se prononcer sur la qualification ou non d’Ɠuvre de contenus gĂ©nĂ©rĂ©s par un systĂšme d’IA. Cette juridiction refuse la protection par le droit d’auteur d’une crĂ©ation (en l’espĂšce, une photographie) rĂ©alisĂ©e avec assistance de l’IA aux motifs que les prompts rĂ©digĂ©s par l’auteur revĂȘtent un caractĂšre gĂ©nĂ©rique. ProtĂ©ger le rĂ©sultat dans ce contexte reviendrait Ă  accorder une protection Ă  une idĂ©e qui, pour rappel, doit demeurer de libre parcours. Cette solution suggĂšre nĂ©anmoins que de telles crĂ©ations pourraient bĂ©nĂ©ficier d’une protection au titre du droit d’auteur dĂšs l’instant oĂč l’auteur parviendrait Ă  dĂ©montrer une implication allant au-delĂ  de la simple rĂ©daction de directives conceptuelles. Ce premier Ă©clairage europĂ©en concorde ainsi avec les premiĂšres dĂ©cisions du genre rendues aux Etats-Unis et en Chine qui soulignent la pertinence de dĂ©montrer le rĂŽle central de l’auteur des crĂ©ations assistĂ©es par IA.

6. Tribunal municipal de Prague, 13 octobre 2023, č. j. 10 C 13/202316 : https://justice.cz/documents/14569/1865919/10C_13_2023_10/ 108cad3e-d9e8-454f-bfac-d58e1253c83a.

Un besoin de clartĂ© se pose pareillement en matiĂšre de concurrence dĂ©loyale et parasitisme alors qu’en France, la notion de style en tant que telle n’est pas protĂ©geable. Les tribunaux français ont toutefois pu considĂ©rer que le fait de puiser son inspiration dans l’univers de collections tierces peut ĂȘtre constitutif d’une faute sur le fondement du parasitisme. Dans l’attente d’une rĂ©glementation plus prĂ©cise, c’est cette voie d’action qui pourrait ĂȘtre privilĂ©giĂ©e s’agissant de litiges qui auraient pour origine un prompt Ă  l’occasion duquel l’utilisateur aurait sciemment tenter de reproduire la patte d’une maison de couture par exemple. Finalement, la prise de mesures complĂ©mentaires et Ă  plus grande Ă©chelle pourrait apporter des solutions intĂ©ressantes. Ainsi, l’Organisation des Nations Unies (ONU) a Ă©tabli un groupe d’experts sur l’intelligence artificielle, chargĂ© d’élaborer des recommandations pour promouvoir une IA Ă©thique et responsable, respectueuse des droits de l’homme et des principes Ă©thiques. Ce groupe a publiĂ© en 2021 un rapport contenant des recommandations tendant Ă  un cadre mondial de gouvernance qui s’articule autour de six principes clĂ©s : l’équitĂ©, la non-discrimination, la transparence, l’explicabilitĂ©, la responsabilitĂ© et la sĂ©curitĂ©. Plus spĂ©cifiquement, les acteurs de l’industrie de la mode ont Ă©galement engagĂ© des initiatives pour promouvoir une IA Ă©thique et responsable, en adoptant des chartes, des codes de conduite ou des bonnes pratiques. Poursuivant cette mĂȘme idĂ©e de promouvoir les intĂ©rĂȘts des crĂ©ateurs et des dĂ©tenteurs de droits d’auteur, il pourrait ĂȘtre bĂ©nĂ©-

fique d’établir des ententes impliquant les dĂ©veloppeurs d’IA, les organismes de gestion collective ainsi que les marques, maisons de mode ou les stylistes et autres crĂ©ateurs eux-mĂȘmes. Ces accords rĂ©glementaires viseraient Ă  encadrer l’utilisation de l’IA dans la crĂ©ation de mode, en garantissant une rĂ©munĂ©ration Ă©quitable aux auteurs et/ou dĂ©tenteurs de droits, adaptĂ©e aux rĂ©alitĂ©s et besoins spĂ©cifiques de chaque espĂšce. De telles solutions pourraient ainsi stimuler l’innovation tout en encourageant les stylistes et maisons de mode Ă  continuer de crĂ©er, favorisant ainsi une cohabitation harmonieuse entre crĂ©ation et innovation.

Ces diffĂ©rentes dĂ©marches tĂ©moignent de la prise de conscience croissante des enjeux liĂ©s Ă  l’utilisation de l’IA dans diffĂ©rents domaines d’application et de la nĂ©cessitĂ© d’encadrer cette utilisation pour garantir le respect des droits fondamentaux et des principes Ă©thiques. Elles devraient contribuer Ă  l’émergence d’un cadre juridique adaptĂ© et Ă©quilibrĂ©, favorisant l’innovation et la compĂ©titivitĂ© du secteur, tout en assurant la protection des droits et des intĂ©rĂȘts des individus.

En attendant, inclure des dispositions relatives Ă  l’IA dans les contrats reste une voie conseillĂ©e pour encadrer les interactions entre les parties impliquĂ©es dans le dĂ©veloppement et l’utilisation de cette technologie. En dĂ©finissant clairement les droits, responsabilitĂ©s et obligations de chaque partie en la matiĂšre, ces clauses contractuelles peuvent contribuer Ă  Ă©tablir un cadre juridique solide et Ă©quitable. Elles peuvent notamment aborder des questions telles que la propriĂ©tĂ© intellectuelle, la protection des donnĂ©es, la responsabilitĂ© en cas de dommages, et la conformitĂ© aux normes Ă©thiques et rĂ©glementaires. En adoptant une approche proactive dans la rĂ©daction des contrats, les acteurs peuvent ainsi anticiper les dĂ©fis potentiels liĂ©s Ă  l’IA et promouvoir une utilisation responsable de cette technologie.

ParallĂšlement, pourquoi ne pas envisager la crĂ©ation d’un droit spĂ©cifique pour protĂ©ger les investissements financiers, humains ou matĂ©riels des acteurs impliquĂ©s dans le processus crĂ©atif de l’IA... le fil de possibilitĂ©s reste Ă  dĂ©rouler.

En conclusion, l’IA reprĂ©sente Ă  la fois un dĂ©fi et une opportunitĂ© pour l’industrie de la mode, qui doit adapter son cadre juridique pour tirer pleinement parti des potentialitĂ©s offertes par ces technologies, tout en garantissant le respect des droits fondamentaux et des principes Ă©thiques. Les initiatives lĂ©gislatives, rĂ©glementaires et sectorielles engagĂ©es ces derniĂšres annĂ©es tĂ©moignent d’une prise de conscience croissante des enjeux liĂ©s Ă  l’IA et devraient contribuer Ă  l’émergence d’un cadre juridique adaptĂ© et Ă©quilibrĂ©. ■

solenedaguier.avocat@gmail.com

Sustainability and Greenwashing in EU Agri-Food: Legal Framework and Use of Innovative Technologies

DR. BEATRICE LA PORTA

Ô L’article se penche sur la dynamique de la durabilitĂ© et de l’écoblanchiment dans le secteur agroalimentaire de l’UE, en soulignant la pertinence et la dĂ©finition actuelles de l’écoblanchiment du greenwashing. Il souligne le rĂŽle essentiel des technologies innovantes dans la lutte contre ces pratiques trompeuses qui sapent les vĂ©ritables efforts de dĂ©veloppement durable. Cet article explore les mises Ă  jour significatives des rĂ©glementations de l’UE visant Ă  renforcer la protection des consommateurs et Ă  garantir l’exactitude des dĂ©clarations environnementales. Une discussion sur l’adoption de technologies de pointe telles que la blockchain et l’Internet des objets (IoT) dĂ©montre comment ces outils sont essentiels pour promouvoir la transparence et la responsabilitĂ© dans les chaĂźnes d’approvisionnement agricoles, en les alignant plus Ă©troitement sur des objectifs de durabilitĂ© authentiques.

Ô El artĂ­culo profundiza en la dinĂĄmica de la sostenibilidad y el greenwashing o lavado ecolĂłgico dentro del sector agroalimentario de la UE, destacando la relevancia y definiciĂłn actuales del lavado ecolĂłgico. Subraya el papel fundamental de las tecnologĂ­as innovadoras para hacer frente a estas prĂĄcticas engañosas que socavan los autĂ©nticos esfuerzos de sostenibilidad. El documento explora las importantes actualizaciones de la normativa de la UE para mejorar la protecciĂłn del consumidor y garantizar la exactitud de las alegaciones medioambientales. Un debate sobre la adopciĂłn de tecnologĂ­as de vanguardia como blockchain y el Internet de las cosas (IoT) demuestra cĂłmo estas herramientas son fundamentales para promover la transparencia y la rendiciĂłn de cuentas en las cadenas de suministro agrĂ­cola, alineĂĄndolas mĂĄs estrechamente con los autĂ©nticos objetivos de sostenibilidad.

Greenwashing and Sustainability in the Agri-Food Sector: A Legal Analysis

Growing awareness of the need to protect soil and the entire ecosystem, as well as promote biodiversity, has significantly shaped recent domestic and EU policies. This

shift in perspective extends beyond traditional agriculture as threats from climate change and environmental degradation are better understood. The risk of emptying the concept of environmental sustainability, defined as the ability of entities to engage in behaviors capable of preserving environmental resources for future generations, through the expansion of phenomena such as “greenwashing,” is now more concrete than ever.

The term “greenwashing” refers to a communication or marketing technique that tries to capitalize on the growing demand for products and behaviors with low environmental impact by highlighting actions that are not authentic but promoted solely to appear more “sustainable.”

Indeed, in the sale of “greenwashed” services and products, it is evident that the correctness of the sustainable image conveyed by the selling company and its adherence to reality are fundamental elements in assessing the legality of the behavior adopted. This is also because the consumers’ right to make informed and conscious purchases, as enshrined in the EU consumers’ protection directive, is strongly violated in the case of greenwashing practices aimed at deceiving the buyer through the presentation of ecological aspects of the company and products that are not possessed or in any way verifiable by it. Accordingly, the EU aims to systematically develop a modern, efficient, and more equitable framework.

Greenwashing represents a significant violation of the Directive 2005/29/EC, which specifies the unfair businessto-consumer commercial practices that are banned across the EU because they consist of acts or omissions directly connected to the promotion, sale, or supply of a product by a trader to consumers, which infringes the consumers’ economic interests before, during, and after the transaction.

The Directive 2005/29/EC, yet amended by Directive (EU) 2019/2161 to enhance enforcement and modernize EU consumer protection rules, and to address market innovations, particularly in online marketing, has recently been strengthened by Directive (EU) 2024/825, which empowers consumers for the green transition through better information and protection against unfair practices.

In general, all Business to Consumer (B2C) commercial practices that are false, contrary to professional diligence,

or likely to appreciably distort the economic behavior in relation to the product of the average consumer it reaches or to whom it is directed, including the usually tolerated advertising practice consisting of exaggerated statements or statements made not intended to be taken literally, are now forbidden in the case of using terms of sustainability not scientifically proven or demonstrable. These statements must be considered unfair and thus prohibited.

In particular, to avoid engaging in greenwashing practices, business operators should use labels able to set apart and promote a product, a process, or a business by reference to its truly environmental or social characteristics. An “environmental claim,” provided in any form, “which states or implies that a product, product category, brand or trader has a positive or zero impact on the environment or is less damaging to the environment than other products, product categories, brands or traders, or has improved its impact over time,” is subject to the same high standards.

Intending to standardize the methods for evaluating “green” choices made to the public, the EU is developing more initiatives under the Green Deal and Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) policies. Increasing the relevance of the adoption of eco-compatible choices, both at a macroeconomic and microeconomic level, forces a particular focus on the agri-food sector as these are among the most heavily affected by pan-sustainability.

The difficulty in defining strict parameters in the regulation of low-environmental-impact products, unlike in the case of organic agri-food products, leads to challenges in creating rules that are globally and uniquely applicable, aimed at reducing pollutants and carbon dioxide (CO2). No longer can promises be made to consumers that there is lack of sufficient scientific data to support what is stated or that presented images lead consumers to believe that the product sold has a positive impact on the environment.

The Misleading Facade of EcoClaims: Greenwashing Cases in Italian Marketing Practices

Among the cases of greenwashing sanctioned by the Italian authority, it is worth remembering the case related to the spread of false information through the packaging of products and the product websites www.nappynat. com/it and www.nappynat.it. Advertising messages promoted diapers while attributing the characteristics of eco-compatibility. The products were indeed advertised as “100% natural“ and “made with raw materials of vegetable origin, “ suggesting biodegradability, compostability, bacteriostatic properties, and the natural origin of the raw materials employed. However, these claims could not be attributable to such products as the company did not scientifically demonstrate them.

Yet before the 2024 Green Claims Directive, the Italian Competition Authority – AGCM – pronounced negatively on the use of messages such as “green component” and “renewable component,” together with the recourse to

other environmental protection claims for green diesel fuel, a product by its nature highly polluting but qualifying it as eco-compatible. This was considered misleading for consumers and a deceptive advertisement.

The case with which labels exalting sustainability are used, especially regarding agri-food products and the perspective of their valorization, has led to an increase in business models adopted by companies defined as green marketing. These systems are mainly substantiated in advertising campaigns and marketing strategies aimed at exalting attention to the environment, and despite an exaltation of the eco-compatible aspects of the product declared, it is not possible to obtain reliable, independent, and verifiable evidence based on the most recent scientific methods and results.

Such information, capable of conferring added value to the good, results mainly in advertising messages that exalt the “rusticity” of the product, its connection to the land, and agricultural traditions considered sustainable in themselves. The common recourse to slogans exalting green colors, bucolic settings, and fairy-tale landscapes often animated by humanized creatures, as well as the promotion of reforestation initiatives, planting of green areas that do not consider the highly polluting activities carried out by the company, induce the consumer to purchase under the mistaken belief of performing a gesture in favor of the environment.

Green marketing indeed influences the choice capacity of the consumer, impacting primarily two aspects: one related to the environmental impact of the product and the “ecological sensitivity” of the consumer, i.e., the perception that through their purchase choices, they are making an effective contribution to the protection of the environment; and a second related to the “economic sensitivity” of the consumer who, convinced of obtaining a final economic saving, purchases products of which the energy saving connected to regular use is highlighted.

Greenwashing represents a significant violation of the Directive 2005/29/EC [
].

The recourse to incorrect communication that passes through the vagueness and genericity of the language, proclaiming of companies as “green” only concerning a marginal phase of the production process, thus omitting to inform the consumer about the environmental impact that the other stages of the cycle generate, and depriving consumers of the necessary data to allow their verification or the replicability of the performance, are all deceptive behaviors. They are also stigmatized based on the Directive 2024/825/CE, which is a result of the European Green Deal approaches to transform the EU economy towards a more sustainable future.

The reference to the truthfulness of data, its relevance, and verifiability, as well as the principle of loyalty or correctness in consumer information practices, when applied to agrifood products, necessitates a comprehensive view of the

information communicated. Consequently, even mandatory communications may prove inadequate in correcting a wrong or ambiguous impression created by other optional elements on the label, including images or symbols on the packaging that suggest a low environmental impact.

In order to address the emerging issues related to the proliferation of unverifiable information concerning the eco-sustainable aspects of products and organizations, the EU legislature has long begun a slow process toward defining methodological standards to be applied in communicating to consumers the environmental choices made by businesses. The issue of greenwashing takes on specific significance in the context of agri-food products for two primary reasons: firstly, the direct and immediate link between the utilization of land and other environmental resources and the resultant food products, and secondly, the profound relationship between nutrition, health, and environmental well-being, influenced by consumers’ informed and conscious eating behaviors.

Innovative Approaches and Technologies to Limit Greenwashing in Agriculture

At the EU level, the Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) and the Organization Environmental Footprint (OEF) can be helpful not only to mitigate the risks arising from the implementation of greenwashing practices, but also because of the proposal of methodologies aimed at uniformly measuring environmental performance, making them verifiable. There is also an initial dialogue plan towards the creation of systems that can take the form of national or EU-wide intervention plans for specific agricultural production sectors, including the drafting of standards related to individual supply chains.

Green marketing indeed influences the choice capacity of the consumer [
].

At the Italian level, the emergence of unique systems for the assessment and communication of sustainability, with a view to greater analytical completeness in areas of particular importance, such as the agri-food sector, have the merit of being related to individual supply chains. Among these are the voluntary certification system and the related sustainability label for the wine supply chain. There is the “Disciplinare del sistema di certificazione della sostenibilità del settore vitivinicolo” (D.D. MIPAFF n° 124900 on 16/03/2022), where eco-sustainable choices and adherence to the established standards are confirmed through verification by an independent third-party certification entity.

Additionally, the standards are subject to an annual review to continually respond to advances in science and technology and evolving economic, environmental, and social sustainability principles. The transition of businesses’ eco-sustainable decisions from adherence to internally developed standards to incorporation into expansive,

publicly recognized frameworks, mirrors successful practices in the wine industry. This approach seems to address the challenges of greenwashing effectively. Furthermore, aligning supply chain needs with the finest technical and scientific benchmarks essential for substantiating these standards is now imperative and will ensure the integrity of green communication strategies.

Systems such as blockchain and the Internet of Things (IoT), already widely used in the agri-food sector, demonstrate their ability to meet the growing needs for control and optimization of supply chain performance within a framework of increasing sustainability. Furthermore, the provision of standards containing strict parameters to make the business more eco-sustainable both in the field and in the transformation phase of the agricultural product could involve the adoption of computerized systems or suitable instruments to guarantee significant improvements in the use and management of resources within the supply chain, also favoring the desirable full traceability from field to table, essential in the marketing of products that can be correctly labeled as “sustainable,” thus ensuring complete and correct communication to the final consumer.

The use of blockchain and computer tools applicable along the entire supply chain, such as, among others, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), Earth Observation (EO), Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), IoT, and related industries, indeed facilitates the possibility to act based on scientific data and obtained measurements, implementing shared internal policies which permit the initiation of positive circular economy pathways. Consider, for example, the development of Decision Support Systems capable of promoting the conscious and effective use of wastewater in agriculture or systems able to consequently reduce the production of waste and greenhouse gas emissions, which could well support the PEF or OEF and be a base for the action plans of the European Commission. Technologies and instruments suitable for tracking, measuring, and optimizing the phases of the supply chain could also be used in the context of a more radical transformation of consumption models, thus representing a starting point for an activity of systematization of the area and correct dissemination of a green philosophy. It is indeed undeniable that an economy allowing the reuse of resources along with consistent, effective economic growth, dissociated from the use of the same, must be based on a complex approach that rests on broad and flexible foundations, where not only is the path of improvement made by the individual valued, but also the ability of the latter to assume measurable and verifiable behaviors post hoc. ■

Dr. Beatrice LA PORTA Attorney at Law, Professor of “Food trade and Safety Legislation”, A.Y. 2023/2024

Fulbright Schuman Visiting Scholar at the Food Law and Policy Clinic, Harvard Law School UniversitĂ  degli Studi di Palermo Palermo, Italy beatrice.laporta@fulbright

Juger les crimes environnemen taux devant la CPI : menaces ou promesses ?

Ô The Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court recently announced that it will soon adopt a general policy on environmental crimes, aimed at increasing the transparency and predictability in his Office’s work in this crucial area. This article details the previous attempts to prosecute grave offences against the environment before the International Criminal Court, and addresses the legal mechanisms that could be put in place to achieve this goal, as well as the practical obstacles the Office of the Prosecutor may face in this endeavour.

Ô El Fiscal de la Corte Penal Internacional anunciĂł recientemente que pronto adoptarĂĄ una polĂ­tica general sobre delitos contra el medio ambiente, con el objetivo de aumentar la transparencia y la previsibilidad en el trabajo de su FiscalĂ­a en este ĂĄmbito crucial. Este artĂ­culo detalla los intentos anteriores de enjuiciar delitos graves contra el medio ambiente ante la Corte Penal Internacional, y aborda los mecanismos jurĂ­dicos que podrĂ­an establecerse para alcanzar este objetivo, asĂ­ como los obstĂĄculos prĂĄcticos a los que la FiscalĂ­a podrĂ­a enfrentarse en este empeño.

Ukraine, Russie, IsraĂ«l, Palestine
 la Cour pĂ©nale internationale (CPI) est sur tous les fronts et n’a jamais fait l’objet d’autant d’attention, que ce soit pour dĂ©crier sa lenteur, appeler Ă  un renforcement de ses moyens ou dĂ©noncer sa prĂ©tendue ingĂ©rence dans les affaires politiques. Pourtant, une information n’a pas eu le retentissement qu’elle aurait mĂ©ritĂ©.

1. L’annonce

Le 7 février 2024, le Procureur de la CPI, Karim A. A. Khan KC, était invité à la réunion internationale « Justice, Générations futures et Environnement », accueillie par le Conseil Constitutionnel à Paris. Devant une centaine de présidents et juges de cours nationales, régionales et internationales, il a annoncé sa volonté de poursuivre les crimes environnementaux à La Haye.

« Si le Statut de Rome se concentre avant tout sur les crimes contre les individus ou les objets protĂ©gĂ©s comme les Ă©glises, les mosquĂ©es, les synagogues ou le patrimoine de l’Unesco, nous devons Ă©largir notre horizon au cours de ces conflits : l’environnement est trĂšs souvent ciblĂ© et trĂšs souvent la lutte pour les ressources sur l’environnement est un moteur de conflits » a-t-il soulignĂ©, donnant l’exemple du Darfour oĂč « la pĂ©nurie d’eau et les sĂ©cheresses, (...) a Ă©galement dĂ©clenchĂ© de l’animositĂ© ».

Quelques jours plus tard, le 16 fĂ©vrier 2024, le Bureau du Procureur de la CPI a officiellement lancĂ© une consultation publique en vue de l’adoption d’un projet de politique gĂ©nĂ©rale sur les crimes environnementaux. Universitaires, reprĂ©sentants de la sociĂ©tĂ© civile et professionnels du droit ont rĂ©pondu prĂ©sents Ă  l’appel et soumis leurs observations sur les principes et modalitĂ©s de la poursuite de tels crimes devant une juridiction pĂ©nale internationale.

Poursuivre les crimes environnementaux devant la CPI ne nécessite pas nécessairement de modifier le Statut de Rome.

L’objectif annoncĂ© de cette nouvelle politique gĂ©nĂ©rale est l’adoption d’une « approche systĂ©matique pour lutter contre les crimes impliquant, ou entraĂźnant, des dommages environnementaux relevant de la compĂ©tence de la Cour », afin de « faire prĂ©valoir le principe de responsabilitĂ© et Ă  accroĂźtre la transparence et la prĂ©visibilitĂ© de l’action du Bureau dans ce domaine crucial »1

Ce document est attendu pour décembre 2024, aprÚs une seconde phase de consultation.

2. Les précédents

Ce n’est pas la premiùre initiative visant à voir les principales atteintes à l’environnement reconnues comme crimes internationaux et poursuivis comme tels.

En 2016 dĂ©jĂ , la prĂ©cĂ©dente Procureure de la CPI, Fatou Bensouda, avait annoncĂ© que son Bureau « s’intĂ©ressera[it] particuliĂšrement aux crimes visĂ©s au Statut de Rome impliquant ou entraĂźnant, entre autres, des ravages Ă©cologiques, l’exploitation illicite de ressources naturelles ou l’expropriation illicite de terrains »2

Cette annonce avait suscitĂ© l’espoir : courant 2021, des reprĂ©sentants de communautĂ©s autochtones et d’organisations non-gouvernementales ont annoncĂ© avoir transmis au Bureau du Procureur des dossiers accusant l’ancien PrĂ©sident brĂ©silien Jair Bolsonaro de crimes contre l’humanitĂ©, Ă  raison de son rĂŽle allĂ©guĂ© dans l’accaparement de terres autochtones, la dĂ©forestation massive de la forĂȘt amazonienne et l’aggravation des impacts nĂ©gatifs du changement climatique.

Les suites donnĂ©es Ă  ces communications n’ont toutefois pas Ă©tĂ© rendues publiques, tandis qu’aucun dossier de

cette nature n’a Ă©tĂ© ouvert par le Bureau du Procureur Ă  ce jour


Surtout, Ă  partir de 2020, un groupe d’expert indĂ©pendants rĂ©unis par la Fondation Stop Ecocide a travaillĂ© Ă  un projet d’amendement, visant Ă  introduire le crime d’écocide dans le Statut de Rome, en faisant une cinquiĂšme infraction relevant de la compĂ©tence de la Cour, aux cĂŽtĂ©s du crime de guerre, du crime contre l’humanitĂ©, du gĂ©nocide et du crime d’agression.

DĂ©jĂ  Ă©voquĂ©e par le Premier ministre SuĂ©dois Olof Palme, en 1972, lors de la ConfĂ©rence des Nations Unies sur l’environnement humain, la notion d’écocide emprunte au terme grec « oikos » (« maison/domicile » Ă©largi Ă  « habitat/environnement ») et au suffixe latin « cide » (« tuer ») sur le modĂšle du terme de gĂ©nocide créé en 1944 par Rafael Lemkin. Elle vise Ă  criminaliser les atteintes Ă  l’environnement les plus graves et les plus Ă©tendues.

La version finale du projet d’amendement, adoptĂ©e par la Fondation Stop Ecocide en juin 2021, dĂ©finit l’écocide comme : « des actes illicites ou arbitraires commis en connaissance de la rĂ©elle probabilitĂ© que ces actes causent Ă  l’environnement des dommages graves qui soient Ă©tendus ou durables »3.

Selon ses auteurs, cette dĂ©finition permettrait ainsi de poursuivre non seulement les personnes ayant effectivement et intentionnellement causĂ© de graves dommages environnementaux, mais Ă©galement celles qui auraient fait preuve d’une « nĂ©gligence coupable » en ayant eu « conscience d’une rĂ©elle probabilitĂ© de causer des dommages graves qui soient Ă©tendus ou durables ».

1. Communication de la Cour pénale internationale, Le Bureau du Procureur lance une consultation publique sur un nouveau projet de politique générale visant à établir les responsabilités pour les crimes environnementaux en vertu du Statut de Rome, 16 février 2024 - https:// www.icc-cpi.int/fr/news/le-bureau-du-procureur-lance-une-consultationpublique-sur-un-nouveau-projet-de-politique.

2. Bureau du Procureur de la CPI, Document de politique générale relatif à la sélection et à la hiérarchisation des affaires , 15 septembre 2016, para. 41 - https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/itemsDocuments/20160915_OTP-Policy_Case-Selection_Fra.pdf.

Cet Ă©largissement des modes de responsabilitĂ© prĂ©vus par le Statut de Rome est sans nul doute l’un des principaux points de blocage Ă  l’adoption du projet d’amendement, la

3. Fondation Stop Ecocide, Commentaire de la définition, juin 2021https://www.stop-ecocide.fr/definition-legale.

plupart des États parties n’étant Ă  ce jour pas prĂȘts Ă  un tel Ă©largissement de la responsabilitĂ© pĂ©nale internationale. Mais dans l’attente d’une rĂ©forme statutaire, certaines atteintes Ă  l’environnement peuvent d’ores et dĂ©jĂ  ĂȘtre poursuivies devant la CPI.

3. Les qualifications pénales

Poursuivre les crimes environnementaux devant la CPI ne nécessite pas nécessairement de modifier le Statut de Rome.

Le document constitutif de la CPI donne Ă  celle-ci compĂ©tence pour poursuivre et juger quatre infractions : crime de guerre, crime contre l’humanitĂ©, gĂ©nocide et agression. Or, dans les mots du Procureur : « Attaquer une centrale nuclĂ©aire, un barrage, utiliser des produits chimiques, par exemple, pour financer un conflit, par l’extraction de minerais prĂ©cieux, tout cela peut ĂȘtre des mĂ©thodes par lesquelles des dommages environnementaux sont causĂ©s dans un contexte de commission de gĂ©nocide, de crimes de guerre, de crimes contre l’humanitĂ©, voire de crimes d’agression ».

La qualification des atteintes environnementales comme crime de guerre ne cause pas de difficultĂ© majeure. Depuis 1977 en effet, les articles 35(3) et 55 du Premier Protocol Additionnel aux Conventions de GenĂšve interdisent aux parties Ă  tout conflit armĂ© « d’utiliser des mĂ©thodes ou moyens de guerre qui sont conçus pour causer, ou dont on peut attendre qu’ils causeront, des dommages Ă©tendus, durables et graves Ă  l’environnement naturel ».

Ces textes visent Ă  prohiber l’utilisation de tout armement susceptible d’entraĂźner des consĂ©quences dĂ©sastreuses sur l’environnement – tels l’arme nuclĂ©aire Ă  Hiroshima et Nagasaki ou l’agent orange au Vietnam –, mais Ă©galement la destruction dĂ©libĂ©rĂ©e de l’environnement comme arme de guerre – tels les incendies des champs de pĂ©trole au KoweĂŻt.

A ce titre, l’article 8)2)b)iv) du Statut de Rome vise dĂ©jĂ  parmi les crimes de guerre relevant de la compĂ©tence de la Cour : « Le fait de diriger intentionnellement une attaque en sachant qu’elle causera incidemment [
] des dommages Ă©tendus, durables et graves Ă  l’environnement naturel qui seraient manifestement excessifs par rapport Ă  l’ensemble de l’avantage militaire concret et direct attendu ».

Prenons en exemple la destruction du barrage de Kakhova en Ukraine, le 6 juin 2023. Si l’enquĂȘte dira prĂ©cisĂ©ment comment, par qui, et pourquoi le barrage a Ă©tĂ© dĂ©truit, les premiers Ă©lĂ©ments rendus publics tendent Ă  suggĂ©rer que cette infrastructure a Ă©tĂ© intentionnellement dĂ©truite par les forces russes, afin d’empĂȘcher les troupes ukrainiennes de traverser le Dniepr.

Si un tel objectif est parfaitement lĂ©gitime en temps de guerre, la destruction du barrage est susceptible de constituer un crime de guerre, s’il est Ă©tabli que les dommages

ainsi causĂ©s Ă  l’environnement sont « manifestement excessifs » par rapport au but militaire recherchĂ©.

Aucun barĂšme fixe n’ayant Ă©tĂ© Ă©tabli pour apprĂ©cier la proportionnalitĂ© d’une atteinte Ă  l’environnement Ă  un objectif militaire, celle-ci devra ĂȘtre Ă©valuĂ©e au cas par cas, sur la base des Ă©lĂ©ments de preuve qui seront rassemblĂ©s par les enquĂȘteurs. A ce jour, il est dĂ©jĂ  relevĂ© que la destruction du barrage a causĂ© l’inondation de 620kmÂČ de terres dont de nombreuses zones naturelles protĂ©gĂ©es, le dĂ©versement d’eaux contaminĂ©es aux mĂ©taux lourds, la destruction d’écosystĂšmes et de nombreuses espĂšces animales et vĂ©gĂ©tales, sans compter les risques de pĂ©nuries d’eau potable et d’irrigation des terres agricoles, ainsi que les menaces pesant sur la sĂ©curitĂ© de la centrale nuclĂ©aire de Zaporijia


Quelques jours aprĂšs la destruction du barrage, le Procureur gĂ©nĂ©ral d’Ukraine a annoncĂ© ouvrir une enquĂȘte pour crime de guerre sur ce fondement, mais Ă©galement pour Ă©cocide, ce crime ayant Ă©tĂ© introduit dans le Code pĂ©nal ukrainien dĂšs 2001.

Qualifier les atteintes Ă  l’environnement de crime contre l’humanitĂ© ou de gĂ©nocide peut s’avĂ©rer plus difficile.

Qualifier les atteintes Ă  l’environnement de crime contre l’humanitĂ© ou de gĂ©nocide peut s’avĂ©rer plus difficile. La premiĂšre de ces infractions requiert d’établir que celles-ci ont Ă©tĂ© commises dans le cadre d’une « attaque gĂ©nĂ©ralisĂ©e ou systĂ©matique lancĂ©e contre toute population civile et en connaissance de cette attaque » et qu’elles constituent par ailleurs des actes inhumains causant intentionnellement de grandes souffrances ou des atteintes graves Ă  l’intĂ©gritĂ© physique ou Ă  la santĂ© physique ou mentale des populations visĂ©es.

S’agissant du crime de gĂ©nocide, son application requiert de dĂ©montrer que les dommages environnementaux ont Ă©tĂ© commis « dans l’intention de dĂ©truire, en tout ou en partie, un groupe national, ethnique, racial ou religieux, comme tel » et qu’ils constituent par ailleurs des faits de meurtres ou d’atteintes graves Ă  l’intĂ©gritĂ© physique ou mentale de membres du groupe, de soumission intentionnelle du groupe Ă  des conditions d’existence devant entraĂźner sa destruction physique totale ou partielle, voire qu’ils visent Ă  entraver les naissances au sein du groupe.

Si de telles qualifications peuvent, de prime abord, ne pas aller de soi, elles pourraient venir s’appliquer notamment Ă  des situations oĂč la destruction de l’environnement vise intentionnellement Ă  affamer une population civile, ou Ă  la soumettre Ă  des conditions d’existence conduisant Ă  son extermination.

A ce titre, il est intĂ©ressant de relever que, lors de l’annonce de la prochaine adoption d’une politique gĂ©nĂ©rale sur les crimes environnementaux, le Procureur de la CPI a spĂ©cifiquement visĂ© l’exemple du Darfour. Or, cette situation est Ă  ce jour la seule pour laquelle la Cour a Ă©mis un mandat d’arrĂȘt pour gĂ©nocide, visant l’ancien PrĂ©sident

du Soudan Omar Al-Bashir, notamment en ce qu’il aurait ordonnĂ© le pillage systĂ©matique des ressources agricoles, l’accaparement des terres et la contamination des puits et pompes Ă  eau des groupes visĂ©s.

4. Les incertitudes

La nouvelle politique gĂ©nĂ©rale devra prĂ©ciser quels types d’actes sont susceptibles de susciter l’ouverture d’une enquĂȘte par le Bureau du Procureur, quels Ă©lĂ©ments de preuve sont nĂ©cessaires pour caractĂ©riser les infractions poursuivies, mais Ă©galement – sinon surtout – quelles catĂ©gories de personnes peuvent voir leur responsabilitĂ© pĂ©nale engagĂ©e de ce chef.

Or, le Statut de Rome, dans sa rédaction actuelle, ne permet pas de poursuivre des personnes morales devant la CPI [
].

Donnant quelques exemples de situations pouvant relever de la compĂ©tence de la Cour, le Procureur a soulignĂ© que les conflits modernes prennent souvent « la forme d’une offre commerciale pour obtenir des terres rares, des diamants de conflits, de l’or, du bois et du bois d’Ɠuvre » ou encore que l’usage du mercure et du cyanure pour extraire des minerais prĂ©cieux causent « des Ă©cosystĂšmes entiers dĂ©gradĂ©s, voire dĂ©truits, des riviĂšres pleines de vie, de plantes sauvages et de poissons deviennent des friches oĂč rĂšgnent la mort et le dĂ©sespoir ».

De tels exemples tendent Ă  porter le regard non seulement sur les responsables Ă©tatiques et chefs de groupes armĂ©s (soit les cibles habituelles de la CPI) mais Ă©galement sur des reprĂ©sentants du crime organisĂ©, voire des acteurs privĂ©s et des entreprises dont les activitĂ©s extractives, productives ou commerciales sont susceptibles d’entrainer des dommages graves Ă  l’environnement.

Le dernier rapport d’Europol sur les crimes environnementaux, publiĂ© en juillet 2022, souligne ainsi que « [l]a majoritĂ© des acteurs de la criminalitĂ© environnementale sont des propriĂ©taires/gĂ©rants d’entreprises lĂ©gales opportunistes qui dĂ©cident d’augmenter leurs chances de profits en crĂ©ant une entreprise criminelle », citant en particulier les secteurs de la gestion des dĂ©chets, de la production ou de la vente d’appareils Ă©lectroniques, de la production de biocarburants, de l’exportation de matiĂšres premiĂšres, de la pĂȘche, etc.4

Or, le Statut de Rome, dans sa rĂ©daction actuelle, ne permet pas de poursuivre des personnes morales devant la CPI : seules peuvent ĂȘtre poursuivies les personnes physiques de plus de 18 ans ayant commis, ordonnĂ©, sollicitĂ©,

encouragĂ©, ou facilitĂ© la commission d’un crime relevant de la compĂ©tence de la Cour.

Juridiquement, rien ne s’oppose Ă  ce que des dirigeants d’entreprises soient poursuivis, Ă  titre personnel et individuel, devant la CPI, pour avoir contribuĂ© Ă  la commission de crimes environnementaux dans le cadre de leurs activitĂ©s, Ă  condition que ceux-ci puissent ĂȘtre qualifiĂ©s de crimes de guerre, crime contre l’humanitĂ©, ou gĂ©nocide.

Toutefois, la CPI n’a, Ă  ce jour, jamais eu Ă  s’interroger sur la maniĂšre dont les modes de responsabilitĂ© prĂ©vus par son Statut pourraient s’appliquer au monde de l’entreprise. SociĂ©tĂ©s-mĂšres et filiales, sociĂ©tĂ©s absorbantes et absorbĂ©es, sociĂ©tĂ©s Ă©crans, gĂ©rants de droit et gĂ©rants de fait, dĂ©lĂ©gations de pouvoirs, prĂȘte-noms
 sont autant de concepts dont les juridictions pĂ©nales nationales sont trĂšs familiĂšres et la CPI trĂšs Ă©trangĂšre.

La nouvelle politique gĂ©nĂ©rale devra ainsi nĂ©cessairement s’interroger sur les mĂ©canismes propres aux crimes environnementaux et anticiper la maniĂšre dont les modes de responsabilitĂ© prĂ©vus par le Statut de Rome pourraient s’appliquer aux acteurs privĂ©s et Ă  leurs dirigeants.

« Une idĂ©e en tant que promesse ou espoir est trĂšs diffĂ©rente d’une politique rĂ©flĂ©chie » a soulignĂ© Karim A. A. Khan KC devant l’assemblĂ©e rĂ©unie par le Conseil constitutionnel, souhaitant vraisemblablement se dĂ©marquer de sa prĂ©dĂ©cesseuse, qui avait annoncĂ© que son Bureau s’intĂ©resserait aux crimes environnementaux sans plus de prĂ©cision.

L’avenir nous dira si ces dĂ©clarations sont suivies d’effets ou si elles restent menaces – ou promesses – en l’air. ■

Clara GÉRARD-RODRIGUEZ Avocate, FTMS Avocats Paris, France cgrodriguez@ftmsavocats.com

4. Europol, Environmental Crime in the age of climate change, Threat assessment 2022, traduction libre – https://www.europol.europa.eu/ publications-events/publications/environmental-crime-in-age-of-climatechange-2022-threat-assessment#downloads.

Harnessing Neurodiversity in the Legal Field

Ô L’intĂ©gration de la neurodiversitĂ© dans le domaine juridique signifie un changement substantiel vers l’inclusion et l’innovation. Cette approche reconnaĂźt les troubles tels que les TSA, le TDAH et la dyslexie non pas comme des handicaps mais comme des atouts, car ils offrent des capacitĂ©s cognitives et des perspectives uniques. MalgrĂ© la lenteur du taux d’adoption, l’intĂ©gration des talents neurodivers promet d’amĂ©liorer la rĂ©solution des problĂšmes, l’adaptabilitĂ© et la richesse de la culture du lieu de travail, tant dans le domaine juridique qu’au-delĂ .

Ô La aceptaciĂłn de la neurodiversidad en el ĂĄmbito jurĂ­dico supone un cambio transformador hacia la inclusiĂłn y la innovaciĂłn. Este enfoque reconoce que trastornos como el TEA, el TDAH y la dislexia no son una desventaja, sino una ventaja, ya que ofrecen capacidades cognitivas y perspectivas Ășnicas. A pesar del lento ritmo de adopciĂłn, la integraciĂłn del talento neurodiverso promete mejorar la resoluciĂłn de problemas, la adaptabilidad y una cultura del trabajo mĂĄs rica, tanto en el ĂĄmbito jurĂ­dico como fuera de Ă©l.

Introduction: Unleashing Potential Through Neurodiverse Talent

Picture a legal practice where diversity in brain function and perspective does not just gain acceptance; it forms the bedrock of the firm’s strategic and operational excellence. This concept, anchored in the philosophy of neurodiversity, understands conditions such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Dyslexia, and Tourette Syndrome not as liabilities, but as assets. These conditions bring to the table an extraordinary array of cognitive abilities and viewpoints. In an industry as nuanced and tradition-bound as law, recognizing and leveraging neurodiversity can break new ground. It fosters innovation, enhances problem-solving capabilities, and equips firms to adapt more fluidly to change.

A growing body of research and advocacy highlights the benefits of neurodiversity, not just for individuals but for the organizations that employ them.

The neurodiversity movement reframes variations in neurological functioning as part of the rich tapestry of human diversity. Viewing these differences not as shortcomings but as unique attributes offers a fresh perspective, especially in fields that have historically valued a narrow set of skills. Dependent on both genetic and environmental factors, it is estimated that between 15-20 percent of the world’s population experience some form of neurodivergence 1 Considering the aforementioned statistics, we could assume that – in fields like the legal one, which has been slower to embrace diversity in all its forms – this could result in significant risks for underutilization of talent.

The Current Scenario: Catalyzing Change while Maintaining our Roots

In the heart of the legal profession, a quiet but powerful transformation is unfolding. This change is driven by an increasing recognition of some of the untapped potential that neurodivergent individuals offer. Their innate abilities – such as unparalleled memory recall, superior pattern recognition, and a propensity for out-of-the-box thinking – are now being acknowledged as game-changers in the meticulous and often rigid world of law. Despite this growing awareness, the presence of initiatives for hiring and retaining neurodivergent professionals within the legal ranks remains surprisingly low. This means that there is still a significant gap to fulfill between the profession’s capabilities and its practices.

1. N. Doyle, Neurodiversity at work: A biopsychosocial model and the impact on working adults, Br Med Bull; 2020.

This disparity is not just a matter of statistics; it reflects a broader issue within the legal industry’s approach to diversity and innovation. The slow pace of change suggests a deeply ingrained reluctance to deviate from the “tried and true,” to the detriment of both the profession and the individuals it serves. Yet, evidence suggests that embracing neurodiversity could be the key to unlocking a new era of legal awareness and problem-solving.

Some neurodivergent individuals possess a natural affinity for the kinds of analytical and strategic challenges that define legal work. For instance, those with ASD might excel in identifying patterns and inconsistencies in case law, a skill that can lead to more thorough and effective legal analyses. Similarly, individuals with ADHD, known for their dynamic thinking and ability to maintain high energy levels under pressure, can thrive in fast-paced legal environments, offering fresh perspectives and resilience in negotiations, brainstorming sessions, or courtroom settings.

On the other hand, such individuals could experience diverse needs dependent on their different brain functioning, like the need to take more frequent and short breaks, implement communication strategies and systems to avoid bias, work at times in isolation from intrusive sensory stimuli, or rely on digital aids to plan, organize, and execute their day-to-day work. Some of these methodologies and tools can be implemented easily in the context of the legal profession, and several neurodivergent practitioners are already successfully sharing their knowledge and experience in doing so –whether in law schools, law firms, or legal departments. This often results in an opportunity for the improvement of the work of their non-neurodivergent colleagues.

Yet, today, the current representation of neurodivergent talent in law is not merely an issue of underutilization; it is a reflection of the barriers these individuals face, from recruitment processes that fail to recognize their strengths to work environments that do not accommodate their needs. The industry’s historical emphasis on conformity, hierarchy, and traditional work patterns often sidelines those who could bring much-needed diversity of thought and innovation.

This scenario is ripe for change. A growing body of research and advocacy highlights the benefits of neurodiversity, not just for individuals but for the organizations that employ them. Progressive legal firms and departments are beginning to take note, experimenting with new approaches to hiring, training, and workplace design that prioritize inclusion and harness the unique strengths of neurodivergent professionals. These pioneers in the field are not only challenging the status quo, but also setting a new standard for excellence and innovation in law.

As the legal profession confronts its future, the inclusion of neurodivergent talent represents a significant opportunity. By breaking down the barriers that have historically excluded these individuals, law firms and legal departments can tap into a rich vein of creativity, analytical prowess, and resilience. The path forward involves not just

accommodating neurodiversity but actively seeking it out and nurturing it, recognizing that the future of law is not just about who gets represented, but also about who gets to do the representing. This shift towards a more inclusive, neurodiverse legal profession is not just about doing what is right; it is about doing what is smart, leveraging a broad spectrum of human capability to navigate the complexities and challenges of modern legal practice.

Strategies for Inclusion: Empowering Neurodiversity with Vibrant Innovation

To sculpt a legal landscape where neurodiversity flourishes, law firms, legal departments, and institutions must embark on a deliberate journey of transformation. This adventure requires courage, creativity, and a commitment to reinvent at every level. Here, we map out the vibrant strategies that can ignite this change, fostering a legal ecosystem rich in diverse talents and perspectives.

(i) Adopting new recruitment strategies. The gateway to a neurodiverse legal profession is through innovative hiring practices. It is time to dismantle the conventional recruitment playbook and craft a new narrative that highlights the unique strengths and potential of neurodivergent talent. Law firms can achieve this by partnering with organizations specializing in neurodiverse employment and by adopting nontraditional assessment methods that allow candidates to showcase their abilities in a supportive environment.

(ii) Redesigning Workspaces . Our work environments speak volumes about our values. By crafting spaces that cater to a spectrum of sensory preferences and cognitive needs, law firms and companies can create a place where neurodivergent professionals can thrive. This could mean offering options for lighting adjustments, quiet zones free from auditory distractions, and flexible seating arrangements. Such tangible changes demonstrate an understanding of individual needs, fostering a culture of respect and accommodation.

(iii) Cultivating Knowledge and Empathy . Education is the linchpin of cultural change. By implementing comprehensive training programs on neurodiversity, law firms and legal departments can illuminate the strengths and challenges associated with neurological differences. These sessions, infused with real-life stories and insights from neurodivergent individuals, can transform perspectives, encouraging empathy and collaboration across the team. This shared understanding becomes the foundation for a more inclusive, supportive workplace.

(iv) Fostering Connection and Growth . Mentorship and peer support networks are crucial for navigating the professional landscape, especially for those who may feel isolated by their differences. Establishing programs that connect neurodivergent professionals with allies

and mentors within the legal field provides invaluable guidance and support. These relationships not only aid in professional development, but also build a sense of community and belonging, vital for sustaining engagement and innovation.

(v) Aligning Roles with Strengths. The true magic happens when individuals are empowered to leverage their unique talents. Law firms can lead the charge by aligning tasks and projects with the innate strengths of their neurodivergent staff. This strategic matching process allows individuals to shine in their roles, enhancing job satisfaction and productivity. Whether it is detailed research, creative problem-solving, or strategic planning, recognizing and utilizing these unique abilities can propel firms to new heights of success.

(vi) Redefining Success Metrics . Traditional measures of performance often fail to capture the diverse contributions of neurodivergent professionals. Law firms can pioneer a more inclusive approach by developing evaluation criteria that reflect the unique strengths and accomplishments of all employees. This shift not only ensures fairness, but also encourages a broader definition of success, one that values innovation, creativity, and diverse problem-solving approaches.

Conclusion: Pioneering a Neuroinclusive Legal Future

The journey toward integrating neurodiversity into the legal domain is not just an ethical imperative, but an innovation of strategic nature. It signifies a paradigm shift towards a more equitable, inclusive, dynamic, and effective legal practice. This transformation promises a legal profession that is not only reflective of the society it serves, but also equipped to navigate the complexities of the modern world with agility and insight. As the movement for neurodiversity gains momentum, the legal sector stands on the brink of a renaissance, poised to redefine excellence in a way that embraces the full spectrum of human potential. ■

Tommaso DAVI Founder, Neuro-Sive, ESCP Business School EMBA Verona, Italy tommaso.davi@icloud.com

Marco IMPERIALE

Founder and Managing Director, Better Ipsum Bologna, Italy marco.imperiale@betteripsum.net

The Ascent of Women and Women Lawyers in North America

Ô On assiste Ă  une progression de la place de la femme dans la sociĂ©tĂ© contemporaine d’AmĂ©rique du Nord depuis cinq siĂšcles. Alors qu’elles Ă©taient autrefois des biens personnels ou rĂ©duites en esclavage, cet article aborde la façon dont les femmes ont progressĂ© d’un point de vue culturel et juridique, ainsi que les obstacles monumentaux auxquels elles ont Ă©tĂ© confrontĂ©es.

Ô Las mujeres han progresado enormemente en NorteamĂ©rica durante los Ășltimos cinco siglos. Aunque antaño eran propiedad personal o estaban esclavizadas, este artĂ­culo aborda cĂłmo avanzaron las mujeres desde una perspectiva cultural y jurĂ­dica y los monumentales obstĂĄculos a los que se enfrentaron.

Introduction

Curating themes, movements, laws, and women to select for this article, which spans five centuries, until women finally joined the ranks of lawyers, judges, arbitrators, prestigious corporate and non-profit positions, and high governmental offices, is not for the timid. For those readers who would have preferred different selections, please contribute to the body of literature with your perspective on this important topic, as much has been forgotten.

In the 17th century, when the French established colonies in what is now eastern Canada, and the English in eastern United States, women endured limited autonomy, had short life expectancies, and navigated religious and economic milieu within a patriarchal system.

While broad generalizations pertaining to women across the centuries are presented, it is understood that women also faced racial, ethnic, religious, and other obstacles. While Hispanic women and immigrants from Ireland, Italy, Finland, China, and Japan, as well as Jewish immigrants from Germany and Russia, faced their own unique

hardships, we will focus first on the plight of indigenous and African women before offering a broader perspective about women.

Indigenous and African American Women

Indigenous peoples from more than 500 tribes in what would become the U.S., and 60 in Canada, were impacted by colonists, settlors, government agents, and militia that caused tribes to lose their land, resources, and sovereignty through brute force, broken treaties, and laws. Some argue colonization was a genocidal practice, or at least one involving cultural genocide.

The Canadian Indian Act of 1876 allowed for the expropriation of indigenous lands; other takings were allowed under the Doctrine of Discovery. The U.S. Dawes Act of 1887 caused expropriation of communal lands, as did the 1903 landmark U.S. Supreme Court’s decision, Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, which enabled the U.S. Congress to abrogate treaty rights.

Many native people experienced inter-generational suffering from forced assimilation, resulting in loss of their culture, language, and traditions, and their children were forced to attend overcrowded boarding or residential schools, where they were given new names and inadequate healthcare. The passage of Section 35 of the Constitution Act in 1982, directed at Canada’s relationship with First Nations, Inuit, and Metis in Canada, importantly clarified past and continuing rights, including native people having both inherent rights and rights to self-governance.

African women, forced to come to North America through the transatlantic slave trade, experienced forced labor, including on plantations and in households; physical and sexual violence, including whippings and rape; and other exploitation. They also faced language and cultural suppression, were denied access to healthcare and educational opportunities, and were coerced to adopt the religious practices of their “owners.” Even when allowed to marry, marriages between enslaved people were

neither legally recognized nor protected, and any family member, including a child, could be sold.

Phyllis Wheatley, who was captured in Western Africa, proved to be a brilliant slave “girl.” Her owner gave her a solid education and supported her writing efforts, including the publication of her poetry book, which reflected an art form widely admired in 18th century poetry. Wheatley gained the attention of General George Washington and prominent clergy, who wrote to her personally and with respect. Others vilified her as a woman from Africa who could not have written what she did.

Freedom arrived in North America in the 19th century with Canada’s passage of the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833, and the U.S.’s passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865. However, whilst former slaves opened businesses and became prosperous, white male racial hierarchies reacted by creating a system referred to as “Jim Crow” that promoted racial segregation and discrimination in education, employment, transportation, and housing, along with voter suppression, some of which persisted into the 21st century. It is pertinent to note that these problems were less prevalent in Canada, where there was a less entrenched slave system.

Both black and indigenous women were disproportionately subjected to forced sterilization practices, particularly during the eugenics movement in the mid-20th century.

In the U.S., Native American women were also subject to government pressure for non-native families to adopt their children, whereas in Canada, children were placed in the child welfare system, which could result in children’s adoption by non-indigenous families. Black and indigenous women continued to face and successfully overcame many barriers, including access to quality education, applying and being considered for good jobs, and career advancement with good pay.

Western Expansion

The U.S. became a country in 1776, following the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and significantly grew in 1803 because of a treaty with France called the Louisiana Purchase, which resulted in it doubling in size through the acquisition of land west of the Mississippi, notwithstanding Indian sovereignty. In 1839, the U.S. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act and forced eastern tribes from their ancestral homes to lands west of the Mississippi. This process is enshrined in history as “The Trail of Tears,” an apt description for the white man’s forced and deadly efforts to destroy the Cherokee Nation.

The Mexican American War of 1846-1848 resulted in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, under which Mexico lost 55 percent of its territory, including California and Texas. The expansion of what would become Canadian territory was particularly impacted by the Quebec Act of 1774, the British North America Act of 1867, and the Rupert’s Land Act of 1868. The passage of the British North America Act of 1867 established the Dominion of Canada.

Witch Trials and Executions

Understanding the ascendence of women in North America would not be complete without considering what happened in the 17th century to “witches.” Those accused of witchcraft would include women who were: (1) non-traditional healers; (2) rivals regarding property, inheritances, or businesses; (3) widowed, childless, elderly, or unmarried; (4) non-conforming regarding behavior, dress, or speech; (5) attractive to men and therefore, fuel for sexual jealousy; (6) non-mainstream in their religious or spiritual practices; (7) scapegoats as the cause of social unrest or national disasters; and (8) known for their leadership qualities. Those deemed witches were often tortured and executed. The plight of such women was reflected in the infamous Salem Witch Trials of 1692 and forever captured in Arthur Miller’s play, The Crucible . Even today, criminal and civil defendants characterize investigations against them as witch hunts, so ingrained in this specter in American minds.

Black and indigenous women continued to face and successfully overcame many barriers, including access to quality education [
].

The Temperance Movement

At the onset of the colonial period, settlors presumed they got sick from drinking water, including water from lake and river sources, and hence, consumption of alcohol throughout the day became a part of everyday life, which continued for several centuries. When hard liquor like rum became cheap, men drank more. As men not only controlled but owned their families and family’s finances, their alcohol use led to unemployment, domestic violence, lack of participation in their families, and health problems. Women were incentivized to become active outside of their homes, which sowed the seeds for women’s rights and suffrage.

While early in the temperance movement of the 1700s, activists’ prevalent goals were to achieve moderate drinking; as time passed, others expressed moral or religious positions and became abolitionists. It was common for women to organize and develop the skills necessary to advocate for women’s rights and suffrage, along with a temperance agenda, such as 19th century’s Susan B. Anthony.

Through the mid-20th century, women continued to lack support networks and role models of successful women in their homes and family systems, in their religious institutions, in governance, and in the judiciary. Women also lacked legal recourse within their family systems when they suffered from physical violence and sexual assault by their husbands, much less access to shelters and legal aid organizations. It is noteworthy that domestic abuse laws did not exist until the 1970s.

Property Rights

Upon marriage, not only was women’s property in the U.S. subsumed or merged with their husbands’ property through coverture laws that continued through the late 19th century, but women and the children they bore also often became their husbands’ property. When their husbands died, the widows were granted only a life estate of one-third of his property through dower rights.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, many individual states and provinces passed married women’s property laws whereby women could continue to hold property in their own name once they married.

In the 19 th and 20 th centuries, many individual states and provinces passed married women’s property laws whereby women could continue to hold property in their own name once they married, as well as control their earnings and enter into contracts.

In 1862, the Homestead Act was passed by Congress, whereby those who lacked money but who fulfilled the Act’s conditions could acquire land in their own name from the government. This was soon followed by the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution in 1866, which gave women equal protection under the laws, but not the right to vote. U.S. voting rights were delayed five more decades.

Canada encouraged settlement through laws like the Dominion Lands Act of 1872. Married women’s property laws were also passed in Canada throughout the 19th century. Neither the U.S. nor Canada have yet passed a federal equal rights amendment.

Civil Rights, the Suffrage Movement, and the Right to Vote

In the 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement resulted in the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964, which focused primarily on racial discrimination and advanced protections against gender-based discrimination. The Canadian Human Rights Act, addressing some of the same rights, was passed in 1977. The Bilingual Education Act of 1974 advanced educational opportunities for Hispanic women in the U.S.

In April 1982, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms came into being, giving greater force to the constitutional principles already in place concerning the use of languages in the federal, Quebec, and Manitoba courts. It reaffirmed that bilingual services were available in the federal government and confirmed that New Brunswick was the only province that was fully bilingual. It integrated the right to education in a minority language in Canada for Canadian citizens who were in an official language minority, thereby ensuring the survival of linguistic communities. The principles of New Brunswick’s legislation establishing the equality of its two official

language communities were thereafter enshrined in the Charter in 1993.

Education

Women were expected to primarily perform domestic roles in the 17th through the late-20th centuries, and their education was a low priority. While lacking access to education in schools, some received basic instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic through informal home schools organized by women known as dames. In the 19th century, public education systems were developed in both the U.S. and Canada that enabled girls to receive primary, and less so, secondary education. Class curriculums were often different for girls and boys, and therefore, there were efforts to gain gender equality, in part through the co-education movement.

Through most of the 20th century, the premier institutions of higher learning had formal or informal policies that either excluded women from admission or made it difficult for them to enroll or get financial support. This helps explain why high-quality women colleges were formed, including Mount Holyoke in 1837, Vassar in 1861, and Bishop University in 1871. The passage of Title IX in the U.S. in 1972 and the Human Rights Act of Canada in 1977 positively impacted women gaining financial aid necessary for them to attend prestigious institutions.

Power Structures

Even when women were college educated and from families with high socioeconomic status, the male dominated power structure failed to take them seriously. Women encountered skepticism and prejudice, as reflected by discriminatory hiring practices, wage disparities, and denial of promotional opportunities. In newspapers and magazines, women were usually portrayed in roles consistent with societal norms that emphasized their role in domestic spheres, although by the 19th century, there was more media coverage concerning women’s rights, education, and employment.

Significantly, attorney Eleanor Holmes Norton, representing 60 female employees of the U.S. weekly Newsweek in 1970, brought the media giant before the U.S. Equal Opportunity Employment Commission and emerged victorious. Finally, women could be reporters and writers for this male-dominated institution.

Discriminatory practices long prevented married women in North America from practicing law, obtaining professional licenses, or joining bar associations as they were expected to continue in their traditional roles. Many barriers, including the exclusion of women from power structures where networking flourished, such as men’s clubs at universities, meant they lacked access to potential mentors to help them navigate the legal profession effectively, made even more important because of the dearth of professional female role models.

Religion

For centuries, most of the powerful roles in religious institutions, including the roles of priests, pastors, and bishops, were reserved for men only, which meant women were excluded from religious rituals and were sometimes segregated from men, even in religions where there were female deities. Women were expected to fulfill gender specific roles both in their places of worship and in their families. Consistent with the advancement of women in general, the 20th century brought an increase in the ordination of women as ministers, pastors, priests, chaplains, deacons, and rabbis, as well as spiritual directors and counselors.

The Dangers of Motherhood and Sexuality

In the Colonial Period, many women married early and died young, often before age 35. Lacking accessible medical care and birth control knowledge, married couples often tried techniques without understanding a women’s monthly cycle, used barrier methods (such as animal intestines), and herbal methods, none of which were reliable. Infant and maternal mortality were as high as 50 percent in the 16 th and 17 th centuries and remained high well into the mid-19th century when hygienic practices and sanitation became better understood. Women’s survival rates fur-

ther improved in the mid-20th century, when germs were understood, and antibiotics became readily available. The government in the U.S., both federally and in states, made and continues to make decisions that usurp women’s bodily autonomy and ability to protect their health.

Women were expected to fulfill gender specific roles both in their places of worship and in their families.

The acknowledgement and recognition of lesbian identities was negligible until the late 19th century, and women in same sex relationships were stigmatized, ostracized, and criminalized, or subjected to violence. Beginning in the late 20th century, laws emerged to decriminalize homosexuality and legalize same sex relationships, and anti-discrimination laws passed, too. In June 2015, in the landmark decision of Obergefell v. Windsor, the U.S. Supreme Court determined that same-sex marriage is a fundamental right.

Impact of Fashion and Makeup

Fashion impacted women’s comfort, credibility, and sense of identity. In the 1700s and 1800s, germs had not yet been discovered and families lacked hygienic practices, such as washing their clothes, bodies, and hair. Appropriately dealing with menstruation was also a challenge as the subject was taboo and pads rudimentary.

Most women in North America owned two to four outfits that covered their knees and elbows. Women often wore their dirty hair in buns, or under a cap. They were expected to wear stays made of whalebone or other materials to enhance their posture and curves. Depending on the weather, women wore up to five petticoats or skirts. They wore dresses while farming and skirts while hunting. By the 21st century, though fashion choices were broader, some women wore shapewear for similar effects, and others wore pointed toe high heeled shoes known to harm them.

By the 1800s, women wore wide bustles, impacting their movement. The death of Queen Victoria of England in 1901 brought an end to the Victorian period. The next two centuries led women into sports, which required new attire. The practical demands of women holding new work positions while men went abroad to fight world wars further caused women’s fashion to change. Women could breathe easier and wear clothing appropriate for their activities, including pants.

Mercury in beauty products caused skin problems or worse, and in more recent centuries, arsenic and asbestos did.

The makeup women wore was far from safe. Leadbased cosmetics, such as face powder, could lead to lead poisoning. Mercury in beauty products caused skin problems or worse, and in more recent centuries, arsenic

and asbestos did. Cosmetic ingredients could impact respiration, cause allergic reactions, or affect reactivity to sunlight. Hygiene related to makeup application was not understood.

Women Lawyers Before 1900

There is little to be said about the advancement of women lawyers in North America prior to 1900, with rare exceptions like Margaret Brent, Belva Lockwood, and Lutie A. Lytle. Margaret Brent, a cousin of Lord Baltimore, arrived in the colonies in 1638 and had an astonishing career as the first woman lawyer in the U.S. A woman of means, she was able to purchase major real estate holdings and was widely known for her shrewd intelligence and ability to make and execute deals, not only for herself, but for the Maryland provincial governor. In an eight-year period, Brent was involved in 124 court cases. Despite her many accomplishments, when Brent failed to secure the right to vote, she left Maryland with disdain.

By 1996, Canadian women made up half of the Canadian workforce, although they earned 66 percent of what men did.

Belva Lockwood, who was admitted to the District of Columbia Bar in 1873, was one of the earliest women to practice law in the U.S. She ran for the President of the U.S. as the nominee of the National Equal Rights Party in 1888. In 1870, the census noted five women lawyers in the U.S. This makes it even more remarkable that in 1898, African American attorney Lutie A. Lytle was the first female law professor in the world when she joined the faculty of Central Tennessee’s College of Law.

By 1900, there were 1,010 women lawyers in the U.S. and perhaps a dozen in Canada. It was not until 1919 that Yale Law School admitted women students, while Harvard delayed women’s law school admission until 1950. The University of Toronto Faculty of Law in Canada began admitting women in 1885, while the Osgoode Hall Law School, also in Toronto, began admitting women in 1888.

The 20th Century

In the 1900s, women advocated that they were capable of reason and making their own decisions regarding reproduction. They sought the right to advanced education, to hold public office, to be selected for jury duty, to own property, and to claim custody of their children. They also wanted to prevent family violence. The British government recognized Canadian women as persons under the law in 1925.

The suffrage movement culminated in the Nineteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, finally coming into being in 1920, granting all women the right to vote; the

same year that Canadians gained full suffrage and the right to vote.

Throughout the 19th century, state laws varied as to who could gain access to contraception, as some states limited access to married people. There were, and continued to be, significant differences between the states regarding the right to have an abortion or to make decisions about embryos if involved in fertility efforts. There were outright abortion bans, partial bans with exceptions, such as incest or rape, bans with vague exceptions for the life of the mother, and there could be the requirements of notice and consent, along with state threats of civil liability and criminal prosecution of women, their doctors, and those who assist them, including through transportation. Other states had no bans. The landmark Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade in 1973 protected the right to abortion in the U.S. as a Fourteenth Amendment due process privacy right; this decision was overturned in 2023.

In the mid to late 20th century, attention was paid to assaults on women. Joan Little made history in 1975 after she killed a man who sexually assaulted her and was charged with first-degree murder. Little’s acquittal, based upon the defense that she used deadly force to resist a sexual assault, gained national attention in the U.S.

During the 20th century, marital rape became unlawful, women’s shelters were opening, and federal laws were passed in the U.S., including the Violence Against Women Act of 1974. In Canada, there was a double standard concerning the application of the criminal code regarding cross-examining women and men in criminal proceedings involving rape. Women claiming they were assaulted could be extensively questioned about their sexual history, while male defendants could not, but could still assert that sex was consensual. Laws began to change, replacing the word “rape” with the words “sexual assault”, and “violence,” a distinction made famous in a 21st century defamation lawsuit against a U.S. presidential candidate.

Canada passed a federal law in 1925 allowing women to obtain a divorce on the same grounds as men. Women slowly became successful in obtaining public office, being elected to federal parliament and provincial legislatures, and a few were appointed to the Senate. By the 1990s, half of Canadian law school graduates were female, although they comprised only 20 percent of what the Canadians call the practicing bar, as many women lawyers secured corporate and government jobs. By 1996, Canadian women made up half of the Canadian workforce, although they earned 66 percent of what men did.

Women slowly increased their visibility in sports in the 20th century. This requirement would lead to major changes to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in the next century. By 2024, women’s college basketball championship games gained 18.9 million viewers.

Importantly, the U.S. Congress passed the Equal Pay Act of 1965, the Equal Credit Opportunity Act of 1974, and the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1977.

Drum Roll: A Few Take a Bow for the Many

While in the 1950s, less than three percent of women attended law schools in North America, law school enrollment significantly increased in the 1990s, when women law school enrollment reached 45 percent in the U.S. As there were women law school graduates, women lawyers were now poised to make significant gains, a select few of which will be honored herein, beginning with three women who ascended to the U.S. Supreme Court.

Sandra Day O’Conner, a 1952 graduate of Stanford Law School and staunch advocate of judicial independence, became the first female U.S. Supreme Court Justice in 1981, when she yielded enormous power as she often held the swing vote. She was followed in 1993 by Ruth Bader Ginsburg, who attended both Harvard and Columbia Law Schools and graduated in 1959. She championed women’s rights and was a trailblazing jurist. It was another 16 years before another woman, Sonia Sotomayor, joined the bench. Justice Sotomayor is a Hispanic woman who grew up in a Bronx housing project, graduated from Yale Law School in 1979, and is well known for her advocacy of civil rights and equality.

In Canada, outstanding women lawyers include Marlys Edward, who earned a law degree from Osgoode Hall Law School and then a master’s from Berkley’s Bolt Hall in the mid-70s. She was the first woman to practice

criminal law in Canada. She fought to overturn criminal convictions, represented Canadian detainees abroad, and served as the Commissioner Counsel for the Kramer Inquiry regarding the contamination of Canada’s blood supply.

Finally, we salute Louise Arbour, who gained her LLB from the Université de Montréal in 1970. Not only did she serve as a Justice on the Supreme Court of Canada beginning in 1999, but she went on to be the prosecutor before the International Tribunal for Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia, and then became the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. She also served as the UN Special Representative for International Migration.

Conclusion

Ultimately, the ascent of women over five centuries is a testament to their collective unwavering determination to use their intellect, talents, and courage to shatter barriers, exceed expectations, and create a just society. They have set the bar high for those who succeed them. As a female lawyer beneficiary to those who came before me, I express my gratitude and pride in their accomplishments. I also recognize that women must not only be committed to further pursuing equal rights, but also vigilant, less these rights slip away. ■

Editor in Chief – Juriste International Lawyer, Law Office of Barbara J. Gislason Fridley, MN, United States barbara@gislasonlaw.com

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Un jugement qui fait le tour du monde

Ô In April, the European Court of Human Rights handed down a landmark verdict in the case of the Senior Citizens for Climate Protection (Klimaseniorinnen) against Switzerland. It recognised for the first time that climate protection is a human right. States that fail to fulfill their obligations in this area may infringe the rights protected by the European Convention on Human Rights, and, in particular, the right to health guaranteed by Article 8.

Ô En abril, el Tribunal Europeo de Derechos Humanos dictó una sentencia histórica en el caso de las Ciudadanas Mayores por la Protección del Clima (Klimaseniorinnen) contra Suiza. Reconoció por primera vez que la protección del clima es un derecho humano. Los Estados que incumplen sus obligaciones en este ámbito pueden vulnerar los derechos protegidos por el Convenio Europeo de Derechos Humanos, en particular el derecho a la salud garantizado por el artículo 8.

Raphaël MAHAIM

Il est des procĂ©dures judiciaires qui marquent Ă  jamais, le mandataire comme le grand public. L’affaire des aĂźnĂ©es pour la protection du climat contre la Suisse (Klimaseniorinnen vs Switzerland) est assurĂ©ment l’une d’elles, non seulement par l’épilogue spectaculaire qu’elle a connu en avril de cette annĂ©e, avec un jugement pionnier de la Cour europĂ©enne des droits de l’homme qui a fait le tour du monde, mais aussi par son histoire hors normes sous forme d’épopĂ©e au long cours.

Dans le monde entier, les « procĂšs climatiques » constituent aujourd’hui une rĂ©alitĂ© judiciaire en forte croissance. Encore insignifiants au tournant des annĂ©es 2000, les « procĂšs climatiques » sont aujourd’hui estimĂ©s Ă  plus de 2 000, dans tous les domaines du droit (droit public, droit civil, droit pĂ©nal, etc.)1. L’émergence progressive, durant les deux derniĂšres dĂ©cennies, de rĂšgles de droit en matiĂšre de lutte contre les dĂ©rĂšglements climatiques, Ă  l’échelle internationale et en droit interne, a rendu possible la saisine des tribunaux. Le contrĂŽle judiciaire de l’activitĂ© des États, voire des entreprises, Ă  l’aune de leurs obligations climatiques, est devenu une forme connue et reconnue d’action pour diffĂ©rents acteurs affectĂ©s ou concernĂ©s par le rĂ©chauffement climatique. La vaste documentation scientifique sur le phĂ©nomĂšne, ses causes anthropiques et ses consĂ©quences sur la vie sur terre, a certainement contribuĂ© Ă  accĂ©lĂ©rer ce phĂ©nomĂšne. Le lien entre les obligations des États en matiĂšre de lutte contre les dĂ©rĂšglements climatiques et les droits humains n’avait pour l’heure jamais fait l’objet d’une attention spĂ©cifique dans un arrĂȘt en matiĂšre climatique. Les autres arrĂȘts cĂ©lĂšbres – Ă  l’image, sur le continent europĂ©en, de l’arrĂȘt Urgenda contre Pays-bas (tribunal de district de La Haye aux Pays-Bas, 2015), de l’arrĂȘt Notre Affaire Ă  tous contre France (tribunal administratif de Paris, 2021) ou encore de l’arrĂȘt Neubauer contre Allemagne (Bundesverfassunggericht allemand, 2021), portaient avant tout sur des griefs de droit interne. C’est ce que l’affaire des Klimaseniorinnen a changĂ©, mettant les projecteurs pour la premiĂšre fois sur cette question pourtant centrale.

Retour sur les grandes étapes de la procédure

L’aventure commence en 20152. L’arrĂȘt Urgenda aux Pays-Bas a Ă©tĂ©, Ă  n’en pas douter, le dĂ©clencheur de la dĂ©marche menĂ©e en Suisse. Plusieurs avocats3 et milieux

1. United Nations Environment Programme (2023). Global Climate Litigation Report: 2023 Status Review. Nairobi. Voir aussi sur le sujet : Christel Cournil (dir.) (2020), Les grandes affaires climatiques, DICE Éditions, Aix-en-Provence.

2. L’historique dĂ©taillĂ© ainsi que la documentation complĂšte sont disponibles sur le site internet des aĂźnĂ©es : https://ainees-climat.ch/.

3. Les aĂźnĂ©es pour le climat ont Ă©tĂ© reprĂ©sentĂ©s dĂšs 2016 par une Ă©quipe juridique emmenĂ©e par Me Cordelia BĂ€hr (Zurich), avec † Me Ursula Brunner (Zurich), Ă  qui Me Martin Looser (Zurich) a succĂ©dĂ©, et le soussignĂ©, avocat Ă  Lausanne ; pour la procĂ©dure devant la Cour europĂ©enne des droits de l’homme, l’équipe a Ă©tĂ© agrandie par l’arrivĂ©e de Jessica

intĂ©ressĂ©s se sont mis Ă  rĂ©flĂ©chir Ă  un moyen de porter la question climatique devant les tribunaux suisses puis ont joint leur force, avec le soutien logistique et financier de Greenpeace. Il est vite apparu que le droit de procĂ©dure serait une possible entrave Ă  la recevabilitĂ© d’une action judiciaire. En Suisse, pour Ă©viter toute forme d’actio popularis, seul dispose de la qualitĂ© pour saisir la justice celui qui est atteint personnellement et directement, avec une intensitĂ© suffisante, par la mesure Ă©tatique qu’il critique. En outre, les droits de recours spĂ©ciaux des organisations environnementales ne sont pas ouverts en matiĂšre climatique. C’est ainsi que s’est constituĂ©e en 2016 une association de femmes ĂągĂ©es de 64 ans et plus (« aĂźnĂ©es pour la protection du climat »), dont le but Ă©tait de faire valoir en justice leur vulnĂ©rabilitĂ© particuliĂšre face au rĂ©chauffement climatique. De nombreuses Ă©tudes documentent cette vulnĂ©rabilitĂ© : les personnes ĂągĂ©es sont plus affectĂ©es par les hausses des tempĂ©ratures, Ă©pisodes de canicules, etc., et cela vaut en particulier pour les femmes.

Plusieurs avocats et milieux intéressés se sont mis à réfléchir à un moyen de porter la question climatique devant les tribunaux suisses puis ont joint leur force [
].

Aux cĂŽtĂ©s de quatre aĂźnĂ©es, requĂ©rantes individuelles souffrant de diverses troubles mĂ©dicaux (cardio-vasculaire, respiratoire, etc.), l’association des aĂźnĂ©es a dĂ©posĂ© une requĂȘte devant le DĂ©partement fĂ©dĂ©ral en charge de l’environnement en automne 2016. Cette requĂȘte tendait en substance Ă  ce que le DĂ©partement constate diverses carences dans l’arsenal lĂ©gislatif et rĂ©glementaire en matiĂšre climatique, ainsi que dans sa mise en Ɠuvre, et prenne des mesures correctrices. Sans surprise, le DĂ©partement a rendu une dĂ©cision d’irrecevabilitĂ©, considĂ©rant que la dĂ©marche des aĂźnĂ©es, tant Ă  titre individuel qu’en tant qu’association, s’apparentait Ă  une actio popularis, ouvrant ainsi une voie de recours devant les juridictions administratives fĂ©dĂ©rales.

Le Tribunal administratif fĂ©dĂ©ral, puis le Tribunal fĂ©dĂ©ral en derniĂšre instance, ont dĂ©boutĂ© les aĂźnĂ©es en dĂ©clarant leur recours successifs irrecevables. Ils n’ont jamais examinĂ© le fond des critiques soulevĂ©es par les ainĂ©es, dĂ©clinant de diffĂ©rentes maniĂšres le mĂȘme argument relatif au dĂ©faut de qualitĂ© pour recourir : les aĂźnĂ©es n’ont pas la qualitĂ© pour recourir en justice car elles ne sont pas concernĂ©es avec une intensitĂ© suffisante par les dĂ©rĂšglements climatiques. Dans son arrĂȘt, le premier du genre, rendu en 2020, le Tribunal fĂ©dĂ©ral n’a pas brillĂ© par une argumentation trĂšs convaincante. Il a dĂ©niĂ© la qualitĂ© pour recourir des aĂźnĂ©es au motif que le dĂ©rĂšglement climatique n’avait pas encore atteint un stade suffisamment aigu pour que l’on puisse parler d’une intensitĂ© suf-

Simor KC et Marc Willers KC, tous deux avocats Ă  Londres.

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fisante4, en dépit du consensus scientifique déjà acquis à cette date.

L’arrĂȘt du 9 avril 2024

Les aĂźnĂ©es n’ont eu d’autre choix que de se tourner vers la Cour europĂ©ennes des droits de l’homme Ă  Strasbourg, invoquant, d’une part, la violation de leurs droits de nature procĂ©durale et, d’autre part, leur droit Ă  un environnement sain5. La discussion juridique allait donc porter sur le lien entre droits humains et dĂ©rĂšglements climatiques et sur les obligations des États en la matiĂšre.

La cause a Ă©tĂ© jugĂ©e prioritaire par la Cour, qui l’a dĂ©fĂ©rĂ©e devant sa Grande Chambre. La Cour a aussi annoncĂ© vouloir traiter cette affaire avec deux autres affaires climatiques qui lui avaient Ă©tĂ© soumises, l’une portĂ©e par six jeunes Portugais contre 33 États du Conseil de l’Europe et l’autre par un ancien maire d’une commune française du littoral contre l’État français. Dans l’attente de ces trois premiers jugements de principe, la Cour a suspendu toutes les autres affaires portant sur la question climatique, tĂ©moin du rĂŽle pionnier qu’elle leur a confĂ©rĂ©. Les audiences ont eu lieu en 2023 et la Cour a rendu ses trois arrĂȘts le mĂȘme jour, le 9 avril 2024.

Dans un jugement trĂšs fourni de plus de 250 pages, la Cour a commencĂ© par faire un panorama complet des sources des obligations des États en matiĂšre de lutte

4. Selon les termes du Tribunal fĂ©dĂ©ral : « Selon l’Accord de Paris sur le climat, le rĂ©chauffement climatique devrait ĂȘtre limitĂ© Ă  un niveau bien infĂ©rieur Ă  2 degrĂ©s. MĂȘme sans que des mesures supplĂ©mentaires ne soient prises, cette valeur ne serait atteinte qu’à moyen ou long terme »

5. Art. 6 (droit à un procÚs équitable) et art. 13 (droit à un recours effectif) ; art. 2 (droit à la vie) et art. 8 (droit au respect de la vie privée et familiale).

contre les dĂ©rĂšglements climatiques. Elle a considĂ©rĂ© l’objectif de limitation du rĂ©chauffement Ă  maximum 1,5° C comme contraignant pour les États et jugĂ© que la Convention consacrait un droit Ă  une protection effective, par les autoritĂ©s de l’État, contre les effets nĂ©fastes graves du changement climatique sur la vie, la santĂ©, le bien-ĂȘtre et la qualitĂ© de vie. Sur le plan procĂ©dural, elle a considĂ©rĂ© que les quatre requĂ©rantes individuelles ne remplissaient pas les critĂšres relatifs Ă  la qualitĂ© de victime et elle a dĂ©clarĂ© leurs griefs irrecevables. Elle a considĂ©rĂ© en revanche que l’association requĂ©rante avait Ă©tĂ© habilitĂ©e Ă  agir pour se plaindre des menaces liĂ©es au changement climatique au sein de l’État dĂ©fendeur. La Cour a conclu Ă  la violation du droit au respect de la vie privĂ©e et familiale de la Convention et Ă  celle du droit Ă  l’accĂšs Ă  un tribunal. La Cour a conclu que la ConfĂ©dĂ©ration suisse avait manquĂ© aux obligations qui lui incombaient en vertu de la Convention en matiĂšre de changement climatique.

Pour des raisons procĂ©durales (dĂ©faut d’épuisement des instances internes pour les jeunes Portugais et dĂ©faut de qualitĂ© de victime pour le maire français), la Cour n’est pas entrĂ©e en matiĂšre sur les deux autres requĂȘtes.

L’arrĂȘt de la Cour dans l’affaire des Klimaseniorinnen fera Ă  n’en pas douter couler beaucoup d’encre et mĂ©riterait de nombreux commentaires sur plusieurs aspects intĂ©ressants. Dans le cadre imparti par la prĂ©sente contribution, on se contente d’insister sur deux points saillants du raisonnement de la Cour.

PremiĂšrement, la Cour a reconnu la nature spĂ©cifique des dĂ©rĂšglements climatiques – qui, par nature, concernent tout le monde – et posĂ© des critĂšres innovants concernant la qualitĂ© pour agir des associations dĂ©diĂ©es Ă  la lutte contre les dĂ©rĂšglements climatiques. Il n’est pas nĂ©cessaire que l’association soit composĂ©e de personnes qui toutes ont la qualitĂ© de victime avec un degrĂ© d’intensi-

tĂ© suffisant. Les conditions sont dĂ©sormais les suivantes : l’association (i) doit ĂȘtre lĂ©galement constituĂ©e (ii) doit dĂ©montrer qu’elle poursuit un but spĂ©cifique, conforme Ă  ses objectifs statutaires, dans la dĂ©fense des droits fondamentaux de ses adhĂ©rents et d’autres individus touchĂ©s contre les menaces liĂ©es au changement climatique et (iii) doit ĂȘtre vĂ©ritablement reprĂ©sentative et habilitĂ©e Ă  agir pour le compte de personnes pouvant faire valoir de maniĂšre dĂ©fendable que leur vie, leur santĂ©, leur bien-ĂȘtre et leur qualitĂ© de vie tels que protĂ©gĂ©s par la Convention se trouvent exposĂ©s Ă  des menaces ou consĂ©quences nĂ©fastes spĂ©cifiques liĂ©es au changement climatique. L’association des Klimaseniorinnen remplissait ces conditions, selon la Cour.

DeuxiĂšmement, la Cour a dĂ©fini de façon prĂ©cise les obligations des États en lien avec le changement climatique, et cela de la façon suivante6 :

« Pour dĂ©terminer si un État est restĂ© dans les limites de sa marge d’apprĂ©ciation, la Cour recherche si les autoritĂ©s internes compĂ©tentes, qu’elles soient lĂ©gislatives, exĂ©cutives ou judiciaires, ont dĂ»ment tenu compte de la nĂ©cessitĂ©

a) d’adopter des mesures gĂ©nĂ©rales prĂ©cisant le calendrier Ă  respecter pour parvenir Ă  la neutralitĂ© carbone ainsi que le budget carbone total restant pour la pĂ©riode en question, ou toute autre mĂ©thode Ă©quivalente de quantification des futures Ă©missions de GES, conformĂ©ment Ă  l’objectif primordial correspondant aux engagements nationaux et/ou mondiaux en matiĂšre d’attĂ©nuation du changement climatique ;

b) de fixer des objectifs et trajectoires intermĂ©diaires de rĂ©duction des Ă©missions de GES (par secteur ou selon d’autres mĂ©thodes pertinentes) qui sont considĂ©rĂ©s comme aptes Ă  permettre, en principe, d’atteindre les objectifs nationaux globaux de rĂ©duction des Ă©missions de GES dans les dĂ©lais fixĂ©s par les politiques nationales ; c) de fournir des informations montrant si elles se sont dĂ»ment conformĂ©es aux objectifs pertinents de rĂ©duction des Ă©missions de GES ou qu’elles s’y emploient (alinĂ©as a) et b) ci-dessus) ;

d) d’actualiser les objectifs pertinents de rĂ©duction des Ă©missions de GES avec la diligence requise et en se fondant sur les meilleures donnĂ©es disponibles ; et e) d’agir en temps utile et de maniĂšre appropriĂ©e et cohĂ©rente dans l’élaboration et la mise en Ɠuvre de la lĂ©gislation et des mesures pertinentes.

La Cour a ainsi considĂ©rĂ© que les objectifs de rĂ©duction des gaz Ă  effet de serre d’un État devaient ĂȘtre façonnĂ©s et ancrĂ©s en droit interne de façon suffisamment robuste pour qu’ils permettent effectivement de contribuer Ă  limiter Ă  maximum 1,5° C le rĂ©chauffement terrestre. En revanche, la Cour n’a pas prescrit les moyens permettant

6. ArrĂȘt Verein Klimaseniorinnen Schweiz et autres c. Suisse (requĂȘte n° 53600/20), §550.

d’atteindre ces objectifs, qui demeurent dans la marge d’apprĂ©ciation des États. Les diffĂ©rentes politiques sectorielles ayant un impact sur le dĂ©rĂšglement climatique (Ă©nergie, transports, industrie, etc.) ne sont donc concernĂ©es que de façon indirecte par l’arrĂȘt de la Cour. Les États demeurent en premiĂšre ligne pour adopter des mesures internes aptes Ă  atteindre ces objectifs.

Et la suite ?

Certaines rĂ©actions virulentes ne se sont pas fait attendre en Suisse, d’aucuns se plaignant de l’ingĂ©rence des juges de Strasbourg dans la politique climatique suisse, d’autres en appelant mĂȘme Ă  dĂ©noncer la Convention europĂ©enne des droits de l’homme. Une fois ces premiĂšres rĂ©actions passĂ©es, viendra le temps de la mise en Ɠuvre de l’arrĂȘt, qui impliquera des mesures de rang lĂ©gislatif et rĂ©glementaire pour adapter les objectifs internes aux prescriptions de la Cour. La jurisprudence de la Cour Ă©tant contraignante pour les autoritĂ©s suisses, y compris les tribunaux, une mise en Ɠuvre incomplĂšte de l’arrĂȘt pourrait donner lieu Ă  une nouvelle saisine de la justice Ă  l’échelon national, par l’association des aĂźnĂ©es ou par une autre association analogue. En outre, la Convention europĂ©enne des droits de l’homme prĂ©voit ellemĂȘme un mĂ©canisme de suivi de l’exĂ©cution des arrĂȘts de la Cour, par le biais du ComitĂ© des Ministres. Des lacunes d’exĂ©cution peuvent donner lieu Ă  des mesures prises par le ComitĂ© des Ministres Ă  l’encontre de l’État dĂ©fendeur rĂ©calcitrant.

La Cour a conclu que la Confédération suisse avait manqué aux obligations qui lui incombaient en vertu de la Convention en matiÚre de changement climatique.

Au-delĂ  de sa mise en Ɠuvre en Suisse – et dans les autres États du Conseil de l’Europe oĂč il fait Ă©galement office de prĂ©cĂ©dent – cet arrĂȘt va certainement intĂ©resser d’autres tribunaux, ici et ailleurs. A commencer par la Cour internationale de Justice Ă  La Haye qui prĂ©pare actuellement un avis consultatif sur la responsabilitĂ© des États en matiĂšre de lutte contre le rĂ©chauffement climatique, suite Ă  une rĂ©solution adoptĂ©e en mars 2023 par l’AssemblĂ©e gĂ©nĂ©rale de l’ONU sur requĂȘte de la RĂ©publique de Vanuatu. Nul doute qu’elle s’inspirera, du moins indirectement, des considĂ©rants de la Cour europĂ©enne des droits de l’homme dans cette affaire retentissante. Le juge n’est dĂ©finitivement plus cantonnĂ© aux seconds rĂŽles dans la lutte contre les dĂ©rĂšglements climatiques. ■

Raphaël MAHAIM

Avocat au barreau à Lausanne (Suisse) Conseiller national (parlementaire) r&associés avocats Lausanne, Suisse rmahaim@r-associes.ch

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Droit de l‘environnement et bail commercial : un engagement durable !

Marine PARMENTIER

Ô Today, environmental issues are at the heart of our concerns: they permeate political and economic debate, and are inevitably reflected in the legal sphere. In France, the legislature is incorporating these new environmental considerations into the body of law, with the aim of changing behavior in light of current environmental issues. A case in point is the commercial lease, a legal and economic tool that has been heavily influenced by environmental law in recent years.

Ô Hoy en dĂ­a, las cuestiones medioambientales estĂĄn en el centro de nuestras preocupaciones: impregnan el debate polĂ­tico y econĂłmico y se reflejan inevitablemente en el ĂĄmbito jurĂ­dico. En Francia, los legisladores estĂĄn incorporando estas nuevas consideraciones medioambientales al corpus legislativo, con el objetivo de cambiar los comportamientos a la luz de los problemas medioambientales actuales. Un ejemplo de ello es el arrendamiento comercial, una herramienta jurĂ­dica y econĂłmica que en los Ășltimos años se ha visto muy influida por el Derecho medioambiental.

Introduction

La question environnementale est aujourd’hui au cƓur de nos prĂ©occupations : elle imprĂšgne le dĂ©bat politique et Ă©conomique et se reflĂšte inĂ©vitablement dans le domaine juridique. En France, le lĂ©gislateur intĂšgre ces nouvelles considĂ©rations environnementales au sein du corpus juridique, l’objectif Ă©tant de faire Ă©voluer les comportements Ă  la lumiĂšre des problĂ©matiques environnementales actuelles.

En tĂ©moigne le bail commercial, outil juridique et Ă©conomique largement imprĂ©gnĂ© par le droit de l’environnement depuis quelques annĂ©es.

I. La conclusion du bail commercial et les obligations prĂ©contractuelles d’information environnementale

En France, la conclusion du bail commercial s’inscrit dĂ©sormais dans un cadre rĂ©glementaire renforcĂ© par des exigences environnementales visant Ă  assurer une prise de dĂ©cision Ă©clairĂ©e de la part des parties. Parmi les obligations d’information, le Diagnostic de Performance ÉnergĂ©tique (DPE) occupe une place centrale. Ce document, obligatoirement annexĂ© au bail, informe le preneur sur la performance Ă©nergĂ©tique du bien, influençant ainsi sa dĂ©cision de prendre Ă  bail le local concernĂ©. En outre, la loi impose une mise Ă  jour rĂ©guliĂšre du DPE afin de reflĂ©ter fidĂšlement les amĂ©liorations ou dĂ©tĂ©riorations Ă©nergĂ©tiques du bĂątiment, garantissant ainsi une transparence continue entre les parties.

De plus, l’introduction de l’État des Risques et Pollutions (ERP) au sein du bail commercial, par la loi Grenelle II puis la loi Climat et RĂ©silience au 1er janvier 2023, renforce cette dynamique de transparence et de prĂ©caution. DĂ©sormais, dĂšs la premiĂšre visite du bien louĂ©, le bailleur est tenu de communiquer l’ERP au potentiel preneur, document qui recense entre autres les potentielles pollutions aux sols auxquelles le bien est exposĂ©. Cette obligation d’information prĂ©alable, suivie d’une mise Ă  jour de l’ERP

en cas de nĂ©cessitĂ©, permet au preneur d’objectiver les donnĂ©es environnementales du local concernĂ©.

Enfin, le dĂ©cret n° 2019-771 du 23 juillet 2019, dit « dĂ©cret tertiaire », impose aux propriĂ©taires de bĂątiments Ă  usage tertiaire, y compris les espaces commerciaux, d’entreprendre des actions visant Ă  rĂ©duire leur consommation Ă©nergĂ©tique Ă  des seuils dĂ©finis. En plus de l’obligation de rĂ©aliser des travaux d’optimisation Ă©nergĂ©tique, les bailleurs doivent communiquer les donnĂ©es de consommation Ă©nergĂ©tique sur la plateforme OPERAT, favorisant ainsi une gestion plus durable et responsable des biens immobiliers. Par consĂ©quent, les bailleurs et les preneurs Ă  bail commercial se voient obligĂ©s de dĂ©terminer en amont, avant mĂȘme la conclusion du bail, quels seront les dispositifs les plus opportuns Ă  mettre en place pour remplir les objectifs fixĂ©s. Le but est aussi d’éviter de se voir infliger les sanctions prĂ©vues par les textes dans le cas contraire. Cependant, les sanctions financiĂšres Ă©tant assez faibles, le lĂ©gislateur mise davantage sur la bonne volontĂ© des acteurs du secteur tertiaire.

La non-transmission des donnĂ©es peut entraĂźner une mise en demeure par le prĂ©fet, voire mener Ă  la publication des noms des entreprises sur un site de l’État : “Name and shame”, au risque de porter atteinte Ă  l’image des sociĂ©tĂ©s concernĂ©es.

Les considérations environnementales sont prises en compte dÚs la conclusion du bail commercial et influencent les négociations entre les parties.

II. Prérequis environnementaux lors de la rédaction du bail

Les obligations environnementales concrĂ©tisĂ©es lors de la conclusion du bail invitent Ă  une rĂ©daction attentive des clauses pour assurer leur respect et leur pĂ©rennitĂ©. Cela se manifeste notamment par l’inclusion de « clauses vertes », dispositions contractuelles visant Ă  encadrer les pratiques des parties en matiĂšre d’environnement pour une gestion durable du bien louĂ©.

A titre d’exemple, les clauses de performance Ă©nergĂ©tique engagent le bailleur et le locataire Ă  respecter certaines normes ou objectifs en matiĂšre d’efficacitĂ© Ă©nergĂ©tique des locaux louĂ©s. L’objectif est d’amĂ©liorer la performance Ă©nergĂ©tique mais aussi d’atteindre des objectifs de consommation prĂ©cis et de mettre en Ɠuvre des pratiques Ă©co-responsables durant la vie du bail. S’agissant, par ailleurs, du dĂ©cret tertiaire Ă©voquĂ© ciavant, il Ă©dicte plusieurs obligations (reporting, rĂ©novation Ă©nergĂ©tique etc.). Il laisse toutefois aux parties une grande libertĂ© sur la rĂ©partition contractuelle de celles-ci. Citons par exemple l’organisation contractuelle du transfert de la charge de la rĂ©alisation de travaux, des mises en conformitĂ© ou encore de la transmission des informations de consommation. Dans la pratique, il convient aussi de fixer des rĂšgles sur la refacturation des charges liĂ©es Ă  ces obligations. Ces Ă©lĂ©ments soulignent l’importance d’une

approche proactive et responsable des parties dĂšs la rĂ©daction du bail commercial, tĂ©moignant ainsi de l’importance du droit de l’environnement lors de la formation du bail.

Enfin, lors de la rĂ©daction du bail commercial les parties peuvent Ă©galement dĂ©finir les consĂ©quences en cas de non-respect des engagements environnementaux qui peuvent prendre la forme de sanctions, incluant des mĂ©canismes de pĂ©nalitĂ©s, ou mĂȘme la rĂ©siliation anticipĂ©e du bail.

L’intĂ©gration de ces responsabilitĂ©s dans le bail commercial permet notamment de renforcer la prise de conscience et l’action proactive en faveur de l’environnement, contribuant ainsi Ă  la transition vers des pratiques commerciales plus vertes, durables et responsables.

III. L’exĂ©cution responsable du bail commercial

La phase d’exĂ©cution du bail commercial est cruciale pour la mise en Ɠuvre des engagements environnementaux pris lors de la rĂ©daction du bail. Outre les obligations d’informations spĂ©ciales lors de la conclusion du bail, s’ajoutent de nouvelles obligations spĂ©cifiques Ă  l’exploitation du bien louĂ©.

En effet, le dĂ©cret tertiaire rappelle l’obligation de rĂ©duire le niveau de consommation d’énergie du bĂątiment et de rĂ©aliser des travaux de rĂ©novation Ă©nergĂ©tique durant le bail commercial pour s’y conformer. La plupart des informations obligatoires lors de la conclusion du bail doivent ensuite ĂȘtre mises Ă  jour durant le bail : cela permet un suivi rĂ©el et efficace pour le preneur et le bailleur durant l’exĂ©cution.

Le bailleur est soumis Ă  une obligation de dĂ©livrer et de maintenir le local conforme Ă  l’usage convenu avec le preneur. Ainsi, le local doit ĂȘtre en conformitĂ© avec les rĂ©glementations environnementales en vigueur, pour permettre l’exercice de l’activitĂ© projetĂ©e. L’obligation de dĂ©livrance du bailleur revĂȘt ici une portĂ©e environnementale.

DĂ©sormais, dĂšs la premiĂšre visite du bien louĂ©, le bailleur est tenu de communiquer l’ERP (État des Risques et Pollutions) au potentiel preneur [
].

Le non-respect des obligations environnementales durant l’exĂ©cution du bail peut avoir des consĂ©quences significatives pour les parties, mettant potentiellement en jeu leur responsabilitĂ©, et impliquer des sanctions contractuelles (financiĂšres notamment). Concernant la responsabilitĂ© du bailleur, ce dernier peut ĂȘtre tenu responsable si les locaux louĂ©s ne respectent pas les normes environnementales dĂšs le dĂ©but du bail ou si des travaux nĂ©cessaires Ă  la mise en conformitĂ© n’ont pas Ă©tĂ© rĂ©alisĂ©s alors qu’il en avait la charge. Cela peut entraĂźner des pĂ©nalitĂ©s financiĂšres, des obligations de rĂ©aliser des travaux correctifs Ă  ses propres

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Le non-respect des obligations environnementales durant l’exĂ©cution du bail peut avoir des consĂ©quences significatives pour les parties [
].

frais, et potentiellement des dommages-intĂ©rĂȘts au profit du locataire. Cela peut Ă©galement induire une rĂ©siliation du bail aux torts du bailleur. De son cĂŽtĂ©, le preneur est responsable du respect des « clauses vertes » durant l’exĂ©cution du bail, notamment en ce qui concerne la gestion des dĂ©chets, la consommation d’énergie et l’entretien des installations. Le non-respect de ces engagements peut conduire Ă  des sanctions contractuelles, voire Ă  une rĂ©siliation du bail par le bailleur. À noter qu’il existe aussi des cas de responsabilitĂ© partagĂ©e, l’obligation reposant conjointement sur le bailleur et le preneur.

Finalement l’exĂ©cution du bail commercial dans le respect des engagements environnementaux nĂ©cessite une attention particuliĂšre concernant la maintenance, les travaux d’amĂ©lioration de la performance Ă©nergĂ©tique, la gestion des dĂ©chets, et l’utilisation de ressources durables.

Ces pratiques soulignent l’importance d’une gestion proactive et collaborative du bail commercial, axĂ©e sur le respect de l’environnement, bĂ©nĂ©fique pour les parties et contribuant Ă©galement au dĂ©veloppement durable.

IV. La fin du bail commercial : anticiper et gérer les incidences environnementales

La fin du bail commercial est un moment clĂ© pour anticiper et gĂ©rer les incidences environnementales de l’exploitation des locaux commerciaux : il s’agit d’assurer une transition Ă©cologiquement responsable et conforme aux rĂ©glementations en vigueur.

La fin du bail commercial est donc un moment décisif pour intégrer et valoriser les pratiques environnementales des parties.

En effet, Ă  l’approche de la fin du bail commercial des nĂ©gociations peuvent avoir lieu pour le renouvellement ou non du contrat. Les amĂ©liorations durables qui ont pu ĂȘtre rĂ©alisĂ©es par le locataire doivent ĂȘtre reconnues et valorisĂ©es, notamment grĂące Ă  des compensations financiĂšres ou des conditions de bail avantageuses pour le locataire ayant investi dans des mesures Ă©co-responsables. Cet aspect encourage les locataires Ă  participer activement Ă  la rĂ©duction de l’empreinte Ă©cologique des locaux commerciaux. La renĂ©gociation du bail peut Ă©galement ĂȘtre l’occasion de réévaluer et d’adapter les obligations environnementales, en tenant compte de l’évolution des rĂ©glementations et des pratiques durables.

Si le bail n’est pas renouvelĂ©, la restitution des locaux peut ĂȘtre soumise Ă  un audit environnemental qui va souvent de pair avec l’organisation contractuelle de la remise en Ă©tat du site en fin d’exploitation en fonction de l’usage projetĂ© du site aprĂšs sa restitution.

L’état des lieux de sortie constitue un moment charniĂšre pour Ă©valuer les incidences environnementales rĂ©sultant de l’occupation des locaux. Cette Ă©valuation doit non seulement identifier les Ă©ventuelles dĂ©gradations, mais aussi mesurer l’empreinte Ă©cologique de l’activitĂ© exercĂ©e.

Ainsi, le non-respect des obligations environnementales prévues dans le bail peut avoir des conséquences financiÚres significatives au moment de la restitution des locaux.

La fin du bail commercial est donc un moment décisif pour intégrer et valoriser les pratiques environnementales des parties.

La restitution des locaux, la reconversion Ă©cologique des espaces et la prise en compte des amĂ©liorations durables dans les nĂ©gociations de bail, sont autant de dimensions Ă  considĂ©rer pour assurer une transition Ă©co-responsable. Ces pratiques reflĂštent une prise de conscience croissante de l’importance de l’environnement dans le secteur immobilier commercial et soulignent l’engagement des parties prenantes vers une gestion plus durable et respectueuse de notre planĂšte.

Conclusion

L’influence du droit de l’environnement sur le cycle de vie du bail commercial permet d’affirmer et de tĂ©moigner l’intĂ©gration croissante des prĂ©occupations Ă©cologiques dans les relations locatives commerciales. Elle reflĂšte Ă©galement l’importance que revĂȘt le droit de l’environnement dans le secteur immobilier et tertiaire.

Le LĂ©gislateur a donc intĂ©grĂ© un puissant arsenal juridique environnemental affectant la vie du bail commercial, soulignant l’émergence d’un ordre public environnemental et l’encadrement de la libertĂ© contractuelle au profit de considĂ©rations environnementales. L’enjeu Ă©tant de concilier la rĂ©alitĂ© Ă©conomique du bail commercial avec les nouveaux objectifs environnementaux. Il est aujourd’hui indispensable, pour les acteurs du secteur immobilier commercial, de s’adapter aux nouvelles exigences environnementales. ■

Marine PARMENTIER

Avocate, Cabinet Woog Paris, France marine.parmentier@gmail.com

Ô La transition mondiale vers les Ă©nergies propres, pro voquĂ©e par le rĂ©chauffement climatique, a eu des rĂ©percus sions considĂ©rables. Pour garantir une collaboration mon diale efficace, il est essentiel de redistribuer Ă©quitablement les avantages et les coĂ»ts. Le concept de justice Ă©nergĂ©tique est utilisĂ© pour analyser ces impacts. Une transition Ă©nergĂ©tique nĂ©cessite d’équilibrer les intĂ©rĂȘts divergents et de mettre en Ɠuvre des responsabilitĂ©s communes mais diffĂ©renciĂ©es dans le domaine de l’énergie et les domaines connexes. Cette transition doit Ă©galement ĂȘtre inclusive et transparente dans son processus de prise de dĂ©cision.

Ô La transiciĂłn mundial hacia las energĂ­as limpias, impulsada por el calentamiento global, ha tenido repercusiones de gran alcance. Para garantizar una colaboraciĂłn mundial eficaz, es crucial redistribuir equitativamente los beneficios y los costes. Para analizar estas repercusiones se utiliza el concepto de justicia energĂ©tica. Una transiciĂłn energĂ©tica justa requiere equilibrar intereses contrapuestos y aplicar responsabilidades comunes pero diferenciadas en materia de energĂ­a y ĂĄmbitos afines. Esta transiciĂłn tambiĂ©n debe ser inclusiva y transparente en su proceso de toma de decisiones.

Introduction

The burning of fossil fuels for energy is a primary driver of climate change, which has led to global issues such as sea-level rise, extreme weather events, and disruptions to ecosystems. This has prompted a global transition to clean energy, which is described as “affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all” in the

Energy Justice and the Global Transition

to Clean

Energy

Sustainable Development Goals adopted by the United Nations in 2015. However, this transition has also raised new concerns at the environmental, social, and economic levels, which has sparked a broader debate about energy justice. If a fair mechanism cannot be established to realize a solution for this global problem, it will be difficult to achieve universal recognition of the need to change our behaviours and gain full cooperation from various groups, countries, or regions.

To address the pressing concerns, this article first examines its positive and negative impacts. It then analyzes the winners and losers through an idealized dichotomy model and the concept of energy justice is introduced to address the unfair distribution of benefits and costs. Next, it emphasizes the importance of a just transition, achieved through a balanced approach to competing interests (a common but differentiated responsibility) through an inclusive and transparent decision-making process. Additionally, it also highlights the interconnectedness of the energy sector with other sectors and the need for balancing interests across multiple domains to promote broad participation and global cooperation. Finally, it offers precise conclusions.

The transition to clean energy could bring about numerous benefits at both the national and global levels.

1. Implications of Clean Energy Transition

The transition to clean energy could bring about numerous benefits at both the national and global levels. The primary goal of this transition is to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, thus mitigating the

WANG Gang
YANG Haibo

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negative impacts of air pollution and climate change. This shift could create a healthier living environment and improve public health. By adopting clean energy sources, a country or region can reduce its dependence on fossil fuels and ensure a reliable and stable energy supply, thereby promoting sustainability, independence, and security in energy provision. Furthermore, the clean energy transition can accelerate the development and growth of new technologies and industries, as well as create new job opportunities.

an important role in the success of the energy transition. Therefore, the advantages of HICs are likely to widen further, while the development of LMICs may be further constrained, contributing to increased global inequality.

2. Energy Justice

The central tenets of energy justice – distribution, recognition, and procedure – are an important perspective to solve problems of energy transition.

However, the transition to clean energy also brings forth new environmental, economic and social challenges. As the global demand for energy continues to rise, there is an urgent need to increase the production of critical materials used in clean energy technologies, such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, silicon, copper, and earth elements.1 Yet, large-scale mining to meet this demand can harm ecosystems, water resources, and land use, having a significant negative impact on local environments. Moreover, the transition to clean energy often requires the gradual phasing out of conventional energy sources, leading to job losses and economic disruptions, particularly in regions heavily reliant on fossil fuel industries. Unfortunately, during this transition, fossil fuel companies maintain their profitability, while the general public bears the burden of increased energy costs.2 This, combined with the rise of unemployment in the traditional energy sector, has a disproportionate impact on low-income and marginalized communities, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

The challenges associated with the energy transition are not limited to individual countries, but also arise between different countries and regions, making the issue increasingly complex and pressing. High-income countries (HICs) often outsource mineral extraction to other countries, thereby offloading the negative environmental impacts to these regions. Moreover, some nations may resort to discharging pollutants into international waters, shifting the responsibility from the originating countries to the global community. On the economic front, HICs have an advantage in economic and technological development, enabling them to benefit more substantially from the energy transition. This advantage may lead to the exploitation of LMICs. Furthermore, the participation of LMICs, which are more dependent on fossil energy, plays

1. James Morton Turner, “The Matter of a Clean Energy Future”, 2022, 376(6600) Science 1361.

2. Alain Naef, “The Impossible Love of Fossil Fuel Companies for Carbon Taxes”, 2024, 217 Ecological Economics 108045.

The implications of the real-world energy transition are multifaceted and complex, and adopting an idealized dichotomy model for analysis helps to reveal the underlying contradictions. The impacts of the energy transition, whether positive or negative, can be attributed to the collective actions of humanity. However, the distribution of benefits and costs associated with the transition is markedly uneven, with some communities or countries enjoying a disproportionate share of the advantages while others bear a greater burden of the costs.3 This has created two opposing sides to the transition – one that experiences comparative gains and one that incurs comparative losses. At the jurisdictional level, for instance, those newly employed in the clean energy sector can be considered the winners, while the unemployed in the traditional energy industry are the losers. At the global scale, HICs with advanced clean energy technologies are the winners, while LMICs, whose economic development has predominantly relied on fossil fuels, are the losers.

This disparity has given rise to the critical issue of energy justice. Energy justice can be defined as “a global energy system that fairly disseminates both the benefits and costs of energy services, and one that has representative and impartial energy decision-making.”4 The central tenets of energy justice – distribution, recognition, and procedure – are an important perspective to solving the problems of energy transition.5 To easily understand these tenets, one can envision that achieving a truly just outcome requires: 1) identifying the distribution of benefits and costs associated with the transition, 2) determining which stakeholders and communities are affected by this uneven distribution, and 3) establishing appropriate means and mechanisms to rectify the identified imbalances. The concept and tenets underscore the need for a more equitable allocation of the resources, risks, and rewards associated with the energy transition, ensuring that no individual, community, or country is unfairly disadvantaged in the pursuit of a sustainable energy future.

3. A Just Transition

Having ascertained the unequal distribution of winners and losers resulting from the energy transition, it is

3. Sanya Carley and David M Konisky, “The Justice and Equity Implications of the Clean Energy Transition”, 2020, 5(8) Nature Energy 569.

4. Benjamin K Sovacool and Michael H Dworkin, “Global Energy Justice”, Cambridge University Press, 2014, 13.

5. Kirsten Jenkins et al, “Energy Justice: A Conceptual Review”, 2016, 11, Energy Research & Social Science, 174.

now imperative to strike a balance between them. This equilibrium is vital for building a sustainable future that we all share. Yet, herein lies the true crux of the matter: how to effectively actualize energy justice within the clean energy transition. To this end, two complementary perspectives emerge as potential pathways forward – the imperative to balance competing interests and the notion of differentiated responsibility.

The adjustment of competing interests is a means of promoting a more balanced consideration of diverse stakeholders during the energy transition process. At the jurisdictional level, implementing targeted policies and programs can help mitigate the uneven distribution of benefits and burdens, but this requires a robust central government with the institutional capacity to enact such measures effectively.

Local authorities tend to prioritize the interests of their respective regions, so the central government must adopt diverse approaches to balance the interests of various localities and respond to their unique demands, facilitating the smooth and equitable implementation of the energy transition. Similarly, at the global level, the divergent interests of different countries or regions in the energy transition require careful balancing, which can be achieved through mechanisms that draw upon the balancing processes within individual jurisdictions, but in a more complex and multifaceted manner. Such a balancing mechanism is essential to ensure the realization of a truly global and just energy transition.

The concept of differentiated responsibility, as enshrined in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), recognizes the disparate historical impacts and current capabilities of countries in addressing global challenges. The clean energy transition is inextricably

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linked to the issue of climate change, and the notions established in climate change treaties can be applied by analogy to the energy transition. Article 3(1) of the UNFCC stipulates that “the Parties should protect the climate system 
 in accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities.”

The notion aligns well with the requirements of the energy transition. Historically, there has been a positive correlation between a country’s income level and its consumption of fossil energy. Consequently, current HICs have accumulated and continue to maintain relatively high greenhouse gas emissions compared to LMICs. Thus, by analogy with the allocation of liability in tort, on the issue of climate change, HICs should be held more responsible for compensating for the high levels of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from past high rates of economic development. Applying this notion to the energy transition would entail tailoring the burdens and obligations of individual countries or groups based on their unique circumstances and capacities.

Balancing competing interests can be seen as a logical foundation for the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, which emerges as a consequence of applying this balancing approach within the context of a just energy transition. However, this balancing approach must be accompanied by a strict adherence to principles of procedural justice. Procedural justice is essential for building broad consensus among diverse stakeholders and creating inclusive and transparent regulations and policies.

This requires the implementation of decision-making mechanisms that give voice to all affected groups and carefully consider their unique claims, concerns, and circumstances. Such procedural safeguards are particularly

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important in the context of global cooperation, where a multitude of parties with varying interests and priorities must work together to achieve a common goal. The energy transition involves a range of different clean energy sources, and the adjustment strategies required for each are not uniformly applicable. Therefore, it is vital that decision-making processes provide ample opportunities for all stakeholders to fully express their demands and engage in collaborative brainstorming. Only through such inclusive, deliberative approaches can the delicate balancing of diverse interests be achieved.

4. Broader Global Cooperation in Energy Transition

The clean energy transition is inextricably linked to the issue of climate change [
].

In pursuing a just transition, our perspective must not be limited to the energy sector alone. It requires a comprehensive redistribution of benefits and costs across various domains, including science and technology, environment, economy, and more. The energy transition, by nature, has far-reaching implications that extend beyond the energy sector, impacting every aspect of human life, as well as the plant and animal life and natural world. Therefore, negotiations within the energy sector alone may not lead to a general consensus. However, comprehensive consultations across a wider range of areas can facilitate the active participation of all parties. Thus, the balancing of interests can be achieved in multiple ways and areas, which is crucial for the global energy transition and fostering international cooperation towards peace and shared development.

The energy transition, by nature, has far-reaching implications that extend beyond the energy sector, impacting every aspect of human life [
].

As countries and regions have different needs and capacities to develop clean energy, cooperation in a wider range of areas can complement each other to promote the clean energy transition of both sides. While science and technology development and energy transition are different areas, they can mutually reinforce each other and achieve a broader balance of interests. For instance, patents that promote sustainability, such as those related to solar panels, can drive the transition to cleaner energy sources and help mitigate climate change. However, the development and deployment of such patents requires substantial long-term investment, and there exist significant barriers to the transnational application.

The application of such patent products in LMICs is frequently accompanied by high patent licensing fees,

even when the underlying industrial infrastructure in some of these countries may be inadequate to manufacture the products in question. Balancing the competing interests in this context could involve HICs subsidizing the research and development of such patents within their borders, while designating such technologies as eligible for compulsory licensing by LMICs for a specified period and within a reasonable range. Alternatively, HICs could adopt various mechanisms to support some LMICs in the construction of basic scientific and technological infrastructure, as well as the training of necessary personnel. Additionally, there is a carbon trading mechanism called carbon offsets and credits that allows entities like governments or businesses to offset their greenhouse gas emissions by investing in projects that reduce emissions elsewhere. This mechanism can promote the global energy transition by encouraging HICs to support greenhouse gas reduction in LMICs in exchange for carbon credits, which can offset their own emissions. In such cases, LMICs could pay fair and reasonable fees, contribute resources, or provide carbon credits in exchange for equitable access to these technologies, facilitating their widespread adoption.

5. Conclusion

The climate change prompts a transition to clean energy which raises concerns about energy justice and the need for a fair mechanism to ensure a sustainable future. The article stresses the need for a fair and inclusive transition to a sustainable energy future, achieved through a balanced approach to competing interests in multifaceted fields and a transparent decision-making process. Despite the challenges of implementing policies to transition to clean energies, promoting global justice is essential to the transformation process. Local governments and countries must cooperate together to ensure a brighter future. ■

WANG Gang

PhD candidate, Faculty of Law, University of Macau Macao, China yc37241@um.edu.mo

YANG Haibo

Partner, Hiway Law Firm Hefei Office Hefei, China 18955186248@163.com

Cinco enfoques para el control y la prevenciĂłn de la deforestaciĂłn

IvĂĄn VARGAS-CHAVES, Ph.D.

Ô The purpose of this article is to address deforestation from four regulatory approaches: proactive, preventive, punitive, and compensatory. These four approaches are involved in plans, programs, and strategic projects within environmental policies at state, regional, and local levels; but also in the classification of behaviors used to determine the civil and criminal liability of those individuals or companies that engage in forestry activities without the corresponding permits that cause environmental damage. As a contribution, the article proposes a fifth regulatory approach from an intersectoral body for the control of deforestation, taking as a reference the case of the Intersectoral Commission for the Control of Deforestation and Integral Management for the Protection of Natural Forests in Colombia.

Ô L’objectif de cet article est d’aborder la dĂ©forestation Ă  partir de quatre approches rĂ©glementaires : proactive, prĂ©ventive, punitive et compensatoire. Ces quatre approches ont une incidence sur les plans stratĂ©giques, les programmes et les projets dans le cadre des politiques environnementales aux niveaux national, rĂ©gional et local, mais aussi sur la classification des comportements afin de dĂ©terminer la responsabilitĂ© civile et pĂ©nale des personnes ou des entreprises qui s’engagent dans des activitĂ©s forestiĂšres sans autorisation ou qui causent des dommages Ă  l’environnement. En guise de contribution, l’article propose une cinquiĂšme approche rĂ©glementaire d’un organisme intersectoriel pour le contrĂŽle de la dĂ©forestation, en prenant comme rĂ©fĂ©rence le cas de la Commission intersectorielle pour le contrĂŽle de la dĂ©forestation et la gestion intĂ©grĂ©e pour la protection des forĂȘts naturelles en Colombie.

IntroducciĂłn

La deforestaciĂłn como conjunto de actividades efectuadas por el hombre, contempla desde la tala, corte y arranque, hasta la quema o destrucciĂłn de ĂĄreas continuas o discontinuas de bosque natural. Lo

anterior, para diversos fines, como el acaparamiento de tierras, uso de terreno cultivable o para la construcciĂłn de infraestructura, entre otros. La deforestaciĂłn como problemĂĄtica socioambiental ha experimentado desde la RevoluciĂłn Industrial un crecimiento exponencial a escala global1, a tal punto de situarse en primeros lugares dentro de las agendas y polĂ­ticas pĂșblicas de lucha contra los daños ambientales, asĂ­ como en materia de cambio climĂĄtico y protecciĂłn de la biodiversidad.

En este sentido, el presente texto tiene por objetivo abordar este fenómeno desde cuatro enfoques regulatorios; a saber, proactivo, preventivo, punitivo y resarcitorio. Estos cuatro enfoques tienen injerencia en planes, programas y proyectos estratégicos dentro de las políticas ambientales a nivel estatal, regional y local. Asimismo, estos enfoques intervienen en la tipificación de conductas, de forma tal que se pueda determinar la responsabilidad civil y penal de aquellos individuos o empresas que incurran en actividades de forestación; todo ello, sin los permisos correspondientes y/o que ocasionen un daño ambiental.

Como aporte, se plantearĂĄ un quinto enfoque regulatorio desde un organismo intersectorial para el control de la deforestaciĂłn, tomando como referencia el caso de la ComisiĂłn Intersectorial para el Control de la DeforestaciĂłn y la GestiĂłn Integral para la ProtecciĂłn de Bosques Naturales en Colombia; presentando asĂ­ unas consideraciones finales a modo de cierre.

I. La deforestaciĂłn vista desde cuatro enfoques

A. Enfoque proactivo

Desde el enfoque proactivo, se ha venido promoviendo desde la responsabilidad social y ambiental empresarial acciones concretas para incentivar un uso responsable de

1. Jed O. Kaplan, Kristen M. Krumhardt, Niklaus Zimmermann, “The prehistoric and preindustrial deforestation of Europe”, Quaternary science reviews, 2009, vol. 28, n° 27-28, p. 3016-3034.

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los recursos forestales; así como estimular la inserción y el posicionamiento en el mercado de aquellos productos que son elaborados mediante un uso sostenible de estos recursos, a través de iniciativas como sellos ecológicos o ecoetiquetas.

Este ha sido el caso de la Alianza para los Bosques o Rainforest Alliance y su marca distintiva, la cual promueve sistemas eficientes de gestión forestal por medio de modelos de economía circular de aprovechamiento y reaprovechamiento. También se encuentra el caso de la etiqueta FSC, que se utiliza bajo el amparo del Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), reconocido en todo el mundo como un logo que asocia productos y procesos comprometidos con la protección forestal.

Figura 1. Marcas de certificaciĂłn verde: FSC y Rainforest Alliance

Estas iniciativas han permitido que las empresas adopten voluntariamente pråcticas ambientalmente responsables, teniendo un retorno de la inversión en reputación, posicionamiento del mercado y ventas2. La regulación de este enfoque se puede concebir tanto desde la normalización técnica (ej. normas ISO) sobre el uso de marcas verdes y ecoetiquetas; como desde el régimen de propiedad industrial, que permite el registro y posterior uso exclusivo de estos signos distintivos como marcas.

B. Enfoque preventivo

Desde el enfoque preventivo, la aplicación del principio de precaución como enfoque anticipatorio del riesgo, ha ocupado un lugar relevante en la adopción de medidas mitigatorias y preventivas de daños ocasionados de forma directa o indirecta por actividades que implican deforestación o destrucción de bosques.

Dentro de esta categorĂ­a, los delitos asociados a las actividades de deforestaciĂłn pasan a ser castigados con penas privativas de la libertad de 5 a 15 años [
].

Este principio, contemplado en el Derecho Internacional Ambiental desde la Conferencia de Río de Janeiro de 1992 como parte de la Declaración suscrita por los Estados parte, exige la suspensión de cualquier actividad, proceso o producción que implique un deterioro ambiental y que pueda causar daños a la salud o al ambiente;

todo esto, en un contexto de incertidumbre sobre el alcance de dichos daños.

En contraposición, este enfoque preventivo también promueve la invocabilidad del principio de prevención, el cual busca anticipar daños potenciales de actividades, procesos o productos, de cuyo origen se reputen riesgos ambientales, y de los que se tenga un grado de certeza razonable sobre su ocurrencia o posibles impactos3 Al igual que el principio de precaución, el principio de prevención tuvo su origen en el vorsorgeprinzip, un concepto ideado en el derecho alemån, en la década de los setenta, en respuesta a la degradación de los bosques y la contaminación del mar.

C. Enfoque punitivo

El tercer enfoque, denominado punitivo, lleva la regulación – y la disuasión – de las actividades de deforestación al escenario del Derecho Penal, y en donde países como Colombia, han sido pioneros en la inclusión expresa de las actividades de deforestación como delitos ambientales.

Dentro de esta categoría, los delitos asociados a las actividades de deforestación pasan a ser castigados con penas privativas de la libertad de 5 a 15 años; y con multas que van desde los 134 hasta los 50.000 salarios mínimos legales mensuales vigentes. La norma establece que en las mismas penas incurrirån quienes promocionen o financien estas actividades de deforestación4

A lo anterior, se suman como agravantes las actividades que se ejecuten en ecosistemas naturales propios, incluyendo åreas protegidas por el Estado. Cabe resaltar que son agravantes aquellas actividades consideradas como delitos ambientales, cuando estas se ejecuten por grupos ilegales, mediante el uso de nuevas tecnologías, pongan en peligro la salud e integridad humana u ocasionen erosión genética o alteraciones irreversibles en suelos o recursos hidrobiológicos.

D. Enfoque resarcitorio

Por Ășltimo, el enfoque resarcitorio se despliega en el ĂĄmbito del derecho de daños o de la responsabilidad civil contractual y extracontractual y del Estado, como mecanismo de reparaciĂłn econĂłmica por los perjuicios ocasionados a los ecosistemas, derivados de las actividades de deforestaciĂłn. Estos regĂ­menes de responsabilidad contemplan el reconocimiento de los perjuicios que se ocasionen de forma directa o indirecta a los individuos o colectividades, quienes pueden verse

3. IvĂĄn Vargas-Chaves, AndrĂ©s GĂłmez-Rey, Adolfo Ibåñez-Elam, “Electromagnetic pollution and precautionary principle: from twilight rule to binding criteria” , Revista Guillermo de Ockham, 2020, vol. 18, n° 1, p. 55-67.

2. Lee. Paddock, “Stemming the deforestation tide: The role of corporate no deforestation commitments”, Geo. Wash. J. Energy & Envtl. L., 2016, vol. 7, p. 205.

4. Colombia, Congreso de la RepĂșblica, Ley 2111 de 2021, por medio del cual se sustituye el tĂ­tulo XI “De los delitos contra los recursos naturales y el medio ambiente de la Ley 599 de 2000, se modifica la ley 906 de 2004 y se dictan otras disposiciones”.

afectadas colateralmente en lo social y económico por el deterioro ambiental que la deforestación trae consigo. Si bien, desde un punto de vista económico los daños ambientales no se pueden reparar con rigor. Pues, estos daños, en ocasiones, pueden ser irreversibles; a través de este cuarto enfoque se pretende disuadir a empresas y particulares en la realización de actividades que impacten los ecosistemas, generen pasivos ambientales o pongan en riesgo la disponibilidad de los recursos forestales para las generaciones actuales y futuras.

II.

Hacia un quinto enfoque

regulatorio e institucional desde un organismo intersectorial para el control de la deforestaciĂłn

Volviendo al caso de Colombia que, ademås de ser pionero en la regulación de las actividades de deforestación, goza de un territorio rico en recursos naturales y biodiversidad, en el año 2017 se emitió el Decreto 1257 que creó la Comisión Intersectorial para el Control de la Deforestación y la Gestión Integral para la Protección de Bosques Naturales, por sus siglas CICOD. Desde este organismo intersectorial se reorientaron las políticas, actividades, planes, proyectos y actividades para el control de este fenómeno; todo lo anterior, articulado en la gestión sostenible y estratégica de los bosques naturales en el territorio nacional.

En su conformación, se dispuso la activa participación del Gobierno central a través de varios de sus ministerios los cuales, liderados desde el Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible, tienen la misión de coordinar las actuaciones y la articulación interinstitucional para el control de la deforestación, con la intervención de la sociedad civil, representantes de colectividades y entidades de orden territorial.

A partir del norte adoptado desde el quinto enfoque, se analiza la informaciĂłn que allegan autoridades ambientales y demĂĄs unidades territoriales, locales o nacionales, con el fin de contar con un estado actualizado de los impactos sociales, econĂłmicos y ambientales. De este modo, se proponen lineamientos para la intervenciĂłn coordinada de todas las entidades a cargo del control de la deforestaciĂłn.

Hoy, la Estrategia Integral de Control a la DeforestaciĂłn y GestiĂłn de los Bosques que se impulsa desde la CICOD con la participaciĂłn de entidades del orden nacional y territorial, es la gran apuesta del paĂ­s para reducir los indicadores de degradaciĂłn forestal, promoviendo una gestiĂłn sostenible y responsable de los bosques en territorio nacional. Ello, bajo un enfoque integral de desarrollo rural, econĂłmico y sostenible, y, a la vez, acorde con el norte que se adopta en materia de lucha contra el cambio climĂĄtico.

Como resultado de este quinto enfoque, el Estado colombiano cumple compromisos internacionales suscritos en el marco de la Estrategia REDD+, y a instancias de la ConvenciĂłn Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio ClimĂĄtico5. Las acciones requeridas para el control de la deforestaciĂłn, la degradaciĂłn de bosques y las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero asociadas, son discutidas en primer lugar en esta instancia intersectorial, para orientar o reorientar las decisiones en esta materia, al tiempo que se garantiza un desarrollo integral y sostenible del paĂ­s.

A lo anterior, deben sumarse los avances significativos en implementar los cuatro ejes o pilares requeridos para REDD+ por la citada ConvenciĂłn Marco, a saber, en primer lugar, un sistema robusto e interconectado de monitoreo forestal (SNMB); en segundo lugar, la fijaciĂłn de un marco referencial de emisiones forestales (NREF); en tercer lugar, el diseño de una estrategia nacional REDD+ o plan de acciĂłn; y, por Ășltimo, un sistema informaciĂłn de salvaguardas o SNS.

III. Consideraciones finales

La deforestación como fenómeno que abarca un conjunto de actividades como la tala, el corte o arranque de árboles, la quema o destrucción de áreas boscosas, entre otras – cuyo objetivo es el de satisfacer necesidades propias o fomentar modelos de desarrollo económico, donde la acumulación del capital prevalece sobre el desarrollo sostenible –, se ha convertido en una de las principales preocupaciones de la comunidad internacional y de los Gobiernos en materia ambiental.

Con la revoluciĂłn industrial, la deforestaciĂłn ha venido experimentado un crecimiento exponencial e incluso

5. Jean Carlo Rodríguez-De-Francisco, et al. “Post-conflict transition and REDD+ in Colombia: Challenges to reducing deforestation in the Amazon. Forest Policy and Economics”, 2021, vol. 127, p. 102450.

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alarmante, no solo por las graves consecuencias que genera para el medio ambiente sino para la sociedad, ya que sus efectos trascienden e impactan al hombre. Estas consecuencias pueden caracterizarse en una pérdida progresiva de la biodiversidad, aumento de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI), erosión del suelo y alteración de los ciclos hídricos y biológicos.

Desde el rol activo que los sectores pĂșblico, privado y la comunidad internacional asumen, se han implementado una serie de enfoques que buscan contrarrestar esta problemĂĄtica. En la implementaciĂłn de estos enfoques, participan ademĂĄs diversos actores, como gobiernos locales y territoriales, empresas, comunidades locales y la sociedad civil.

Con la revolución industrial, la deforestación ha venido experimentado un crecimiento exponencial e incluso alarmante [
].

El primero de ellos, que es el enfoque proactivo, busca incentivar medidas preventivas para evitar la deforestaciĂłn, como la promociĂłn de prĂĄcticas sostenibles, la innovaciĂłn ambiental y la responsabilidad social y ambiental de las empresas. El segundo enfoque, de naturaleza preventiva, establece normas y regulaciones que limiten la deforestaciĂłn en aplicaciĂłn al principio de precauciĂłn. A partir el enfoque punitivo se sancionan a individuos o empresas que incurran en actividades de deforestaciĂłn ilegal, mediante multas e incluso penas privativas de li-

bertad y, el cuarto enfoque, de naturaleza resarcitorio, contempla la reparación del daño ambiental causado por la deforestación.

A lo anterior, se suma un quinto enfoque desde la institucionalidad con la conformaciĂłn de entidades responsables directamente de coordinar las actuaciones de todas las partes, y de la articulaciĂłn interinstitucional para el control de la deforestaciĂłn. El caso de Colombia es un caso a resaltar con la creaciĂłn de la ComisiĂłn Intersectorial para el Control de la DeforestaciĂłn y la GestiĂłn Integral para la ProtecciĂłn de Bosques Naturales, y su estrategia integral de control a la deforestaciĂłn y gestiĂłn de bosques.

Son cinco enfoques que requieren un compromiso conjunto de todos los sectores, actores y partes involucradas, pues, al final, el control de la deforestación hace parte de la responsabilidad que tienen las actuales generaciones en solucionar un problema que afectará a las generaciones futuras. ■

IvĂĄn VARGAS-CHAVES, Ph.D. Profesor de la Facultad de Derecho, Universidad Militar Nueva Granada BogotĂĄ, Colombia ivan.vargas@unimilitar.edu.co

Referencias

Colombia, Congreso de la RepĂșblica, Ley 2111 de 2021, por el cual se sustituye el tĂ­tulo XI: «De los delitos contra los recursos naturales y el medio ambiente» de la Ley 599 de 2000, se modifica la ley 906 de 2004 y se dictan otras disposiciones.

Colombia, Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible, Decreto 1257 de 2017, por el cual “se crea la Comisión Intersectorial para el Control de la Deforestación y la Gestión Integral para la Protección de Bosques Naturales y se toman otras determinaciones”.

Jed O. Kaplan, Kristen M. Krumhardt, Niklaus Zimmermann, „ The prehistoric and preindustrial deforestation of Europe”, Quaternary science reviews, 2009, vol. 28, no 27-28, p. 3016-3034.

OrganizaciĂłn de las Naciones Unidas, DeclaraciĂłn de Rio sobre el Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo, 1992.

Lee Paddock, Stemming the deforestation tide: “The role of corporate no deforestation commitments”, Geo. Wash. J. Energy & Envtl. L., 2016, vol. 7, p. 205.

Rodríguez-De-Francisco, Jean Carlo, et al. “ Postconflict transition and REDD+ in Colombia: Challenges to reducing deforestation in the Amazon”, Forest Policy and Economics, 2021, vol. 127, 102450.

IvĂĄn Vargas-Chaves, AndrĂ©s GĂłmez-Rey, Adolfo IbåñezElam, “Electromagnetic pollution and precautionary principle: from twilight rule to binding criteria”, Revista Guillermo de Ockham, 2020, vol. 18, n° 1, p. 55-67.

The Sustainability Reporting of Law Firms: Insights from the First Market Experiences

Ô La durabilitĂ© est devenue un enjeu pour la gestion des cabinets professionnels. Les caractĂ©ristiques fiduciaires de la profession juridique et les Ă©lĂ©ments de durabilitĂ©, tels que le capital humain et intellectuel et la gestion de la rĂ©putation, fournissent facilement la preuve de leur importance pour la crĂ©ation et le maintien de la valeur Ă©conomique des entreprises. L’information sur le dĂ©veloppement durable devient donc doublement importante pour ceux qui investissent dans l’entreprise et pour les parties prenantes telles que les employĂ©s ou les clients qui sont obligĂ©s, selon les derniĂšres rĂ©glementations nationales et internationales, de surveiller les impacts produits tout au long de la chaĂźne d’approvisionnement.

Ô La sostenibilidad se ha convertido en un problema para la gestiĂłn de los despachos profesionales. Las caracterĂ­sticas fiduciarias de la profesiĂłn jurĂ­dica y los elementos de sostenibilidad, como el capital humano e intelectual y la gestiĂłn de la reputaciĂłn, demuestran fĂĄcilmente su importancia para la creaciĂłn y el mantenimiento del valor econĂłmico de las empresas. La informaciĂłn sobre sostenibilidad se convierte asĂ­ en doblemente material para quienes invierten en la empresa y para las partes interesadas, como los empleados o los clientes, que estĂĄn obligados, segĂșn las Ășltimas normativas nacionales e internacionales, a supervisar los impactos producidos a lo largo de la cadena de suministro.

Introduction

Sustainability has become an issue for the management of professional firms. Fiduciary features of the legal profession and elements of sustainability, such as human and intellectual capital and reputation management, easily provide evidence of their materiality for the creation and maintenance of economic value by firms. Sustainability information thus becomes doubly material for those who invest in the firm and for stakeholders such as employees

or clients who are obligated, according to the latest national and international regulations, to monitor the impacts produced along the supply chain.

Sustainability is the new economic-social background with which all economic operators must deal.

The approach to and management of sustainability issues calls upon organizations to conform to the demands of their clients (and in particular, large industrial groups) on the one hand, and, on the other, to face growing competition in the acquisition and management of human resources.

Already, major economic players have asked their legal advisors to declare and document their policies on sustainability. In the future, such choices will become a necessary market practice given the policies adopted by some governments, including the European Union, which require large companies to monitor and prevent negative impacts on human rights and the environment along the entire value chain. In this sense, the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD) and Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD) directives recently approved by the European Union may be mentioned.

As to the competitive question, it may be pointed out that, even before what may be called the “Great Resignation of 2023,” a tendency had emerged in some European countries for professionals of structured law firms to find new job opportunities, often migrating to in-house offices or other firms able to guarantee a better work-life balance or new career prospects.

Sustainability Reports

Soon, law firms will have to measure their performance by publishing sustainability reports in line with international standards such as Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), Integrated Reporting, European Sustainability Reporting Standards (ESRS), or Sustainability Accounting Standards Board (SASB). Accordingly, the selection of the information to be published should be preceded by a careful analysis of the materiality of sustainability issues.

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Materiality must be understood in a double-materiality meaning considering both the financial impact and the socio-environmental effect.

Information will be relevant if it is useful to understand the economic and financial results of the law firm or the socio-environmental impacts on the reference community. In other words, the material information will be the key factors influencing the investment choices of the capital carriers or the other stakeholders, including customers and suppliers, to establish or maintain business relations with law firms.

The concept of double materiality is more easily intuitive precisely for law firms and organizations that provide consulting services. Indeed, for companies operating in these sectors of the market, the central aspects of the approach to sustainability are linked to the specific and infungible characteristics of their performance: the professional service, the provider's personality, and the trust that clients put in that provider. The importance of the personality requires that, even in the most complex organizations, the performance is rendered by a specific professional to whom the client is assigned. The feature of the personality requires that, even in the most complex organizations, the performance is rendered by a specific professional, to whom the client has given the assignment.

Designee Requirement

The concept of double materiality is more easily intuitive precisely for law firms and organizations that provide consulting services.

It is significant that, in some European countries, the advisory assignment cannot be conferred impersonally to the “ law firm ” but, necessarily, to one or more professionals identified with the customer. Although the responsibility of professionals in charge may delegate the execution of the assignment to other collaborators of the firm, this will not free them from their responsibility to the customer. On the other hand, the personality of the service provider carries with it the fiduciary character of the relationship: if the trust of the client fails, the assignment ceases.

Moreover, in law firms, the personal and fiduciary character of the service means that, where the professional in charge of the mandate has a fiduciary relationship with the client, and then moves to another firm, the client will most likely follow that lawyer.

This brief description makes clear that there are at least two relevant elements of the value chain of advocacy and the issues that, in the context of sustainable management, an association or a company among professionals must face as well as properly report: the protection of human and intellectual capital as well as relational capital.

Retention

The loss of a lawyer because of a lateral hire is not only a loss of human capital, but also, in all probability, a risk for losing relational capital (relationship with the customer) and, ultimately, the bottom line. Investments made by law firms for the management of employees, for the development of customers, and for innovation is therefore also significant for the financial stakeholders who have invested in the law firm because it also helps them to prosper.

Key Performance Indicators

Below are some examples of the type of information or key performance indicators (KPI) that seem to be relevant to law firms:1

‱ Human Capital: Information on the number of employees, gender, age group composition, pay gender gap management, career progression, training, and information that illuminates the culture of human resource management, highlight the firm's orientation to the growth of the individual professional and retention. Indeed, only a balanced achievement of these goals allows the firm to continue to channel energy and survive.

‱ Intellectual Capital: Information on investments made in the purchase of technologies or the development of management systems is useful to make processes more efficient. The usefulness of the promotion of internal cross-selling among the studio’s professionals is important. The cross-selling practice, in addition to strengthening the relationships between the firm’s components, increases the reputation of the latter in terms of quality and efficiency and is an element that, in an era of increasing specialization of professionalism, can prevent the flight of customers.

‱ Relational Capital: Information on the composition of customers (by number, size, and geographical location),

1. The proposed nomenclature follows the pattern of the ‘‘IR‘‘, the Integrated Reporting framework developed by the IIRC.

as well as investments in customer loyalty towards the structure, are important. From this point of view, communication and engagement policies are certainly effective, not only in the sense of marketing, but in a broader perspective, which is oriented to the verification of customer satisfaction and the management of complaints or friction points with the customer.

‱ Natural (or Environmental) Capital: Although the environmental impact to the legal profession and other professions is probably not the most material one, the law firm will be required to report the use of paper, the policies for managing energy consumption that the transition to the drafting of digital documents and electronic storage or cloud make more current, and the management of waste, including those related to technology, such as computers and other disused devices.

Small and Mid-Sized Businesses

Similar challenges will be faced by professionals who will continue to practice the profession individually, and for the latter, it will be progressively relevant to highlight to customers their commitment to sustainability issues and the sharing of customer goals. The issues analyzed above have long been at the center of the reflections of professional market operators and of standardization bodies and other standard setters.

Some law firms have already begun to publish integrated reports, social reports, and sustainability reports. They are used not only by international top tier firms, but also by mid-sized national ones, even if not incorporated in the form of companies.

The “Guide to Practice Management for Small and Medium-Sized Practices,” issued by the International Federation of Accountants, deals with a rethinking of the firm management system and points towards a process organization that addresses the issues of people management, communication, and customer orientation. More recently, Uni (the Italian body for certification standard), has developed its own rules.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the world of professional law firms is in turmoil on sustainability issues. While sustainability calls for a socially responsible approach to the conduct of economic activity, it should be remembered that legal professions have always provided themselves with codes of ethics that arise precisely from the awareness of the role that orderly institutions play in affecting the social function performed by their members in society. ■

Marco Cristiano Petrassi Partner, SZA Law Firm Milano, Italy petrassi@sza.it

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CONTACT

Anne-Marie VILLAIN 23 rue de la Victoire 75009 Paris Tél. : +33 1 44 88 55 66 E-mail : avillain@uianet.org

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Climate Change: A Lawyer’s Professional Responsibilities in the Age of Environmental Degradation

Ô En raison du changement climatique et de la dĂ©gradation de l’environnement, la planĂšte est en danger. Une question se pose : quelles responsabilitĂ©s avons-nous, en tant que conseillers et dĂ©fenseurs, pour avertir et guider nos clients dans leurs programmes et projets qui affectent la terre, la mer, l’air et les populations ? L’UIA a rĂ©cemment adoptĂ© une sĂ©rie de principes concernant ces responsabilitĂ©s. Nous examinons ces principes, ainsi que leurs implications et leurs fondements dans le droit national et international.

Ô Debido al cambio climĂĄtico y a la degradaciĂłn del medio ambiente, el planeta tiene problemas. Surge la pregunta: ÂżquĂ© responsabilidades tenemos, como asesores y defensores, para advertir y orientar a nuestros clientes con sus programas y proyectos que afectan a la tierra, el mar, el aire y las poblaciones? La UIA ha adoptado recientemente una serie de principios que abordan tales responsabilidades. Examinamos los principios, asĂ­ como sus implicaciones y fundamentos en el derecho nacional e internacional.

“A civilization can die,”... and the end can be “brutal.” “Things can happen much more quickly than we think.” This warning, written in The Economist and quoting President Emmanuel Macron of France,1 was about the “survival of Europe as the guarantor of... prosperity and the liberal order” in the face of mounting tensions. But it also applies to environmental degradation – and not just to the civilization of Europe, but to that of the entire globe.

This was recognized by the UIA with its Resolution on Sustainability and the Role of the Legal Profession, presented and approved at the General Assembly held

1. “How to Rescue Europe: An Interview with Emmanuel Macron”, The Economist 42 (4 May 2024).

in Rome in October 2023.2 Among its multiple provisions are the following:

The UIA urges all lawyers:

* * * *

To assume their essential role in advising clients of the importance of the SDGs [Sustainability Development Goals3], the Ten Principles,4 and ESG [Environmental, Social, and Governance] factors . . . . and,

The UIA calls upon all Bar Associations, Law Societies, and legal educational Institutions:

* * * *

To facilitate dialogues to create solutions to the crises posed by climate change, loss of biodiversity, water management, and the need for a circular economy.

In other words: lawyers are to educate and advise about the ecological impact of the conduct, projects, and proposals of those with whom they deal, including but not limited to their own clients.

This poses several questions: must lawyers advocate to their clients for ecological friendly conduct; and must they affirmatively advise against conduct that will damage the environment? Put another way, must lawyers affirmatively guide clients in directions that might be otherwise averse to their clients’ stated goals and financial interests, so as to protect humanity as a whole? Ultimately, what is the higher calling within a lawyer’s professional responsibility: protecting a client’s stated interests; or protecting the interests of humanity as a whole, when those interests approach the realm of the existential?

2. https://www.uianet.org/sites/default/files/uia_resolution_on_sustainability_and_the_role_of_the_legal_profession_final_en.pdf.

3. See The United Nations Definition of Sustainability, at http://www. un.org/en/academic-impact/sustainability.

4. See The Ten Principles of the UN Global Compact, at https://unglobalcompact.org/what-is-gc/mission/principles

The answer to these questions requires an analysis of two more questions:

First: May an attorney counsel or otherwise assist a client in the commission of criminal or otherwise unlawful conduct?

Second: Does environmental degradation amount to such conduct?

We address the second question first.

Climate Injury As Criminal Conduct

In the early 1970s, a computer model developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) “predicted” that human civilization would effectively collapse beginning in the year 2040. The model was based on the growth of the human population and the consumption of earth’s resources. The results were published in a bestselling book, “The Limits to Growth.”5 More recently, a study by KMPG conducted in 2021 concluded that, so far, the milestones on the road to this collapse, as identified by MIT, are being met, and are being met on schedule. The words of the MIT researchers from the 1970s eerily parallel those of President Macron quoted above from The Economist:

“If the present growth trends in world population, industrialization, pollution, food production, and resource depletion continue unchanged, the limits to growth on this planet will be reached sometime within the next one hundred years. The most probable result will be a rather sudden and uncontrollable decline in both population and industrial capacity." (emphasis added).

The main focus of this article is on climate change, and for that reason, we look at its effects.

In the last year, our global average atmospheric temperature has, for the first time, breached the level of 1.5Âș C (2.7Âș F) above the per-industrial age. More significantly, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere reached 425 parts per million. And, most ominously, the heat content of the oceans, which absorb 90% of the heat produced by mankind’s industrial and agricultural activities, has risen to the highest levels ever recorded. This accumulation of heat in the oceans is accelerating, even as atmospheric temperatures increase.

These temperatures and heat affect human agriculture and our living conditions. Collectively, these effects are adverse. They include:

‱ Temperatures in the tropics and subtropics that are not merely “uncomfortable,” but unlivable

‱ Rising sea levels, requiring the abandonment of coastal cities and lands with the loss of productive food producing areas

5. Donella H. Meadows, Dennis L. Meadows, Jþrgen Randers, William W Behrens III, “The Limits to Growth; A Report for the Club of Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Mankind” , 1972, New York: Universe Books. ISBN 0876631650.

‱ Drought, with the loss of agricultural production

‱ Storms, with destructive loss of property and life

‱ Forest fires, destroying homes and pumping more carbon dioxide, as well as smoke and soot, into the atmosphere, affecting those hundreds and even thousands of miles from the fires.

All of this will result – and has already resulted – in emigration, famine, and civil conflicts. Eventually, it will result in the displacement and mortality of not millions, but billions. The process has begun, and it will continue, absent a concerted effort by all countries to not only stop this process, but to reverse it.

Why do I say, “reverse the process”? Because the planet has a momentum of its own. A gentle nudge here or a slight tap there, and the planet will return to its “normal,” stable state that civilization has enjoyed for the last ten thousand years or so, that is, since the ending of the last ice age. But human's industrialization is more than a gentle nudge: it has been a “sledgehammer.” The planet, now being kicked out of its stable state, is moving on its own to a new climate state that will be unable to support mankind’s population of eight billion. The reasons? Feedback loops.

[
] Lawyers are to educate and advise about the ecological impact of the conduct, projects and proposals of those with whom they deal, including but not limited to their own clients.

A feedback loop is movement in a given direction that causes an additional movement in the same direction. For climate, this means that an increase in the average temperature of the planet causes an additional increase in temperature. Once the process begins, it continues on its own. Thus, at some point, the temperature rise becomes self-generating and no longer society's to control.6

Scientists often describe this process using the concept of “tipping points,” these being processes that, once a certain level is exceeded, cannot be stopped. Examples of some tipping points are the melting of the Arctic ice cap, the slowing of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Current, and the destruction of the Amazon rain forest. Each of these processes has points after which they cannot be stopped. And each is interconnected with other processes that, when one goes, so will others.

Let us further examine this situation. The Earth’s climate is a complex system, as is the Earth itself. As such, it has two important factors inherent in any long-running complex machine: (1) resiliency; and (2) the interconnection of its parts. Taken together, this means that the Earth’s climate can maintain a level of stability even as it suffers a reasona-

6. See “Addressing the Climate Change: a Bold Roadmap for the Role of Law”, by Andrew Grosso, Juriste International 2021-1 at 28.

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The United Nations previously recognized environmental degradation as a crime against nature.

ble level of injury to its operating components: the system can appear stable even as the planet experiences injuries, such as industrial carbon dioxide pumped into the atmosphere, deforestation of the Amazon, slowing ocean currents caused by excess ocean heating, melting ice sheets, etc. But only up to a point. Beyond a certain point, a failure of one part of the climate system will adversely affect the other aspects that have kept the system stable. For example, a melting ice sheet will allow the oceans and land to absorb more sunlight; which will heat the planet and cause forests to dry out; which will cause forest fires; which will produce soot that alights on ice sheets; which absorb sunlight and warm the ice sheets so that they melt faster... And at some point, the planet is unable to adjust to the cascading effects, and all the ice sheets will melt and most of the forests will be decimated, and other parts of the system will also collapse. This is a slow process – until it is not, à la Macron So – that is the science.

The law? The United Nations previously recognized environmental degradation as a crime against nature. More recently, it issued a “code red” for humanity. There is a push to enact laws criminalizing “ecocide” in various countries, with one definition of ecocide being:

“Unlawful or wanton acts committed with the knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts.”

In March 2024, the Council of the European Union approved a Directive “on the protection of the environment through criminal law . . . .” The Directive expressly referenced climate change, loss of biodiversity, and environmental degradation as harms to be addressed not merely by civil law or regulations, but also by criminal law.7

This seems to make sense: causing loss of the planet as a stable habitat for living beings and human civilization does qualify as a conduct to be considered unlawful, and it makes no difference if the laws of a person’s own country do not recognize this conduct as violations of law. We look to the Nuremberg Principles, established by the International Commission of the United Nations as a result of the Nuremberg Trials after World War II:

Principle Number One of the Nuremberg Principles states, “Any person who commits an act which constitutes a crime under international law is responsible and therefore liable to punishment.”

Principle Number Two provides that, “The fact that internal law does not impose a penalty for an act which constitutes a crime under international law does not relieve the person who committed the act from responsibility under international law.”

We, as lawyers, are responsible not only for the laws of our own nation, but for those of the international community.

A Lawyer’s Responsibility

The bar codes of few, if at any, jurisdictions permit a lawyer to advise his or her client how to commit a crime. There is no reason why recognized crimes against nature and crimes against humanity should enjoy an exemption.

The American Bar Association’s Model Rule of Professional Conduct 2.1 provides as follows:

“In representing a client, a lawyer shall exercise independent professional judgment and render candid advice. In rendering advice, a lawyer may refer not only to law but to other considerations such as moral, economic, social and political factors, that may be relevant to the client’s situation.”

Rule 1.2(d) is more specific:

“A lawyer shall not counsel a client to engage, or assist a client, in conduct that the lawyer knows is criminal or fraudulent, but a lawyer may discuss the legal consequences of any proposed course of conduct with a client and may counsel or assist a client to make a good faith effort to determine the validity, scope, meaning or application of the law.”

Similarly, the Model Code of Conduct for European Lawyers provides:8

“Lawyers shall not support or assist clients in committing or attempting to commit conduct, which is illegal, criminal, or fraudulent. Lawyers’ duty is to advise clients on the extent and applicability of the law.”

Moving beyond law for the moment, protection of the environment from exploitation is the subject of numerous moral teachings, a prominent example being the 2015 encyclical on climate change and inequality by Pope Francis, Laudato si’, subtitled “On Care for Our Common Home.”

Taken together, we may summarize a lawyer’s responsibilities under the model rules and moral guidance in this manner: a lawyer must not advance a client’s interests in criminal or unlawful conduct, and has the option to avoid advancing a client’s interest

7. Directive (EU) 2024 of the European Parliament and of the Council [on] the protection of the environment through criminal law (https:// data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/PE-82-2023-INIT/en/pdf). See also, “Environmental crime: Council clears new EU law with tougher sanctions and extended list of offences,” Press Release of the Council of the EU (26 March 2024).

8. Rule 5 of the Model Article on Relations with Clients (adopted 27 November 2021).

in conduct that violates generally accepted moral and social strictures. In both such situations, the attorney may provide guidance to the client to accomplish the client’s ultimate goals by alternative means that avoid criminal, moral, and social abuses.

Meaning for the UIA

The UIA’s Board of Governors recently discussed9 whether there are obligations for lawyers to advise their clients with respect to their business operations about the impact of those operations on climate and the ecology. The consensus seemed to be that lawyers do in fact have such an obligation – although this consensus was by no means unanimous.

This article lays out an analysis for concluding that, yes, lawyers should and must advise clients to avoid conduct that causes more harm to our planet than has already occurred through human industry. But the analysis goes further: it also permits and encourages lawyers to advise clients about methods to conduct business operations while simultaneously avoiding such harm.

I provide a concrete example. A corporate client wishes to build or fund a power plant that will burn fossil fuel. Are there ways to accomplish this without harming the climate? A suggestion might be to ensure that the project be carbon-neutral, and that it be realistically carbon-neutral. Carbon capture might absorb all carbon emissions from the power plant; and further processing might solidify them, so they could be buried or, better, a commercial use could be found for them (such as being used for building material – and a model for doing this is already successful in the proof-of-concept phase). Or, for an entity that is financing the plant, the suggestion could be offered that, for each anticipated unit of carbon that will be produced, the entity will also finance the planting and nurturing of trees in a forest. The list of what can be done to move industry to a carbon-neutral state is limited by only human ingenuity, and by the global recognition of the existential importance of accomplishing this goal.

Conclusion

Some years ago I read a short story from a book that I had borrowed from a friend. The name of the story was “The Weapon.”10 It was very short, and the plot went something like this:

A scientist was sitting at home, working on a project. His son was with him. The boy was fifteen years old, but, sadly, was intellectually disabled, being possessed with a simple, childlike personality. The project on which the scientist was working was a weapon of immense power that had the capacity to destroy civilization. It was, from

9. UIA Governing Board Meeting, 23 March 2024, Tokyo, Japan.

10. “The Weapon”, by Frederic Brown (1951).

all appearances, part of some government’s military research program.

While the scientist was working, someone knocked at the door. It was a stranger, but the scientist nonetheless invited him in and offered him a drink. They began conversing, and the stranger’s purpose for his visit, it became clear, was to talk the scientist out of working on the project. Yes, the scientist acknowledged, the weapon he was designing will be dangerously powerful; yes, the scientist acknowledged, it will be placed in the hands of leaders in a political environment where there could be no guarantee that it would not be used; and yes, the scientist further acknowledged, civilization itself would be at risk if the weapon were in fact used.

We, as lawyers, are responsible not only for the laws of our own nation, but for those of the international community.

But to the scientist – none of this was of any account. His job and his vocation in life was research and development, and designing this weapon was his job and his vocation. Nothing else mattered.

Realizing that he had failed in his mission, the stranger accepted the scientist’s offer of a drink. While the scientist stepped away to prepare it, the stranger took the opportunity to visit the childlike fifteen year old in his bedroom. The scientist spotted the stranger as he was exiting the bedroom. Then, the stranger politely declined the drink, saying that he needed to leave. But he also explained that he had given to the son a “small gift.”

When the scientist stepped into the bedroom to check on his son and see the gift, he was shocked. He carefully talked his son into handing the “gift” to him, slowly and gently. The story’s closing sentences read, “When he had it safely, his hands shook as he examined it. He thought, only a madman would give a loaded revolver to an idiot.”

The stranger had given a simple but terrifying message to the scientist about his work, and his responsibilities.

Climate change is existential for our civilization. Lawyers have an obligation to advise and guide clients so as to preserve that civilization. This is not negotiable. ■

GROSSO, Esq. President of the UIA Biotechnology Law Commission Attorney, Andrew Grosso & Associates Washington, D.C., United States agrosso@acm.org

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Derecho de la sostenibilidad corporativa Carlos DE MIGUEL PERALES

Ô This article explains the Corporate Sustainability Law, which is the group of instrumental rules that aim at ensuring the fulfilment by companies of the substantive law concerning the environment, social issues, human rights and governance.

Ô Cet article explique la loi sur le dĂ©veloppement durable des entreprises, qui est un ensemble de rĂšgles instrumentales visant Ă  garantir le respect par les entreprises du droit substantiel concernant l’environnement, les questions sociales, les droits de l’homme et la gouvernance.

La protecciĂłn ambiental en la UE es hoy una de sus polĂ­ticas vertebradoras. AsĂ­ puede verse ya en sus normas mĂĄs bĂĄsicas, como los arts. 11 y 191 a 193 del TFUE y el art. 37 de la Carta de los Derechos Fundamentales de la UniĂłn Europea.

La importancia de la protección ambiental ha evolucionado con el paso de los años con caråcter general, y en especial para las empresas. Desde la regulación con base en las tres ideas fundamentales (reparación, prevención y participación), se ha pasado al Derecho de la sostenibilidad corporativa, que defino como el conjunto de normas de caråcter instrumental aplicable a las empresas para asegurar el mejor cumplimiento del Derecho sustantivo en materia de derechos humanos, medio ambiente, cuestiones sociales y gobernanza. Como ve, su objeto no se ciñe al medio ambiente, sino que relaciona esta materia con otras igualmente importantes.

Este Derecho comprende las tres ĂĄreas que se van a ver a continuaciĂłn: divulgaciĂłn de informaciĂłn, taxonomĂ­a y diligencia debida.

1. DivulgaciĂłn de informaciĂłn sobre sostenibilidad

En materia de divulgaciĂłn de informaciĂłn sobre sostenibilidad, la norma bĂĄsica y general es la Directiva 2013/34/ UE, sobre los estados financieros anuales, los estados financieros consolidados y otros informes afines de ciertos tipos de empresas, segĂșn ha resultado modificada por la Directiva (UE) 2022/2464.

Los sujetos obligados a divulgar información sobre sostenibilidad en régimen general (aparte, pues, de regímenes especiales que pueden existir, tanto por razones subjeti-

vas como temporales) son las sociedades matrices de un grupo grande; las grandes empresas y las pequeñas y medianas empresas (a excepciĂłn de las microempresas), que sean entidades de interĂ©s pĂșblico tal como se definen en el apartado a) del art. 2.1 de la Directiva; las empresas de seguros (cf. art. 2.1 de la Directiva 91/674/CEE); y las entidades de crĂ©dito (cf. art. 4.1.1 del Reglamento (UE) 575/2013) (cf. arts. 1.1, 1.3, 1.4, 3, 19 bis.1 y 29 bis.1).

En esencia, la obligaciĂłn que deben cumplir estas empresas consiste en incluir en el informe de gestiĂłn la informaciĂłn necesaria para comprender el impacto de la empresa (o del grupo) en las cuestiones de sostenibilidad, y la informaciĂłn necesaria para comprender cĂłmo afectan las cuestiones de sostenibilidad a la evoluciĂłn, los resultados y la situaciĂłn de la empresa (o del grupo). Esta informaciĂłn debe poder identificarse claramente en el informe de gestiĂłn mediante una secciĂłn especĂ­fica (arts. 19 bis.1 y 29 bis.1), y los Estados miembros pueden exigir que pongan el informe de gestiĂłn a disposiciĂłn del pĂșblico en su sitio web de forma gratuita (art. 30.1).

La informaciĂłn sobre sostenibilidad que con carĂĄcter general debe comunicar la empresa, o la sociedad matriz, abarca, entre otros extremos, los siguientes (apartados 2 y 3 de los arts. 19 bis y 29 bis):

‱ Una breve descripción de su modelo de negocio y de su estrategia, o del grupo

‱ Una descripción de sus objetivos relativos a las cuestiones de sostenibilidad, incluyendo el horizonte temporal.

‱ Una descripción de la función de sus órganos de administración, dirección y supervisión en lo que respecta a cuestiones de sostenibilidad, así como de sus conocimientos y capacidades.

‱ Una descripción de sus políticas en relación con las cuestiones de sostenibilidad.

‱ Información sobre la existencia de sistemas de incentivos ligados a cuestiones de sostenibilidad y ofrecidos a los miembros de los órganos de administración, dirección y supervisión.

‱ Una descripción del procedimiento de diligencia debida aplicado en relación con las cuestiones de sostenibilidad; los principales efectos negativos reales o potenciales relacionados con sus actividades y con su cadena de valor, las medidas adoptadas para detectar y vigilar dichos efectos y otros efectos negativos; y cualesquiera medidas adoptadas para prevenir, mitigar, subsanar o poner fin a los efectos negativos reales o potenciales, y el resultado de dichas medidas.

‱ Una descripción de los principales riesgos relacionados con las cuestiones de sostenibilidad, y la forma en que se gestionan dichos riesgos.

‱ Los indicadores pertinentes para la información a que se refieren los párrafos anteriores.

El artículo 29ter complementa lo anterior señalando cómo debe comunicarse esta información, por remisión a actos delegados de la Comisión.

2. TaxonomĂ­a

El Reglamento 2020/852, relativo al establecimiento de un marco para facilitar las inversiones sostenibles, tiene por objeto establecer los criterios para determinar si una actividad econĂłmica se considera medioambientalmente sostenible a efectos de fijar el grado de sostenibilidad medioambiental de una inversiĂłn (art. 1.1). Esto debe facilitar las inversiones en actividades sostenibles, y debe permitir distinguir entre lo que es sostenible del greenwashing

El Reglamento (UE) 2020/852 se estructura en tres capĂ­tulos, referidos respectivamente al objeto, ĂĄmbito de aplicaciĂłn y definiciones (CapĂ­tulo I); a las actividades econĂłmicas medioambientalmente sostenibles (CapĂ­tulo II); y disposiciones finales (CapĂ­tulo III). A continuaciĂłn me refiero a las actividades econĂłmicas medioambientalmente sostenibles, y en concreto a su definiciĂłn (arts. 1 a 4 y 9 a 19).

De acuerdo con el art. 3, una actividad econĂłmica tendrĂĄ la consideraciĂłn de medioambientalmente sostenible cuando cumpla cuatro requisitos:

1. Que contribuya sustancialmente a uno o varios de los objetivos medioambientales previstos en el Reglamento, que son (art. 9):

‱ Mitigación del cambio climático, para mantener el aumento de la temperatura media mundial muy por debajo de los 2 °C y continuar los esfuerzos para limitarlo a 1,5 °C respecto de los niveles preindustriales. Por ejemplo, si contribuye sustancialmente a estabilizar las concentraciones de gases de efecto invernadero en la atmósfera (art. 10).

‱ Adaptación al cambio climático actual y previsto, y a sus repercusiones (art. 2.6). Por ejemplo, si incluye soluciones de adaptación que reduzcan de forma sustancial el riesgo de efectos adversos del clima actual y previsto en el futuro sobre dicha actividad económica (art. 11).

‱ Uso sostenible y protección de los recursos hídricos y marinos. Por ejemplo, si contribuye sustancialmente a lograr el buen estado de las masas de agua (art. 12).

‱ Transición hacia una economía circular. Por ejemplo, si la actividad usa los recursos naturales en la producción de modo más eficiente (art. 13).

‱ Prevención y control de la contaminación, contribuyendo de forma sustancial a la protección frente a la contaminación del medio ambiente, por ejemplo, previniendo las emisiones contaminantes a la atmósfera, el agua o la tierra (art. 14).

‱ Protección y recuperación de la biodiversidad y los ecosistemas. Por ejemplo, si contribuye de forma sustancial a proteger los ecosistemas que ya están en buenas condiciones (art. 15).

2. Que no cause ningĂșn perjuicio significativo a alguno de esos objetivos medioambientales. Esto ocurrirĂĄ en funciĂłn del impacto ambiental de la propia actividad y de los pro-

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ductos y servicios generados por ella a lo largo de todo su ciclo de vida (art. 17). Por ejemplo, se considera que la actividad causa un perjuicio significativo a la mitigación del cambio climåtico cuando dé lugar a considerables emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero; o que causa un perjuicio significativo a la economía circular, cuando genere importantes ineficiencias en el uso de materiales o en el uso directo o indirecto de recursos naturales.

A dĂ­a de hoy aĂșn no hay una norma en la UE sobre la diligencia debida de las empresas en materia de sostenibilidad.

3. Que la actividad se lleve a cabo de conformidad con las garantías mínimas para asegurar su conformidad con las Líneas Directrices de la OCDE para Empresas Multinacionales y los Principios Rectores de Naciones Unidas, incluidos los principios y derechos establecidos en los ocho convenios fundamentales a que se refiere la Declaración de la Organización Internacional del Trabajo relativa a los principios y derechos fundamentales en el trabajo y la Carta Internacional de Derechos Humanos; y que la actividad cumpla el principio de “no causar un perjuicio significativo” a que se refiere el artículo 2.17 del Reglamento (UE) 2019/2088, sobre la divulgación de información relativa a la sostenibilidad en el sector de los servicios financieros (art. 18).

4. Que se ajuste a los criterios técnicos de selección que hayan sido establecidos por la Comisión. El art. 19 establece cómo deben ser estos criterios técnicos. Por ejemplo, deberån determinar las contribuciones potenciales mås importantes para un objetivo medioambiental determinado respetando al mismo tiempo el principio de neutralidad tecnológica, teniendo en cuenta las repercusiones a corto y largo plazo de una actividad económica precisa; deberån ser cuantitativos y contener umbrales en la medida de lo posible o, si no, ser cualitativos; y deberån tener en cuenta el ciclo de vida. Así, por ejemplo, el Reglamento Delegado (UE) 2021/2139, sobre los objetivos de mitigación del cambio climåtico o a la adaptación al mismo, modificado por el Reglamento Delegado (UE) 2022/1214.

3. Diligencia debida

A dĂ­a de hoy aĂșn no hay una norma en la UE sobre la diligencia debida de las empresas en materia de sostenibilidad. Existe un borrador de Directiva muy reciente, de este mismo año 2024. Este borrador modifica la propuesta de 2022, que ha encontrado una oposiciĂłn considerable para su aprobaciĂłn. Lo esperable es que finalmente se apruebe una norma sobre diligencia debida corporativa en materia de sostenibilidad, si bien es posible que tarde mĂĄs de lo esperado, hasta que se llegue a un acuerdo que satisfaga a todas las partes implicadas. Por esta razĂłn, me limito a apuntar las cuestiones bĂĄsicas que puede implicar la diligencia debida, tomando como base el borrador existente.

El objeto del procedimiento de diligencia debida debe ser identificar, prevenir, mitigar, eliminar y en su caso reparar los efectos adversos sobre los derechos humanos, el medio ambiente y cuestiones sociales relacionados con las operaciones de las empresas para contribuir al desarrollo sostenible. Este procedimiento se aplicarĂĄ no a todas las empresas, sino solo a las que superen determinados lĂ­mites (por ejemplo, nĂșmero de empleados y/o cifra de negocios) y en su caso, a determinadas empresas relacionadas con ellas.

Como posibles obligaciones que pudieran imponerse a las empresas, estarĂ­an las siguientes:

‱ Integrar la diligencia debida en sus políticas y sistemas de gestión de riesgos.

‱ Identificar y evaluar impactos adversos potenciales o reales.

‱ Prevenir o, si no es posible, mitigar los efectos adversos potenciales sobre los derechos humanos y sobre el medio ambiente.

‱ Eliminar los efectos adversos reales o, si no es posible, minimizar su alcance.

‱ Establecer un mecanismo de notificación y un procedimiento de quejas.

‱ Divulgar información relativa a su actividad en lo que se relacione con la diligencia debida, y en coordinación con la Directiva 2013/34 que acabo de comentar en el apartado 1 anterior.

4. ConclusiĂłn

La UE es la regiĂłn del mundo que con mayor decisiĂłn estĂĄ encarando los desafĂ­os que plantea la degradaciĂłn ambiental, incluyendo el cambio climĂĄtico, y la consecuciĂłn del desarrollo sostenible.

En materia de sostenibilidad corporativa, destacan los ĂĄmbitos referidos a la divulgaciĂłn de informaciĂłn, la taxonomĂ­a y la diligencia debida.

La Directiva en materia de divulgación de información sobre sostenibilidad y el Reglamento de taxonomía pretenden dar una mayor transparencia a una parte relevante de las empresas en la UE, lo que debe redundar en una mejor consecución del desarrollo sostenible. En esta misma línea debe ir la futura Directiva sobre diligencia debida, cuando se apruebe. ■

Carlos DE MIGUEL PERALES

Abogado, Profesor universitario Universidad Pontificia Comillas Madrid, España cmiguel@comillas.edu

KDIPA Law in Kuwait Includes Promoting Investments in Environmental Services Sector

Le KoweĂŻt a dĂ©veloppĂ© de nouvelles stratĂ©gies d’investissement Ă©tranger qui promeuvent les investissements dans le secteur des services environnementaux et qui offrent des incitations aux investisseurs. En mettant en Ɠuvre l’AutoritĂ© koweĂŻtienne de promotion des investissements directs (KDIPA), le KoweĂŻt prĂ©voit d’atteindre ses objectifs de dura-

Ô Kuwait ha desarrollado nuevas estrategias de inversiĂłn extranjera que promueven las inversiones en el sector de los servicios medioambientales y que ofrecen incentivos a los inversores. Mediante la puesta en marcha de la Autoridad de PromociĂłn de la InversiĂłn Directa de Kuwait (KDIPA), Kuwait prevĂ© alcanzar sus objetivos de sostenibilidad para 2035.

The Kuwait Direct Investment Promotion Authority (KDIPA) was established in accordance with Law n° 116 of 2013 on Encouraging Direct Investment in the State of Kuwait. It was published in the official gazette “Kuwait Today” on June 16, 2013, came into force six months after the date of its publication, consists of 38 articles, and utilizes the Executive Regulations issued by a Ministerial Decision n° (502) of 2014. Both were enacted with the aim of developing and improving the investment environment in Kuwait, facilitating procedures for investors, and attracting and capturing both foreign and domestic direct investment in the country.

KDIPA recognizes the significance of incorporating ecofriendly investment practices and opportunities. Its Guide for Impact Investment in the State of Kuwait, 2022 showcases 12 potential investment sectors and lucrative investment opportunities under them catering to achieve the National Vision 2035, which aims to transform Kuwait into a financial and commercial hub and contributes to attaining the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of 2030.

This article aims to uncover the goals behind KDIPA’s tasks for holding and attracting value added directly

among those 12 sectors. Among these sectors, this article shall shed light on the overview of the Environmental Services Sector, by which Kuwait signifies the country’s commitment globally to utilize green forms of energy and reduce dependence on fuel-based sources of energy dimensions. KDIPA offers interested investors in this sector incentives and benefits to host mega investment opportunities in environmental service projects.

Foreign Investment Structures in Kuwait

The KDIPA law allows foreign investors to choose from the following legal entities for their investment in Kuwait:

Kuwaiti Company

Established according to the Commercial Companies Law for the purpose of direct investment. Foreign ownership can be up to 100% for shareholding companies, limited liability companies, or single-person companies.

Branch of a Foreign Company

Licensed to operate in Kuwait for the purpose of direct investment.

Representative Office

Limited to studying the market and production possibilities without engaging in commercial activities or acting as a commercial agent.

By providing these options, Kuwait aims to attract foreign investors and facilitate their participation in the country’s economic development.

Therefore, an increasing number of memorandums of understanding (MOUs) demonstrate KDIPA’s efforts to encourage direct investment, as KDIPA continued to expand its relations with its counterparts in friendly countries by approving, in principle, KDIPA’s request to proceed with signing procedures for a number of draft MOUs in the field of encouraging direct investment.

Furthermore, since 2019, KDIPA annual reports indicate that KDIPA was nominated as a liaison officer to communicate with the team of United Nations Economic and Social

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Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) for cooperation, to identify potential areas for Kuwait to benefit from its membership in ESCWA, and to address targets under its New-Kuwait 2035 Vision and pillars.

KDIPA Promotes Investments in Environmental Services Sector

According to the KDIPA annual report 2022-2023, for the second consecutive year, it continued to gradually demonstrate various aspects of dealing with sustainability along its economic, social, and environmental dimensions.

KDIPA amended its contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030 by exerting efforts to attain the 7th Goal of SDG, “Affordable and Clean Energy.”

Targeted investment entities licensed by KDIPA under Law n° 116 of 2013 shall participate in many activities and events that support sustainability in its environmental aspects, relating to protection from pollution and waste management, among others. They will participate in social activities to interact with the local community, including participating in World Cleanup Day, where environmental awareness campaigns are launched to reduce waste, clean beaches, and recycle, among other initiatives.

To enhance sustainability, KDIPA has developed a project listed in its extended interim strategic plan for the transitional period (2023-2025), approved by its Board of Directors on 23 January 2023. It stems from Kuwait’s support for sustainability in its economic, social, environmental, and governance dimensions, and emphasizes Kuwait’s international commitments for environmental protection and to combat climate change. The project is designed to improve workflow and reduce printing and paper use by 30% of the total annual cost. Towards this end, KDIPA released an internal announcement to limit the use of printers’ ink to protect the environment and reduce solid waste.

To foster a secure and attractive environment investment, the Kuwaiti government has established robust legal guarantees and supportive measures for investors in environmental services.

KDIPA amended its contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030 by exerting efforts to attain the 7th Goal of SDG, “Affordable and Clean Energy.” This includes expanding the infrastructure and upgrading technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries. KDIPA further continues to strive to implement the 7th Goal of SDG Indicators as follows: (1) invest in energy efficiency as a proportion of GDP, (2) address the amount of

foreign direct investment in financial transfer for infrastructure, and (3) develop technology to achieve its sustainable development services.

Goals of KDIPA’s Environmental Services

KDIPA’s Environmental Services goals include:

‱ Powering a sustainable future with affordable and clean energy

‱ Building sustainable cities and communities

‱ Making responsible choices by reducing waste

‱ Being responsible in consumption and production

‱ Taking climate action for a healthier planet

‱ Safeguarding life on land for all

The Importance of KDIPA’s Environmental Services

KDIPA plays a vital role in promoting knowledge-sharing platforms. Experts can exchange ideas, implement best practices, and take innovative approaches to environmental management by organizing and participating in conferences, workshops, and seminars to discuss sustainable development opportunities, challenges of environmental awareness, and methods of improvement. This would be accomplished by offering substantial opportunities in solid waste recycling, wastewater treatment, and solar energy. These efforts contribute to Kuwait’s goal of seeking a greener future by reducing carbon emissions by 2050, and taking actions aligned with its National Vision 2035’s sustainability goals.

Furthermore, by emphasizing its commitment to environmental protection, The Environment Public Authority of Kuwait, established in 1995, issued a new environment protection Law n° (42) of 2014 amended by Law n° (99) of 2015. It ensures a strict adherence to the environmental regulations stated and prohibits unlawful dumping of harmful solid waste in Kuwait.

Snapshots on KDIPA Projects in Environmental Services

The Kuwaiti Municipality has licensed a massive Solid Waste Treatment Facility through a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model. With a capacity of 3,275 tons per day and an estimated cost of USD 1.9 billion, this project signifies a significant step towards responsible waste management.

The government of Kuwait is also pursuing the increase of the capacity of the Al Sulaibiya and Kabd plants to 600,000 m3/day and 250,000 m3/day, respectively. The Ministry of Electricity and Water and Renewable Energy, the Kuwait Municipality, and the Public Authority for Housing Welfare, are scheduled to construct, operate,

and monitor rooftop grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) systems for a total of 150 Kuwaiti homes, at a rate of 50 homes per year over the course of three years.

Guarantees and Incentives for the Investors

To foster a secure and attractive environment investment, the Kuwaiti government has established robust legal guarantees and supportive measures for investors in environmental services. These provisions, outlined in Law No. 116 of 2013, aim to build trust and confidence and encourage participation in driving Kuwait's sustainable development journey. This framework provides several key protections and benefits, outlined below, ensuring transparency, safeguarding investments, and facilitating successful collaboration. Let us delve deeper into the specific safeguards and support offered to investors:

‱ No Investment Entity licensed in accordance with the provisions of this Law shall be confiscated nor be deprived of its property except in the public interest and only in accordance with the applicable laws and against compensation equivalent to the true economic value of the expropriated project at the time of expropriation, estimated in accordance with the economic situation prior to any threat of expropriation.

‱ The Investor shall have the right to transfer abroad its profits, capital or proceeds resulting from the disposal over its shares or participation in the Investment Entity or the compensation set forth in this Law. Moreover, employees in the Investment Entity shall have the right to transfer their savings and entitlements abroad.

‱ The merger of two or more Investment Entities can be carried out with the consent of the Board, following a joint request submitted to the Authority in this regard.

‱ By virtue of this law, the Investor shall be entitled to the basic principles of confidentiality in respect of the technical, economic, and financial information relevant to the investment and to safeguard initiatives in accordance with the provisions of the laws and regulations in force in the country.

‱ Unless there is a special provision in this Law, the laws and regulations applicable in the country shall govern Direct Investments falling within the scope of this Law, and all international conventions in force in the country related to investments and the avoidance of double taxation shall be observed.

Support for Investors

KDIPA offers comprehensive support to investors, including recognizing the crucial role investors play in advancing environmental services in Kuwait. KDIPA extends comprehensive support to attract and empower them. This dedicated support system goes beyond legal safeguards, encompassing a range of practical services

designed to streamline the investment process and maximize the success of ventures. Let us explore the specific measures KDIPA offers to support investors in environmental services:

‱ Simplified procedures and streamlined investment process.

‱ Access to infrastructure.

‱ Facilitation in obtaining necessary permits and licenses.

Conclusion

KDIPA plays an important role in promoting and facilitating investment in critical environmental services. By outlining clear goals, fostering knowledge sharing, and undertaking impactful projects, KDIPA actively contributes to achieving Kuwait’s National Vision 2035’s sustainability goals. Moreover, the stable legal framework and investor guarantees outlined in Law n° 116 of 2013, coupled with comprehensive KDIPA support, provide a secure and attractive environment for investors to contribute to a greener future for Kuwait. KDIPA’s dedication to supporting environmental services establishes a commendable model for other nations seeking to transition towards a sustainable future through responsible and collaborative initiative. ■

Adlouni & Partners Law Firm lina.adlouni@adlounilegal.com

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Combatting Climate Change and Species Protection: An Indian Perspective

Shyam DIVAN

Ô Dans l’affaire indienne Great Indian Bustard, la Cour suprĂȘme indienne est confrontĂ©e Ă  une question difficile : Qu’est-ce qui est le plus important : sauver un oiseau magnifique de l’extinction ou autoriser les lignes Ă©lectriques aĂ©riennes des gĂ©nĂ©rateurs d’énergie renouvelable qui traversent l’habitat de l’oiseau en danger critique d’extinction ?

Ô En el Caso de la Avutarda India, el Tribunal Supremo de la India se enfrenta a una cuestiĂłn difĂ­cil: ÂżQuĂ© es mĂĄs importante, salvar de la extinciĂłn a una magnĂ­fica ave o permitir que las lĂ­neas elĂ©ctricas aĂ©reas de los generadores de energĂ­a renovable atraviesen el hĂĄbitat de esta ave en peligro crĂ­tico?

Introduction

On 21 March 2024,1 the Indian Supreme Court revisited its own previous judgment in a case concerning the protection of the Great Indian Bustard (henceforth, GIB).2 The previous decision rendered on 19 April 2021 gave a fighting chance to the GIB, a species on the brink of extinction.

The GIB is one of the heaviest flying birds in the world, about a meter in height and with a wingspan of around seven feet. Until the 1960s, it ranged across the grasslands of Western and Southern India. It has all but disappeared and now survives in small pockets in the States of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The number of GIB in the wild is down to around 100 birds, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies the GIB as a critically endangered species.

While several factors contributed to the decline in GIB numbers, including shrinking grasslands and the use of insecticide and pesticide, resulting in a reduction of locusts and grasshoppers which form part of the GIBs’ prey, one factor stood out: overhead power lines. A 2018 study by the Wildlife Institute of India found that every year, 100,000 birds die due to power lines as the GIB has poor frontal vision. The report concluded that unless power line mortality is mitigated urgently, extinction of the GIB is certain.

The Indian Constitution mandates that “The State shall endeavor to protect and improve the
wild life of the country.”3 It is the fundamental duty of every citizen “to protect...wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures.”4

1. M K Ranjitsinh v Union of India 2024 INSC 280.

2. M K Ranjitsinh v Union of India 2021 15 SCC 1.

3. See, the inclusion of Article 48A in the Constitution of India through the Forty-second Amendment to the Indian Constitution. The Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976.

4. See, the inclusion of Fundamental Duties in the Indian Constitution through the insertion of Article 51A, specifically the duty to protect the environment in Article 51A(g). Ibid.

This prompted public interest litigation as the extinction of a species on the watch of the present generation was unacceptable. In April 2021, the Supreme Court accepted the submission. The court identified several dozen overhead power lines in the States of Rajasthan and Gujarat and required the undergrounding of these power lines, subject to technical feasibility. The court also required the installation of bird diverters on overhead lines that could not be removed for technical reasons. The diverter is a device suspended from power lines which uses reflectors and helps birds alter their flight path.

The Government of India, whose conservation and recovery programs to increase GIB numbers had spectacularly failed, asked the Supreme Court to revisit its embargo on new overhead transmission lines. The Government claimed that the judgment jeopardized ambitious targets for renewable energy, particularly solar power generation. The additional cost associated with undergrounding transmission lines would render solar tariffs uncompetitive.

In this round, the Supreme Court retreated from its previous position requiring that the GIB must be saved and that overhead transmission lines cutting through the GIB habitat must yield to the species’ interest.

The court highlighted the necessity for renewable energy as an imperative to cut back on fossil fuel usage. It expressly held that “the people have a right against the adverse effect of climate change” and pegged this newly articulated right as a facet of the right to life. It also explained with an illustration how the adverse impact of climate change would affect the right to equality, saying, “If climate change and environmental degradation lead to acute food and water shortages in a particular area, poorer communities will suffer more than richer ones.”

Since the court lacked expertise, it constituted an expert committee to determine the feasibility and extent of overhead and underground electric lines in the priority areas identified in the reports of Wild Life Institute of India. Priority areas comprise 13,663 sq. kms. where the surviving GIB populations exist.

The future of the GIB hangs in balance. In mid-August 2024, the Supreme Court will consider the report to be prepared by the expert committee and will then chart the future course for protecting the GIB in the wild. ■

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Ô “Environmentally friendly,” “Carbon neutral by 2030,” “100% offset”. These environmental claims, so ubiquitous in our daily lives, are now strictly regulated by the European Directive “Empowering Consumers to Make the Ecological Transition”. This article strengthens the legal arsenal against misleading environmental claims and greenwashing. Companies will have to be more cautious in their communications aimed at promoting the environmental sustainability of their products.

Ô

“Respetuoso con el medio ambiente”, “Carbono neutro de aquĂ­ a 2030”, “100% compensado”: estas afirmaciones medioambientales, omnipresentes en nuestra vida cotidiana, estĂĄn ahora estrictamente reguladas por la Directiva europea “Capacitar a los consumidores para la transiciĂłn ecolĂłgica”. Este texto refuerza el arsenal jurĂ­dico contra las alegaciones medioambientales engañosas y el greenwashing. Las empresas tendrĂĄn que ser mĂĄs cuidadosas en sus comunicaciones destinadas a promover la sostenibilidad medioambiental de sus productos.

Introduction

Selon une Ă©tude de la Commission europĂ©enne, 53,3 % des allĂ©gations environnementales examinĂ©es dans l’Union europĂ©enne (UE) sont vagues, trompeuses ou infondĂ©es et 40 % ne sont pas Ă©tayĂ©es. L’absence de rĂšgles communes pour les allĂ©gations Ă©cologiques volontaires des entreprises favoriserait le risque de greenwashing et crĂ©erait des conditions de concurrence inĂ©quitable sur le marchĂ© de l’UE, au dĂ©triment des entreprises rĂ©ellement durables1

1. Commission europĂ©enne, Direction gĂ©nĂ©rale de l’Environnement, AllĂ©gations environnementales dans l’UE Inventaire et Ă©valuation de fiabilitĂ©, 2020.

Greenwashing  : une nouvelle directive pour lutter contre certaines allégations environnementales des entreprises

Afin de lutter contre ces pratiques, la Commission, dans le cadre du pacte vert pour l’Europe, a proposĂ© deux directives distinctes.

La premiĂšre, la Directive « Donner aux consommateurs les moyens d’agir pour la transition Ă©cologique »2, a Ă©tĂ© publiĂ©e le 6 mars 2024 au Journal officiel de l’Union europĂ©enne (Directive n° 2024/825). Elle vise Ă  encadrer les allĂ©gations environnementales des entreprises qui induisent les consommateurs en erreur et les empĂȘchent de faire des choix de consommation durable. Ce texte modifie ainsi la Directive sur les pratiques commerciales dĂ©loyales3 et la Directive relative aux droits des consommateurs4, en les adaptant aux nĂ©cessitĂ©s de la transition Ă©cologique. Les États membres ont jusqu’au 27 mars 2026 pour adopter et publier la lĂ©gislation nĂ©cessaire pour se conformer Ă  cette nouvelle Directive et les mettre en Ɠuvre Ă  partir du 27 septembre 2026.

Une deuxiÚme proposition de Directive intitulée « Green claims » est en cours de discussion au Conseil européen. La proposition vise à compléter la Directive n° 2024/825 par des dispositions portant spécifiquement sur les allé-

2. Directive 2024/825 du Parlement europĂ©en et du Conseil du 28 fĂ©vrier 2024 modifiant les directives 2005/29/CE et 2011/83/UE pour donner aux consommateurs les moyens d’agir en faveur de la transition verte grĂące Ă  une meilleure protection contre les pratiques dĂ©loyales et grĂące Ă  une meilleure information.

3. Directive 2005/29/CE du Parlement européen et du Conseil du 11 mai 2005 relative aux pratiques commerciales déloyales des entreprises vis-à-vis des consommateurs dans le marché intérieur et modifiant la directive 84/450/CEE du Conseil et les directives 97/7/CE, 98/27/CE et 2002/65/CE du Parlement européen et du Conseil et le rÚglement (CE) n° 2006/2004 du Parlement européen et du Conseil.

4. Directive 2011/83/UE du Parlement européen et du Conseil du 25 octobre 2011 relative aux droits des consommateurs, modifiant la directive 93/13/CEE du Conseil et la directive 1999/44/CE du Parlement européen et du Conseil et abrogeant la directive 85/577/CEE du Conseil et la directive 97/7/CE du Parlement européen et du Conseil.

gations Ă©cologiques5. Ce texte instaurerait de nouvelles obligations relatives Ă  la justification des allĂ©gations environnementales, ainsi que la mise en place d’une autoritĂ© dotĂ©e de pouvoirs de sanction accrus.

Ces deux directives s’inscrivent dans un ensemble d’initiatives Ă©troitement liĂ©es visant Ă  obliger les entreprises Ă  divulguer des informations environnementales fiables, comparables et vĂ©rifiables, notamment Ă  travers la publication d’un rapport de durabilitĂ© (Directive sur la publication d’informations en matiĂšre de durabilitĂ©) et d’un plan de vigilance (Proposition de Directive n° 2022/0051 sur le devoir de vigilance des entreprises en matiĂšre de durabilitĂ©).

Les entreprises devront donc veiller à ce que les allégations environnementales présentes dans ces documents et dans leur communication soient cohérentes entre elles.

La Directive « Donner aux consommateurs les moyens d’agir pour la transition Ă©cologique » (ci-aprĂšs la Directive) complĂšte le cadre français dĂ©jĂ  existant. Depuis la loi n° 2021-1104 dite « Climat et rĂ©silience », certaines allĂ©gations environnementales ont Ă©tĂ© ajoutĂ©es Ă  la liste des pratiques commerciales trompeuses (article L. 121-2 C. conso.).

Sur ce fondement, les associations de protection de l’environnement multiplient depuis 2021 les recours Ă  l’encontre de sociĂ©tĂ©s (ex. : ConfĂ©dĂ©ration consommation, logement et cadre de vie c/ NestlĂ© Nespresso et Nespresso France, 31 mai 2021 ; ZĂ©ro Waste France c/ Adidas et New Balance, 22 juin 2022 ; Greenpeace France, les Amis de la Terre France et Notre Affaire Ă  Tous c/ TotalEnergies, 2 mars 2022).

Le renforcement du cadre européen visant à lutter contre le greenwashing pourrait encore accroßtre le nombre de contentieux dans ce domaine.

La Directive oblige ainsi les entreprises à adapter leur communication environnementale (1) et leur impose de mettre à la disposition des consommateurs certaines informations afin de les aider à faire des choix écologiques et durables (2).

1. La nécessaire adaptation des allégations environnementales des entreprises

La Directive n° 2024/825 introduit en droit europĂ©en une dĂ©finition de l’allĂ©gation environnementale : « tout message ou toute dĂ©claration non obligatoire [
] sous quelque forme que ce soit, [
] dans le cadre d’une communication commerciale, et qui affirme ou suggĂšre qu’un produit, une catĂ©gorie de produits, une marque ou un professionnel a une incidence positive ou nulle sur l’envi-

5. Proposition de Directive n° 2023/0085 du Parlement européen et du Conseil du 22 mars 2023 relative à la justification et à la communication des allégations environnementales explicites.

ronnement, est moins prĂ©judiciable pour l’environnement que d’autres produits, catĂ©gories de produits, marques ou professionnels, ou a amĂ©liorĂ© son incidence environnementale au fil du temps ».

La Directive ajoute plusieurs types d’allĂ©gations environnementales Ă  la liste de la Directive sur les pratiques commerciales dĂ©loyales (ex. : allĂ©gations environnementales futures, allĂ©gations de compensation carbone, allĂ©gations environnementales gĂ©nĂ©riques, etc.). Certaines de ces allĂ©gations Ă©taient dĂ©jĂ  reconnues comme trompeuses par les lignes directrices d’interprĂ©tation de la Commission europĂ©enne.

C’est d’ailleurs sur le fondement des pratiques commerciales trompeuses que l’entreprise KLM a Ă©tĂ© condamnĂ©e par un tribunal nĂ©erlandais (Rechtbank Amsterdam) le 20 mars 2024. Le tribunal a constatĂ© qu’une allĂ©gation de KLM suggĂ©rant que les trajets en avion pouvaient ĂȘtre compensĂ©s par la participation des clients au financement d’un projet de plantation d’arbre Ă©tait trompeuse. Il a jugĂ© que les effets environnementaux de ce projet Ă©taient incertains et qu’il n’existait aucun lien direct entre la contribution financiĂšre du client et l’impact environnemental de son vol.

Le renforcement du cadre européen visant à lutter contre le greenwashing pourrait encore accroßtre le nombre de contentieux dans ce domaine.

Les allĂ©gations Ă©cologiques devront dĂ©sormais ĂȘtre Ă©tayĂ©es Ă  l’aune de critĂšres standard permettant d’évaluer leur incidence sur l’environnement. L’objectif est de contraindre les entreprises Ă  communiquer des informations fiables, comparables et vĂ©rifiables aux acheteurs afin qu’ils puissent prendre des dĂ©cisions plus durables.

Les entreprises devront ĂȘtre particuliĂšrement attentives aux allĂ©gations environnementales suivantes :

Allégations environnementales futures

La Directive souligne que les allĂ©gations environnementales, en particulier celles liĂ©es au climat, font de plus en plus rĂ©fĂ©rence Ă  des performances futures, en Ă©voquant une transition vers la neutralitĂ© carbone Ă  un certain horizon, sans garantie concrĂšte. De nombreuses entreprises affichent, par exemple, sur leur site internet, qu’elles seront « 100 % neutre en carbone d’ici 2050 ».

DĂ©sormais, les allĂ©gations environnementales relatives aux performances environnementales futures doivent ĂȘtre Ă©tayĂ©es par des engagements clairs, objectifs, accessibles au public et vĂ©rifiables. Ces engagements devront ĂȘtre prĂ©sentĂ©s dans un plan de mise en Ɠuvre dĂ©taillĂ©, rĂ©aliste et rĂ©guliĂšrement vĂ©rifiĂ© par un tiers expert indĂ©pendant, dont les conclusions seront mises Ă  la disposition des consommateurs.

Par exemple, une entreprise ne pourra plus affirmer qu’elle sera « neutre en carbone Ă  horizon 2030 », Ă 

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moins que cette allégation ne soit justifiée par des engagements et des objectifs réguliÚrement vérifiés par un tiers indépendant.

Allégations de compensation carbone

Les allégations de compensation carbone comprennent les mentions « neutre pour le climat », « bilan carbone positif », « climatiquement compensé », « impact réduit sur le climat » et « empreinte CO2 limitée ».

La Directive interdit par principe les allégations environnementales génériques, formulées en termes vagues [
.].

Les entreprises ne pourront plus affirmer qu’un produit a un impact neutre, rĂ©duit ou positif sur l’environnement sur la base de la compensation des Ă©missions de gaz Ă  effet de serre, Ă  moins que ces allĂ©gations ne soient fondĂ©es sur les incidences rĂ©elles sur le cycle de vie du produit en question (et non sur la compensation des Ă©missions de gaz Ă  effet de serre en dehors de la chaĂźne de valeur du produit).

Par exemple, les entreprises ne pourront plus affirmer que leur chocolat est neutre en carbone, simplement parce qu’elles achĂštent des crĂ©dits de compensation carbone (les crĂ©dits carbone peuvent ĂȘtre acquis par le financement d’un projet qui rĂ©duit ou sĂ©questre des Ă©missions de gaz Ă  effet de serre, tel que la restauration d’une forĂȘt).

Les entreprises pourront cependant continuer de faire la publicitĂ© de leurs investissements dans des initiatives environnementales, y compris des projets de crĂ©dit carbone, pour autant qu’elles fournissent ces informations d’une maniĂšre qui ne soit pas trompeuse.

DĂ©sormais, les allĂ©gations environnementales relatives aux performances environnementales futures doivent ĂȘtre Ă©tayĂ©es [
].

En France, depuis la loi Climat et RĂ©silience, les allĂ©gations de neutralitĂ© carbone sont d’ores et dĂ©jĂ  spĂ©cifiquement encadrĂ©es (article L. 229-68 C. env.). La Directive va nĂ©anmoins au-delĂ  en posant un principe d’interdiction, non seulement des allĂ©gations de neutralitĂ© carbone, mais Ă©galement des allĂ©gations d’impact rĂ©duit ou positif sur le climat.

Allégations environnementales génériques

La Directive interdit par principe les allĂ©gations environnementales gĂ©nĂ©riques, formulĂ©es en termes vagues, telles que « respectueux de la nature », « vert », « Ă©cologique », « bon pour l’environnement », « Ă  faible intensitĂ© de carbone », « biodĂ©gradable », ou d’autres affirmations similaires.

Toutefois, l’allĂ©gation est autorisĂ©e lorsque la spĂ©cification de l’allĂ©gation est fournie en des termes clairs et bien visibles sur le mĂȘme support ou si le professionnel est en

mesure de dĂ©montrer l’excellente performance environnementale reconnue en rapport avec l’allĂ©gation.

L’excellente performance environnementale reconnue peut ĂȘtre dĂ©montrĂ©e si elle est conforme au rĂšglement (CE) n° 66/2010 ou aux systĂšmes de label Ă©cologique EN ISO 14024 des États membres, ou si elle correspond Ă  la meilleure performance environnementale pour une caractĂ©ristique spĂ©cifique en vertu d’une autre lĂ©gislation applicable de l’Union.

Il est Ă  noter qu’en France certaines mentions telles que « biodĂ©gradables » ou « respectueux de l’environnement » sont purement et simplement interdites sur les produits et les emballages depuis la loi n° 2020-105 dite loi AGEC (article L. 541-9-1 C. env.).

Labels de développement durable

Lorsque l’affichage d’un label de dĂ©veloppement durable suggĂšre ou donne l’impression qu’un produit a un impact environnemental positif ou neutre, ou est moins nocif que des produits concurrents, ce label doit ĂȘtre considĂ©rĂ© comme une allĂ©gation environnementale.

Afin de garantir la transparence et la crĂ©dibilitĂ© des labels de dĂ©veloppement durable, la Directive interdit l’affichage d’un label de dĂ©veloppement durable qui n’est pas fondĂ© sur un systĂšme de certification ou qui n’a pas Ă©tĂ© mis en place par des autoritĂ©s publiques.

Le contrĂŽle du systĂšme de certification devra ĂȘtre effectuĂ© par un tiers compĂ©tent et indĂ©pendant vis-Ă -vis du propriĂ©taire du systĂšme, et de l’entreprise.

2. Le renforcement des obligations d’information de la part des entreprises

Les obligations d’information sont renforcĂ©es Ă  travers la crĂ©ation d’une notice et d’un label harmonisĂ©s sur la garantie lĂ©gale de durabilitĂ© et une extension des informations prĂ©contractuelles envers les consommateurs.

Notice harmonisée et label harmonisé sur la garantie légale de durabilité

Afin de garantir que les consommateurs sont bien informĂ©s et comprennent facilement leurs droits, la Directive prĂ©voit la mise en place d’une notice harmonisĂ©e et d’un label harmonisĂ© concernant la garantie lĂ©gale de durabilitĂ©.

Les nouvelles rùgles imposeront aux professionnels l’obligation de communiquer des informations sur la question de savoir :

‱ si le producteur d’un bien de consommation offre une garantie commerciale de durabilitĂ© d’une durĂ©e supĂ©rieure Ă  deux ans ;

‱ si le producteur n’a pas fourni d’informations sur cette garantie, pour les biens consommateurs d’énergie ;

‱ si des mises Ă  jour logicielles sont fournies, pour les biens comportant des Ă©lĂ©ments numĂ©riques, du contenu numĂ©rique et des services numĂ©riques.

En France, l’affichage de l’indice de durabilitĂ© applicable aux Ă©quipements Ă©lectriques et Ă©lectroniques est prĂ©vu aux articles R. 541-215 Ă  R. 541-221 du code de l’environnement.

Extension des obligations prĂ©contractuelles d’information sur la rĂ©parabilitĂ©

Enfin, la Directive impose aux professionnels, avant que les consommateurs soient liés par un contrat, de leur four-

nir des informations sur l’existence et les conditions des services aprĂšs-vente, y compris les services de rĂ©paration, lorsque ces services sont proposĂ©s.

En outre, afin de permettre aux consommateurs de prendre une dĂ©cision commerciale en connaissance de cause, les professionnels devraient, le cas Ă©chĂ©ant, fournir l’indice de rĂ©parabilitĂ© du bien Ă©tabli par le producteur, avant la conclusion du contrat.

En conclusion, la Directive « Donner aux consommateurs les moyens d’agir pour la transition Ă©cologique » vise Ă  lutter contre les pratiques commerciales trompeuses en matiĂšre d’allĂ©gations environnementales et impose aux entreprises la communication de certaines informations, notamment sur la durabilitĂ© la rĂ©parabilitĂ© ou la recyclabilitĂ© des produits. Les entreprises doivent donc redoubler d’attention concernant leurs allĂ©gations environnementales et s’assurer de la cohĂ©rence de l’ensemble des supports de communication, en ce compris les plans de vigilance et rapports de durabilitĂ©. ■

Sarah BECKER

Avocate associée, VingtRue Avocats

Paris, France sbecker@vingtrue.com

Julie FABREGUETTES

Avocate associée, VingtRue Avocats

Paris, France jfabreguettes@vingtrue.com

EU to Address Digital Platform Risks with New Security and Democracy Rules

Ô La rĂ©glementation europĂ©enne Ă©volue pour rĂ©pondre Ă  l’influence omniprĂ©sente des risques liĂ©s aux plateformes numĂ©riques sur la sĂ©curitĂ©, la dĂ©mocratie et les droits fondamentaux. Cette influence s’étend Ă  la manipulation de la dynamique sociale et peut compromettre la sĂ©curitĂ© nationale. La rĂ©ponse de l’UE comprend la loi sur les marchĂ©s numĂ©riques et la loi sur les services numĂ©riques, qui introduisent des rĂšgles plus strictes pour gĂ©rer les risques liĂ©s aux mastodontes numĂ©riques tels que les GAFAM, en renforçant la responsabilitĂ© des plateformes et en essayant mĂȘme de protĂ©ger le processus Ă©lectoral politique libre. Ces mesures visent Ă  protĂ©ger de maniĂšre proactive les citoyens de l’UE et leurs droits grĂące Ă  une nouvelle approche.

Ô La normativa de la UE está evolucionando para hacer frente a la omnipresente influencia de los riesgos de las plataformas digitales en la seguridad, la democracia y los derechos fundamentales. Esta influencia se extiende a la manipulación de las dinámicas sociales y puede comprometer la seguridad nacional. La respuesta de la UE incluye la Ley de Mercados Digitales y la Ley de Servicios Digitales, que introducen normas más estrictas para gestionar los riesgos de gigantes digitales como GAFAM, impulsando la responsabilidad de las plataformas, e incluso tratando de proteger el libre proceso político electoral. Estas medidas pretenden proteger de forma proactiva a los ciudadanos de la UE y sus derechos con un nuevo enfoque.

Introduction

In discussions about banning TikTok across Europe and the United States, the subtext is remarkably clear: in an era where digital conglomerates wield economic heft and geographic reach that dwarf the capacities of many sovereign states, these pivotal actors in the digital arena are being increasingly scrutinized as formidable forces capable of disturbing the social and political fabric, at a profound level. Such a pervasive influence, sprawling and unchecked, might well demand sharp, calibrated interventions. This influence might reach into the manipulation of psychological and social dynamics, potentially undermining fundamental rights and even the very processes that underpin democratic governance. There are also threats to the national security of EU member states. While such assertions may seem hyperbolic, a closer analysis of the contemporary milieu and the latest regulatory frameworks underscores the seriousness of the predicament. Throughout the pandemic, social media platforms were not only ubiquitous but also overwhelmingly informative, giving rise to the term “infodemic” to encapsulate the deluge of information – and misinformation/information disorder – permeating the digital space concerning the crisis and its myriad risks and harms. These platforms have also come under scrutiny for allegedly manipulating and swaying political elections through online propaganda. A

pertinent case is the recent motion for an EU resolution that addresses fresh allegations of Russian interference in the European Parliament ahead of the impending EU elections, underscoring the profound impact such actions in the digital field could have on the Union. Increasingly, our reliance on the digital milieu extends beyond utility to shape our very social and political realities.

This moment represents a significant pivot: European institutions are now openly recognizing the dangers that experts have long warned about, dangers overshadowed by the zealous pursuit of a “purported” free market and the expansion of a digital society that has, in turn, birthed its own breed of “behemoths.” The transition from enthusiasm to distrust is palpable.

Such concerns are reflected in the architecture of recent EU regulations, designed to mitigate phenomena associated with major digital conglomerates like GAFAM (Google, Apple, Facebook-now-Meta, Amazon, Microsoft). These regulations are increasingly empowering administrative authorities and the European Commission; they deliberately bypass slower, more costly judicial routes which may be inadequate for providing swift protection in our fast-evolving digital age. Two recent pieces of European legislation, aimed to curb and control the “drifts” of these platforms, introduce more appropriate rules for digital services and markets.

Digital Markets Act: Curbing Gatekeepers

The Digital Markets Act (DMA), EU Regulation 2022/1925, which came into full effect on 2 May 2023, represents a significant legislative stride toward safeguarding competitive markets and curtailing the monopolistic overreach that has become emblematic of the digital era. Its focus extends beyond the mere regulation of antitrust issues to address the wide potential threats that arise when massive digital platform oligopolies consolidate power unchecked. The DMA confronts long-standing inadequacies in European antitrust oversight, where previously lenient regulations and authorities allowed such conglomerates to flourish.

Fundamentally, the Act grapples with the implications of having vast amounts of European data-encompassing both personal details and sensitive business information – under the stewardship of platform providers whose operational bases lie outside the EU, often in jurisdictions whose governmental reach might extend into what should be confidential data reservoirs. These conditions create a precarious situation where the data sovereignty of EU citizens and companies could be compromised by being subject to foreign laws that permit governmental access to ostensibly confidential personal and non-personal data. Recall the landmark decision by the European Court of Justice known as “Schrems II,” and the subsequent U.S.EU Data Privacy Framework adequacy decision regarding the transfer of personal data to the United States. Indeed,

the CJEU invalidated the previous data transfer agreement in light of U.S. regulations permitting government access to European personal data, and the Commission has negotiated an agreement with the U.S. for enhanced measures and safeguards.

The DMA introduces several provisions about so-called “gatekeepers,” the major platforms influencing the digital power structure. Among the main ones, there are requirements for service interoperability, the prohibition of self-preferencing (i.e., favouring their own services, as platforms, over those of hosted third parties), and the right to data access for thirdparty companies. By now, the DMA gatekeepers list provided by the Commission includes the following actors: Alphabet, Amazon, Apple, ByteDance, Meta, and Microsoft.

Yet, the DMA contains inherent paradoxes and potential risks.1 The mechanisms established could lead to greater security vulnerabilities, e.g., the right to access user data generated on platforms by operators using them to offer goods or services to users. These systems could be exploited by malicious actors, including foreign states, which can leverage system weaknesses with extensive reach, perhaps via fake accounts and through the extensive use of AI tools to extract valuable data easily from platforms and thereby acquire sensitive knowledge.

Digital Services Act: Taming the Systemic Risks of Digital Platforms

The second pillar of the European Union’s digital strategy framework, the Digital Services Act (DSA), EU Regulation n° 2022/2065, which fully activated on 1 January 2024, marks a significant evolution in the EU’s approach to digital governance. This substantial legislative instrument advances beyond the foundational measures established by the earlier E-Commerce Directive 2000/31 and various European Codes of Conduct (mainly the 2022 Strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation ). The DSA offers a far-reaching blueprint for regulating digital platforms, aiming to create a safer, more accountable online environment. This regulation not only refines but also extends the principles laid out in its predecessors, addressing the complex challenges

The DMA introduces several provisions about so-called “gatekeepers,” the major platforms influencing the digital power structure. This regulatory strategy is aimed squarely at the multifaceted challenges posed by digital platforms.

1. https://cepa.org/comprehensive-reports/reining-in-the-gatekeepersand-opening-the-door-to-security-risks.

and dynamics of today’s digital ecosystem with nuanced, forward-thinking provisions. The DSA encapsulates the EU’s commitment to adapting its legal frameworks to keep pace with rapid technological advancements and to shift digital landscapes.

Firstly, the DSA’s enforcement scope extends to entities considered “very large” (online intermediaries and search engines - termed “VLOP” and “VLOSE” in acronyms) and includes more burdensome obligations for those facing the greatest risks. These entities are periodically evaluated by the European Commission,2 representing the primary bulwark in protecting the European Union’s territory, as inferred from its powers. Despite this, national tasks and oversight responsibilities remain with the authorities of individual states, such as the national “Coordinators of digital services,” which was established by the DSA.

The DSA even considers extending safeguards to address the propagation of “harmful” non-illegal content due to its analogous potential for adverse effects.

The design of platforms often favours advertising business models, creating potential societal issues. Hence, VLOP and VLOSE must assess risks associated with the operation and use of their services, implementing mitigation measures that respect European fundamental rights. The risk assessment should consider the severity and likelihood of adverse effects, such as the potential impact on large numbers of people (not only individuals, but also social groups and society at large) or the difficulty in restoring the previous situation.

Protection must be extended against so-called “systemic risks,” which, although not conceptually defined in the DSA text, are richly exemplified in four categories (in recitals 80-83 of the DSA). They are:

1) illegal content and activities (dissemination of illegal content and sale of illegal products);

2) impact on fundamental rights (algorithmic bias, abuse of services to silence dissident voices or hinder competition, and interfaces that exploit vulnerabilities);

3) threats to democracy and public security (negative effects on democratic processes, public debate, and elections, and risks to public security); and

2. Currently, the list goes far beyond GAFAMs and includes the following entities and services: AliExpress International (Netherlands) B.V., Amazon Services Europe S.Ă .r.l., Apple Distribution International Limited, Aylo Freesites Ltd., Booking.com B.V., Google Ireland Ltd. (Google Play), Google Ireland Ltd. (Google Maps), Google Ireland Ltd. (Google Shopping), Google Ireland Ltd. (YouTube), LinkedIn Ireland Unlimited Company, Meta Platforms Ireland Limited (MPIL) (Facebook), Meta Platforms Ireland Limited (MPIL) (Instagram), Infinite Styles Services Co, Ltd. (Shein), Snap B.V. (Snapchat), Technius Ltd. (Stripchat), TikTok Technology Limited, Twitter International Unlimited Company (TIUC), WebGroup Czech Republic (XVideos), Wikimedia Foundation Inc 3 (Wikipedia), Zalando SE; Google Ireland Ltd. (Google Search), and Microsoft Ireland Operations Limited (Bing).

4) impact on public health and well-being (public health disinformation campaigns, online interfaces promoting addictive behaviours, and negative impact on mental and physical health). The DSA even considers extending safeguards to address the propagation of “harmful” nonillegal content due to its analogous potential for adverse effects.

All these risks can be amplified by the wide reach and ease of dissemination inherent in these platforms (e.g., algorithmic viral trends). This justifies the rather onerous DSA obligations on the part of the major entities, such as the assessment of systemic risks with related mitigation measures and a certain severity of possible sanctions and fines. Additionally, the DSA anticipates the establishment of crisis protocols designed to swiftly counteract emergent threats, such as the proliferation of large-scale misinformation (do you remember the infodemic?).

And a very strong power lies with the Commission, according to the DSA: in the event of an imminent risk of serious harm to users, the Commission can take sound provisional measures, even before concluding an investigation. These measures could include ordering platforms to block certain content or restrict their functionalities.

Last, but not least, the DSA has recently found a complement in an EU Regulation on political advertising targeting n° 2024/900, which will come into force in 2025. Anticipating some of its effects, the European Commission issued an act of guidance based on the DSA, 3 which included mitigation measures against election risks. In the meantime, it is an act that seeks to fill the vacuum of adequate protections for the European elections. This confirms that these regulations are designed to protect the best interests and the very functioning of the European Union, not just the market, as one might hastily suppose.

To underscore the implications in terms of national security, consider the hypothetical situation where unchecked data harvesting by a foreign-owned platform could enable the subtle influence on campaigns, potentially swaying electoral outcomes in the EU. Such a scenario highlights the necessity for stringent measures to protect against external digital threats.

Conclusion

The picture just mentioned signals a trend: there is now greater awareness of the risks posed by platforms, and the European regulator has decided to intervene with numerous provisions. The new approach goes so far as to impose the protection of fundamental rights on private subjects, subjects moreover almost always under non-EU law. This is a real novelty given that up to now, these

3. The act is entitled “Communication from the Commission on Guidelines for providers of Very Large Online Platforms and Very Large Online Search Engines on the mitigation of systemic risks for electoral processes pursuant to the Digital Services Act (Regulation (Regulation (EU) 2022/2065)”, C(2024) 2121 final, dated 26 March 2024.

fundamental rights have been subject to prescriptions only for public entities and European member states.

The European Union’s choice to implement measures as regulations – applying them uniformly across all member states rather than as directives, which require national adaptations – speaks volumes about its commitment to decisive and homogeneous action. This regulatory strategy is aimed squarely at the multifaceted challenges posed by digital platforms. The seriousness of these risks warrants what some might describe as an “aggressive” approach: eschewing the slower, often convoluted process of integrating varied national laws. The EU has opted for a more forceful, direct imposition of a single set of rules across the entire union. This method underscores a stark recognition of the urgent need for consistency in the digital domain, reflecting a pragmatic acknowledgment that the pace at which digital platforms evolve, and the scale of their influence, demands swift and uniform regulatory responses, even if “brutally” imposed on all member states.4

The DSA, akin to the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), embodies a regulatory philosophy deeply rooted in risk management. This approach has nurtured a particular form of contemplation within legislative circles, a reflection aimed at crafting compliance measures that remain relevant amid the swiftly evolving contours of our digital society. In an era where technological advancements can render legal frameworks antiquated almost as soon as they are enacted, the DSA strives to establish rules that are prescient rather

4. See what Papakonstantinou and de Hert state on the “act-tification” of the European Union in “The regulation of digital technologies in the EU”, Routledge, 2024.

than reactive. The focus is on pre-emptive and proactive protections, designed to avert violations and threats before they occur, rather than merely addressing them post facto. This shift underscores a broader recalibration towards safeguarding digital spaces in a way that anticipates future challenges while responding to current realities.

The recent AI Act is the latest, controversial result of this approach, going beyond the platform economy scenario we have been talking about. However, it is yet another attempt made, among other things, to address risks that may affect fundamental rights, including those that may pose a threat to public safety and national security.5

Time alone will reveal whether this European Union’s fragmented regulatory agenda, comprising a myriad of complex regulations and inter-related acts increasingly difficult to manage and synthesize, will effectively safeguard the interests and rights jeopardized by the overwhelming influence of digital platforms. As these legislative measures multiply, they weave a dense tapestry of rules that must be navigated with precision and foresight. There is an underlying hope that this regulatory framework does not devolve only into a desperate invocation of a form of “sovereignty” that, in the digital age, risks becoming an anachronism, stripped of its former clarity and power.

Milan, Italy a.michinelli@42lf.it

5. https://www.csis.org/analysis/addressing-national-security-implications-ai.

Protection de l’investissement Ă©tranger et protection des droits humains : Ă 

la recherche d’un juste et nĂ©cessaire Ă©quilibre

Ô The theory that international law is fragmented into a number of areas (environment, investment, human rights, etc.) which are strictly separated is increasingly contradicted by international practice. This is particularly true of international human rights law, which has close links with various fields, including international investment law. The purpose of this article is therefore to show how this paradigm change has manifested itself in recent international doctrine and, in particular, in arbitration awards relating to investment disputes.

Ô La teoría de que el Derecho internacional está fragmentado en una serie de ámbitos (medio ambiente, inversiones, derechos humanos, etc.) estrictamente separados se contradice cada vez más con la práctica internacional. Esto es especialmente cierto en el caso del derecho internacional de los derechos humanos, que mantiene estrechos vínculos con diversos ámbitos, incluido el derecho internacional de las inversiones. El objetivo de este artículo es, por tanto, mostrar cómo se ha manifestado este cambio de paradigma en la doctrina internacional reciente y, en particular, en los laudos arbitrales relativos a litigios sobre inversiones.

I. Introduction

Il convient de rappeler que le droit international met Ă  la charge des États un certain nombre d’obligations, notamment, celles de protĂ©ger les droits de leurs citoyens.

Il est gĂ©nĂ©ralement admis que le droit international connait des bouleversements, voire une transformation, si l’on considĂšre l’expansion de son champ d’application, la spĂ©cialisation de son objet et la diversification de sa pratique qui tendent inĂ©luctablement vers sa division, voire sa fragmentation en diffĂ©rents rĂ©gimes spĂ©cialisĂ©s. Sans prendre position sur la question doctrinale de savoir si cette fragmentation est positive ou nĂ©gative, nous nous limiterons Ă  observer, Ă  titre d’illustration, que le droit

international des droits humains a, Ă©tĂ©, jusqu’à une Ă©poque rĂ©cente, considĂ©rĂ© comme sĂ©parĂ© de façon Ă©tanche du droit international des investissements. Cette vision est totalement erronĂ©e puisque ces deux branches du droit international entretiennent des relations fĂ©condes et enrichissantes pour l’une et l’autre. En effet, lorsque les États assument des obligations au titre des traitĂ©s bilatĂ©raux d’investissement (TBI), ils se trouvent souvent dans une situation d’équilibre prĂ©caire, Ă  savoir : (i) offrir un certain degrĂ© de prĂ©visibilitĂ© et de sĂ©curitĂ© aux investisseurs qui, Ă  juste titre, recherchent la stabilitĂ© et des rĂšgles du jeu claires, d’une part et, (ii) conserver aux États leurs pouvoirs en matiĂšre de politiques publiques pour gĂ©rer les investissements et rĂ©pondre Ă  l’évolution des circonstances et aux besoins de l’intĂ©rĂȘt gĂ©nĂ©ral et des droits humains, d’autre part. Cette tension conduit souvent Ă  des diffĂ©rends avec les investisseurs qui peuvent percevoir les changements de politiques publiques comme des atteintes aux droits que leur confĂšrent les TBI. DĂšs lors, le dĂ©fi consiste Ă  trouver un Ă©quilibre entre la protection de l’investisseur et l’obligation internationale de l’État de protĂ©ger l’environnement et les droits humains, c’est-Ă -dire l’intĂ©rĂȘt gĂ©nĂ©ral.

Avant d’analyser les Ă©volutions et dĂ©veloppements intervenus dans ce dĂ©bat, notamment dans le cadre des TBI de la seconde gĂ©nĂ©ration (III), nous allons procĂ©der Ă  un rappel des justifications qui ont longtemps lĂ©gitimĂ© la seule protection de l’investisseur et leurs consĂ©quences sur les politiques publiques et les rĂšglements des diffĂ©rends (II).

II. TraitĂ©s bilatĂ©raux d’investissement (TBI) et protection des intĂ©rĂȘts de l’investisseur :

Les traitĂ©s internationaux d’investissement, en gĂ©nĂ©ral, et les traitĂ©s bilatĂ©raux, en particulier, sont fondĂ©s sur le principe de la reconnaissance formelle du rĂŽle de l’investissement Ă©tranger comme moteur de dĂ©veloppement Ă©conomique. En effet, pour les États d’accueil, l’investissement doit contribuer, notamment, Ă  gĂ©nĂ©rer de la croissance Ă©conomique et Ă  crĂ©er des emplois. Cependant, il est Ă  remarquer que toutes les Ă©tudes empiriques menĂ©es Ă  cet Ă©gard ont conclu Ă  l’absence d’un lien indiscutable de causalitĂ© entre la conclusion de TBI et le dĂ©veloppement Ă©conomique. Toutefois, la croyance en ce sacro-saint principe

a prĂ©valu pendant plusieurs dĂ©cennies, justifiant ce qu’il est convenu d’appeler les TBI de la premiĂšre gĂ©nĂ©ration dans lesquels l’investisseur bĂ©nĂ©ficie d’importantes protections sans aucune contrepartie d’obligations juridiques au profit de l’État-hĂŽte. Cette situation a engendrĂ© deux consĂ©quences majeures : (i) les difficultĂ©s pour l’État d’accueil de protĂ©ger les droits humains, c’est-Ă -dire l’intĂ©rĂȘt gĂ©nĂ©ral et (ii) l’absence d’une vraie prise en compte par les juridictions arbitrales des droits humains dans le rĂšglement des diffĂ©rends relatifs aux investissements.

A. Politiques publiques et protection des droits humains

Il convient de rappeler que le droit international met Ă  la charge des États un certain nombre d’obligations, notamment, celles de protĂ©ger les droits de leurs citoyens. Cette protection s’effectue Ă  travers des politiques publiques, telles que l’adoption de lĂ©gislations et rĂ©glementations visant Ă  promouvoir, notamment, un environnement sain, un droit du travail Ă©quitable, des mesures raisonnables de santĂ© publique, etc. Toutefois, ces politiques publiques de protection des droits humains ont, trĂšs souvent, fondĂ© des actions en responsabilitĂ© de la part des investisseurs, aux motifs qu’elles violeraient des obligations de protection dont l’État est dĂ©biteur Ă  leur Ă©gard, au titre des TBI.

A titre d’illustration, l’on peut noter que plusieurs États ont Ă©tĂ© attraits devant les juridictions arbitrales pour avoir mis en Ɠuvre des mesures de confinement destinĂ©es Ă  protĂ©ger les populations de la pandĂ©mie du Covid-19. De mĂȘme, dans l’affaire du CIRDI Foresti v. South Africa, (ICSID Case No ARB (AF) /07/01 Award 4 aout 2010) des investisseurs europĂ©ens ont estimĂ© que le rĂ©gime minier post-apartheid du Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) violait les termes des traitĂ©s de protection des investissements conclus entre l’Afrique du Sud, l’Italie et le Luxembourg. Il apparait, dĂšs lors, que les investisseurs ont souvent dĂ©niĂ© aux États la possibilitĂ© de protĂ©ger leurs populations, alors mĂȘme qu’il s’agit pour ceux-ci d’une obligation internationale souscrite dans le cadre d’instruments juridiques internationaux telle que la DĂ©claration Universelle des Droits de l’Homme Ă  laquelle renvoie le PrĂ©ambule des Constitutions nationales. Il convient de remarquer, par ailleurs, que la position adoptĂ©e par les juridictions arbitrales n’est pas, non plus, exempte de reproches.

B. L’arbitrage d’investissement

et les droits humains

Les sentences arbitrales mettant en jeu les obligations de protection de l’investissement et celles relatives aux droits humains ont connu une apprĂ©ciation diffĂ©renciĂ©e selon les tribunaux arbitraux. Quelques rares tribunaux arbitraux ont rĂ©affirmĂ© le lien entre investissement Ă©tranger et dĂ©veloppement Ă©conomique de l’État d’accueil. Ainsi, des sentences ont prĂ©cisĂ© que l’objectif des accords internationaux d’investissement « was not to protect foreign investment per se, but as an aid to the development of the domestic economy » (Joseph Charles Lemire v. Ukraine ICSID Case No ARB/06/18 du 28 mars 2011) ) Par ailleurs, en interprĂ©-

tant l’article 25 (1) de la Convention du CIRDI, Ă  l’occasion de la sentence Salini v. Morocco ( ICSID Case No ARB /00/4 du 23 juillet 2001) , le tribunal arbitral a jugĂ© que l’investissement doit satisfaire quatre critĂšres, Ă  savoir : (1) un apport d’argent ou d’actifs ; (2) une certaine durĂ©e; (3) un certain risque et (4) une contribution au dĂ©veloppement Ă©conomique de l’État-hĂŽte. Toutefois, cette approche, qui privilĂ©gie le dĂ©veloppement Ă©conomique de l’État d’accueil, est largement minoritaire, la majoritĂ© des sentences accordant la prioritĂ© Ă  la protection des seuls intĂ©rĂȘts de l’investisseur, au dĂ©triment de l’intĂ©rĂȘt gĂ©nĂ©ral, des droits humains et des objectifs de dĂ©veloppement durable. En effet, dans leur analyse, les arbitres ont considĂ©rĂ© les moyens et arguments fondĂ©s sur la protection de l’environnement et des droits humains comme non economic issues et, en consĂ©quence, accordĂ© toute l’importance Ă  la seule protection des intĂ©rĂȘts Ă©conomiques de l’investisseur.

La protection de l’environnement et des droits humains ne doit plus ĂȘtre considĂ©rĂ©e comme accessoire [
].

C’est le cas des sentences dans lesquelles Ă©taient en jeu le droit Ă  la santĂ©, le droit Ă  l’eau, le droit Ă  un environnement sains etc. A cet Ă©gard, voir, notamment les sentences Biwater v. Tanzania (ICSID No ARB /05/22 du 4 juillet 2008) ou bien Suez v. Argentina (ICSID Case No ARB /03/17 du 30 juillet 2010), ou encore Achmea B.V. v. Slovak Republic UNCITRAL, PCA Case No 2008-13 (formely Eureko B.V. v.The Slovak Republic) du 7dĂ©cembre 2012.

Face Ă  cette situation, les États d’accueil ont dĂ©cidĂ© de dĂ©velopper des moyens juridiques destinĂ©s Ă  faire de la protection des droits humains un objectif aussi important que la protection des intĂ©rĂȘts de l’investisseur. En somme, la protection de l’environnement et des droits humains ne doit plus ĂȘtre considĂ©rĂ©e comme accessoire, mais comme le principal objectif de l’investissement qui est de promouvoir le dĂ©veloppement durable. Les TBI de la seconde gĂ©nĂ©ration s’inscrivent dans cette perspective.

III. Nouveaux développements

dans la promotion des droits humains : les TBI de la seconde génération :

Plusieurs moyens juridiques ont été développés visant à inclure trÚs largement les droits humains dans les nouveaux TBI dits de la « seconde génération ».

1. Inclusion d’une clause par rĂ©fĂ©rence

La disposition relative Ă  la protection des droits humains et de l’environnement est exprimĂ©e par voie de rĂ©fĂ©rence ou de renvoi. C’est le cas du PrĂ©ambule du TBI conclu entre le Cap-Vert et la Hongrie qui stipule que l’Accord vise « to ensure that investment is consistent with the promotion

and protection of internationally and domestically recognized human rights »1

Certains TBI interdisent expressĂ©ment Ă  l’État d’accueil « to lower human rights standards to encourage investment ». Il s’agit donc de rappeler Ă  l’État de ne pas renoncer Ă  son obligation d’édicter des mesures de protection des droits humains dans un objectif d’intĂ©rĂȘt gĂ©nĂ©ral. D’autres TBI prescrivent des exemptions trĂšs spĂ©cifiques comme c’est le cas, notamment, du TBI entre l’Egypte et l’Ile Maurice qui dispose que « nothing in the Agreement shall prevent the State parties from taking measures to fulfill its obligations to protect public health »2

Des États ont inclus dans leurs TBI ou modĂšles d’accord des dispositions contraignant l’investisseur Ă  exĂ©cuter ses obligations en matiĂšre de protection des droits humains.

Bien que ces dispositions n’aient pas de rĂ©elle force obligatoire, elles n’en demeurent pas moins utiles pour guider les arbitres dans leur interprĂ©tation des TBI.

2. Des obligations mises à la charge de l’investisseur

(i) Une premiĂšre approche a Ă©tĂ© dĂ©veloppĂ©e visant Ă  faire peser sur l’investisseur des obligations en matiĂšre de protection de l’environnement et des droits humains. Celle-ci se manifeste diffĂ©remment de ce qui prĂ©cĂšde puisqu’elle peut prendre la forme d’une simple recommandation par laquelle l’État d’accueil encourage l’investisseur Ă  s’engager volontairement Ă  respecter les droits humains.

(ii) Une approche un peu plus contraignante a Ă©tĂ© initiĂ©e pour inciter l’investisseur Ă  mettre en Ɠuvre tous les efforts possibles pour respecter les droits humains, dans le cadre de ses opĂ©rations. Ainsi, il est laissĂ© Ă  l’investisseur le choix des voies et moyens par lesquels il entend respecter et protĂ©ger les droits humains.

(iii) Une derniĂšre approche beaucoup plus contraignante est apparue dans le cadre des TBI de la seconde gĂ©nĂ©ration. Il en est ainsi du TBI Maroc-NigĂ©ria qui impose Ă  l’investisseur “ to uphold human rights in the host state, act in accordance with core labor standards, and not manage or operate investments in a manner that circumvents international environmental, labor and human rights obligations” 3 . Il est intĂ©ressant de souligner que cette mĂȘme approche a Ă©tĂ© adoptĂ©e par l’Acte Additionnel du Code des Investissements de

1. https://edit.wti.org/document/show/46bdb04e-721b-4cac-830a1c346c25c96c.

2. https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/international-investment-agreements/treaties/bit/3551/egypt---mauritius-bit-2014-.

3. https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/international-investment-agreements/treaties/tips/3711/morocco---nigeria-bit-2016.

la CommunautĂ© Economique des États de l’Afrique de l’Ouest (CEDEAO). Toutefois, ces dispositions ne pourront ĂȘtre effectives que si elles sont exĂ©cutĂ©es par l’investisseur.

3. Des moyens de contraindre l’investisseur Ă  exĂ©cuter ses obligations

Plusieurs moyens ont Ă©tĂ© dĂ©veloppĂ©s, notamment Ă  l’occasion de procĂ©dures arbitrales afin d’obliger l’investisseur Ă  respecter et Ă  protĂ©ger le droit Ă  l’environnement et les droits humains. Il en est ainsi de l’utilisation par l’État d’accueil des demandes reconventionnelles. Dans la cĂ©lĂšbre sentence Urbaser v. Argentina, (ICSID Case No ARB/ 07/26/ du 8 dĂ©cembre 2016) le tribunal arbitral a dĂ©clarĂ© recevable la demande reconventionnelle de l’Argentine fondĂ©e sur la violation par l’investisseur Urbaser de son obligation de garantir aux populations argentines le droit Ă  l’eau. Le tribunal a, en effet, confirmĂ© que le droit Ă  l’eau est un droit humain, en vertu du droit international. D’autres dĂ©cisions ont favorablement accueilli des demandes reconventionnelles de l’ÉtathĂŽte. Il s’agit, par exemple des sentences Aven v . Costa Rica (ICSID Case No UNCT /15/3 du 18 septembre 2018) Ressources Inc v. Ecuador (ICSID Case No ARB/08/5 du ou bien Perenco v. Ecuador)

Outre les demandes reconventionnelles, des États ont inclus dans leurs TBI ou modùles d’accord des dispositions

contraignant l’investisseur Ă  exĂ©cuter ses obligations en matiĂšre de protection des droits humains. Voici quelques exemples de clauses :

“ The contracting parties must take appropriate steps to ensure, through judicial, administrative, legislative or other appropriate means, that when such abuses occur within their territory and or jurisdiction, those affected have access to effective remedy”.

(TBI ModĂšle des Pays-Bas).

“ If the host state suffers from a loss, destruction, or damages with regard to its public health or life, then the foreign investor must provide the host state with adequate and effective compensation”. (Accord de Protection des investissements conclu entre la RĂ©publique du Bengladesh et le Royaume du Danemark).

« Le droit de chaque Partie de lĂ©gifĂ©rer sur son territoire pour atteindre des objectifs politiques lĂ©gitimes, notamment en ce qui concerne la protection de l’environnement, et la lutte contre le changement climatique, la protection des consommateurs ou la protection de la santĂ©, de la sĂ©curitĂ©, des droits des peuples autochtones, de l’égalitĂ© des sexes et de la diversitĂ© culturelle ».

(Modùle Canadien d’Accord sur les Investissements)

IV. Conclusion

Trouver un Ă©quilibre juste et nĂ©cessaire entre la prĂ©visibilitĂ© pour les investisseurs et la prĂ©servation du droit voire de l’obligation de l’État de lĂ©gifĂ©rer et rĂ©glementer dans l’intĂ©rĂȘt gĂ©nĂ©ral constitue un dĂ©fi majeur qui, comme l’indique un auteur « continuera de façonner le paysage de l’arbitrage des traitĂ©s d’investissements Ă  l’avenir, compte tenu de la complexitĂ© et la diversitĂ© des relations d’investissement modernes’ »4

Si les TBI de la seconde gĂ©nĂ©ration ont imaginĂ© et confectionnĂ© des solutions et moyens juridiques destinĂ©s Ă  contraindre les arbitres Ă  intĂ©grer pleinement la protection des droits humains dans leur interprĂ©tation de ces instruments juridiques, il convient toutefois, dans un souci d’équilibre et d’équitĂ©, de faire peser sur l’État d’accueil la charge de la preuve de la pertinence des mesures de protection des droits humains qu’il a prises, d’une part, et d’évaluer celles-ci Ă  l’aune du principe de proportionnalitĂ©, d’autre part. Il s’agit en effet, de vĂ©rifier que ces mesures sont justifiĂ©es et Ă©quilibrĂ©es.

Cette question d’un Ă©quilibre juste et nĂ©cessaire entre la protection des intĂ©rĂȘts de l’investisseur et celle des droits humains appelle, Ă  n’en point douter, une approche et une solution uniformes. Les acteurs et professionnels du droit international de l’investissement s’en donneront-ils les moyens ? ■

Aboubacar FALL Avocat associé, AF Legal Dakar, Sénégal a.fall@aflegal.sn

Références bibliographiques

‱ Aboubacar Fall, Pour une approche africaine du droit international de l’investissement , Juriste International 2024-1.

‱ Paris Arbitration Week (PAW) 2024. Addleshaw Goddard Evolving Perspectives on the Right to Regulate : Shaping Investment Arbitration Treaty , Kluwer Arbitration Blog, 25 March 2024.

‱ United Nations Working Group Report on Human Rights-Compatible International Investment Agreements (IIAs) A/76/238, 27 July 2021.

‱ Barnali Choudhury Carving out a Role for Human Rights in International Investment Law, South views, n° 228, 15 October 2021, www.southcentre.int.

‱ Anne-Charlotte Martineau, Une analyse critique du dĂ©bat sur la fragmentation du droit international, ThĂšse, UniversitĂ© Paris 1-PanthĂ©on-Sorbonne 2013.

4. Olivia Danic, L’émergence d’un droit international des traitĂ©s bilatĂ©raux d’investissement et de la jurisprudence du CIRDI , ThĂšse, UniversitĂ© Paris-Nanterre, 28 novembre 2012.

Droit et Littérature

MAMADOU SEYDI

Ô Law and literature are interconnected as written language influences society and thought. In this sense, this article explores the duality between literary fiction and legal reality, showing how law can contain elements of fiction and how literature can influence law. It also highlights the importance of precision in legal and literary language, and how bad legislation can lead to negative social consequences. Ultimately, for the author, there is no doubt that the dialogue between law and literature enriches the understanding of both fields.

Ô El derecho y la literatura estĂĄn interconectados, ya que utilizan el lenguaje escrito para influir en la sociedad y el pensamiento. En este sentido, el artĂ­culo explora la dualidad entre ficciĂłn literaria y realidad jurĂ­dica, mostrando cĂłmo el Derecho puede contener elementos de ficciĂłn y cĂłmo la literatura puede influir en el Derecho. TambiĂ©n destaca la importancia de la precisiĂłn en el lenguaje jurĂ­dico y literario, y cĂłmo una mala legislaciĂłn puede acarrear consecuencias sociales negativas. En definitiva, para el autor, no cabe duda de que el diĂĄlogo entre el Derecho y la Literatura enriquece la comprensiĂłn de ambos campos.

Introduction

Le droit et la littĂ©rature sont deux domaines qui, Ă  premiĂšre vue, semblent distincts, mais qui entretiennent des liens profonds et complexes. Dans cet article, nous explorerons ces deux concepts et analyserons comment ils s’influencent mutuellement.

Le droit est un ensemble de rĂšgles qui rĂ©gissent la conduite des individus au sein d’une sociĂ©tĂ©. Ces rĂšgles dĂ©finissent les droits et les devoirs des membres de cette sociĂ©tĂ©, ainsi que les relations entre les individus et les institutions. Le droit englobe des domaines variĂ©s tels que le droit civil, le droit pĂ©nal, le droit international, et bien d’autres. Il repose sur des textes lĂ©gislatifs, des jurisprudences, et des doctrines, et il Ă©volue constamment pour s’adapter aux changements sociaux et aux besoins de la communautĂ©.

La littĂ©rature, quant Ă  elle, est l’ensemble des Ɠuvres Ă©crites qui ont une finalitĂ© esthĂ©tique. Elle va au-delĂ  de la simple communication d’informations pour exprimer des Ă©motions, des idĂ©es, et des rĂ©flexions. La littĂ©rature englobe des genres variĂ©s tels que les romans, les poĂšmes, les essais, les piĂšces de théùtre, et les contes. Elle est le fruit de l’imagination, du savoir, et de la mĂ©ditation des auteurs. La littĂ©rature est Ă©galement un moyen de transmettre des connaissances sur une Ă©poque, une culture, ou un milieu spĂ©cifique.

En somme, le droit et la littérature se rejoignent dans leur utilisation du langage écrit, leur capacité à influencer la pensée et la société, et leur rÎle dans la construction du sens et de la signification. Dans la suite de cet article, nous explorerons plus en détail ces interactions et leurs implications.

I. L’intĂ©rĂȘt de l’étude du lien entre droit et littĂ©rature

L’étude du lien entre le droit et la littĂ©rature revĂȘt une importance capitale pour plusieurs raisons :

‱ ComprĂ©hension des Concepts Juridiques : La littĂ©rature offre un cadre oĂč les concepts juridiques peuvent ĂȘtre explorĂ©s de maniĂšre plus vivante et nuancĂ©e. Les romans, les piĂšces de théùtre et les poĂšmes permettent d’illustrer des dilemmes Ă©thiques, des conflits de loyautĂ©

et des questions de justice d’une maniĂšre qui va au-delĂ  des textes juridiques bruts. A ce propos, par exemple, l’Ɠuvre de Camus « Les justes » est un trĂšs bon prĂ©texte pour sonder la notion de justice.

‱ RĂ©flexion sur la SociĂ©tĂ© et la Culture : La littĂ©rature reflĂšte les valeurs, les normes et les tensions sociales d’une Ă©poque donnĂ©e. En Ă©tudiant les Ɠuvres littĂ©raires, les juristes peuvent mieux comprendre les contextes historiques et culturels dans lesquels les lois ont Ă©tĂ© Ă©laborĂ©es.

‱ Perspective Critique : La littĂ©rature encourage une rĂ©flexion critique sur le droit. Elle peut remettre en question les normes Ă©tablies, mettre en lumiĂšre les injustices et susciter des dĂ©bats sur des sujets tels que les droits de l’homme, la discrimination et la libertĂ© individuelle.

‱ DĂ©veloppement des CompĂ©tences LittĂ©raires : Un juriste dotĂ© d’une aptitude littĂ©raire solide est mieux Ă©quipĂ© pour rĂ©diger des plaidoiries convaincantes, des opinions judiciaires claires et des textes juridiques accessibles. La maĂźtrise de la langue et de la rhĂ©torique est essentielle dans la pratique du droit.

‱ Influence Mutuelle : La littĂ©rature inspire le droit et vice versa. Des auteurs comme Kafka, DostoĂŻevski et Camus ont influencĂ© la pensĂ©e juridique, tandis que des affaires judiciaires cĂ©lĂšbres ont inspirĂ© des romans et des films. En somme, l’étude du lien entre le droit et la littĂ©rature enrichit notre comprĂ©hension des deux domaines et nous rappelle que le pouvoir des mots transcende les frontiĂšres disciplinaires.

II. Fiction et réalité : une dualité essentielle

La littĂ©rature et le droit partagent un intĂ©rĂȘt pour les mots et leur signification. Le droit, en tant que discipline, repose sur des termes prĂ©cis et des concepts juridiques1. Cependant, il est important de reconnaĂźtre que le droit lui-mĂȘme n’est pas dĂ©pourvu de fiction. Victor Hugo, par exemple, exalte la laideur et le grotesque dans ses Ă©crits, tandis que le droit, dans ses premiers grands textes, utilise Ă©galement des images iconographiques2. Ainsi, plutĂŽt que de se concentrer sur l’esthĂ©tique, nous pouvons explorer le concept de fiction.

La fiction, issue du verbe latin fingere, signifie Ă  l’origine « modeler dans l’argile ». Elle reprĂ©sente une « construction de l’imagination », souvent exprimĂ©e sur un support matĂ©riel, visant Ă  reprĂ©senter une rĂ©alitĂ© absente. Cette double dimension, Ă  la fois concrĂšte et abstraite, crĂ©e un rapport ambivalent Ă  la vĂ©ritĂ©.

D’une part, la fiction n’est pas la rĂ©alitĂ©. Seul le support matĂ©riel sur lequel elle s’exprime est rĂ©el au moment de la reprĂ©sentation. Pourtant, elle peut produire une impression de vĂ©ritĂ©, que ce soit par une dĂ©marche rĂ©aliste ou par un imaginaire affranchi des contraintes du rĂ©el. D’autre part, la reprĂ©sentation dans l’Ɠuvre littĂ©raire repose sur un « pacte romanesque » entre l’auteur et le lecteur. Le roman est une « Ɠuvre de mauvaise foi », oĂč le romancier prĂ©sente comme vrai ce qu’il sait pertinemment ĂȘtre faux, et le lecteur feint de prendre pour vrai ce qu’il sait ĂȘtre fictif.

Celui qui nomme mal, écrit mal, légifÚre mal.

Le droit, quant Ă  lui, semble s’opposer Ă  ces problĂ©matiques fictionnelles. Il hiĂ©rarchise, tranche, et postule la gĂ©nĂ©ralitĂ© et l’abstraction. Cependant, il est Ă©galement influencĂ© par la littĂ©rature. Une histoire doctrinale du droit et des institutions dans la littĂ©rature, ainsi que l’analyse des rapports d’influence rĂ©ciproque entre les Ɠuvres littĂ©raires et le droit, sont des sujets riches et complexes.

III. L’importance de bien nommer

L’écrivain et philosophe Albert Camus avait raison lorsqu’il disait : « Mal nommer une chose, c’est ajouter au malheur du monde ». Cette phrase simple, mais profonde, souligne l’importance de la prĂ©cision dans notre langage et notre communication.

En droit, la prĂ©cision des termes est essentielle. Un juriste doit nommer avec exactitude les phĂ©nomĂšnes et les faits sociaux pour rĂ©soudre les problĂšmes et trouver des solutions. Un problĂšme bien nommĂ© est dĂ©jĂ  un pas vers sa rĂ©solution. A l’inverse, nommer incorrectement une chose peut entraĂźner des consĂ©quences nĂ©fastes, des erreurs d’interprĂ©tation et des dĂ©cisions injustes.

La littĂ©rature et le droit partagent un intĂ©rĂȘt pour les mots et leur signification.

La littérature, quant à elle, nous rappelle que les mots ont un pouvoir immense. Ils peuvent émouvoir, persuader, et transformer notre compréhension du monde. Les écrivains choisissent leurs mots avec soin pour créer des mondes fictifs, mais ces mondes ont un impact réel sur nos émotions et nos réflexions.

Celui qui nomme mal, écrit mal, légifÚre mal. Sur ce point, le Professeur Isaac Yankhoba Ndiaye3, qui a toujours regretté la faiblesse de la rigueur dans la production du droit, serait

1. G-O. Chùteaureynaud, Adresse à un étudiant en droit ou en lettres en un temps de charabia , Revue Droit & Littérature 2020/1 (N° 4), pages 23 et 24.

2. P. SĂ©gur, Droit et littĂ©rature : ÉlĂ©ments pour la recherche, Revue Droit & LittĂ©rature 2017/1 (N° 1), pages 107 Ă  123.

3. Il a trĂšs souvent indexĂ© le fait que la lĂ©gislation sĂ©nĂ©galaise pĂȘche, parfois, par une clartĂ© relative. Voir Ă  ce propos I-Y. Ndiaye, L’art de mal lĂ©gifĂ©rer (Propos irrĂ©vĂ©rencieux sur certains textes de lois), Revue EDJA, Revue de l’association sĂ©nĂ©galaise de droit pĂ©nal, juilletdĂ©cembre 1995, pp. 53-62.

tout Ă  fait d’accord avec nous. L’art de mal lĂ©gifĂ©rer est un sujet qui soulĂšve des prĂ©occupations importantes dans le domaine juridique. Lorsqu’un lĂ©gislateur rĂ©dige des lois de maniĂšre incohĂ©rente, ambiguĂ« ou contradictoire, cela peut avoir des consĂ©quences nĂ©fastes pour la sociĂ©tĂ©. Voici quelques rĂ©flexions sur cette question :

‱ Manque de clartĂ© : Lorsqu’une loi est mal rĂ©digĂ©e, elle peut prĂȘter Ă  confusion. Les citoyens, les avocats et les juges peuvent interprĂ©ter diffĂ©remment les dispositions lĂ©gales, ce qui entraĂźne des litiges et des incertitudes.

‱ Injustice potentielle : Une lĂ©gislation confuse ou mal conçue peut aboutir Ă  des dĂ©cisions injustes. Par exemple, des lois discriminatoires ou des exceptions mal dĂ©finies peuvent entraĂźner des traitements inĂ©quitables.

‱ ComplexitĂ© inutile : Des lois trop complexes ou excessivement dĂ©taillĂ©es peuvent entraver la comprĂ©hension et l’application. Un excĂšs de dĂ©tails peut Ă©galement rendre difficile la mise en Ɠuvre effective des rĂšgles.

‱ Changements frĂ©quents : Lorsque les lois sont modifiĂ©es frĂ©quemment sans justification claire, cela peut perturber la stabilitĂ© juridique et crĂ©er de l’incertitude pour les citoyens et les entreprises.

‱ ConsĂ©quences sociales : Les lois mal lĂ©gifĂ©rĂ©es peuvent avoir des rĂ©percussions sur la vie quotidienne des gens. Par exemple, des lois fiscales complexes peuvent affecter les finances des contribuables, tandis que des lois sur la sĂ©curitĂ© routiĂšre mal conçues peuvent mettre en danger la vie des conducteurs.

Conclusion

En dĂ©finitive, le dialogue entre le droit et la littĂ©rature est riche et complexe. La littĂ©rature offre au juriste un espace de dĂ©tente, de rĂ©flexion et d’interprĂ©tation, tandis que le droit, bien que distinct de la littĂ©rature, s’appuie sur une aptitude littĂ©raire solide pour nommer avec prĂ©cision les phĂ©nomĂšnes sociaux et trouver des solutions. Leur interaction continue d’enrichir nos comprĂ©hensions et nos pratiques dans ces deux domaines. Que ce soit dans la salle d’audience ou dans les pages d’un roman, le pouvoir des mots reste au cƓur de notre comprĂ©hension du monde. ■

Mamadou SEYDI

Juriste Interne, AF Legal Dakar, Sénégal darams135@gmail.com

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Joséphine HAGE CHAHINE

Justice privée, décisions publiques : la favor arbitrandum en droit libanais

Ô Traditionally, arbitration offers the dual advantages of speed and confidentiality compared to state justice. In practice, however, this dual advantage is increasingly undermined. Indeed, the unsuccessful party to an arbitration often seeks to set aside the award, exploiting all the grounds for annulment provided for by the legislature, especially since under Lebanese law, an action for annulment suspends enforcement, unless the award has been provisionally enforced by the arbitral tribunal that rendered it.

Cet article a pour but d’offrir une analyse d’un arrĂȘt de la Cour d’appel du Mont Liban du 13 janvier 2022 et d’un arrĂȘt de la Cour d’appel de Beyrouth rendu le 23 mai 2023, en matiĂšre de recours en annulation contre des sentences arbitrales, lesquels et dans une approche in favorem arbitrandum hĂ©ritĂ©e du droit français, ont rejetĂ© les deux recours.

1re dĂ©cision : Cour d’appel du Mont Liban, ch. 17, dĂ©cision n°1 du 13/1/2022

1er motif : absence de clause compromissoire et dépassement de mission par le tribunal arbitral 1

Les parties avaient signĂ© un contrat de construction qui comportait une clause compromissoire, ainsi que deux annexes qui ne reprenaient pas ladite clause, Ă  savoir une liste des travaux Ă  construire et une Ă©tude d’architecture. Selon le demandeur, le tribunal s’est appuyĂ© sur ces deux annexes, dĂ©pourvues de clause compromissoire, afin de fixer les honoraires dus en contrepartie de ces travaux, de sorte que la sentence aurait Ă©tĂ© rendue sans convention d’arbitrage (art. 800 al. 1 et 3 NCPC). La cour a rejetĂ© cet argument en prĂ©cisant que ces annexes font intĂ©gralement partie du contrat et sont soumises Ă  la clause compromissoire y contenue. La question Ă©tait de savoir si le tribunal pouvait, sans

1. Le terme « tribunal » désignera tout au long de cet article le tribunal arbitral.

Ô Tradicionalmente, el arbitraje ofrece la doble ventaja de la rapidez y la confidencialidad en comparaciĂłn con la justicia estatal. Sin embargo, esta doble ventaja se ve cada vez mĂĄs socavada en la prĂĄctica. En efecto, la parte perdedora de un arbitraje intenta a menudo anular el laudo, explotando todas las causas de anulaciĂłn previstas por el legislador, tanto mĂĄs cuanto que, segĂșn el derecho libanĂ©s, la acciĂłn de anulaciĂłn suspende la ejecuciĂłn, a menos que el laudo haya sido provisionalmente ejecutado por el tribunal arbitral que lo dictĂł.

dĂ©passer sa mission, se rĂ©fĂ©rer aux annexes du contrat, et non celle de savoir si les litiges y affĂ©rents sont soumis Ă  l’arbitrage. La cour aurait pu simplement prĂ©ciser que le tribunal dispose d’un pouvoir souverain d’apprĂ©ciation des moyens de preuve pour asseoir sa conviction, en l’occurrence pour dĂ©terminer les honoraires dus Ă  l’une des parties. Le fait pour les annexes de ne pas reprendre la clause compromissoire n’est pas une raison pour les exclure du dĂ©bat, en ce qu’elles constituent des Ă©lĂ©ments de preuve.

2e moyen : non-respect par le tribunal de la mission d’amiable composition2

Le demandeur a prĂ©tendu que le tribunal aurait violĂ© l’art. 777 NCPC, alors qu’une mission d’amiable compositeur lui avait Ă©tĂ© confiĂ©e, puisqu’il n’a pas utilisĂ© l’expression « amiable composition » dans sa sentence. La cour a rejetĂ© ce moyen en prĂ©cisant que l’absence de l’expression « amiable composition » ne signifiait pas pour autant que le tribunal aurait violĂ© sa mission. Nous en dĂ©duisons que le dĂ©faut de rĂ©fĂ©rence expresse Ă  l’équitĂ© ne peut Ă  lui seul ouvrir droit Ă  l’annulation de la sentence dĂšs lors qu’il ressort de la motivation de la sentence qu’elle est Ă©galement fondĂ©e sur l’équitĂ©3. Or cette approche risque d’octroyer Ă 

2. L’amiable composition est la mission confiĂ©e par les parties Ă  l’arbitre d’écarter en tant que de besoin la rĂšgle de droit, pour statuer en Ă©quitĂ©.

3. ArrĂȘt ITM Alimentaire international de la cour d’appel de Paris, 26 sept. 2023, n° 20/10405 : « Le tribunal arbitral, auquel les parties ont confĂ©rĂ© la mission de statuer comme amiable compositeur, doit faire ressortir dans sa sentence qu’il a pris en compte l’équitĂ© ».

la cour un pouvoir de rĂ©vision au fond de la sentence aux fins de contrĂŽler son adĂ©quation avec l’équitĂ©. La justification lapidaire de la cour peine Ă  convaincre dans la mesure oĂč l’emploi d’expressions comme « amiable composition » ou « en Ă©quitĂ© » sont autant d’indices permettant au juge de l’annulation de vĂ©rifier si le tribunal a bien statuĂ© en amiable composition, sans examen du raisonnement au fond. Cela dit, si le juge de l’annulation devait s’en tenir aux apparences, cela risque de faire de la rĂ©fĂ©rence explicite Ă  l’équitĂ© une simple clause de style. Un Ă©quilibre pĂ©rilleux entre ces deux approches est donc Ă  trouver.

3e motif : non-respect des droits de la défense et du principe du contradictoire

Selon le demandeur, les écritures et piÚces avaient été enregistrées sur un « CD », lequel a été transmis au tribunal mais ne lui a pas été communiqué (art. 800 al. 4 NCPC).

La cour a prĂ©cisĂ© qu’au cours de la confĂ©rence de gestion de procĂ©dure, il Ă©tait expressĂ©ment prĂ©vu que les Ă©critures devaient ĂȘtre communiquĂ©es sur CD au tribunal. Elle a soulignĂ© que la communication sur CD ne concernait que le tribunal, dans le but de faciliter la rĂ©daction de la sentence et non en remplacement de la communication des versions papier entre parties. Ainsi les deux jeux d’écritures du dĂ©fendeur ont Ă©tĂ© communiquĂ©s en copie papier au demandeur, lequel y a rĂ©pondu. Au regard de ces Ă©lĂ©ments, la cour a rejetĂ© ce motif.

4e motif : absence de motivation de la sentence

Le demandeur a prĂ©tendu que la sentence n’était pas motivĂ©e (art. 800 al. 5 NCPC) mais la cour a indiquĂ© que la sentence comportait toutes les mentions obligatoires prĂ©vues sous peine de nullitĂ© y compris les motifs de la sentence. Nous regrettons que la cour n’ait pas justifiĂ© concrĂštement l’existence matĂ©rielle de la motivation, en se rĂ©fĂ©rant aux paragraphes prĂ©cis de la sentence incriminĂ©e, ni prĂ©cisĂ© que son rĂŽle en tant que cour de contrĂŽle se limitait Ă  vĂ©rifier l’existence de la motivation, et non sa pertinence, ou la cohĂ©rence du raisonnement du tribunal ou son caractĂšre convaincant4.

5e motif : absence de délibéré

Le demandeur a soumis que les arbitres n’ont pas dĂ©libĂ©rĂ© avant la reddition de la sentence, du fait que celle-ci a Ă©tĂ© rendue Ă  la majoritĂ© et non Ă  l’unanimitĂ©. PrĂ©cisons que

4. Cour d’appel de Paris, 23 janv. 2024, n° 22/00275 : « Le contrĂŽle du juge de l’annulation se limite toutefois Ă  vĂ©rifier l’existence d’une motivation sans apprĂ©cier la pertinence, le bien-fondĂ©, l’intelligibilitĂ© ou la cohĂ©rence de celle-ci, sauf Ă  violer le principe de non-rĂ©vision au fond des sentences arbitrales ». Il en rĂ©sulte que l’examen de la cour est circonscrit Ă  l’hypothĂšse d’une absence totale de motivation, tout autre grief n’est pas admis. La cour le rappelle, en soulignant que « les griefs de dĂ©naturation des demandes, d’omission de statuer, d’application erronĂ©e de la loi, de rejet d’arguments factuels prĂ©sentĂ©s par une partie, d’imprĂ©cisions et de contrariĂ©tĂ© de motifs [
] ne constituent pas non plus des moyens d’annulation d’une sentence au sens de l’article 1520 du code de procĂ©dure civile ». Voir Ă©galement, Cour d’appel de Paris, 9 janv. 2024, n° 21/14563 : « Le juge l’annulation, qui doit s’interdire toute rĂ©vision au fond de la sentence, ne peut en effet se prononcer sur le raisonnement suivi par les arbitres ni contrĂŽler la qualitĂ© ou le contenu de leur motivation. La dĂ©naturation du contrat, la contradiction de motifs, l’erreur de droit ou la violation de la loi ne constituent pas des motifs d’annulation de la sentence, la demanderesse recherchant ici une rĂ©vision au fond de la sentence que n’autorise pas le recours en annulation ».

l’art. 800 du NCPC ne prĂ©voit pas de maniĂšre explicite « l’absence de dĂ©libĂ©rĂ© » comme motif d’annulation de la sentence. L’absence de dĂ©libĂ©rĂ© pourrait ĂȘtre rattachĂ©e Ă  la violation de la mission confiĂ©e par les parties aux arbitres, en ce sens que si les parties ont confiĂ© Ă  plusieurs arbitres le soin de trancher leur litige, c’est pour que la sentence soit le fruit d’une discussion entre eux. La cour a rĂ©pondu que la reddition de la sentence Ă  la majoritĂ© ne signifie pas l’absence de dĂ©libĂ©rĂ©, bien au contraire, cela constitue la preuve qu’un des arbitres, aprĂšs le dĂ©libĂ©rĂ©, n’était pas d’accord avec les deux autres. Le demandeur aurait pu invoquer, au lieu d’une absence de dĂ©libĂ©rĂ©, une violation du secret du dĂ©libĂ©rĂ©, car le fait pour un des arbitres de ne pas avoir signĂ© la sentence rĂ©vĂšle le contenu du dĂ©libĂ©rĂ©, en l’occurrence le dĂ©saccord avec les deux autres. Quoiqu’il en soit, cette exception au secret du dĂ©libĂ©rĂ© est autorisĂ©e par l’art. 788 NCPC qui dispose qu’« en cas de pluralitĂ© d’arbitres, ils dĂ©libĂšrent en secret, et la sentence est rendue soit Ă  l’unanimitĂ©, soit Ă  la majoritĂ© des opinions ».

La question était de savoir si le tribunal pouvait sans dépasser sa mission, se référer aux annexes du contrat [
].

2e dĂ©cision : Cour d’appel de Beyrouth, ch. 4, dĂ©cision n° 385 du 23/05/2023

1er moyen : la clause compromissoire est nulle

Selon le demandeur, la clause compromissoire serait nulle car elle ne prĂ©cisait pas l’objet du litige ni les demandes des parties (art. 800 al. 1 NCPC).En l’espĂšce, le demandeur a confondu la clause compromissoire et l’acte de mission (document prĂ©parĂ© conjointement par le tribunal et les parties comprenant notamment : les noms et adresses des parties et des arbitres, un exposĂ© sommaire des prĂ©tentions respectives des parties, les principales rĂšgles applicables Ă  la procĂ©dure, le lieu de l’arbitrage et une liste des points litigieux Ă  rĂ©soudre).

Selon la cour, mĂȘme si l’acte de mission ne contenait pas toutes les mentions qui devraient normalement y figurer, cela n’entraĂźnerait pas la nullitĂ© de la sentence, conformĂ©ment Ă  l’art. 800 du NCPC, lequel Ă©numĂšre les chefs d’annulations de maniĂšre limitative, et ne fait pas Ă©tat d’un dĂ©faut des mentions obligatoires de l’acte de mission. Quoiqu’il en soit, mĂȘme si la clause compromissoire omettait de faire mention de l’objet du diffĂ©rend, cela n’ouvrirait pas non plus droit Ă  l’annulation de la sentence, car l’art. 763 NCPC ne prĂ©voit pas comme condition de validitĂ© de la clause compromissoire la dĂ©termination de l’objet du litige et des demandes des parties.

2e moyen : dépassement de mission par le tribunal

Selon le demandeur, le tribunal a dĂ©passĂ© sa mission en rejetant les demandes fondĂ©es sur la prescription et le dĂ©faut de qualitĂ© et intĂ©rĂȘt alors qu’aucune partie n’a soulevĂ© ces deux arguments

(art. 800 al. 3 NCPC).En l’espĂšce, la cour a donnĂ© une dĂ©finition du dĂ©passement de la mission et de l’objet du litige, tout en prĂ©cisant que la dĂ©limitation de l’objet du litige par les parties ne limite pas la possibilitĂ© de l’arbitre de choisir le fondement lĂ©gal pour motiver sa sentence. Ainsi, le tribunal ne s’est pas Ă©cartĂ© de l’objet du litige tel que dĂ©fini par les parties puisqu’il peut selon l’art. 370 NCPC soulever d’office des fondements non invoquĂ©s par les parties, Ă  condition de respecter le contradictoire. A notre avis, le relevĂ© d’office est une application de l’adage jura novit curiae, et n’altĂšre pas l’objet du litige, Ă  savoir les questions de droit que le tribunal doit trancher. Toutefois, le relevĂ© d’office pose le problĂšme de la rupture d’égalitĂ© entre les parties puisque l’argument soulevĂ© d’office servira forcĂ©ment la cause d’une partie aux dĂ©triments de l’autre.

3e moyen : violation des droits de la défense et du principe du contradictoire

Selon le demandeur, le tribunal a soulevĂ© d’office la prescription sans permettre aux parties d’en dĂ©battre (art. 800 al. 4 NCPC). Il est intĂ©ressant de noter que le demandeur se prĂ©vaut non seulement de l’alinĂ©a 4 de l’art. 800 NCPC propre Ă  l’arbitrage, mais Ă©galement de la violation des art. 3725 et 3736 du NCPC, lesquels figurent dans un chapitre propre au procĂšs devant un juge Ă©tatique. Le dĂ©fendeur a soutenu que le moyen relatif Ă  la prescription de la demande Ă©tait un motif surabondant auquel le tribunal a eu recours pour motiver sa sentence et n’a pas Ă©tĂ© repris dans le dispositif, puisque la demande de condamnation a Ă©tĂ© rejetĂ©e en particulier pour dĂ©faut de qualitĂ©, lequel a Ă©tĂ© soulevĂ©e par le dĂ©fendeur. La cour a rappelĂ© la dĂ©finition des droits de la dĂ©fense et du principe du contradictoire, puis a prĂ©cisĂ© que le tribunal a rejetĂ© la demande de condamnation pour dĂ©faut de qualitĂ© et non pour prescription, en reprenant l’argumentation du dĂ©fendeur. Selon la cour, le tribunal arbitral a simplement procĂ©dĂ© Ă  la requalification du moyen soulevĂ© par la dĂ©fenderesse Ă  l’arbitrage. Cette derniĂšre avait demandĂ© le rejet de la demande car elle « aurait dĂ» ĂȘtre adressĂ©e Ă  la sociĂ©tĂ© et non aux associĂ©s », expression ensuite requalifiĂ©e par le tribunal de dĂ©faut de qualitĂ©. Il ne s’agissait donc pas d’un vĂ©ritable relevĂ© d’office. Par consĂ©quent, le motif ayant trait Ă  la prescription soulevĂ©e d’office n’était qu’un motif surabondant, qui n’a pas Ă©tĂ© dĂ©terminant de la dĂ©cision du tribunal, lequel a pu appuyer son raisonnement sur un autre argument invoquĂ© par le dĂ©fendeur Ă  l’arbitrage.

4e moyen : absence des mentions obligatoires

Selon le demandeur, la sentence ne comportait pas toutes les mentions obligatoires (art. 800 al. 4 NCPC), car elle n’a pas rĂ©pondu Ă  toutes les demandes notamment celle relative Ă  la quote-part du demandeur Ă  l’arbitrage dans les dividendes. Le tribunal n’aurait pas correctement appliquĂ© les art. 122 et 123 du code des obligations et des contrats

5. Un jugement ne peut ĂȘtre rendu contre une partie qui n’a pas Ă©tĂ© entendue ou qui n’a pas Ă©tĂ© en mesure de prĂ©senter sa dĂ©fense.

6. D’aprĂšs cet article, le juge doit respecter et faire respecter en toutes circonstances le principe du contradictoire et ne peut adopter dans son jugement des moyens, des prĂ©cisions ou des piĂšces invoquĂ©s par une partie sans avoir donnĂ© l’occasion Ă  l’autre partie d’en dĂ©battre contradictoirement. De mĂȘme il ne peut asseoir son jugement sur de moyens soulevĂ©s d’office Ă  moins d’avoir donnĂ© aux parties l’occasion d’en dĂ©battre contradictoirement.

Ă  sa demande d’indemnisation. Selon la cour, la sentence doit comporter, sous peine de nullitĂ©, les mentions obligatoires relatives aux prĂ©tentions des parties, aux moyens et arguments Ă©voquĂ©s Ă  leur appui, les noms des arbitres, les motifs de la sentence, son dispositif, sa date et la signature des arbitres. Ce qui Ă©tait le cas en l’espĂšce. En rĂ©alitĂ©, ce grief est une demande de rĂ©vision dĂ©guisĂ©e, conclusion avec laquelle nous sommes d’accord puisque le demandeur se plaint d’un mal jugĂ© plutĂŽt que d’un dĂ©faut de motivation.

5e moyen : violation de l’ordre public

Le demandeur a soumis que le gĂ©rant d’une sociĂ©tĂ© est responsable Ă  l’égard des tiers de sa faute de gestion et que le tribunal aurait dĂ» retenir sa responsabilitĂ© par application des art. 122 et 844 du code des obligations et des contrats libanais.

La cour, tout en reprenant une dĂ©finition classique de l’ordre public (art. 800 al. 6 NCPC) a rejetĂ© ce moyen car il constitue une demande de rĂ©vision au fond. Nous regrettons cette conclusion lapidaire pour deux raisons : d’abord, pour ne pas avoir rappelĂ© le principe selon lequel l’apprĂ©ciation du juge de la violation de l’ordre public international s’opĂšre in concreto, en vĂ©rifiant si la solution consacrĂ©e par la sentence porte rĂ©ellement et matĂ©riellement atteinte aux objectifs poursuivis par la rĂšgle d’ordre public en cause7. Ensuite, en n’expliquant pas pourquoi le fait d’écarter la responsabilitĂ© Ă  titre personnel du gĂ©rant de la sociĂ©tĂ© Ă  l’égard des associĂ©s (solution Ă  laquelle a abouti le tribunal) ne porte pas atteinte Ă  une rĂšgle ou Ă  un principe ayant pour objectif la sauvegarde d’un intĂ©rĂȘt public fondamental. Il ressort de l’analyse de ces deux arrĂȘts que la partie qui succombe dans une procĂ©dure arbitrale, et sous couvert d’une demande de rĂ©vision au fond, tend Ă  invoquer tous les alinĂ©as de l’art. 800 du NCPC, en faisant parfois un amalgame entre des notions de base (telles que la clause compromissoire et l’acte de mission, l’absence totale de motivation et l’erreur de droit, le dĂ©passement de mission et le pouvoir souverain d’apprĂ©ciation des moyens des parties), tout en se prĂ©valant de plusieurs articles qui s’appliquent classiquement au procĂšs devant les tribunaux Ă©tatiques, et qui peuvent aisĂ©ment s’appliquer dans le cadre d’un recours en annulation mutatis mutandis. Cette rĂ©fĂ©rence Ă  des articles propres Ă  la procĂ©dure Ă©tatique est aussi l’Ɠuvre de la cour, qui dans un souci de pĂ©dagogie n’hĂ©site pas Ă  rappeler certaines dĂ©finitions ainsi que le principe de la non-rĂ©vision au fond. ■

Joséphine HAGE CHAHINE

Avocate aux barreaux de Paris et de Beyrouth, Docteur en droit Collaboratrice, Jeantet Paris, France jhagechahine@jeantet.fr

7. Le contrĂŽle de l’ordre public international « s’attache seulement Ă  examiner si l’exĂ©cution des dispositions prises par le tribunal arbitral viole de maniĂšre caractĂ©risĂ©e les principes et valeurs compris dans cet ordre public international ». Voir en ce sens les arrĂȘts Sogea-Satom (Cour d’appel de Paris, 4 juill. 2023, n° 21/19249), Garcia (Cour d’appel de Paris, 27 juin 2023, n° 22/02752), Trasta (Cour d’appel de Paris, 23 mai 2023, n° 22/05378) et Belokon (Civ. 1re, 23 mars 2022, n° 17-17.981).

Joanna METAXAS

Swiss Law Considerations for a Foreign Family Lawyer

Ô Les litiges dans le domaine du droit de la famille ne connaissent plus de frontiĂšres. L’article qui suit prĂ©sente diverses considĂ©rations en la matiĂšre, sous l’angle du droit suisse. Conditions pour dĂ©poser une demande en divorce, rĂ©gimes matrimoniaux, subtilitĂ©s procĂ©durales Ă  garder Ă  l’esprit pour un avocat Ă©tranger qui traite d’une affaire internationale avec un lien avec la Suisse ou encore partage d’avoirs de prĂ©voyance professionnelle accumulĂ©s et dĂ©tenus en Suisse en cas de procĂ©dure Ă  l’étranger sont quelques-uns des divers sujets qui seront abordĂ©s ci-aprĂšs.

Ô Los litigios en el ámbito del derecho de familia no conocen fronteras. El siguiente artículo presenta diversas consideraciones en este ámbito, desde la perspectiva del derecho suizo. Las condiciones de presentación de una demanda de divorcio, los regímenes económicos matrimoniales, las sutilezas procesales que debe tener en cuenta un abogado extranjero que se ocupe de un asunto internacional vinculado a Suiza y el reparto de los activos de pensiones acumulados y conservados en Suiza en caso de procedimiento en el extranjero son algunos de los diversos temas que se abordarán a continuación.

Introduction

Family law matters are increasingly cross-border. Families may relocate, own assets in a number of countries, and may not all share the same nationality. Switzerland is home to a significant number of international families. Like all jurisdictions, the Swiss legal system has its own peculiarities, and, for some families who relocate here, the approach to family law in practice may appear foreign.

1. Swiss Court System

Family law is governed by the Swiss Civil Code that applies across Switzerland. The courts are organised differently from canton to canton and, as a result, knowledge of the relevant cantonal system is often essential.

Divorce law is in principle governed by the Swiss Code of Civil Procedure.

2. Divorce Basics Pursuant to Swiss Law

a. Divorce Application

Spouses can file a joint divorce in Switzerland when the applicant or the defendant is a Swiss resident.

A unilateral petition for divorce can be filed with the competent Swiss court only after two years of separation. The burden of proof lies with the applicant.

b.

Matrimonial Property Regimes

The Swiss default matrimonial property regime is the so-called “participation in acquired property” regime ( participation aux acquĂȘts; Errungen schafts beteiligung ).

If spouses have married in Switzerland without entering into a marriage contract, this default regime applies. It also applies to spouses who have not chosen a matrimonial regime abroad and who are both domiciled in Switzerland upon their divorce.

If both spouses are not domiciled in Switzerland at the time of their divorce, the matrimonial property regime is the law of the state of their last joint domicile.

In the event of a divorce, the spouses’ matrimonial regime is liquidated. Swiss law distinguishes between acquired property ( acquĂȘts; Errungenschaft ) and individual/ personal property ( biens propres; Eigengut ). Acquired property are assets acquired during the marriage, such as salaries and bonuses, while personal assets include those accumulated before the marriage or inherited (before or during marriage).

If the spouses are subject to the acquired property regime, upon divorce, the assets acquired during their marriage are shared in half.

Regardless of the applicable matrimonial property regime, in the event of divorce, spouses must always split – as a rule, in half – the pension fund assets accumulated by each of them during the marriage.

3. Marriage Contracts in Switzerland

Spouses (whether of the same or opposite sex) can choose, by entering into a marriage contract, to adopt one of two other available matrimonial regimes: community of property or separation of property.

A marriage contract can be entered into before or after the marriage was celebrated.

Spouses with foreign nationalities can also sign a marriage contract before a Swiss notary public, electing for the law of that nationality to govern their matrimonial property regime.

The discretion of the court is limited when a marriage contract has been signed, in comparison to common law jurisdictions. There is no “equitable distribution” and the assets are divided according to the rules of the property regime that applies.

a. Community of Property Regime

Pursuant to the community of property regime (communautĂ© de biens; GĂŒtergemeinschaft), in the event of a divorce, spouses share all their property, whether personal or acquired during their marriage.

b. Separation of Property Regime

Couples entering the separation of property regime (sĂ©paration de biens; GĂŒtertrennung), keep their property separate and each spouse retains ownership, management, and use of his or her own assets. In the event of a divorce, each spouse takes back their assets.

c. Formal Conditions of a Swiss Marriage Contract

A marriage contract can be entered into before or after the marriage was celebrated.

The form of a marital property agreement is valid if it fulfills the requirements of the law applicable to the substance, or of the law of the place where the agreement was entered into. If a marriage contract is entered into in Switzerland, it must be in the form of a notarial act.

A divorce can lead to important changes in a spouse’s immigration status in Switzerland.

As it is not required that both parties seek independent legal advice, nor that parties fully disclose their assets, it can be deemed quite a light procedure.

In contrast to other jurisdictions, the areas a marriage contract can cover are fairly limited in Switzerland. Generally, pre-conditions for a divorce, matters relating to children, maintenance, and pension divisions are not binding.

4. Matrimonial Property Regimes and their Impact on Inheritance

The applicable matrimonial property regime is also relevant in the context of the death of one of the spouses.

First, marital assets will be divided according to the matrimonial property regime. The result constitutes the estate of the deceased spouse. Second, the estate will then be divided according to inheritance law and, in particular, according to the rules set out in a valid will or other testamentary disposition.

Inheritance agreements between spouses are binding. In practice, property and inheritance arrangements are often combined in one agreement signed before a notary public.

5. The Importance of Service in Switzerland

When serving foreign court documents on Swiss residents or Swiss court documents on foreign residents, the rules on judicial assistance must be respected.

The Hague Convention of 15 November 1965 on the Service Abroad of Judicial and Extrajudicial Documents in Civil or Commercial Matters (ratified by many European states, the UK, and the USA, among others) requires parties to request service of documents abroad via their competent central authority. In Switzerland, it is the Federal Office of Justice (FOJ) which is competent. The FOJ then contacts the relevant cantonal central authority, depending on the canton in which the person resides. The former will serve the documents personally or by post. Swiss law does not accept direct service through diplomatic or consular agents nor any other direct form of service. Consequently, any judicial document must be served through the competent central authority.

6. Collecting Evidence in Switzerland

Switzerland has enacted blocking statutes which prevent the taking of evidence for use in foreign court proceedings. Switzerland has very strict rules on giving evidence in foreign court proceedings. If these rules are not respected, a person who carries out activities that are the responsibility of a Swiss public authority can face criminal consequences.

Obtaining evidence in Switzerland by a foreign authority (witness statements, production of documents, expert opinion, including the conduct of a hearing by video conference of a party or witness located in Switzerland for instance) constitutes an international judicial assistance act by a public authority on Swiss territory. It is therefore prohibited unless expressly authorised.

Switzerland is a contracting state party to the Hague Convention of 18 March 1970 on the Taking of Evidence Abroad in Civil or Commercial Matters. Upon receipt of a letter of request – and assuming the letter complies with the requirements of Swiss law (note, for example, the

reservation to Article 23 of the Convention), evidence will be taken at the place of domicile of the witness or via a videoconference hearing. Switzerland also has bilateral treaties on the taking of evidence abroad.

7. No Automatic Recognition of Foreign Freezing Orders in Switzerland

Even if a foreign court makes an order against one of the parties to the marriage, this does not prevent that person from having access to any assets in Switzerland. A foreign court cannot order a bank domiciled in Switzerland or a Swiss court land registry office to block an asset.

In such cases, a freezing injunction should be obtained at the place in Switzerland where the asset in question is located. Such an injunction can be obtained quickly ex parte provided that a number of conditions are satisfied.

8. Splitting of Pension Fund Assets in Switzerland

Since 1 January 2017, Swiss pension funds no longer enforce foreign divorce decisions deciding on the splitting of Swiss pension fund assets. Only Swiss judges are competent to decide on the division of pension assets with a Swiss institution.

Due to the exclusive jurisdiction of the Swiss court, foreign divorce judgments can no longer be recognised insofar as they concern the division of Swiss pension assets.

Consequently, if one of the spouses has pension fund assets in Switzerland which are to be split, a complementary action shall be filed with the competent Swiss courts. Action is usually brought at the place where the pension fund institution has its seat.

However, according to case law, foreign judgments relating to the division of a pension fund with a Swiss institution that came into force before 1 January 2017 can be recognised in Switzerland under the conditions of the previous law.

9. Other Consequences Following a Divorce

A divorce in Switzerland impacts a couple’s life not only on a personal level, but can have other consequences on the spouses’ immigration status or on their taxes, for instance.

a. Immigration Consequences

A divorce can lead to important changes in a spouse’s immigration status in Switzerland.

For “B-permit” holders (long term permit), the situation is complex. As a general rule, EU citizens can apply for a residence permit if they are employed in Switzerland or have sufficient financial means to live in Switzerland.

For non-EU citizens (including UK nationals following Brexit), after a divorce, they will retain their immigration status (i) provided their marriage lasted at least three years and (ii) if they can prove successful integration in Switzerland or (iii) there are compelling personal reasons.

A spouse holding a “C-permit” (settlement permit) will not see their right to stay in Switzerland affected following a divorce.

b. Tax Consequences

Switzerland has enacted blocking statutes which prevent the taking of evidence for use in foreign court proceedings.

Clients and advisers should also consider the Swiss tax implications where maintenance is paid or Swiss assets transferred.

Maintenance payments paid in the form of annuities are deemed income in Switzerland. If paid to a Swiss resident, taxes are payable. It is hence important for the creditor spouse to take into account the taxes amount in the calculation of the maintenance payment. Conversely, the debtor spouse can usually deduct from his or her taxes the maintenance payments paid to a former spouse and/or children.

Specific tax advice in the canton of residence or situs of the asset should be taken.

Conclusion

The international mobile family should reflect on whether their move to (or from) Switzerland will impact their matrimonial and estate planning. Many – but particularly those who come from a common law background – may underestimate the relevance of their matrimonial property regime and the consequences of that regime in the event of divorce, death, and bankruptcy. ■

METAXAS Avocat, Charles Russell Speechlys Paris, France joanna.metaxas@crsblaw.com

Fiscalidad de la venta de SPV en el sector de las renovables: cambio de criterio

Ô When constructing start-up renewable energy production facilities, whether they are solar photovoltaic plants or wind farms, the project will have numerous milestones. The most important is the achievement of «ready to build» (RTB) status, which is when all the necessary permits, licenses, and authorizations for the construction of the plant have been obtained.

Ô La construction et la mise en service d’installations de production d’énergie renouvelable, qu’il s’agisse de centrales solaires photovoltaĂŻques ou de parcs Ă©oliens, nĂ©cessitent de nombreuses Ă©tapes et le projet passe par de nombreux jalons, dont le plus important est l’obtention du statut «prĂȘt Ă  construire» (APC), c’est-Ă -dire le moment oĂč tous les permis, licences et autorisations nĂ©cessaires Ă  la construction de l’installation ont Ă©tĂ© obtenus.

La DirecciĂłn General de Tributos (DGT) ha reconocido recientemente la posibilidad de aplicar la exenciĂłn del artĂ­culo 21 de la Ley del Impuesto sobre Sociedades (LIS) (exenciĂłn del 95%, con carĂĄcter general) a las ganancias de capital derivadas de la transmisiĂłn de las participaciones en filiales dedicadas a la promociĂłn de plantas solares fotovoltaicas al considerar que desarrollan una actividad econĂłmica desde el momento en el que concurre una clara voluntad de realizar dicha actividad de promociĂłn, aunque no se hayan iniciado las obras de construcciĂłn. Lo ha hecho en la consulta vinculante V2200-23, de 26 de julio de 2023, publicada en septiembre de 2023 (la Consulta).

La Consulta supone un cambio de criterio respecto de la posiciĂłn que habĂ­a adoptado anteriormente la DGT en su

contestación a la consulta V2265-21, en la que calificaba como patrimonial a una sociedad que había tramitado y obtenido todos los permisos necesarios para el desarrollo de la instalación, pero que no había iniciado la promoción de la planta solar, al considerar que dichas actuaciones eran “simples actuaciones preparatorias o tendentes a comenzar el desarrollo efectivo de la actividad”. Por ello, se entendía que no cabía hablar de inicio material de la actividad y, en consecuencia, los activos no se consideraban afectos a una actividad económica. De ahí que la DGT concluyese que no era aplicable la referida exención.

Un cambio de criterio por parte de la DGT se iniciĂł con la publicaciĂłn de la consulta vinculante V0863-23 que, si bien estaba referida al sector del juego online, supuso un importante precedente. En virtud de este, ya adelantĂĄbamos en otra anterior publicaciĂłn que el criterio sentado por el Ăłrgano consultivo podĂ­a aplicarse al caso de los proyectos RTB en el sector de las renovables. En la Consulta que aquĂ­ analizamos se determina que la ganancia de capital obtenida en la venta por parte de una entidad holding de la participaciĂłn en unas filiales (que son sociedades vehĂ­culo, en adelante SPV) participadas al 100%, cuya actividad principal es la gestiĂłn, compraventa y anĂĄlisis tĂ©cnicos de todo tipo de instalaciones de energĂ­as renovables, asĂ­ como la promociĂłn, comercializaciĂłn y explotaciĂłn de plantas fotovoltaicas, puede beneficiarse de la citada exenciĂłn del 95%. Dichas filiales tramitan y promueven varios proyectos fotovoltaicos en España, si bien todas las SPV se encuentran en una fase de promociĂłn o desarrollo, no habiĂ©ndose iniciado en ningĂșn caso las obras de construcciĂłn de los parques solares fotovoltaicos, ya que estĂĄn tramitando los oportunos permisos, licencias y autorizaciones para alcanzar el estado RTB.

Lourdes PÉREZ-LUQUE
Javier GÓMEZ MÁRTINEZ

Asimismo, las SPV, durante la etapa de tramitaciĂłn y legalizaciĂłn de los proyectos, no cuentan con medios personales propios para el ejercicio de dicha actividad econĂłmica, sino que se ha optado por la externalizaciĂłn de todos los trabajos a la entidad holding. Por tanto, los medios materiales y humanos de las SPV para el ejercicio de la actividad administrativa de desarrollo de plantas solares fotovoltaicas provienen de la entidad holding y del resto de los proveedores que previamente han sido seleccionados y validados por aquella.

En este contexto, y basĂĄndose en determinada jurisprudencia y doctrina administrativa (cita sentencias del Tribunal Supremo y de la Audiencia Nacional, asĂ­ como dos resoluciones del Tribunal EconĂłmico-Administrativo Central), la DGT concluye que, atendiendo a las circunstancias del caso, cabe considerar que cada una de las SPV desarrolla la actividad de promociĂłn o desarrollo de plantas solares fotovoltaicas, por lo que dichas entidades no tendrĂ­an la consideraciĂłn de patrimoniales, ya que sus elementos estarĂ­an afectos al desarrollo de una actividad econĂłmica. En definitiva, la DGT manifiesta que, en la medida en la que la actividad realizada por las SPV determine la existencia de una ordenaciĂłn, por cuenta propia, de medios de producciĂłn o de recursos humanos, propios o de terceros, con la finalidad de intervenir en la producciĂłn o distribuciĂłn de bienes o servicios en el mercado, la entidad que transmite las participaciones podrĂĄ aplicar la exenciĂłn del artĂ­culo 21 de la LIS sobre la plusvalĂ­a obtenida siempre

y cuando cumpla el resto de sus requisitos establecidos en el citado precepto. Por lo tanto, la DGT extiende al sector de las renovables el criterio que habĂ­a manifestado recientemente en relaciĂłn con el sector del juego online, abandonando asĂ­ el criterio seguido en la citada consulta V2265-21, que tanto revuelo generĂł en el sector.

No obstante, la propia DGT introduce en su contestación una salvaguarda al indicar que “se trata de una cuestión de hecho que el contribuyente deberá acreditar por cualquier medio de prueba admitido en derecho”, correspondiendo su valoración a los órganos competentes en materia de comprobación de la Administración Tributaria.

Por consiguiente, a la vista de todo lo expuesto, consideramos que es preciso analizar las circunstancias concretas de cada caso de cara a poder determinar si nos encontramos ante un supuesto de hecho que permita aplicar el criterio manifestado por la DGT en las consultas analizadas. ■

Lourdes PÉREZ-LUQUE Socia, Toda & Nel-lo Madrid, España lourdes.perezluque@todanelo.com

Javier GÓMEZ MÁRTINEZ Asociado Senior, Toda & Nel-lo Madrid, España javier.gomez@todanelo.com

I ndonesia – Indonesia Issues CCS Rules for Carbon Storage

In January 2024, Indonesia issued a presidential regulation on carbon capture and storage (CCS) which will allow CCS operators to set aside 30% of their storage capacity for imported carbon dioxide (CO2). CO2 stored for CCS operations could come from emissions by upstream oil and gas activities, refineries, power plants, and from industrial activities, with 30% of their total carbon storage capacity for storage of carbon originating from abroad. To store carbon from abroad, the government must have a bilateral agreement with the government where the emission occurred, among other requirements. Energy ministry data shows there are 15 CCS and carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) projects in various stages of preparation in the country, with notable investments made by BP. The Indonesian government would collect royalties from storage fees charged by CCS operators.

The above efforts reflect the Indonesian government’s pledge to achieve net-zero by 2060. Already, there are 16 CCS/CCUS projects being planned or under development, including BP’s proposed CCUS project at the Tangguh field in Eastern Indonesia. Pertamina has also signed memoranda of understanding with Exxon Mobil and Chevron to invest in CCS/CCUS initiatives and projects in the country. The government issued Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR) Regulation n° 2 of 2023 on the implementation of CCS/CCUS (MEMR 2/2023) in March 2023.

United States – Courtroom Therapy and Facility Dogs in the U.S.

The use of therapy or facility dogs able to give emotional support to vulnerable victims and witnesses in criminal and juvenile cases is expanding. California has already passed Cal. Pen. Code Section 858.4. While courts have long permitted vulnerable and child witnesses to have a comfort item in their lap while testifying, they are now learning that trained dogs may prevent their re-traumatization and reduce anxiety when they testify. A Golden Retriever named Nova received the Professional Animal of the Year award in Minnesota on 4 February 2024 after being the first dog to assist a witness testifying in court. She had been trained to observe subtle emotional cues, give gentle, reassuring nudges, and to lie at the feet of a testifying individual, or put her face in their lap.

Nicaragua – Nicaragua Takes Germany to Court Over Supplying Arms to Israel

La Corte Internacional de Justicia el 30 de abril de 2024, rechazĂł la solicitud de medidas cautelares solicitadas por Nicaragua a Alemania en la medida en que las dos pretensiones requeridas habĂ­an sido cumplidas con anterioridad. En efecto el suministro de ayuda a Israel se disminuyĂł del año anterior a la fecha en forma significativa, ademĂĄs de que no habĂ­an sido autorizadas mĂĄs licencias de Armas, de modo que no era necesaria la solicitud. AsĂ­ mismo, los aportes al fondo de vĂ­ctimas y refugiados de palestina (UNRWA) habĂ­an sido objeto de ayuda importante por parte de Alemania y por lo tanto no existĂ­an fundamentos de las pretensiones presentadas por Nicaragua. Este Ășltimo paĂ­s aceptĂł la decisiĂłn de la Corte Internacional de Justicia en los tĂ©rminos mencionados.

France – Avocate enceinte et incident d’audience

Le 4 avril 2024, au tribunal correctionnel de Paris, une avocate enceinte Ă  un stade trĂšs avancĂ©, a demandĂ© le renvoi de son affaire au regard de son Ă©tat de santĂ©. L’avocat du plaignant ne s’y est pas opposĂ©. En revanche le Procureur si. La situation se tendant, le BĂątonnier de Paris a Ă©tĂ© appelĂ© pour intervenir. C’est en effet l’usage en France, en cas d’incident d’audience entre avocats et magistrats. Vanessa Bousardo, Vice-BĂątonniĂšre, a alors soutenu le renvoi sollicitĂ© par l’avocate. AprĂšs dĂ©libĂ©ration, le tribunal a rejetĂ© la demande de report de l’audience. Quelques minutes aprĂšs, l’avocate a perdu les eaux et les secours sont intervenus. L’audience a Ă©tĂ© suspendue. La demande de renvoi a finalement Ă©tĂ© acceptĂ©e le lendemain, et l’affaire sera jugĂ©e par une autre chambre du tribunal de Paris au mois de dĂ©cembre 2024.

USA – Florida Ends Environmental Protection

Florida Governor Ron DeSantis signed a new law which took effect on July 1, 2024. The law erases most references to climate change from state law. The new legislation negatively impacts power-generating wind turbines offshore or near Florida’s coastlines and state grant programs related to energy conservation and renewable energy, negates state agency obligations to use climatefriendly products and purchase fuel-efficient vehicles, and prevents municipalities from passing ordinances restricting gas appliances. As Florida is uniquely vulnerable to harm from rising seas and faces the loss of marine life, and where homeowners’ insurance costs have risen due to major insurers abandoning the state, this law poses a fateful action.

USA – Supreme Court Strikes Down Chevron, Curtailing Power of Federal Agencies

On 28 June 2024, the Supreme Court of the United States overturned a 40-year-old precedent-setting doctrine by undermining the power of federal government agencies, invalidating the “Chevron Doctrine.” Essentially, this Doctrine required judges to show deference to the interpretations of the law made by specialized agencies – the anti-pollution agency, the food and drug agency, and the fisheries regulatory agency. For a long time, the industry has complained about the severity of regulation and the “excessive” power of government agencies.

In 1984, the Supreme Court ruled that unless there was a truly unreasonable or outright decision by an agency, judges should not substitute their judgment for that of the experts of these agencies, nor did courts have to choose one policy over another. The irony is that the 1984 Chevron Doctrine dismayed environmentalists. They had challenged a decision by the anti-pollution agency, deeming it too permissive towards the oil company Chevron. (Chevron v. Natural Resources Defense Council). The Court had set out the rule of judicial restraint and modesty in the face of areas with which the Court was not familiar. Forty years later, in a case involving herring fishermen, the Court has now decided that this judicial restraint principle no longer holds because the Constitution assigns to judges, not public servants, “the territory of interpretation of laws,” says Chief Justice John Roberts.

Sierra Leone – Sierra Leone Bans Child Marriages

Child marriages are widespread in some cultures. They are motivated by many reasons, some related to strengthening the ties among tribes and others related to sexual tastes or cultural motives to have a wife “well-disciplined” from an early age. According to medical reports, child marriages relate to both early pregnancy and high death rates. Girls who are forced to marry at early ages often suffer from domestic abuse, which leads to their depression and suicide. Based upon factors like these, Sierra Leone has issued a new law that bans child marriages. Under the new law, any man who marries a girl under the age of 18 could face at least 15 years in prison and a fine of around $4,000. Parents or those attending such marriage ceremonies could also face fines. This new law has been applauded as representing a pathway forward for other African nations, such as Tanzania and Zambia, to revoke laws that permit child marriages and the resulting harm to girls.

Japan – Protection of Athletes from Sexual Filming with an Infrared Camera

In 2023, Japan enacted a new law which punishes filming a person in a sexually explicit manner without their consent. In many sports competitions, including the Tokyo Olympic Games 2020, athletes have been in danger of being photographed and filmed without their consent for sexual purposes, in part because infrared cameras can show athletes’ underwear under their uniforms and can be used to take non-consensual photographs of an athlete. After the enactment of the new act, filming athletes with an infrared camera is strictly sanctioned, although it is practically impossible to find someone using an infrared camera for sexual purposes in a large stadium. As an additional countermeasure, for the Paris Olympic Games 2024, Japan female national teams of volleyball and table tennis have adopted new uniforms made of fibers with advanced technologies so that their underwear cannot be seen with infrared cameras.

Egypt – Allowing for Private Sector to Operate Public Hospitals

Egypt has 1,798 public hospitals that are operated by the Ministry of Health. The Egyptian parliament issued law n° 87/2024 on 24/06/2024 that allows for leasing public hospitals for the private sector to operate for at least three years, and not more than 15 years. The new law requires the operating entity to keep at least 25% of the workers in these hospitals, which created a lot of fears in the health sector community of losing many jobs. Some have said it would have been better to encourage the private sector to build new hospitals rather than lease public hospitals. The Egyptian minister of health has defended the new law by arguing that it will allow for updating public services and make a recovery given the governmental incapability to develop structures, instruments, and pay health workers’ salaries.

N igeria – Nigeria Launches Advance Ruling for Tax, Trade & Customs

The Nigerian Customs Service (NCS) has, in ascension to the Nigeria’s obligations to WTO’s Trade Facilitation Agreement, launched a service window that enables importers and exporters to request and obtain a legally binding opinion, ”Advance Ruling,” on how Customs will assess and treat their goods. The cardinal aim of the Advance Ruling process is to establish commercial/economic predictability to costs and timings for customs rates and procedures and thereby simplify and expedite cross-border trade, enhance predictability, and foster compliance by businesses engaged in international trade. It seeks to reduce discretionary decision-making and the concomitant abuses that flow from subjective use of discretion. An Advance Ruling opinion is binding on both Customs and the trader, uniformly applied, and valid for set periods. An Advance Ruling may be requested by a carrier, a freight forwarder, a Customs broker, or any legal representative of any person with a justifiable cause to request an opinion; however, an Advance Ruling mechanism cannot be used where the question raised in an application is already before another governmental agency or competent tribunal for adjudication.

United States – Presidential Immunity

On 1 June 2024, in a 6 to 3 decision written by Chief Justice Roberts, the Supreme Court of the United States held in Trump v. United States that the nature of presidential powers entitles a former President to immunity from criminal prosecution for acts within “his conclusive and preclusive constitutional authority.” The court further held that the President is entitled to at least presumptive immunity for unofficial acts. The Supreme Court made this ruling notwithstanding that neither the U.S. Constitution nor U.S. federal laws explicitly grant these powers to the President. The underlying facts of this case are that President Donald Trump was indicted by a federal grand jury on four counts arising from his efforts to overturn the legitimate results of the 2020 presidential election, which culminated in the January 6 attack on the U.S. Capitol. Trump argued that unless the U.S. House of Representatives impeached him, and the U.S. Senate convicted him, he could not be prosecuted for his official acts.

Justice Sotomayor, in her dissent that was joined by two other justices, said that the immunity now granted to the President extends to “actions performed within the outer perimeter of his official responsibilities.” She observed that the very Supreme Court that “offered this immunity” will determine “which acts warrant it.” She further opined that the “relationship between the president and the people he serves has shifted irrevocably. In every use of official power, the president is now a king above the law.”

S uisse – Swiss - US Data Privacy Framework

Depuis l’entrĂ©e en vigueur du nouveau droit de la protection des donnĂ©es en septembre 2023, la Suisse a listĂ© les pays offrant un niveau de protection suffisant, permettant l’envoi de donnĂ©es personnelles vers ces pays sans garanties supplĂ©mentaires. EmboĂźtant le pas de l’Union EuropĂ©enne et grĂące au Swiss-US Data Privacy Framework, le Conseil fĂ©dĂ©ral a enfin inclut les Etats-Unis Ă  la liste des pays « sĂ»rs ». Il sera ainsi possible dĂšs le 15 septembre 2024 de transfĂ©rer des donnĂ©es de la Suisse vers des entreprises certifiĂ©es sises aux US selon la liste du Data Privacy Framework Program.

Contributors to the Legal Spotlights in this issue are Pierre-Gilles Bélanger, Agathe Blanc, Fannie Bruneau, Barbara Gislason, Mohamed Hassanein, Yoshihisa

Hayakawa and Camille VuilleminLoup.

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