‘ALL I KNOW IS WHAT I HAVE WORDS FOR.’ LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN
TRACKING: LANGUAGE RESEARCH In this tracking language is explored. You will learn: what linguistics is about; how human language functions; which role English plays in the world; how languages evolve; what the world will speak in 2115. The tracking also focuses on how to set up a research. You will learn how to: start off correctly; look for information; process information; present the result; deal with feedback.
CONTENTS 1
What is language?
3
2
The essence of human communication
5
2.1 2.2
Communication model Are you tuned in properly?
5 6
2.2.1
One-to-one communication
6
2.2.2
Group communication Intercultural communication
Research competence: orienting yourself
14
2.3.1
Getting to know the field
14
2.3.2
Keeping a logbook
15
2.3.3
Defining the focus
15
2.3.4
Structuring the research
17
2.3
3
4
5
6
2
9
2.2.3
11
English in the world
18
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4
World languages Dominance of English Endangered languages Research competence: looking for information
18 19 21 22
3.4.1
Where do you start?
22
3.4.2
Searching the Internet
24
3.4.3
Visiting the library
24
3.4.4
Selecting sources
25
3.4.5
Making an annotated reference list
26
How does language evolve?
28
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4
History of the English language Language shift and types of language change Varieties of English Research competence: processing information
28 32 35 39
4.4.1
Note-taking
39
4.4.2
Paraphrasing
40
4.4.3
Quoting
40
4.4.4
Let’s try it out
41
What lies ahead?
45
5.1 5.2
The future of language Research competence: the final countdown
45 49
5.2.1
Revising
49
5.2.2
Proofreading
50
5.2.3
Presenting the research
50
5.2.4
Processing feedback
50
Research competence checklist
52
TRACKING: LANGUAGE RESEARCH
1 ⁄ WHAT IS LANGUAGE? SPOKEN INTERACTION
Team up and discuss with your partner. 1 How would you define language? 2 Is this language? Why (not)? - red traffic lights - the singing of birds - babies babbling away in their cots 3 Read the dictionary entries on diddit to see if you were right.
READING
Prepare the following questions individually and then pair up to compare the answers. a What can you conclude about your definition of language? b What did the entries teach you: which types of language did you come across? c Can you recognise different types of dictionaries? If you don’t know the dictionaries, consult them (online). Put the following names in the correct boxes. Merriam-Webster – Urban Dictionary – Oxford Learner's Dictionaries – Interglot – Resources4ict– Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on historical principles 1 A general dictionary that covers the vocabulary used by the general user of the language. It represents various spheres of life.
2 A specialised or technical dictionary that covers a specific part of the vocabulary often with a specific purpose. This dictionary is meant for a target audience.
3 A synchronic dictionary that describes phenomena (especially linguistic ones) at a particular period in time without taking the historical evolution into account.
4 A diachronic or historical dictionary that describes phenomena (especially linguistic ones) as they change through time.
5
A dictionary that translates words or expressions from one language into another.
TRACKING: LANGUAGE RESEARCH
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d Which kind of dictionary would you consult: 1 if you were studying The Canterbury Tales by Chaucer and were looking for the meaning of a word that is no longer used? HERE BIGINNETH THE MILLERE HIS TALE. Whylom ther was dwellinge at Oxenford A riche gnof, that gestes heeld to bord, And of his craft he was a Carpenter. With him ther was dwellinge a povre scoler, Had lerned art, but al his fantasye Was turned for to lerne astrologye, And coude a certeyn of conclusiouns To demen by interrogaciouns, If that men axed him in certein houres, Whan that men sholde have droghte or elles shoures, Or if men axed him what sholde bifalle Of every thing, I may nat rekene hem alle. Source: sparknotes.com
2 if you were looking for the origin (etymology) of the word ‘language’? 3 if you want to know what 'QR code' stands for? e Give the correct word. The answers can be found in the dictionary entries on diddit. 1 the process of learning a language unconsciously (first language) or consciously (second, third … language) 2 a lemma in an encyclopaedia or dictionary
3 coded language used by programmers to write instructions for computers e.g. Java Script
4 communication problems that people who don’t speak the same language face 5 person who studies languages and the way they function on a scientific basis
6 language that is approved by the government of a nation, used in official and legal documents and in schools
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7 a group of words related in meaning
8 the quest for the origin of words and the semantic changes throughout history
9 a series of signals (letters, numbers, gestures, images, sounds) used to send and receive messages
TRACKING: LANGUAGE RESEARCH
f Explain the following terms. The answers can be found in the language entries on diddit. 1 foreign language
2 first language
3 dead language
READING
2 ⁄ THE ESSENCE OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION 2.1 ⁄ COMMUNICATION MODEL Linguists (people who study language on a scientific basis) have examined the way humans communicate and discovered certain patterns they ‘translated’ into models. You have studied the communication model by Roman Jakobson in previous years. You probably remember each element in the model has a specific function (conative, emotive, metalingual, phatic, poetic, referential). 1 Which function is dominant in the following sentences? Explain why by referring to the component it belongs to.
SPOKEN INTERACTION
1 You’re making a spelling mistake: it isn't confort but comfort. 2 He is a sewer worker but calls himself a sanitation engineer. 3 If you don’t know whether you should use the present perfect or the past simple, turn to article 4.3 on page 197 of your grammar book and read about the differences in use. 4 Argh, I don’ t like research competence! 5 Hello, Avil Lardi? – I’m sorry, I’m afraid you’ve dialled the wrong number. 6 Robert, I can’t tolerate your behaviour any longer! When you study communication processes closely, it becomes obvious that quite a lot of elements can be ineffective or cause miscommunication. 2 Watch the following fragments and explain where the communication went wrong.
listening
1 Fawlty Towers: Basil gives Manual a language lesson
TRACKING: LANGUAGE RESEARCH
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2 A failure to communicate
2.2 ⁄ ARE YOU TUNED IN PROPERLY? Communication is a social activity. We communicate with other people daily. Our communication skills are largely influenced by our family, friends, environment, society and culture. The customs, values and beliefs we grow up with form a kind of mental filter through which we observe the world. We learn when to use formal or informal language, how to behave towards superiors, what is appropriate body language (e.g. when somebody has died). Unless we understand the customs, values and beliefs of the people we interact with, communication will not be effective. It is as if each communication situation has a set of rules which create meaning.
2.2.1 ⁄ ONE-TO-ONE COMMUNICATION The face-to-face or interpersonal communication is very important in everyone's life. When starting a conversation, it’s smart to ‘read’ the body language of the person you are talking to. Quite a lot of information is given away. a Look at the diagram. Do you realise how much you are telling people without speaking? Give two examples of situations (in class, at home) in which you deliberately choose to communicate without using words. Words Body language
Tone of voice
Source: microassist.com
b Which aspects of body language do you know? c Which aspects of body language do you pay attention to most when speaking with someone for the first time? Explain why. 6
TRACKING: LANGUAGE RESEARCH
DID YOU KNOW?
The need for space is culturally and socially defined. People from crowded countries like China and India need less personal space than we do. Authorities and celebrities need more personal space than ordinary people.
Human interaction zones
1.5 4 Intimate feet feet Personal Social Public
12 feet
Source:sixminutes.dlugan.com
d What do the following visual signs tell us about the situation?
Boy eye contact
facial expression
gesture
posture
physical distance
Girl
conclusion
TRACKING: LANGUAGE RESEARCH
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Man
Woman
physical distance
eye contact
facial expression
gesture
posture
conclusion
listening
e Watch the Seinfeld video Social Awareness. Explain the people’s reaction to Elaine’s new boyfriend. - parents:
- Seinfeld:
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TRACKING: LANGUAGE RESEARCH
listening
f When writing or talking to people, the tone of voice you use has an enormous impact. Watch the video Tone of Voice and explain in your own words what it is about. 2.2.2 ⁄ GROUP COMMUNICATION Giving a lecture or a speech to a group of people to inform, persuade or entertain them, is called public speaking. To be successful, it is important to have a good idea of the target audience you want to reach and the effect you want to have (transmitting information or views, motivating people to take action, simply entertaining).
listening
1 Watch Amy Cuddy explain body language.
AMY CUDDY
Amy Cuddy wasn’t supposed to become a successful scientist. In fact, she wasn’t even supposed to finish her undergraduate degree. Early in her college career, Cuddy suffered a severe head injury in a car accident, and doctors said she would struggle to fully regain her mental capacity and finish her undergraduate degree. But she proved them wrong. Today, Cuddy is a professor and researcher at Harvard Business School, where she studies how nonverbal behaviour and snap judgments affect people from the classroom to the boardroom. Source: ted.com/speakers
a As a speaker, Amy Cuddy tries to grab the audience from the beginning. Which techniques does she use to tune in the audience? -
-
-
-
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b Only now does she introduce the real topic of the presentation. How does she do that? c Then she gets to the main point: what is the effect of body language on judgement? What do the examples prove? d What are nonverbal expressions of power and dominance?
e What do people do when they meet someone powerful? 2 Look at the cartoon below and say which important element of public speaking is being discussed.
www.cartoonstock.com
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TRACKING: LANGUAGE RESEARCH
2.2.3 ⁄ INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION Different cultures have different customs, values, beliefs and they affect the way people look at the world and communicate with each other. Unless we understand that, intercultural communication won’t be effective. In our globalised world, different cultures meet on the street and in the workplace. Cultural differences complicate communication. We often don’t realise that people do not only speak different languages, but also have different body languages. The following gesture proves this. Cross-cultural communication An example of different meanings of the same gesture UK & USA = okay
Japan = money
Russia = zero
Brazil = insult
Adapted from: brianmlucey.wordpress.com
1 Have you ever had communication problems due to cultural differences? Which ones?
SPOKEN INTERACTION
2 Looking for information on intercultural communication may not be as easy as it looks. Read the following example and look for five Internet sites with examples of intercultural communication problems. Copy and paste the examples with their respective links on a sheet of paper to hand in to your teacher. In North America and throughout much of Europe, eye contact is a necessary ingredient for demonstrating respect and signalling that you’re a powerful business professional. The opposite is true, however, throughout much of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, where eye contact is viewed as being rude, personally challenging or displaying a lack of respect. For example, in Africa, China and Japan you show respect to your superiors by avoiding eye contact. Source: www.inkling.com
3 Read the text 'Cultural stereotypes: dangerous or helpful?' and answer the following questions. READING a Is cultural stereotyping the same as being prejudiced? Look for proof in the text and explain.
TRACKING: LANGUAGE RESEARCH
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b Why do we stereotype ourselves? c Do the reality check. How would you present yourself to a foreign classmate? d Is stereotyping always negative? e When is stereotyping harmful?
Cultural Stereotypes: dangerous or helpful? by Anna Printsevskaya Heaven is where the police are British, the chefs are French, the mechanics are German, the lovers are Italian and it is all organized by the Swiss. Hell is where the police are German, the chefs are British, the mechanics French, the lovers are Swiss and it is all organized by Italians. Are cultural stereotypes inevitable? Can stereotyping and prejudices be regarded as the same thing? Do stereotypes hinder understanding among cultures or, vice versa, promote it? Is there anything positive about stereotypes at all? Do we really have to get rid of our standardized concepts about cultural differences in order to achieve a better level of intercultural communication? These and many other questions arise when we think about cultural stereotypes. Stereotypes accompany us throughout our lives in all the walks of life, however, it is common knowledge that the word “stereotype” itself has a negative connotation and is often used to refute and criticize a statement about a person, culture, nation or profession, etc.. The majority of the definitions of the word “stereotype” point out the following characteristics of this phenomenon: over-generalized, irrational, inaccurate and resistant to change. These simplified conceptions can be irritating and even offensive. Especially staying abroad, people tend to face stereotypes about their own nation. At such moments, some people may get annoyed and try either to
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TRACKING: LANGUAGE RESEARCH
explain that they are “totally different”, ”individual” or ”not like others”, or rather to break down the whole stereotype and prove its groundlessness. Such reactions are quite natural and easy to understand: everybody wants to be appreciated as a personality, a unique personality, and not just as a typical representative of a large population. Besides, patriotism is a very natural, and even instinctive human feeling that can be hurt by another’s cultural or national stereotypes. Should we be annoyed with this state of affairs, roll up our sleeves and struggle against the stereotypes? Or is there a reason for their existence, even in the era of globalization, cosmopolitanism and multiculturalism? Of course there is. It is no use trying to imagine life without stereotypes, their role in our society is too important: they help us organize our ways of thinking. This kind of complexity reduction contributes to a better orientation in and, adaptation to, complicated environmental conditions. When a person who has visited a foreign country, or even if that person has spent a considerable period of their life abroad, is asked by his compatriots about his experience with people in that country, it is improbable that he or she will answer the following way: “Well, they are all different. The first one, Jack, is like this, the other one, Peter, is totally different, the third one…” It would be more natural if one tries to generalize their statements. All this means that stereotypes are quite natural and inevitable. If a person gets rid of one kind of stereotype, he or she will still preserve other types of them, and, in particular, self-stereotypes, essential in expressing a person’s similarity to typical group members, thus providing a socially necessary feeling of belonging to a group of people. Stereotypes therefore play an important role in a person’s selfdefinition and are regarded to be one of the fundamental mechanisms in the cognitive economy, minimizing the efforts to process the received information. It is true that the majority of stereotypes are negative, but there are still positive ones, which lead to greater interest in another culture and, consequently, prompt intercultural communication, language learning and tourism, for example, the tendency among Germans to learn Spanish, and Spain being one of their favorite holiday destinations. However, every stereotype, even a negative one, provides a basis for dialogue between cultures. Only having initial assumptions about our intercultural conversation partner we have an opportunity to confirm or to refute them. Stereotypes thereby give impetus to conversation, help to adjust our behavior to a certain situation. In conclusion, it should be mentioned that stereotypes have the right to exist, but should not lead to narrow-mindedness in dealing with intercultural communication partners. It is necessary to understand the complexity and uniqueness of other cultures. Tolerant and open attitudes towards others are the key to intercultural understanding. Adapted from: www.zess.uni-goettingen.de © 2012 ZESS Student News. All Rights Reserved.
TRACKING: LANGUAGE RESEARCH
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