Notes
Introduction 1
From Stevie Smith, ‘Scorpion’ [from Scorpion and Other Poems, 1972], reproduced in Stevie Smith: A Selection, ed. Hermione Lee (London: Faber and Faber, 1983), 169. 2 Igor A. Shiklomanov, ‘World Fresh Water Resources’, in Peter H. Gleick (ed.), Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World’s Fresh Water Resources (New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); cited by US Geological Survey, ‘How Much Water Is There On Earth?’, https://www.usgs.gov/ special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth [accessed 01.03.25]. 3 Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water (New York: Viking, 1986), 13. 4 Richard White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York: Hill & Wang, 1996); Sara B. Pritchard, Confluence: The Nature of Technology and the Remaking of the Rhône (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011). 5 Lorraine Boissoneault, ‘The Cuyahoga River Caught Fire at Least a Dozen Times, but No One Cared Until 1969’, Smithsonian Magazine, 19 June 2019; Harriet Ritvo, The Dawn of Green: Manchester, Thirlmere, and Modern Environmentalism (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2009); Grace Spiewak, ‘Beyond Walden: What Henry David Thoreau Teaches Us About Nature and Connection’, Blog, Biodiversity Heritage Library (23 July 2020). https://blog.biodiversitylibrary.org/2020/07/ henry-david-thoreau.html [accessed 13.07.24].
Chapter 1: Ancient Ecosystems and the Art of Recycling 1
The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Papyrus of Ani in the British Museum, trans. E.A. Wallis Budge (1895; New York: Dover Publications, 1967), 346. 2 ‘Amulet/god/hippopotamus’ (Late Period), National Museums Scotland, A.1965.331, https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/collectionsearch-results/?item_id=299584; ‘Amulet; figure’, British Museum, EA24395, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA24395
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[both accessed 22.03.25]. ‘Hippopotamus’ (c.1961–1878 Bce), Metropolitan Museum of Art, 17.9.1, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544227 [accessed 22.03.25]. 4 Martin Williams, When the Sahara Was Green: How Our Greatest Desert Came to Be (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2021), 40; Dirk Huyge and Salima Ikram, ‘Animal Representations in the Late Palaeolithic Rock Art of Qurta’, in Desert Animals in the Eastern Sahara: Status, Economic Significance and Cultural Reflection in Antiquity: Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary ACACIA Workshop Held at the University of Cologne December 14–15, 2007, Colloquium Africanum (Köln: Heinrich-BarthInstitut, 2009), 157–74. 5 Toby Wilkinson, ‘Introduction’, in Toby Wilkinson (ed.), Writings from Ancient Egypt (London: Penguin Books, 2016), xv. 6 Robert O. Collins, The Nile (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 11. 7 Wilkinson (ed.), Writings from Ancient Egypt, 190n. 8 Morris L. Bierbrier, Historical Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, 2nd edn (Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, 2008), 164; Elena Mahlich, ‘The Appellation of the River Nile in Achaemenid Texts’, Wiener Zeitschrift für Die Kunde Des Morgenlandes 110 (2020), 230–1. 9 Ian Shaw, Ancient Egypt: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 7, 11; Riklef Kandeler and Wolfram R. Ullrich, ‘Symbolism of Plants: Examples from European-Mediterranean Culture Presented with Biology and History of Art’, Journal of Experimental Botany 60:9 (2009), 2461; J. Kipkemboi and A. A. van Dam, ‘Papyrus Wetlands’, in C. Finlayson et al. (eds), The Wetland Book (Dordrecht: Springer, 2016), 183–97. 10 Narmer Palette, The Egyptian Museum, https://egyptianmuseumcairo. eg/artefacts/narmer-palette-collection/ [accessed 22.03.25]; Shaw, Ancient Egypt, 1-7; ‘The Royal Crowns of Egypt’, Egypt Exploration Society, Blog (7 March 2019), https://www.ees.ac.uk/resource/the-royal-crowns-ofegypt.html#h_90207903771552571413696 [accessed 22.03.25]. 11 Quoted in Commentary, ‘Piankhi Stela’, in Wilkinson (ed.), Writings from Ancient Egypt, 64; Shaw, Ancient Egypt, 1–7. 12 ‘Memphis and its Necropolis – the Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur, Unesco World Heritage Convention’, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/86 [accessed 02.09.21]; George Hart, The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses, 2nd edn (London/New York: Routledge, 2005), 103–9. 13 Translation and discussion in Colleen Manassa, ‘Defining Historical Fiction in New Kingdom Egypt’, in Sarah C. Melville and Alice Louise 3
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Slotsky (eds), Opening the Tablet Box: Near Eastern Studies in Honor of Benjamin R. Foster (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2010), 247, 249–50; Colleen Manassa, The Quarrel of Apepi and Seqenenre (Oxford University Press, 2013), 247–53 (249); Shaw, Ancient Egypt, 60; Katja Goebs, ‘Kingship’, in Toby Wilkinson (ed.), The Egyptian World (London: Routledge, 2009), 287. 14 N.B. Millet, ‘The Narmer Macehead and Related Objects’, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 27 (1990), 53–9; Judith Bunbury et al., ‘The Egyptian Nile: Human Transformation of an Ancient River’, in Karl M. Wantzen (ed.), River Culture: Life as a Dance to the Rhythm of the Waters (UNESCO, 2023), 57, 69; Goebs, ‘Kingship’, 287–8; Liam McNamara, ‘Ashmolean Object in Focus: The Scorpion Mace-Head’, Ashmoleum Museum No. AN1896–1908 E.3632. 15 David Jeffreys, ‘The Nile Valley’ in Wilkinson (ed.), Egyptian World, 7–14; Douglas Brewer, ‘Agriculture and Animal Husbandry’ in Wilkinson (ed.), Egyptian World, 132, 135, 145. 16 John Cooper, ‘“We Desire to Know Which Is the True Religion”: Inter-Communal Rivalry and the Verdict of the Nile in an Episode from the History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria’, in Elizabeth R. O’Connell (ed.), Egypt and Empire: The Formation of Religious Identity after Rome (Leuven, Belgium: Peeters Publishers, 2022), 111–31; Jeffreys, ‘Nile Valley’, 11; Mark H. Stone, ‘The Cubit: A History and Measurement Commentary’, Journal of Anthropology (January 2014), 1. 17 William Y. Adams, ‘The First Colonial Empire: Egypt in Nubia, 3200–1200 B.C.’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 26:1 (1984), 63. 18 Kathlyn M. Cooney, ‘Labour’, in Wilkinson (ed.), The Egyptian World, 162; R.L. Miller, ‘Counting Calories in Egyptian Ration Texts’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 34:4 (1991), 267. 19 Cooney, ‘Labour’, 166–8, 173; Mark Lehner, The Complete Pyramids (London: Thames & Hudson, 1997), 224. 20 Dorothea Arnold, ‘An Egyptian Bestiary’, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 52:4 (1995), 15, 30, 45, 49, 60. 21 Andrew Robinson, Writing and Script: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 131. 22 Owen Powell and Rod Fensham, ‘The History and Fate of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer Springs in the Oasis Depressions of the Western Desert, Egypt’, Hydrogeology Journal 2 (2016), 395–406; Cooney, ‘Labour’, 164. 23 ‘Duck Cosmetic Box’, The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore MD, Accession no. 71.519, https://art.thewalters.org/object/71.519/ [accessed 02.04.25];
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‘Apotropaic Knife’ (catalogue no. 10), in Rozenn Bailleul-LeSuer (ed.), Between Heaven and Earth: Birds in Ancient Egypt (Chicago, IL: Oriental Institute Museum Publications/University of Chicago, 2012), 146. 24 ‘Donkeys and Mules’, UCL Digital Egypt for Universities, University College, London, https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/ foodproduction/donkey.html [accessed 18.08.24]. 25 Carol A. Redmount, ‘The Wadi Tumilat and the “Canal of the Pharaohs”’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 54:2 (1995), 127–35; Thomas Hikade, ‘Expeditions to the Wadi Hammamat during the New Kingdom’, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 92 (2006), 153–68; Morgan E. Moroney, ‘The Egyptian Road Most Taken: Mapping the Least Cost Path Routes from the Nile to the Red Sea Coast’, in Rita Lucarelli, Joshua A. Roberson and Steve Vinson (eds), Ancient Egypt, New Technology (Leiden: Brill, 2023), 298–321. 26 John C. Darnell, ‘The Deserts’, in Wilkinson (ed), The Egyptian World, 38; Cooney, ‘Labour’, 166–7; Shaw, Ancient Egypt, 44–5. 27 Penelope Wilson, ‘The Nile Delta’, in Wilkinson (ed.), Egyptian World, 19; A.J. Shortland, ‘Evaporites of the Wadi Natrun: Seasonal and Annual Variation and Its Implication for Ancient Exploitation’, Archaeometry 46:4 (2004), 497–516; Carolyn Riccardelli, ‘Egyptian Faience: Technology and Production’, The Metropolitan Museum of Art (1 December 2017), https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/egfc/hd_egfc.htm [accessed 22.03.25]; Scarab, British Museum, EA66503, https://www.britishmuseum. org/collection/object/Y_EA66503; Aurélia Masson, Scarabs, Scaraboids and Amulets (British Museum, 2018), in Alexandra Villing et al., ‘Naukratis: Greeks in Egypt Project’, British Museum (2004–2024), https://www. britishmuseum.org/research/projects/naukratis-greeks-egypt [accessed 22.03.24]; ‘Victual Mummy and Case’ (Catalogue No. 40), in Bailleul-LeSuer (ed.), Between Heaven and Earth, 212–13. 28 Robert J. Stern and Mohamed Gamal Abdelsalam, ‘The Origin of the Great Bend of the Nile from SIR-C/X-SAR Imagery’, Science 274:5293 (6 December 1996), 1696. 29 Adel Kelany et al., ‘Granite Quarry Survey in the Aswan Region, Egypt: Shedding New Light on Ancient Quarrying’, Geological Survey of Norway Special Publication, 12 (n.d.), 94; Gregory Phillip Gilbert, Ancient Egyptian Sea Power and the Origin of Maritime Forces (Canberra: Sea Power Centre of Australia, 2008), 28. 30 Gilbert, Ancient Egyptian Sea Power, 66–7; J.H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol 1 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1906), sections 317, 324, 643–8; Hart, Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses, 28, 29, 140, 164–5; Lucia Gahlin, ‘Creation Myths’, in Wilkinson (ed.),
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Egyptian World, 305–6; Stephen Quirke, ‘Sehel and Suez: Canal-Cutting and Periodisation in Ancient and Modern History’, in IBAES. Das Ereignis, X (London: Golden House Publications, 2009), 223–4. 31 ‘Semna Inscription of Senusret III’, in Wilkinson (ed.), Writings from Ancient Egypt, 186. 32 Quirke, ‘Sehel and Suez’, 225. 33 Commentary, ‘Obelisk Inscription of Hatshepsut’, in Wilkinson (ed.), Writings from Ancient Egypt, 191, 196n; Translation in ‘Obelisk Inscription of Hatshepsut’, in Wilkinson (ed.), Writings from Ancient Egypt, 196. 34 Brewer, ‘Agriculture and Animal Husbandry’, 132; Jeff reys, ‘Nile Valley’, 12, 21, 28n. 35 Column, British Museum, BM/Big number EA1065; Wilson, ‘Nile Delta’, Fig. 2.1 (map); Tobias Ullmann et al., ‘Preliminary Results on the Paleo-Landscape of Tell Basta / Bubastis (Eastern Nile Delta): An Integrated Approach Combining GIS-Based Spatial Analysis, Geophysical and Archaeological Investigations’, Quaternary International 511 (2019), 185–99. 36 ‘Adoption Stela of Nitiqret’, in Wilkinson (ed.), Writings from Ancient Egypt, 213–17; Ricardo A. Caminos, ‘The Nitocris Adoption Stela’, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 50 (964), 71, 81, 97, 99–100; Anthony Leahy, ‘The Adoption of Ankhnesneferibre at Karnak’, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 82 (1996), 161–3. 37 Commentary, ‘Adoption Stela of Nitiqret’, in Wilkinson (ed.), Writings from Ancient Egypt, 212. 38 Suzanne Lynn Onstine, The Role of the Chantress (Šmʹyt) in Ancient Egypt (Oxford: Archaeopress/Hadrian Books, 2005). 39 Commentary, ‘Adoption Stela of Nitiqret’, in Wilkinson (ed.), Writings from Ancient Egypt, 212–13. 40 Timothy Kendall, ‘Egypt and Nubia’, in Wilkinson (ed.), The Egyptian World, 412–13. 41 ‘Adoption Stela of Nitiqret’, in Wilkinson (ed.), Writings from Ancient Egypt, 215; Anthony Leahy, ‘The Adoption of Ankhnesneferibre at Karnak’, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 82 (1996), 160–2; Nigel Strudwick, Masterpieces of Ancient Egypt (London: British Museum Press, 2012), 276. 42 Dodson and Hilton, Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, 248–9. 43 Redmount, ‘Wadi Tumilat and the “Canal of the Pharaohs”’, 135. 44 Herodotus, The Histories, trans. Robin Waterfield (1998; Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); Shaw, Ancient Egypt, 13. 45 Strudwick, Masterpieces of Ancient Egypt, 288; Dodson and Hilton, Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, 255.
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46 Ernst A. Fredricksmeyer, ‘Alexander, Zeus Ammon, and the Conquest of Asia’, Transactions of the American Philological Association 121 (1991), 199–214; Urs Mueller et al., ‘Structural Preservation of the Temple of the Oracle in Siwa Oasis, Egypt’, Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 5:4 (2002), 215–17. 47 Sally L.D. Katary, ‘Land Tenure and Taxation’, in Wilkinson (ed.), Egyptian World, 200. 48 Lanny Bell, ‘Luxor Temple and the Cult of the Royal Ka’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 44:4 (1985), 254–5, 270; Edmund Richardson, ‘The World’s First Superhero’, BBC History Magazine (December 2021), 21. 49 Dodson and Hilton, Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, 258–81. 50 Shaw, Ancient Egypt, 154–7. Cf. Duane W. Roller, Cleopatra: A Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 174; N. Frank Ukadike, ‘Reclaiming Images of Women in Films from Africa and the Black Diaspora’, Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 15:1 (1994), 102–22; Joyce Green MacDonald, ‘Bodies, Race, and Performance in Derek Walcott’s “A Branch of the Blue Nile”’, Theatre Journal 57:2 (2005), 91–203; Mary Hamer, Signs of Cleopatra: History, Politics, Representation (London/New York: Routledge, 1993). 51 Alexander Rubel, ‘What the Romans Really Meant When Using the Word “Barbarian”. Some Thoughts on “Romans and Barbarians”’, in Roxana-Gabriela Curcă et al. (eds), Rome and Barbaricum (Oxford: Archaeopress, 2020), 1–21. 52 Martina D’Alton, The New York Obelisk, or, How Cleopatra’s Needle Came to New York and What Happened When It Got Here (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art/Abrams, 1993), 1–7; Edward Chaney, ‘Roma Britannica and the Cultural Memory of Egypt: Lord Arundel and the Obelisk of Domitian’, in D. Marshall, K. Wolfe and S. Russell (eds), Roma Britannica: Art Patronage and Cultural Exchange in Eighteenth-Century Rome (London: British School at Rome, 2011), 148; Katharine Hoare, ‘Understanding Egyptianizing Obelisks: Appropriation in Early Imperial Rome’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Southampton, 2017), 64–5. 53 Brian Campbell, Rivers and the Powers of Ancient Rome (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 154; Jeffreys, ‘Nile Valley’, 11; Zaraza Friedman, ‘Nilometer’, in Helaine Selin (ed.), Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (Berlin/Heidelberg/New York: Springer Verlag, 2008), 1753–60. 54 Hoare, ‘Understanding Egyptianizing Obelisks’, 142–4.
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Chapter 2: Regime Change on the River 1
‘Nile River Delta at Night’, NASA Blog (20 April 2011), https://www.nasa. gov/image-article/nile-river-delta-night/ [accessed 23.12.24]. 2 Quoted in Thomas Thornton, The Present State of Turkey; Or a Description of the Political, Civil, and Religious, Constitution, Government, and Laws of the Ottoman Empire, Volume 1, 2nd edn (London, 1809), lxxxviii–lxxxix. 3 Petra M. Sijpesteijn, ‘The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Beginning of Muslim Rule’, in Roger S. Bagnall (ed.), Egypt in the Byzantine World, 300–700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 439–43; Brewer, ‘Agriculture and Animal Husbandry’, 135; Hugh Kennedy, The Caliphate: A Pelican Introduction (London: Penguin Books, 2016), 12–13, 21. 4 Ahmad Nazmi, ‘The Nile River in Muslim Geographical Sources’, Studia Arabistyczne i Islamistyczne 12 (2004), 28. 5 Okasha N. El Daly, ‘Ancient Egypt in Medieval Moslem/Arabic Writing’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University College London, 2003), 37–8, 46. 6 James P. Allen, Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 1, 7; David Frankfurter, Religion in Roman Egypt (Princeton University Press, 1998), 248–9. 7 John D. Ray, The Rosetta Stone and the Rebirth of Ancient Egypt (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 164–70; British Museum, Rosetta Stone, donated by George III, 1802, Big Number EA24, https:// www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA24 [accessed 02.03.25]. 8 Jitse H.F. Dijkstra, ‘Religious Violence in Late Antique Egypt’, in Cäcilia Fluck, Gisela Helmecke and Elisabeth R. O’Connell (eds), Egypt: Faith after the Pharaohs, Exhibition ‘One God: Abraham’s Legacy on the Nile’ (London: British Museum Press, 2015), 81. 9 Translated in Richard Parkinson, Cracking Codes: The Rosetta Stone and Decipherment (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 178; Wilkinson (ed.), Writings in Ancient Egypt, xv; Frankfurter, Religion in Roman Egypt, 248–9. 10 Susan H. Auth, ‘Birds in Late Antique Egypt’, in Bailleul-Lesuer (ed.), Between Heaven and Earth: Birds in Ancient Egypt, 77; Cäcilia Fluck and Gisela Helmecke, ‘Burial Practice’, in Fluck, Helmecke and O’Connell (eds), Egypt: Faith after the Pharaohs, 235. 11 Daniel Hillel, The Natural History of the Bible: An Environmental Exploration of the Hebrew Scriptures (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 88; Mahlich, ‘Appellation of the River Nile in Achaemenid Texts’; Judith Bunbury et al., ‘The Egyptian Nile: Human Transformation of an Ancient River’, in Karl M. Wantzen (ed.), River Culture: Life as a Dance to
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the Rhythm of the Waters (UNESCO, 2023), 61. 12 A. Rosalie David, The Experience of Ancient Egypt (London/New York: Routledge, 2000), 59. 13 Peter Sheehan, ‘Cairo’, in Fluck, Helmecke and O’Connell (eds), Egypt: Faith after the Pharaohs, 142, 144–5; Sijpesteijn, ‘Arab Conquest of Egypt’, 448. 14 El Daly, ‘Ancient Egypt in Medieval Moslem/Arabic Writing’, 122; Sheehan, ‘Cairo’, 142, 144; Hugh Kennedy, The Great Arab Conquests (Philadelphia, PA: Da Capo Press, 2007), 165. 15 Sheehan, ‘Cairo’, 144, 146, 148; Sijpesteijn, ‘Arab Conquest of Egypt’, 450, 453. 16 Gillian Clark, Late Antiquity: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 109; Allen, Middle Egyptian, 1, 7; Frankfurter, Religion in Roman Egypt, 248–9; Sijpesteijn, ‘Arab Conquest of Egypt’, 449–50. 17 Allen, Middle Egyptian, 1; Wilson B. Bishai, ‘Coptic Lexical Influence on Egyptian Arabic’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 23:1 (1964), 39–47. 18 Sijpesteijn, ‘Arab Conquest of Egypt’, 447–8; Redmount, ‘Wadi Tumilat and the “Canal of the Pharaohs”’, 127–35; Henry P. Colburn, ‘King Darius’ Red Sea Canal’, Fezana Journal (2021), 30. 19 Friedman, ‘Nilometer’, 13; Mary Kupelian, ‘Festivals’, in Fluck, Helmecke and O’Connell (eds), Egypt: Faith after the Pharaohs, 185; William Popper, The Cairo Nilometer: Studies in Ibn Taghri Birdi’s Chronicles of Egypt: I (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1951), 57–8; Bahrom Abdukhalimov, ‘Aḥmad Al-Farghānī and his “Compendium of Astronomy”’, Journal of Islamic Studies 10:2 (1999), 144–6. 20 Interior of the Nilometer, Island of Roda, Cairo (c. 1800), V&A Museum, Accession No. SD.645. 21 Kupelian, ‘Festivals’, 182–7; ‘Muharram 2025: Sacred Month of Allah’, https://www.islamic-relief.org.uk/resources/islamic-calendar/muharram/ [accessed 23.12.24]. 22 Kupelian, ‘Festivals’, 182–7; Cooper, ‘“We Desire to Know Which Is the True Religion”’; Popper, Cairo Nilometer, 14–15; Delia Cortese, ‘The Nile: Its Role in the Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Fatimid Dynasty During its Rule of Egypt (969–1171)’, History Compass 13 (2015), 23. 23 Kupelian, ‘Festivals’, 185–6. 24 Kupelian, ‘Festivals’, 187, 266n. 25 Sijpesteijn, ‘Arab Conquest of Egypt’, 443. 26 ‘Heliopolis: The City of the Sun Reemerges’, Heliopolis Project, Nile Magazine (August/September 2017), 17; Peter Sheehan, ‘Cairo’, 149. 27 Elisabeth R. O’Connell, ‘Living with the Monumental Past’, in Fluck,
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Helmecke and O’Connell (eds), Egypt: Faith after the Pharaohs, 96–7. 28 Simon Sebag Montefiore, Jerusalem: The Biography (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2011), 214–15, 639 (map). 29 Peter Frankopan, The Silk Roads: A New History of the World (London/ New York: Bloomsbury, 2016), 125; Thierry Bianquis, ‘Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Tūlūn to Kāfūr, 868–969’, in Carl F. Petry (ed.), The Cambridge History of Egypt. Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 107, 110–11. 30 Cortese, ‘Nile: Its Role in the Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Fatimid Dynasty’, 20, 22, 24; Yusuf Umrethwala, ‘Doing History from Below Using Geniza Documents as Evidence: A Famine in Question – the Shidda ‘Uzma (c. 1062–1073)’, Camedieva Blog (27 February 2023). 31 Jason Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire (London: Vintage, 1999), 79–80, 86–7. 32 Alan Mikhail, ‘Unleashing the Beast: Animals, Energy, and the Economy of Labor in Ottoman Egypt’, The American Historical Review 118:2 (2013), 331–6. 33 ‘Stela’, The Rosetta Stone, British Museum No. EA24, Curator’s Note, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA24 [accessed 23.03.25]; Andrew Middleton and Dietrich Klemm, ‘The Geology of the Rosetta Stone’, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 89:1 (2003), 207–16. 34 Khaled Fahmy, ‘The Nation and its Deserters: Conscription in Mehmed Ali’s Egypt’, International Review of Social History 43:3 (1998), 421. 35 Quoted in Augustin Daniel Belliard, Pierre Francois Xavier Boyer and Georges Douin, Une mission militaire française auprès de Mohamed Aly: Correspondance des généraux Belliard et Boyer (Au Caire: Imprimerie de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale pour la Société royale de géographie d’Egypte, 1923), 49–50. Translation by Joseph Dobbyn. 36 Mikhail, ‘Unleashing the Beast’, 344. 37 Mikhail, ‘Unleashing the Beast’, 344–6; Laura Panza and Jeffrey G. Williamson, ‘Did Muhammad Ali Foster Industrialization in Early Nineteenth-Century Egypt?’, The Economic History Review 68:1 (2015), 79–100. 38 Translated in Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 151; quoted in Mikhail, ‘Unleashing the Beast’, 345. 39 Nathan J. Brown, ‘Who Abolished Corvee Labour in Egypt and Why?’, Past & Present 144 (1994), 116–37; ‘Egypt – The Suez Canal – The Fresh Water Supply’, House of Commons Debates (HC Deb), 22 June 1882, Hansard, vol. 271, cc. 43–66, https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/ commons/1882/jun/22/egypt-the-suez-canal-the-fresh-water [accessed 28.12.24].
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40 Mary Christina Wilson, King Abdullah, Britain and the Making of Jordan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 8; Arnold Wilson, ‘The Suez Canal’, International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1931–1939) 18:3 (1939), 383. 41 Afaf Lutfi Al-Sayyid-Marsot, ‘The British Occupation of Egypt from 1882’, in Andrew N. Porter (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire: Vol. III. The Nineteenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 653–4. 42 C. Cookson-Hills, ‘The Aswan Dam and Egyptian Water Control Policy, 1882–1902’, Radical History Review 2013, 116 (2013), 59–85; James Beattie and Ruth Morgan, ‘Engineering Edens on this “Rivered Earth”? A Review Article on Water Management and Hydro-Resilience in the British Empire, 1860–1940s’, Environment and History 23:1 (2017), 46–7; Samuel Grinsell, ‘Mastering the Nile? Confidence and Anxiety in D.S. George’s Photographs of the First Aswan Dam, 1899–1912’, Environmental History, 25:1 (2020), 110–33. 43 ‘The Great Dam at Assouan’, Illustrated London News (13 April 1901), 6. 44 Karl Baedeker, Egypt: Handbook for Travellers (1908) [Electronic Version], 365–6; Captain H.G. Lyons, ‘The Nile’, xlvi–xlvii; ‘Philae and the Assuan Dam: Total Submersion not Injurious?’, Illustrated London News (22 June 1929), 11. 45 Friedman, ‘Nilometer’, 1759. 46 Frederick Eckstein, ‘Cotton Growing in the Sudan’, Illustrated London News (22 February 1930), 38. 47 Quoted in Barry Rubin, ‘America and the Egyptian Revolution, 1950–1957’, Political Science Quarterly 971 (1982), 79; Silvia Borzutzky and David Berger, ‘Dammed if You Do, Dammed if You Don’t: The Eisenhower Administration and the Aswan Dam’, The Middle East Journal 64:1 (2010), 84–102; Timothy Mitchell, Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-Politics, Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 43; Amy L.S. Staples, ‘Seeing Diplomacy through Banker’s Eyes: The World Bank, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Crisis, and the Aswan High Dam’, Diplomatic History 26:3 (2002), 414–15. 48 ‘Why Was the Suez Crisis so Important?’, Imperial War Museum, https:// www.iwm.org.uk/history/why-was-the-suez-crisis-so-important [accessed 02.03.25]. 49 Kate B Showers, ‘Electrifying Africa: An Environmental History with Policy Implications’, Geografiska Annaler. Series B, Human Geography 93:3 (2011), 200. 50 A.C. Hill, ‘“The Battle for Abu Simbel”: Archaeology and Postcolonial Diplomacy in the UNESCO Campaign for Nubia’, Journal of Contemporary History 56:3 (2021), 502–21.
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51 Amadou-Mahtar M’Bow, ‘A Single, Universal Heritage’, The Unesco Courier, XXXIII, 2/3 (1980), 4. 52 Farah El-Akkad, ‘2 Years After Displacement, Scars of Loss Remain for Nubians’, Egypt Today (25 October 2016). 53 Alan Mikhail, The Animal in Ottoman Egypt (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 168–71; Sherif Baha el-Din, ‘The Avifauna of the Egyptian Nile Valley: Changing Times’, in Bailleul-LeSuer (ed.), Between Heaven and Earth, 125; ‘Sacred Ibis’, Animal Biodiversity Web, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/ Threskiornis_aethiopicus/ [accessed 17.08.24]. 54 Baha el-Din, ‘Avifauna’, 126–7. 55 Baha el-Din, ‘Avifauna’, 126; Lake Nasser, Egypt. NASA Earth Observatory, https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/5988/lake-nasser-egypt; ‘Little Bittern’, Bulgarian Society for the Protection of Birds, https://atlas. bspb.org/en/species/little-bittern/ [both accessed 17.08.24]. 56 Mahmoud M. El Banna and Omran E. Frihy, ‘Human-Induced Changes in the Geomorphology of the Northeastern Coast of the Nile Delta, Egypt’, Coastal Vulnerability Related to Sea-Level Rise, 107:1 (2009), 73.
Chapter 3: Source 1
2 3 4 5
6
7
Tseqaye Gabre-Medhin, ‘Nile’, in Chris Beckett and Alemu Tebeje (eds), Songs We Learn from Trees: An Anthology of Ethiopian Amharic Poetry (Manchester: Carcanet Classics, 2020), 71–3, 278. Written in English. Translations by Robin Waterfield in Herodotus, Histories, 2:22, 2:28; 2:34. Al-Biruni paraphrased in Nazmi, ‘The Nile River in Muslim Geographical Sources’, 35–6. John Sutcliffe and Emma Brown, ‘Water Losses from the Sudd’, Hydrological Sciences Journal 63:4 (2018), 527. Sudd Wetland, South Sudan, UNESCO Tentative List, https://whc.unesco. org/en/tentativelists/6276/ [accessed 04.03.25]; Sutcliffe and Brown, ‘Water Losses from the Sudd’, 527. Matthew P. McCartney et al., Evaluation of Current and Future Water Resources Development in the Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia (Colombo: IWMI, 2010), 2–3, 18; Collins, Nile, 92; Hanibal Lemma et al., ‘Bedload Transport Measurements in the Gilgel Abay River, Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia’, Journal of Hydrology 577 (2019), 3. S. Uhlenbrook, Y. Mohamed and A.S. Gragne, ‘Analyzing Catchment Behavior through Catchment Modeling in the Gilgel Abay, Upper Blue Nile River Basin, Ethiopia’, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 14:10 (2010), 2153; Collins, Nile, 3; Brewer, ‘Agriculture and Animal Husbandry’, 132.
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8 L. Kirwan, ‘Rome beyond the Southern Egyptian Frontier’, The Geographical Journal 123:1 (1957), 16–17. 9 Richard Pankhurst, The Ethiopians: A History (Oxford/Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2001), 76–7; Peter Russell, Prince Henry ‘the Navigator’: A Life (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 239–41, 263; J. Devisse and S. Labib, ‘Africa in Inter-Continental Relations’, in D.T. Niane (ed.), General History of Africa: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, Vol. IV (London/Berkeley, CA: UNESCO/Heinemann/ University of California: 1984), 638, 664, 667–8; Víctor M. Fernández, ‘Enlivening the Dying Ruins: History and Archaeology of the Jesuit Missions in Ethiopia, 1557–1632’, Culture & History Digital Journal 2:2 (2013), 2; T. Oestigaard and A.F. Gedef, ‘Gish Abay: The Source of the Blue Nile’, ‘Water and Society’ Conference 2011, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment 153 (2011), 28. 10 Adrian S. Wisnicki, ‘Cartographical Quandaries: The Limits of Knowledge Production in Burton’s and Speke’s Search for the Source of the Nile’, History in Africa 35 (2008), 455–79. 11 C.T. Beke, Letters on the Commerce of Abessinia and Other Parts of Eastern Africa, etc. (London, 1852), 51ff; Pankhurst, Ethiopians, 71–2; Nazmi, ‘Nile River in Muslim Geographical Sources’, 48; James McCann, ‘Ethiopia, Britain, and Negotiations for the Lake Tana Dam, 1922–1935’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies 14:4 (1981), 669–70. 12 Beke, Letters on the Commerce of Abessinia. 13 Michael Coogan, The Old Testament: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford/ New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 125; Etienne Charpentier, How to Read the Old Testament (New York: Crossroad, 1982), 18–20. 14 Genesis 2:10–15, The New English Bible (Oxford/Cambridge: Cambridge/ Oxford University Presses, 1970); Yehuda T. Radday, ‘The Four Rivers of Paradise’, Hebrew Studies 23 (1982), 26; Alessandro Scafi, Maps of Paradise (Chicago, IL/London: The University of Chicago Press, 2013), 41. 15 The Sawley Map, England (c.1190 ce), Metropolitan Museum of Art, Blog, https://blog.metmuseum.org/penandparchment/exhibition-images/ cat300r2_49e/ [accessed 04.03.25]; Scafi, Maps of Paradise, 91–2; JeanPierre Isbouts, ‘Adam and Eve in Paradise’, National Geographic, Atlas of the Bible: Exploring the Holy Lands, (2018) 13; Pankhurst, Ethiopians, 18. 16 Translated in Stephen N. Lambden, ‘Sidra X Ibn Ḥajar al-Asqalānī (d. 853 /1449) on the Sidrat al-Muntahā’, Hurgalya Publications: Centre for Shaykhī and Bābī-Bahā’ī Studies, UC Merced (last posted 9 September 2009), https://hurqalya.ucmerced.edu/node/62 [accessed 30.12.24]. 17 Marco Polo: The Travels, trans. and ed. Nigel Cliff (London: Penguin Random House, 2016), 20, 366–7n.
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18 ‘St. Frumentius’, in Frank L. Cross and Elizabeth A. Livingstone (eds), The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); ‘Ethiopic Versions of the Bible’, in Cross and Livingstone (eds), Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church; Toyin Falola, Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002), 58–61, 68; Pankhurst, Ethiopians, 37. 19 Stuart Munro-Hay, ‘The Rise and Fall of Aksum: Chronological Considerations’, Journal of Ethiopian Studies 23 (1990), 47–53; Getachew Assefa, ‘The Constitutional Right to Self-Determination as a Response to the “Question of Nationalities” in Ethiopia’, International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, 25:1 (2018), 4-5. 20 Charles Poncet, A Voyage to Aethiopia made in the Year 1698, 1699 and 1700 (1709), translated in William Foster (ed.), The Red Sea and Adjacent Countries at the Close of the Seventeenth Century (London: Hakluyt Society, 1949), 127; Douglas Merrey and Tadele Gebreselassie, Promoting Improved Rainwater and Land Management in the Blue Nile (Abay) Basin of Ethiopia, Nile BDC Technical Report – 1 (CGIAR Challenge Program on Water & Food, 2011), 31–2, 34. 21 Falola, Key Events in African History, 73–4; Pankhurst, Ethiopians, 19; Assefa, ‘Constitutional Right to Self-Determination’, 5–6. 22 Pankhurst, Ethiopians, 103, 104, 112; Fernández, ‘Enlivening the Dying Ruins’, 5, 7, 9, 11, 15. 23 Andreu Martinez D’alos-Mone, ‘In the Company of Iyäsus: The Jesuit Mission in Ethiopia, 1557–1632’ (unpublished PhD thesis, European University Institute, 2009), 222–3; Fernández, ‘Enlivening the Dying Ruins’, 5, 7; Pankhurst, Ethiopians, 103–4. 24 Joseph Ellis Duncan, Milton’s Earthly Paradise: A Historical Study of Eden (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1972), 196; Pankhurst, Ethiopians, 48–9. 25 Collins, The Nile, 90; Simon Schama, Landscape & Memory (London: Fontana Press, 1998), 293, 300; Peter A. Coates, A Story of Six Rivers: History, Culture and Ecology (London: Reaktion Books, 2013), 9. 26 [Jerónimo Lobo], A Voyage to Abyssinia by Father Jeronimo Lobo. Translated from the French by Samuel Johnson (London, 1789), 135; Oestigaard and Gedef, ‘Gish Abay’, 28–9. 27 T.H.M. Rientjes et al., ‘Changes in Land Cover, Rainfall and Stream Flow in Upper Gilgel Abbay Catchment, Blue Nile Basin – Ethiopia’, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 15:6 (2011), 1980; McCartney et al., Evaluation of Current and Future Water Resources, 2; Uhlenbrook, Mohamed and Gragne, ‘Analyzing Catchment Behavior’, 2153–4; A.T. Haile et al., ‘Rainfall Variability over Mountainous and Adjacent Lake Areas: The
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Case of Lake Tana Basin at the Source of the Blue Nile River’, Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 48 (2009), 1697. 28 Oestigaard and Gedef, ‘Gish Abay’, 33–4; Collins, Nile, 91–2. 29 C.F. Beckingham, ‘Urreta and the Nine Saints of Ethiopia’, in Ian Netton (ed.), Studies in Honour of Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Volume I (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 161–2. 30 John Milton, Paradise Lost, ed. Scott Elledge (1674; New York: Norton, 1975); Duncan, Milton’s Earthly Paradise, 196–7; Evert Mordecai Clark, ‘Milton’s Abyssinian Paradise’, The University of Texas Studies in English 29 (1950), 138–40, 142. 31 Milton, Paradise Lost, Book IV, lines 280–5. 32 Times Correspondent (Istanbul), ‘Orthodox Patriarch Solemnly Ends Excommunication’, The Times (8 December 1965), 11. 33 Pankhurst, Ethiopians, 106–7. 34 Niall Finneran, ‘Holy Waters: Pre-Christian and Christian Water Association in Ethiopia; An Archaeological Landscape Perspective’, in Terje Ostigard (ed.), Water, Culture and Identity in the Nile Basin (Bergen: BRIC Press, 2009), 178; Terje Oestigaard, The Religious Nile: Water, Ritual and Society since Ancient Egypt (London: I.B. Tauris, 2018), 76–81, 455; Dorothea McEwan, The Story of Däräsge Maryam: The History, Buildings and Treasures of a Church Compound with a Painted Church in the Semen Mountains (Zürich: LIT, 2013), 54–7. 35 Kupelian, ‘Festivals’, 185; ‘Baptize’, v., Etymology, in Oxford English Dictionary [OED]. 36 Poncet, translated in Foster (ed.), Red Sea and Adjacent Countries, 129–30; Pankhurst, Ethiopians, 112n. 37 Pankhurst, Ethiopians, 147; McEwan, Story of Däräsge Maryam, 56. 38 Aläqa Täklä Iyäsus WaqĞera, The Goğğam Chronicle, trans. and ed. Girma Getahun (Oxford: British Academy/Oxford University Press, 2014), Chapter XXIX, nos. 14–15, Chapter XXX, no. 20. 39 Maqdala Collection, British Museum, https://www.britishmuseum.org/ about-us/british-museum-story/contested-objects-collection/maqdalacollection [accessed 17.02.25]. 40 Elizabeth Blunt, ‘Ethiopia Seeks Prince’s Remains’, BBC News (3 June 2007), http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6716921.stm; Maqdala Collection, British Museum; ‘UK’s National Army Museum to Hand Over Locks of Hair Belonging to Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia’, Press Release, National Army Museum, https://www.nam.ac.uk/press/ uks-national-army-museum-hand-over-locks-hair-belonging-emperortewodros-ii-ethiopia; ‘Ethiopia unveils ancient obelisk’, BBC News (4 September 2008), http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7597589.
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stm; Richard Pankhurst, ‘An Ethiopian Hero: Tsegaye Gabre-Medhin (1936–2006)’, openDemocracy (10 September 2007), https://www.open democracy.net/en/ethiopia_hero_3347jsp/ [all accessed 04.03.2025]; Walter Benjamin, ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction’ (1935), in Hannah Arendt (ed.), Illuminations, trans. Harry Zohn (New York: Schocken Books, 1969), 5. 41 Pankhurst, Ethiopians, 1–6;. C. Gosden, Prehistory: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 26–8; ‘Ardipithecus ramidus’, Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/ ardipithecus-ramidus [accessed 31.12.24]. 42 Gabre-Medhin, ‘Nile’, 71–2. 43 A.T. Zhang and V.X. Gu, ‘Global Dam Tracker: A Database of More than 35,000 Dams with Location, Catchment, and Attribute Information’, Scientific Data 10:111 (2023). 44 Cheesman, ‘Lake Tana and Its Islands’, 496–7; Hurst, Black and Simaika, Nile Basin, 6–7; McCartney et al., Evaluation of Current and Future Water Resources Development, 2–4. 45 Amit Ranjan, ‘The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam and its Discontents’, LSE Blogs (28 February 2024), https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/ africaatlse/2024/02/28/the-grand-ethiopian-renaissance-dam-and-itsdiscontents/; ‘Egypt: Progress on achieving SDG 6’, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development, https://sdgs. un.org/basic-page/egypt-34124 [both accessed 04.03.25]. 46 ‘The Sennar Dam and the Gezira Irrigation Scheme’, The Engineer (26 September 1924), 349–50; ‘Lake Tana Dam Scheme’, The Times (14 January 1933), 9; Cheesman, ‘Lake Tana and Its Islands’, 489–502; R.E. Cheesman, ‘The Upper Waters of the Blue Nile’, The Geographical Journal 71:4 (1928), 358–74; R.E. Cheesman, ‘Monasteries of Lake Tana’, The Times (10 September 1934), 13; McCann, ‘Ethiopia, Britain, and Negotiations’; Oestigaard and Gedef, ‘Gish Abay’, 31. 47 Sir William Willcocks, From the Garden of Eden to the Crossing of the Jordan (London: E. &. F.N. Spon, 1920), 13; Beattie and Morgan, ‘Engineering Edens’. 48 Richard Bangs and Pasquale Scaturro, Mystery of the Nile: The Epic Story of the First Descent of the World’s Deadliest River (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 2005), 58–9; Collins, Nile, 88–92. 49 Fernández, ‘Enlivening the Dying Ruins’, 10. 50 Mariz Tadros, ‘The Grand Egyptian Festival: Religion, Heritage and Social Cohesion’, Coalition for Religious Equality and Inclusive Development (22 January 2021), https://creid.ac/blog/2021/01/22/
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the-grand-egyptian-festival-religion-heritage-and-social-cohesion/; Michael Girgis, ‘Epiphany: Down Memory Lane’, Watani International (19 January 2020), https://en.wataninet.com/coptic-affairs-coptic-affairs/ coptic-affairs/epiphany-down-memory-lane/31702/ [both accessed 04.03.25].
Chapter 4: Corridors and Frontiers 1
Cornelius Tacitus, ‘A Treatise on the Situation, Manners, and Inhabitants of Germany’, in The Works of Tacitus: Vol. II. The Oxford Translation, Revised (New York, 1890), 286. 2 Coates, Story of Six Rivers, 38–44; [Danube] River Basin, International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR), https:// www.icpdr.org/danube-basin/danube-river-basin [accessed 16.02.25]. 3 Barry Cunliffe, Europe between the Oceans: 900 BC–AD 1000 (New Haven, CT/London: Yale University Press, 2008), 80–2; Nenad B. Miloradović, ‘Lepenski Vir – The Prehistoric Energy Efficient Architecture’, REHVA Journal 53:5 (2016), 54–9. 4 Cunliffe, Europe between the Oceans, vii; Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 121. 5 Cunliffe, Europe between the Oceans, 31–61; Eric Jones, The European Miracle: Environments, Economies and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981; 1987), 90; cf. Mark Mazower, The Balkans: From the End of Byzantium to the Present Day (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000), 21–2. 6 Cunliffe, Europe between the Oceans, 24, 38–47. 7 Marko Serban, ‘Trajan’s Bridge over the Danube’, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 38:2 (2009), 332. 8 ICPDR, ‘Danube Basin: Facts and Figures’ (c. 2009), 5, https://www.icpdr. org/sites/default/fi les/nodes/documents/icpdr_facts_figures.pdf [accessed 25.03.25]. 9 Stephen Oppenheimer, The Origins of the British: The New Prehistory of Britain (London: Robinson, 2007), 250; Peter Ackroyd, Thames: Sacred River (London: Vintage Books, 2008), 23–4. 10 J.P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams, The Oxford Introduction to ProtoIndo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 6–38, 126–7, 434, 443, 447, 460–3; Terry Hoad, ‘Preliminaries: Before English’, in Lynda Mugglestone (ed.), The Oxford History of English (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), Fig. 1.2. 11 Mallory and Adams, Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European, 5.
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12 Mallory and Adams, Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European, 127, 134, 137; Duncan J. Halley, Alexander P. Saveljev and Frank Rosell, ‘Population and Distribution of Beavers Castor Fiber and Castor Canadensis in Eurasia’, Mammal Review 51:1 (2021), 1–24. 13 Mallory and Adams, Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European, 108. 14 Emma Dench, ‘Barbarian’, Oxford Classical Dictionary; Walter Goffart, ‘Rome, Constantinople, and the Barbarians’, The American Historical Review, 86:2 (1981), 277; Campbell, Rivers and the Powers of Ancient Rome, 372; translation from ‘VI. Panegyric of Constantine’ (310), in C.E.V. Nixon and B.S. Rodgers, In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini (Berkeley/Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1994), 236. 15 Christopher Kelly, The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 4–6. 16 Kelly, Roman Empire, 7–9; John Frederick Drinkwater, ‘Raetia’, Oxford Classical Dictionary; Max Cary and John Wilkes, ‘Moesia’, Oxford Classical Dictionary; Cunliffe, Europe between the Oceans, 380, 387. 17 Drinkwater, ‘Agri Decumates’, Oxford Classical Dictionary. 18 ‘XI. Genethliacus of Maximian Augustus’ [c.291 CE], translated in Nixon and Rodgers, In Praise of Later Roman Emperors, 91. 19 Hesiod: Theogeny, Works and Days, Testimonia, trans. and ed. Glenn W. Most (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), 31, 339; Max Cary, ‘Ister’, Oxford Classical Dictionary; Ken Dowden, ‘Titan’, Oxford Classical Dictionary; John Wilkes, ‘Danuvius’, Oxford Classical Dictionary; Anna Perdibon, Mountains and Trees, Rivers and Springs: Animistic Beliefs and Practices in Ancient Mesopotamian Religion (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2019), 86–133. 20 Marguerite Johnson, ‘Guide to the Classics: Ovid’s Metamorphoses and Reading Rape’, The Conversation (13 September 2016), https:// theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-ovids-metamorphoses-andreading-rape-65316 [accessed 24.10.20]; Ovid Metamorphoses, trans. Ian Johnston (Vancouver Island University, 2011), Books 2, 5, 6, https:// johnstoniatexts.x10host.com/ovid/ovidtofc.html [accessed 01.03.25]. 21 Campbell, Rivers and the Powers of Ancient Rome, 154, 373. 22 Tacitus, Agricola and Germania, trans. Harold B. Mattingly, revised by J.B. Rives (London: Penguin Books, 2010), 56, 109n; D.W.R. Ridgway, ‘Amber’, Oxford Classical Dictionary; Marinella Pasquinucci, ‘How Many Roads, Rivers and Seas? Amber from the Coast of North Europe to the Roman World’, in P.L. Cellarosi et al. (eds), The Amber Roads: The Ancient Cultural and Commercial Communication between the Peoples. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Ancient Roads, Republic
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of San Marino, April 3–4, 2014. Millenni Studi Di Archeologia Preistorica 1 (CNR Edizioni, 2016), 401, 405–6. 23 ‘Territorial Expansion of Rome’, William R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas 1911, 9th edn (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1976), 34–5. 24 Ioan Cohut and Miklós Árpási, ‘Ancient Uses of Geothermal Waters in the Precarpathian Area of Romania and the Pannonian Basin of Hungary’, in Raffaele Cataldi, Susan F. Hodgson and John W. Lund (eds), Stories from a Heated Earth: Our Geothermal Heritage (Sacramento, CA: Geothermal Resources Council/International Geothermal Association, 1999), 243; Campbell, Rivers and the Power of Ancient Rome, 393; Branka Migotti, ‘The Population of Aquae Balissae (Pannonia Superior)’, Studia Antiqua et Archaeologica 23:1 (2017), 83–124, 246–7; Franz A.W. Schehl and John Wilkes, ‘Aquincum’, Oxford Classical Dictionary. 25 Campbell, Rivers and the Power of Ancient Rome, 139, 346; SimoneAntoinette Deyts, ‘The Sacred Source of the Seine’, Scientific American 225:1 (1971), 65–73; ‘Coventinas Well’, Historic England Research Records, Hob Uid 1013364, https://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/ Results_Single.aspx?uid=1013364&sort=4&search=all&criteria=coventina &rational=q&recordsperpage=10&resourceID=19191 [accessed 01.03.25]. 26 Franz A. W. Schehl and John Frederick Drinkwater, ‘Marcoman(n)I’, Oxford Classical Dictionary. 27 Campbell, Rivers and the Powers of Ancient Rome, 235–9; Tony Rook, Roman Baths in Britain, Shire Archaeology Series 69 (Princes Risborough, Bucks: Shire Publications, 2002). 28 ROMAQ, ‘The Atlas Project of Roman Aqueducts’, https://romaq.org/ the-project/map.html [accessed 01.03.25]. 29 K. Shterev and I. Zagorchev, ‘Mineral Waters and Hydrogeothermal Resources in Bulgaria’, GeoJournal 40:4 (1996), 403; Agnieszka Tomas, ‘Connecting to Public Water: The Rural Landscape and Water Supply in Lower Moesia’, Archaeologia Bulgarica XV:2 (2011), 1–14. 30 Stephen Chappell, ‘Auxiliary Regiments and New Cultural Formation in Imperial Dacia, 106–274 c.e.’, The Classical World 104:1 (2010), 90. 31 Lynne Lancaster, ‘Building Trajan’s Column’, American Journal of Archaeology 103:3 (1999), 419; Serban, ‘Trajan’s Bridge over the Danube’, 332; Campbell, Rivers and the Powers of Ancient Rome, 379. 32 John M. O’Shea, ‘A River Runs Through It: Landscape and the Evolution of Bronze Age Networks in the Carpathian Basin’, Journal of World Prehistory 24:2/3 (2011), 166; Chappell, ‘Auxiliary Regiments and New Cultural Formation’, 90. 33 Chappell, ‘Auxiliary Regiments and New Cultural Formation’, 90; Mallory and Adams, Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European, 36.
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34 Cătălin Nicolae Popa, ‘The Trowel as Chisel: Shaping Modern Romanian Identity through the Iron Age’, in Victoria Ginn, Rebecca Enlander and Rebecca Crozier (eds), Exploring Prehistoric Identity in Europe: Our Construct or Theirs? (Oxford/Philadelphia: Oxbow Books, 2014), 166, 168, 170; Imola Boda, ‘The Sacred Topography of Colonia Sarmizegetusa’, Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 66:2 (2015), 281–304; Csaba Szabo, ‘The Cult of Mithras in Apulum: Communities and Individuals’, in Livio Zerbini (ed.), Culti e religiosità nelle province danubiane: atti del II Convegno internazionale, Ferrara 20–22 novembre 2013, Pubblicazione del LAD, II (Convegno internazionale ‘Roma e le province del Danubio’ (Bologna: I libri di Emil, 2015), 407–22. 35 Translation following Petar Petrović (1969) in Lino Rossi, Trajan’s Column and the Dacian Wars (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1971), 32; Serban, ‘Trajan’s Bridge over the Danube’, 332–3; Jaroslav Šašel, ‘Trajan’s Canal at the Iron Gate’, The Journal of Roman Studies 63 (1973), 80–5; Coates, Story of Six Rivers, 55–7. 36 Ivan Tsurov, ‘The Western Aqueduct for Nicopolis Ad Istrum’, in Andrew Poulter (ed.), The Transition to Late Antiquity on the Lower Danube (Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2019), 199–220; Stephen Mitchell, John Wilkes, Nicholas Purcell and W.M. Murray, ‘Nicopolis’, Oxford Classical Dictionary. 37 Alaric Watson, Aurelian and the Third Century (London: Routledge, 1999), 55. 38 Judith Herrin, Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire (London: Penguin Books, 2008), 24; Michael Kulikowski, ‘Barbarians in Gaul, Usurpers in Britain’, Britannia 31 (2000), 326–7; Walter Goffart, Barbarian Tides: The Migration Age and the Later Roman Empire, 73–118; Peter Heather, ‘Empire and Development: The Fall of the Roman West’, History & Policy (20 July 2006), https://www.historyandpolicy.org/ policy-papers/papers/empire-and-development-the-fall-of-the-roman-west [accessed 09.06.22]. 39 Frankopan, Silk Roads, 45–6; Michael Kulikowski, The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2019). 40 Heather, ‘Empire and Development’; Goffart, Barbarian Tides; Kulikowski, ‘Barbarians in Gaul, Usurpers in Britain’, 325–45; Guy Halsall, ‘Germani and Germanic Migrations’, in Neil Asher Silberman (ed.), Oxford Companion to Archaeology, 2nd edn (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 606–9. 41 Goffart, ‘Rome, Constantinople, and the Barbarians’, 287. 42 Herrin, Byzantium, 12, 24; Peter Heather, ‘Alaric’, Oxford Classical Dictionary.
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43 Drinkwater, ‘Gaul, Transalpine’, Oxford Classical Dictionary; Cf. Kulikowski, ‘Barbarians in Gaul, Usurpers in Britain’; Goffart, Barbarian Tides, 73–118. 44 Herrin, Byzantium, 24.
Chapter 5: Gods of the Transboundary River 1
The First Letter, 1 September 1555, The Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, Imperial Ambassador at Constantinople 1554–1562, trans. Edward Seymour Forster (1927) with a Foreword by Karl A. Roider (1927; Baton Rouge: Louisian State University Press, 2005), 13. 2 ‘The Danube Iron Gates Canal’, The Scotsman (29 September 1896), 5; Popa, ‘Trowel as Chisel’, 166. 3 Dorel Bondoc (Oltenia Museum), ‘Paper on Ada Kaleh’, Alexis Project Association, Romania. Last modified 24 January 2011, https://web.archive. org/web/20110725000112/http://alexisphoenix.org/adakaleh.php [accessed 25.02.25]. 4 ‘The Danube Iron Gates Canal’, The Scotsman (29 September 1896), 5; Coates, Story of Six Rivers, 53–4; Martyn C. Rady, The Habsburg Empire: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 94. 5 Quoted in ‘The Danube Iron Gates Canal’, The Scotsman (29 September 1896), 5. 6 ‘The Danube Iron Gates Canal’, The Scotsman (29 September 1896), 5; Brehon Somervell, ‘Navigation Problems on the Danube’, The Military Engineer 18:100 (1926), 306–7; Baths of Hercules, see Patrick Leigh Fermor, Between the Woods and the Water (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), 210, 214, 241. 7 Richard Cavendish, ‘King Alexander and Queen Draga of Serbia Assassinated’, History Today 53:6 (2003); Mazower, Balkans, 102. 8 Rady, Habsburg Empire, 98; Lawrence Sondhaus, ‘Austria-Hungary: An Inland Empire Looks to the Sea’, in Christian Buchet and N.A.M. Rodger (eds), The Sea in History – The Modern World (Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2017), 186; Michael Howard, The First World War: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), Appendix 2. 9 Janet M. Hartley, The Volga: A History of Russia’s Greatest River (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2021), 5–9. 10 David Kinnersley, Troubled Water: Rivers, Politics and Pollution (London: Hilary Shipman Ltd., 1988), 2; ‘Rival’, n.2 & adj., OED. 11 Schama, Landscape and Memory, 302; Coates, Story of Six Rivers, 7–9; Mary Christian, ‘Bernini’s “Danube” and Pamphili Politics’, The Burlington Magazine 128:998 (1986), 354.
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12 Rady, Habsburg Empire, 2–3, 6–11, 83–4. 13 Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Masters, Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire (New York: Facts on File, 2010), 174, 613–14. 14 Michael Levey, The World of Ottoman Art (London: Thames & Hudson, 1975), 65. 15 Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons, 48, 112. 16 Busbecq translated in Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons, 84. 17 Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons, 86–7. 18 Buda, 1617, Cities of the World [Georg Braun and Franz Hogenberg, Civitates Orbis Terrarum], ed. Stephan Füssel (Köln: Taschen, 2008), 690–3; Goodman, Lords of the Horizons, 203–4. 19 Ágoston and Masters, Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, 91–2. 20 A Pocket Book for Conversation Composed after the Traveller’s Companion of Madame de Genlis and Others in Six Languages. Sixth Edition Augmented and Improved (Leipzig/London, 1833), 28. 21 Pocket Book for Conversation, 30, 344, 354, 356. 22 Sondhaus, ‘Austria-Hungary: An Inland Empire Looks to the Sea’, 180–1; cf. Bernd Kreuzer, ‘The Port of Trieste and its Railway Connections in the Habsburg Monarchy: Economic Change and Infrastructure Problems, 1850–1918’, V Congreso de Historia Ferroviaria (October 2009), 2–3, https://www.docutren.com/historiaferroviaria/PalmaMallorca2009/ pdf/0208_Kreuzer.pdf; Poster, ‘Société de Navigation à Vapeur du Lloyd Autrichien’, Brindisi to Trieste (undated), https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:C396sterreichischer_Lloyd_Trieste-Alexandria_poster. jpg [both accessed 16.02.25]. 23 Gatejel, ‘Overcoming the Iron Gates’, 169–70; Coates, Story of Six Rivers, 53; Miroslav Šedivý, ‘From Hostility to Cooperation? Austria, Russia and the Danubian Principalities 1829–40’, The Slavonic and East European Review 89:4 (2011), 647–50. 24 Figes, Crimea, 15–17; Reid, Borderland, 55. 25 Reid, Borderland, 57–8; Robert K. Massie, Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman (London: Head of Zeus, 2012), 500–1. 26 Figes, Crimea, 12, 40; Gatejel, ‘Overcoming the Iron Gates’, 170. 27 Figes, Crimea, 89–92. 28 Figes, Crimea, 432–3. 29 Figes, Crimea, 185–7; Mazower, Balkans, 100. 30 Mazower, Balkans, 103. 31 Carole Fink, Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938 (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 30–8. 32 Dana Mihăilescu, ‘The Jewish Fusgeyer Migration Movement from
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Early Twentieth-Century Romania as Transcultural Rhetorical Tool in US Memorial Literary Culture’, MELUS 45:1 (2020), 139, 150; Aubrey Newman, ‘The Poor Jews’ Temporary Shelter: An Episode in Migration Studies’, Jewish Historical Studies 40 (2005), 141–55. 33 Quotation from Namık Kemal, Vatan Yahut Silistre (‘Fatherland or Silistria’, 1873), ed. Kenan Akyüz (Ankara, 1960), 21, translated in Ebru Boyar, Ottomans, Turks and the Balkans: Empire Lost, Relations Altered (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2007), 128; Figes, Crimea, 184–6. 34 Ilya Vinkovetsky, ‘Strategists and Ideologues: Russians and the Making of Bulgaria’s Tarnovo Constitution, 1878–1879’, The Journal of Modern History 90:4 (2018), 752, 777; Mazower, Balkans, 111. 35 Yahya Kemal Beyatlı, ‘Balkan’a Seyahat’, Dergâh Mecmûası (5 Teșrin-i sani 1337) in [Beyatlı] Yahya Kemal, Çocukluğum, Gençliğim, Siyâsî ve Edebî Hâtıralarım (Istanbul, 1973), 146, translated in Ebru Boyar, Ottomans, Turks and the Balkans: Empire Lost, Relations Altered (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2007), 128–9. 36 ‘Hasan Ali Yucel’, The New York Times (27 February 1961), 27; Boyar, Ottomans, Turks and the Balkans, 127. 37 Stefan Dorondel, Stelu Serban and Daniel Cain, ‘The Play of Islands: Emerging Borders and Danube Dynamics in Modern Southeast Europe (1830–1900)’, Environment and History 25:4 (2019), 522, 528, 529–30. 38 Mazower, Balkans, 106–8. 39 Novosti (18 January 1914), quoted in Collected Diplomatic Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the European War, Cd. 7860 (London: HMSO, 1915), 475. 40 ‘Occupation of Ada Kaleh’, The Morning Post (28 May 1878), 5; Rady, Habsburg Empire, 97. 41 Mark Mazower, ‘Minorities and the League of Nations in Interwar Europe’, Daedalus 126:2 (1997), 61. 42 ‘The Political Situation’, The Morning Post (28 May 1878), 5; Mazower, Balkans, 102, 106. 43 Karl A. Roider, ‘The Perils of Eighteenth-Century Peacemaking: Austria and the Treaty of Belgrade, 1739’, Central European History 5:3 (1972), 195; Rady, Habsburg Empire, 94–7; Mazower, Balkans, 107. 44 Tribuna (26 May 1913) quoted in Collected Diplomatic Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the European War, 474. 45 ‘The Charms of Ada-Kaleh’, The Westminster Gazette (22 May 1913), 4. 46 Mazower, Balkans, 108; Howard, First World War, 14, 24. 47 David Keys, ‘Church to Mark the Real Centenary of the Start of the First World War’, The Independent (28 July 2014). 48 From Our Special Correspondent, ‘The Invasion of Belgium’, The Times
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(6 August 1914); Howard, First World War, 24–6; ‘4 August 1914: The Lead-up to Britain’s Declaration of War’, Imperial War Museum (IWM), Press Information, https://www.iwm.org.uk/sites/default/fi les/press-release/4_August_1914_Factsheet.pdf [accessed 16.02.25]. 49 ‘Turkey and the Lausanne Treaty’, Advocate of Peace through Justice 85:4 (1923), 149–50; Ágoston and Masters, Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, 323–5; Robert Gerwarth and Uğur Ümit Üngör, ‘The Collapse of the Ottoman and Habsburg Empires and the Brutalisation of the Successor States’, Journal of Modern European History / Zeitschrift Für Moderne Europäische Geschichte / Revue d’histoire Européenne Contemporaine 13:2 (2015), 236; Robert Gerwarth and Erez Manela, ‘The Great War as a Global War: Imperial Conflict and the Reconfiguration of World Order, 1911–1923’, Diplomatic History 38:4 (2014), 787–8; Mazower, ‘Minorities and the League of Nations in Interwar Europe’, 61; Coates, Story of Six Rivers, 52, 54.
Chapter 6: The Case of the Undredged Delta 1
‘General Treaty of Peace Between Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey, Signed at Paris, 30th March 1856’, Article XVI, in Augustus Henry Oakes and R.B. Mowat (eds), The Great European Treaties of the Nineteenth Century (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1918), 179. 2 ‘Etchings from the Euxine: II. The Danube and Crimea’, Fraser’s Magazine for Town and Country 50:297 (1854), 296–7. 3 ‘The Black Gold of Ukraine and the Most Fertile Soils in the World’, Gondwana Talks, Blog (9 March 2023), https://www.gondwanatalks. com/l/the-black-gold-of-ukraine-and-the-most-fertile-soils-in-the-world [accessed 08.01.25]. 4 ‘Russia in the Right’, The Preston Chronicle (10 December 1853), 4. 5 Viscount Palmerston, ‘Russia and the Porte – Navigation of the Danube’, HC Debates (7 July 1853), Hansard, vol. 128, cc. 1373–5. 6 ‘Etchings from the Euxine’, 296–7. 7 Coates, Story of Six Rivers, 59. 8 Constantin Ardeleanu, The European Commission of the Danube, 1856–1948: An Experiment in International Administration (Leiden: Brill, 2020), 62–4. 9 Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 56. 10 Glen A. Blackburn, ‘International Control of the Danube’, Current History 32:6 (1930), 1154; Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 56.
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11 Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 56, 75; Blackburn, ‘International Control of the Danube’, 1154. 12 ‘Length of the Rhine (Update 2015)’, International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin, https://www.chr-khr.org/en/news/lengthrhine-update-2015 [accessed 29.03.25]. 13 Rady, Habsburg Empire, 4–5; Hans A. Schmitt, ‘Germany without Prussia: A Closer Look at the Confederation of the Rhine’, German Studies Review 6:1 (1983), 10; M. Rowe, ‘France, Prussia, or Germany? The Napoleonic Wars and Shifting Allegiances in the Rhineland’, Central European History 39:4 (2006), 611–40. 14 E.M. Arndt, Deutschlands Fluss, aber nicht Deutschlands Gränze (1813), Translation by UvA Talen / Study Platform on Interlocking Nationalisms (SPIN), https://ernie.uva.nl/upload/media/08b5d331dbd8e9157f61e017c52bf7af.pdf [accessed 07.08.22]; Mark Cioc, ‘The Political Ecology of the Rhine’, in Christof Mauch (ed.), Nature in German History (New York/ Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2004), 31, 33; Martijn van der Burg, Napoleonic Governance in the Netherlands and Northwest Germany: Conquest, Incorporation, and Integration (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021), 37. 15 Howard, First World War, 114. 16 From French Convention of 16 November 1792, translated in Mark Cioc, ‘The Rhine as a World River’, in Edmund Burke and Kenneth Pomeranz (eds), The Environment and World History (Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2009), 170; L. Kunz, ‘The Danube Régime and the Belgrade Conference’, The American Journal of International Law 43:1 (1949), 104; Joep Schenk, The Rhine and European Security in the Long Nineteenth Century: Making Lifelines from Frontlines (London/New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2021), 22–5. 17 Kennedy, Concise History of the Netherlands, 264. 18 Quoted in Simon Schama, Patriots and Liberators: Revolution in the Netherlands, 1780–1813 (New York: Knopf, 1977), 2; B.H.M. Vlekke, Evolution of the Dutch Nation (New York: Roy Publishers, 1945), 1. 19 ‘Der Rheinische Courier verliert auf der Heimreise von der Leipsiger Messe alles’ (1813–1814), The British Museum, Prints & Drawings, Registration number 1989,1104.121; Schenk, Rhine and European Security, 21. 20 Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 53, 56; Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (CCNR), https://www.ccr-zkr. org/11010100-en.html [accessed 25.08.24]; Cioc, ‘Political Ecology of the Rhine’, 33. 21 Somervell, ‘Navigation Problems on the Danube’, 304, 307–8; Mazower, Balkans, 22; Coates, Story of Six Rivers, 58–9; Blackburn, ‘International
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Control of the Danube’, 1157; George Kiss, ‘TVA on the Danube?’, Geographical Review 37:2 (1947), 282. 22 Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 309–11. 23 Kunz, ‘Danube Régime’, 108; Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 312. 24 Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 312; Blackburn, ‘International Control of the Danube’, 1156. 25 Paul Halpern, ‘Troubridge, Sir Ernest Charles Thomas (1862–1926), naval officer’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography [ODNB]; Alice Teichova and Penelope Ratcliffe, ‘British Interests in Danube Navigation after 1918’, Business History 27:3 (1985), 286. 26 E.g. Percy Sanderson, Dredgepoint.org, https://dredgepoint.org/dredging-database/equipment/percy-sanderson [accessed 05.03.25]; Somervell, ‘Navigation Problems on the Danube’, 308. 27 Teichova and Ratcliffe, ‘British Interests in Danube Navigation’, 286; G.K.S. Hamilton-Edwards, ‘Weir, Andrew, first Baron Inverforth (1865–1955), shipowner’, ODNB. 28 Teichova and Ratcliffe, ‘British Interests in Danube Navigation’, 285, 289–91; Walker D. Hines and Brehon Burke Somervell, Report on Danube Navigation: Submitted to the Advisory and Technical Committee for Communications and Transit of the League of Nations (Geneva: League of Nations, 1925), 101–4, 111. 29 Blackburn, ‘International Control of the Danube’, 1157. 30 Somervell, ‘Navigation Problems on the Danube’, 310; Blackburn, ‘International Control of the Danube’, 1157; Hines and Somervell, Report on Danube Navigation, 101–4, 111; Teichova and Ratcliffe, ‘British Interests in Danube Navigation’, 289–91; Marie-Janine Calic, A History of Yugoslavia, trans. Dona Geyer (West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press, 2019), 66. 31 Somervell, ‘Navigation Problems on the Danube’, 307; Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 310, 312–16. 32 Teichova and Ratcliffe, ‘British Interests in Danube Navigation’, 284, 294, 296. 33 Kunz, ‘Danube Régime’, 108; Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 316. 34 Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 316–18. 35 The Mauthausen Concentration Camp 1938–1945, Mauthausen Memorial, https://www.mauthausen-memorial.org/en/About-us/Organisation [accessed 08.08.22]. 36 Árpád Von Klimó, Remembering Cold Days: The 1942 Massacre of Novi Sad and Hungarian Politics and Society, 1942–1989 (Pittsburgh, PA:
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University of Pittsburgh Press, 2018), 23–7. 37 Sheryl Silver Ochayon, ‘The Shoes on the Danube Promenade – Commemoration of the Tragedy’, Yad Vashem: The World Holocaust Remembrance Centre, https://www.yadvashem.org/articles/general/ shoes-on-the-danube-promenade.html [accessed 05.03.25]; Coates, Story of Six Rivers, 33–4. 38 ‘Murder of the Jews of Romania’, Yad Vashem: The World Holocaust Remembrance Centre, https://www.yadvashem.org/holocaust/about/ final-solution-beginning/romania.html [accessed 08.08.22]. 39 Árpád von Klimó, ‘1956 and the Collapse of Stalinist Politics of History: Forgetting and Remembering the 1942 Újvidék/Novi Sad Massacre and the 1944/45 Partisan Retaliations in Hungary and Yugoslavia (1950s–1960s)’, The Hungarian Historical Review 5:4 (2016), 739–66. 40 Quoted in Kunz, ‘Danube Régime’, 111; Kiss, ‘TVA on the Danube?’, 274–302; Coates, Story of Six Rivers, 34, 54; Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 319–22. 41 Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 317. 42 Kunz, ‘Danube Régime’, 113; H. Briggs, ‘Josef L. Kunz, 1890–1970’, American Journal of International Law 65:1 (1971), 129. 43 David T. Cattell, ‘The Politics of the Danube Commission under Soviet Control’, American Slavic and East European Review 19:3 (1960), 388; Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 321. 44 Ardeleanu, European Commission of the Danube, 322. 45 Thomas De Waal and Balázs Jarábik, ‘Bessarabia’s Hopes and Fears on Ukraine’s Edge’, Carnegie Europe, Blog (24 May 2018), https:// carnegieeurope.eu/2018/05/24/bessarabia-s-hopes-and-fears-on-ukraines-edge-pub-76445; Irina Marica, ‘New National Holiday in Romania: The Union with Bessarabia Celebrated on March 27’, Romania-Insider.com (15 March 2017) [both accessed 02.06.22]. 46 ‘Russia Announces Troops Withdrawal from West Bank of Dnipro River’, Business Standard (10 November 2022); Oleksiy Goncharenko, ‘Odesa Rejects Catherine the Great as Putin’s Invasion Makes Russia Toxic’ (14 November 2022), Atlantic Council, Blog, https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/ blogs/ukrainealert/odesa-rejects-catherine-the-great-as-putins-invasionmakes-russia-toxic/ [accessed 18.11.2022]. 47 Andrew Roth et al., ‘Russia’s War in Ukraine: Complete Guide in Maps, Video and Pictures’, The Guardian (15 May 2022); Vincent Mundy, ‘Ukraine’s “hero river” Helped Save Kyiv: But What Now for its Newly Restored Wetlands?’, The Guardian (11 May 2022). 48 ‘Turkey Pushes for Ukraine Grain Exports Deal as Key Meeting Due’, Daily Sabah (7 June 2022).
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49 Danube Commission, https://www.danubecommission.org/dc/en/ danube-commission/; Iván Gyurcsík (ed.), Danube Commission 70 (Budapest: Institute for Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2019), https://www. danubecommission.org/uploads/doc/2019/Danube_Commission_70.pdf [both accessed 08.08.22]. 50 ‘Press Release’ (12th Extraordinary Session of the Danube Commission, 17 March 2022), https://www.danubecommission.org/uploads/doc/2022/ press/en_12_ext_session.pdf; ‘Russia’s Powers in Danube Commission Terminated – Ministry of Infrastructure’, Interfax – UKRAINE (18 March 2022), https://interfax.com.ua/news/general/815445.html [both accessed 29.03.25]. 51 Peter Beaumont, ‘“Trying to make the world starve”: Russian Drones Destroy Grain Warehouses at Ukraine Ports’, The Guardian (24 July 2023); Dinara Khalilova, ‘Kuleba: Russia Excluded from Danube Commission due to its Attacks on Odesa Oblast’, The Kiev Independent (1 March 2024).
Chapter 7: Numinous Rivers 1
Rabindranath Tagore, ‘Brahmā-Viṣṇu-Śiva’, Rabindranath Tagore: Selected Poems, trans. William Radice (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1985), 45–7. 2 G.S. Mudur, ‘ISRO Sheds Light on Adam’s Bridge’, The Telegraph Online (7 July 2024), https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/isro-sheds-light-onadams-bridge-submerged-ridge-a-continuity-from-india-to-sri-lanka/ cid/2032049 [accessed 05.03.25]. 3 ‘Ganges River’, in Paul Robbins (ed.), Encyclopedia of Environment and Society 5 (SAGE Publications, 2007), 723, https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/ edvol/environment/chpt/ganges-river. 4 The Ganges, World Wildlife Fund [WWF], https://www.wwf.org. uk/where-we-work/ganges [accessed 05.03.25]; M.M. Hossain, A.M. Zaman and Fulco Ludwig, ‘Climate Change Impact on the Discharge of Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) River Basin and Bangladesh’, International Conference on Climate Change in relation to Water and Environment (I3CWE-2015), Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur, 2015, 45; Md. Munsur Rahman et al., ‘Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Delta, Bangladesh and India: A Transnational Mega-Delta’, in Robert J. Nicholls et al. (eds), Deltas in the Anthropocene (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020), 23–51. 5 Gagan Matta et al., ‘Repercussions of Tourism on Water Quality of River Ganga in Lower Himalayas’, ESSENCE: International Journal for
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Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation (2018), 93; TOI Lifestyle Desk, ‘Beyond death: How Haridwar helps Souls Find Peace’, The Times of India, 20 March 2025. 6 Kim Knott, Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 13, 51, 113; R.S. Sharma, India’s Ancient Past (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005), 3–5. 7 Sudipta Sen, Ganges: The Many Pasts of an Indian River (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019), 7, 50–60; Sugata Ray, ‘Water Is a Limited Commodity: Ecological Aesthetics in the Little Ice Age, Mathura, ca. 1614’, in Sugata Ray and Maddipati Venugopal (eds), Water Histories of South Asia: The Materiality of Liquescence (Abingdon, Oxon/New York: Routledge, 2020), 37. 8 Sunil Amrith, ‘Land of Sacred Waters: The Quests and Trades that Flowed from the Ganges’, Lapham’s Quarterly (3 January 2019). 9 Lawrence A. Babb, Absent Lord: Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996), 5; Malise Ruthven, Islam: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd edn (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 38–9. 10 Knott, Hinduism, 3–4. 11 Sharma, India’s Ancient Past, 260; Amit Kumar, ‘Mapping Multiplicity: The Complex Landscape of Bodh Gaya’, Sociological Bulletin 64:1 (2015), 40; Sen, Ganges, 167–8; Knott, Hinduism, 113; Ficus Religiosa, Royal Horticultural Society, https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/7213/ficus-religiosa/ details [accessed 30.03.25]. 12 Frankopan, Silk Roads, 27–31. 13 Sabina Knight, Chinese Literature: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford/ New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 8-9; ‘Receding Water Levels of China’s Yangtze Reveal Ancient Buddhist Statues’, Reuters (20 August 2022), https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/receding-waterlevels-chinas-yangtze-reveal-ancient-buddhist-statues-2022-08-20/ [accessed 05.03.25]. 14 Sen, Ganges, 146–7; Frankopan, Silk Roads, 27. 15 Sen, Ganges, 197–8. 16 Kama Maclean, ‘Seeing, Being Seen, and Not Being Seen: Pilgrimage, Tourism, and Layers of Looking at the Kumbh Mela’, CrossCurrents 59:3 (2009), 320. 17 Sen, Ganges, 217–19; Sharma, India’s Ancient Past, 261–3. 18 Sharma, India’s Ancient Past, 140, 253, 260; Sen, Ganges, 221, 222. 19 Indira Gandhi, Address to the Plenary Session of the United Nations Conference on Human Environment at Stockholm, Sweden, on 14 June 1972, reproduced in ‘Poverty and Pollution’ in Indira Gandhi, The Spirit of
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India: Volumes presented to Shrimati Indira Gandhi by the Indira Gandhi Abhinandan Samiti: Volume One (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1985), 272. 20 Richard M. Eaton, ‘Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States’, Journal of Islamic Studies 11:3 (2000), 295–6. 21 Eaton, ‘Temple Desecration’, 313. 22 William Dalrymple, The Last Mughal: The Fall of Delhi, 1857 (London: Bloomsbury, 2006), 81; Sen, Ganges, 35. 23 Eaton, ‘Temple Desecration’, 313; Sen, Ganges, 244–9; Richard H. Davis, Lives of Indian Images (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1999), 75. 24 Vivek Nanda, ‘Kumbakonam: The Ritual Topography of a Sacred and Royal City of South India’, Archaeology International 3:1 (2012), 43–8; Diana L. Eck, India: A Sacred Geography (New York: Harmony Books, 2012), 156–7. 25 Morna Livingston, Steps to Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India (Princeton, NJ/Oxford: Princeton Architectural Press, 2002); Amanda M. Gaggioli et al., ‘Early Water Management in South Asia: Geochronology and Micromorphology of Rock Pools and Small-Scale Water Catchment Features in Karnataka, India’, Geoarchaeology 36:5 (2021), 780–8. 26 Tim Mackintosh-Smith (ed.), The Travels of Ibn Battutah (London: Picador, 2003), 210–11, 318n; Tamara I. Sears, ‘Following River Routes and Artistic Transmissions in Medieval Central India’, Ars Orientalis, 45 (2015), 43–5. 27 Iqtidar Husain Siddiqui, ‘Water Works and Irrigation System in India during Pre-Mughal Times’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 29:1 (1986), 52–77. 28 Iqtedar Alam, ‘Transitioning Waterscapes of the Two Great Tanks of Delhi: Hauz-i-Shamsi & Hauz-i-Khas’, in Q. Irshad and M. Juned (eds), Ekistics: An Approach to Urban-Regional Planning & Development, Vol. 2: Urban Transformation (New Delhi: Jamia Publishing House, 2020), 64; Siddiqui, ‘Water Works and Irrigation System’, 53–4. 29 Mackintosh-Smith (ed.), Travels of Ibn Battutah, 163. 30 Mehrdad Shokoohy and Natalie H. Shokoohy, ‘Tughluqabad, Third Interim Report: Gates, Silos, Waterworks and Other Features’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 66:1 (2003), 45; Siddiqui, ‘Water Works and Irrigation System’, 72; Alam, ‘Transitioning Waterscapes of the Two Great Tanks of Delhi’, 65–6; India Habitat Centre, ‘Hauz Khas – the tomb of Feroz Shah Tughlaq and the Madrasa complex’ (2016), https://www.indiahabitat.org/themes/ihc/img/ gallery/14430/14430.pdf [accessed 31.03.25]; ‘The Lat of Firozshah Tughlaq [Delhi]’, Photograph by Samuel Bourne, 1860 (British Library), https://
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it.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Lat_of_Ferozeh_Shah_-Delhi-..jpg [accessed 31.03.25]. 31 Justin Marozzi, Tamerlane Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World (London: Harper Perennial, 2005), 204; Elizabeth B. Moynihan, Paradise as a Garden in Persia and Mughal India (New York: George Braziller, 1979), 95. 32 Babur, Baburnama: A Memoir, trans. Annette Susannah Beveridge (New Delhi: Rupa Publications India Pvt Ltd, 2017), 326–7. 33 Babur, Baburnama, 318. 34 Moynihan, Paradise as a Garden, 1; Margrit Pernau, ‘Mapping Emotions, Constructing Feelings: Delhi in the 1840s’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 58:5 (2015), 646. 35 Moynihan, Paradise as a Garden, 49. 36 Moynihan, Paradise as a Garden, vii, 102–4. 37 Moynihan, Paradise as a Garden, 98. 38 Sen, Ganges, 292. 39 Asoka Pillar Edict V quoted in Sen, Ganges, 147; N.A. Nikam and Richard McKeon, The Edicts of Asoka (Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press, 1959), 2, 15, 55–6; A. Ghosh, ‘The Pillars of Aśoka – Their Purpose’, East and West 17:3/4 (1967), 273. 40 Ray, ‘Water is a Limited Commodity’, 42. 41 ‘Krishna Janmasthan temple, (Krishna Jàmbhoomi), Mathura | Lord Kirshna’s birthplace’, The Gaudiya Treasures of Bengal, https:// thegaudiyatreasuresofbengal.com/2022/10/14/krishna-janmbhoomi-sri-krishna-janmasthan-temple-mathura/ [accessed 28.08.24]. 42 Knott, Hinduism, 13, 34–5, 52; Sharma, India’s Ancient Past, 246–7. 43 Ray, ‘Water is a Limited Commodity’, 37, 42, 43. 44 Quoted in Eaton, ‘Temple Desecration’, 303. 45 Ray, ‘Water is a Limited Commodity’, 43. 46 Ray, ‘Water is a Limited Commodity’, 43, 46, 53; Salim Zaweed, ‘Salient Features of Bundela Architecture at Orchha’, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 68 (2007), 1409, 1411. 47 ‘Aurangzeb’s Id-gah at Mathura by Sita Ram c. 1814–15’ (British Library), https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aurangzab27s_red_sandstone_mosque_on_the_birthplace_of_Krishna_-_British_Library_Add. or.4844.jpg [accessed 01.04.25]; Michael H. Fisher, An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 109. 48 Dr Mohammad Ghitreef, ‘Mathura Shahi Idgah Masjid: We Should Not Be Negligent This Time, Muslim Mirror (15 October 2020), https://muslimmirror.com/eng/
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mathura-shahi-idgah-masjid-we-should-not-be-negligent-this-time/ [accessed 26.08.22]. 49 Eaton, ‘Temple Desecration’, 305, 306–7. 50 Krishna N. Das, ‘India’s Holy Men to Advise Modi’s Ganges River Cleanup’, Reuters (New Delhi) (12 June 2014), http://reut.rs/2vnJFKN [accessed 06.03.25]; Mrigank Tiwari, ‘Ganga Ties Hindus, Muslims’, Times of India (19 January 2011); Sushmita Pathak, ‘A Hindu-Muslim Dispute Tests Centuries of Interfaith Culture in India’s Varanasi’, WGCU PBS and NPR for Southwest Florida (16 September 2023), https://news.wgcu. org/2023-09-16/a-hindu-muslim-dispute-tests-centuries-of-interfaithculture-in-indias-varanasi [accessed 06.03.25]. 51 Syed Serajul Islam, ‘The Tragedy of the Babri Masjid: An Expression of Militant Hindu Fundamentalism in India’, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 17:2 (1997), 345; S.K. Jain, Pushpendra K. Agarwa and V.P. Singh, Hydrology and Water Resources of India (Dordrecht: Springer, 2007), 341; ‘Ayodhya Seen from the River Ghaghara, Uttar Pradesh: Coloured Etching by William Hodges, 1785’, Wellcome Collection 26802i. 52 Knott, Hinduism, 13, 40–3, 58; Robert P. Goldman, ‘Introduction’, in Robert P. Goldman (ed.), The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), 14. 53 Islam, ‘Tragedy of the Babri Masjid’, 345–6; Prashant Waikar, ‘Reading Islamophobia in Hindutva: An Analysis of Narendra Modi’s Political Discourse’, Islamophobia Studies Journal 4:2 (2018), 168; Mark Tran, ‘Ayodhya: Guardian Coverage of the Babri Mosque Attack’, The Guardian (30 September 2010); Saurabh Sharma and YP Rajesh, ‘India’s Modi leads consecration of Ram temple in Ayodhya’, Reuters (22 January 2024), https://www.reuters.com/world/india/india-counts-down-opening-grandram-temple-ayodhya-2024-01-22/ [accessed 01.04.25]. 54 Andrew Lawler, ‘Indus Collapse: The End or the Beginning of an Asian Culture’, Science 320 (6 June 2008), 1283; G.S. Mudur, ‘ISRO Sheds Light on Adam’s Bridge’, The Telegraph Online (7 July 2024), https://www. telegraphindia.com/india/isro-sheds-light-on-adams-bridge-submergedridge-a-continuity-from-india-to-sri-lanka/cid/2032049 [accessed 06.03.25]; A. Chatterjee, ‘Do You Believe in Ram Setu? Adam’s Bridge, Epistemic Plurality and Colonial Legacy’, Island Studies Journal, 18(2) (2023), 1–25. 55 Romila Thapar, ‘Imagined Religious Communities? Ancient History and the Modern Search for a Hindu Identity’, Modern Asian Studies 23:2 (1989), 216.
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Chapter 8: River under Occupation 1
Bengal District Administration Committee, 1913–14 (Calcutta: Bengal Secretariat Press, 1914), 53. 2 Sen, Ganges, 310–13. 3 Chitarman, ‘Shah Jahan on a Terrace, Holding a Pendant Set with his Portrait’, Folio from the Shah Jahan Album, (1627–28), The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Object No. 55.121.10.24. 4 Sen, Ganges, 315–16. 5 Sen, Ganges, 317–18. 6 D.A. Washbrook, ‘India, 1818–1860’, in Porter (ed.), Oxford History of Empire: Vol. III, 395–421; Sen, Ganges, 318. 7 Elizabeth Whitcombe, ‘Irrigation’, in Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai (eds), The Cambridge Economic History of India, Vol. II. c.1757–c.1970 (New Delhi/Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 690, 730. 8 British Library [BL] (Asian and African Studies): IOR/F/4/1573/64239: Refusal of Bishwanath Singh, son of the Raja of Rewah to pay the Pilgrim Tax on the Occasion of his visiting Allahabad to Bathe in the Waters of the Ganges and Jumna (October 1833–February 1835); Andrea Major, Sovereignty and Social Reform in India: British Colonialism and the Campaign Against Sati, 1830–1860 (New York: Routledge, 2011), 61. 9 BL: IOR/F/4/1573/64239: Letter from A. Spiers to Stockwell Esq, Commissioner Revenue, Allahabad (28 September 1833). My emphasis. 10 BL: IOR/F/4/1573/64239: Letter from Spiers to Stockwell. 11 Katherine Prior, ‘The British Administration of Hinduism in North India, 1780–1900’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, 1990), 74, 183. 12 ‘Kharif Crop vs Rabi Crop’, EIACP PC Hub: Kerala, Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment, http://www.kerenvis.nic.in/ Database/Crops_2419.aspx [accessed 06.03.25]. 13 S. Bhattacharya, ‘Eastern India’, in Kumar and Desai (eds), Cambridge Economic History of India, Vol II, 283; Sen, Ganges, 318. 14 Robin J. Moore, ‘Imperial India, 1858–1914’, in Porter (ed.), Oxford History of Empire: Vol. III, 441. 15 ‘No. I. Tea from Assam’, Transactions of the Society, Instituted at London, for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce 53 (1839), 30–3; Hyde Clarke, ‘On the English Settlement of the Hill Regions of India’, Journal of the Society of Arts 6:287 (1858), 423–34; Bhattacharya, ‘Eastern India’, 310–12; ‘The History of Tea and Twinings’, Twinings Blog, https://twinings.co.uk/blogs/news/history-of-twinings [accessed 06.03.25].
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16 ‘Water Power in India’, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 70:3624 (1922), 440–1; Francis Lydall, ‘Hydro-Electric Development in India’, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 94:4726 (1946), 619–21; Whitcombe, ‘Irrigation’, 731–4. 17 Tom G. Kessinger, ‘North India’, in Kumar and Desai (eds), Cambridge Economic History of India, Vol. II, 242–70. 18 L.S.S. O’Malley, Bihar and Orissa District Gazeteers: Patna, revised by J.F.W. James (Patna: Bihar and Orissa Government Printing, 1924), 131–3; J. Johnston, Inland Navigation on the Gangetic Rivers (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co, 1933), 7, 18. 19 O’Malley, Bihar and Orissa District Gazeteers: Patna, 133; Kessinger, ‘North India’, 245. 20 Bhattacharya, ‘Eastern India’, 277–79; Mohammad Ponir Hossain, ‘Living along a “Dead” River in Bangladesh’, Reuters (19 April 2023), https:// www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/earth-day-bangladesh-river/ [accessed 06.03.25]. 21 Bhattacharya, ‘Eastern India’, 293–4. 22 Johnston, Inland Navigation on the Gangetic Rivers, 7, 28; Amitav Ghosh, The Great Derangement: Climate Change and the Unthinkable (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2016), 104–5; ‘Ghazi-ud-din Haider’, Indian Culture, Government of India, https://indianculture.gov.in/ artefacts-museums/ghazi-ud-din-haider#:~:text=Description3A20 Ghazi2Dud2Ddin,orderlies20standing20on20either20side [accessed 04.04.25]. 23 The Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. 12 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1908), 136 [Ganges], Digital South Asia Library, https://dsal.uchicago.edu/ reference/gazetteer. 24 Johnston, Inland Navigation on the Gangetic Rivers, 31, 34. 25 Virginia Berridge, Opium and the People: Opiate Use and Policy in 19th and Early 20th Century Britain, 2nd edn (New York: Free Association Press, 1999), 8–9. 26 Washbrook, ‘India, 1818–1860’, 403; Bhattacharya, ‘Eastern India’, 312–15; Berridge, Opium and the People, 7–8. 27 Washbrook, ‘India, 1818–1860’, 404; ‘The Stacking Room’, ‘Opium Fleet Descending the Ganges on the Way to Calcutta’: lithographs after W.S. Sherwill (c. 1850) text in ‘The Indo-Chinese Opium Trade: Notes at an Opium Factory at Patna’, The Graphic, 24 June 1882, 640, reproduced in Benjamin Broomhall, The Truth about Opium Smoking (London, 1882), 116–17. 28 Peter C. Perdue, ‘Production & Consumption’ in ‘The First Opium War: The Anglo-Chinese War of 1839–1842’, Digital Essay, MIT
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Visualizing Cultures, https://visualizingcultures.mit.edu/opium_wars_01/ ow1_essay02.html [accessed 06.03.25]; Yangwen Zheng, The Social Life of Opium in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 71 (map). 29 Leela Visaria and Parvin Visaria, ‘Population (1757–1947)’, in Kumar and Desai (eds), Cambridge Economic History of India: Vol. II, 529. 30 Chetan Singh, ‘Forests, Pastoralists and Agrarian Society in Mughal India’, in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha (eds), Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995), 21–2; Mike Davis, ‘The Origins of the Third World: Markets, States and Climate’, Corner House Briefing 27 (30 December 2002), http://www.thecornerhouse.org.uk/resource/ origins-third-world [accessed 04.04.25]. 31 BL: Mss Eur F699/1/2/2/188: No. 72 ‘Private Secretary’s Correspondence’, Nos. 7101 to 7150, Mar 1860–Jun 1860, Item 7126, Letter from Baboo Kishan Lall to the Rt Hon. Lord Canning, Viceroy and Governor General of India (10 May 1860); Thomas R. Metcalf, ‘Charles John Canning, Earl Canning (1812–1862), governor-general and first viceroy of India’, ODNB. 32 P.T. Cautley, Report on the Ganges Canal Works: From their Commencement until the Opening of the Canal in 1854. Vol. I, Printed by Order of the Secretary of State for India in Council (London, 1860), 67. 33 Quoted in Whitcombe, ‘Irrigation’, 689–90. 34 Visaria and Visaria, ‘Population (1757–1947)’, 492–3; Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World (London/New York: Verso, 2001), 7. 35 Visaria and Visaria, ‘Population (1757–1947)’, 493. 36 Cautley, Report on the Ganges Canal Works, Vol. I, 124, 131; Victor Mallet, River of Life, River of Death: The Ganges and India’s Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 166–7; ‘The Ganges Canal’, The Ganges, India Institute of Civil Engineers [ICE], https://www.ice.org. uk/what-is-civil-engineering/infrastructure-projects/the-ganges-canal [accessed 06.03.25]; Georgina Drew, ‘Transformation and Resistance on the Upper Ganga: The Ongoing Legacy of British Canal Irrigation’, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 37:4 (2014), 674–6. 37 ‘Opening of the Ganges Canal’, Illustrated London News (5 August 1854), 117–18. 38 Cautley, Report on the Ganges Canal Works, Vol. I, 130–1. 39 P.T. Cautley, Report on the Ganges Canal Works: From their Commencement until the Opening of the Canal in 1854, Vol. II, Printed by Order of the Secretary of State for India in Council (London, 1860), 403, 433; Sen, Ganges, 222.
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40 Washbrook, ‘India, 1818–1860’, 418–19; Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf, A Concise History of Modern India, 3rd edn (Cambridge/ New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 101–3; Dalrymple, Last Mughal, 2. 41 Metcalf and Metcalf, Concise History of Modern India, 103; The Memorial Well, Cawnpore, Statue by Marochetti, albumen print by Samuel Bourne 1865–6, University of Michigan Museum of Art, https://umma.umich.edu/ objects/the-memorial-well-cawnpore-statue-by-marochetti-1984-1-308/; ‘Mutiny Memorial in New Delhi’, National Army Museum, Blog and photograph, https://collection.nam.ac.uk/detail.php?acc=1980-04-37-31 [both accessed 06.03.25]. 42 Ghalib, quoted in Dalrymple, Last Mughal, 80. 43 ‘Maharaja Shri Ishwari Prasad Narayan Singh Bahadur of Benares (1822–89) c. 1887’, Royal Collection Trust, Albumen print and description, https://www.rct.uk/collection/2107688/maharaja-shri-ishwari-prasadnarayan-singh-bahadur-of-benares-1822-89 [accessed 06.03.25]. 44 Isle of Wight Record Office: OG/CC/2301: Letter from Joan Kennard, Grand Hotel, Darjeeling, India, to her father, John H. Oglander [c/o H.H. Maharajah of Benares Guest House, Benares] (6 March 1910). 45 Hugh Tinker, The Foundations of Local Self-Government in India, Pakistan and Burma (London: Pall Mall Press, 1954), 58; Sandria B. Freitag, ‘State and Community: Symbolic Popular Protest in Banaras’s Public Arenas’, in Sandria B. Freitag (ed.), Culture and Power in Banaras: Community, Performance, and Environment, 1800–1980 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA/Oxford: University of California Press, 1989), 220–3; John Broich, ‘Engineering the Empire: British Water Supply Systems and Colonial Societies, 1850–1900’, Journal of British Studies 46:2 (2007), 359–60. 46 Freitag, ‘State and Community’, 222–3. 47 Bengal District Administration Committee, 1913–14 (Calcutta: Bengal Secretariat Press, 1914), 10, 12; East India (Sedition Committee, 1918). Report of Committee appointed to Investigate Revolutionary Conspiracies in India (London: HMSO, 1918), 11–12, 18–19. 48 Curzon, Speech on 20 July 1904, quoted in Moore, ‘Imperial India, 1858–1914’, 443; Robin J. Moore, ‘Curzon and Indian Reform’, Modern Asian Studies 27:4 (1993), 719–40; Raja Deen Dayal, ‘Just after Shooting: Lord and Lady Curzon Posed with Tiger Shot at 70 Yards, near Nekonda, Warangal District, Hyderabad, c.1902 (b/w photo)’, British Library archive/Bridgeman Images, Image no. BL6867170; ‘Lord Curzon and Maharaja Scindia Madhavrao II Scindia, with Tigers, 1911 (c)’, Photograph, India c. 1911, National Army Museum, Accession no. NAM.1964-08-20-34.
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Chapter 9: Dividing the Waters 1
Dadabhai Naoroji, ‘Ninth Congress – Lahore – 1893’, in Speeches and Writings of Dadabhai Naoroji (Madras: A. Natesan & Co., 1918), 57. 2 O.H.K. Spate, ‘The Partition of the Punjab and of Bengal’, The Geographical Journal 110:4/6 (1947), Fig. 6 (map). 3 From Taslima Nasrin, ‘Denial’, Ay Kosto Jhenpe, Jiban Debo Mepe (1994), translated by Subhoranjan Dasgupta in Ranabir Samaddar (ed.), Reflections on Partition in the East (Calutta/New Delhi: Calcutta Research Group/Vikas Publishing House, 1997), 210. 4 Sharma, India’s Ancient Past, 3. 5 Lawler, ‘Indus Collapse’, 1283. 6 Sharma, India’s Ancient Past, 3; Thapar, ‘Imagined Religious Communities?’, 222. 7 Babur, Baburnama, 316. 8 O.H.K. Spate, ‘The Boundary Award in the Punjab’, The Asiatic Review (Jan 1948), 8. 9 Muhammad Ali Jinnah, 1940, quoted in Anita D. Raman, ‘Of Rivers and Human Rights: The Northern Areas, Pakistan’s Forgotten Colony in Jammu and Kashmir’, International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 11:1/2 (2004), 210. 10 W.H. Auden, ‘Partition’, The Atlantic (1966), in The Complete Works of W.H. Auden: Poems, Volume II 1940–1973, ed. Edward Mendelson (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2022), 610–11; ‘Never set eyes on the Land’, Nutkhut Exhibition, University of Greenwich 2019, https://www. nutkhut.co.uk/projects/never-set-eyes/ [accessed 31.12.20]. 11 Ian Copland, ‘The Master and the Maharajas: The Sikh Princes and the East Punjab Massacres of 1947’, Modern Asian Studies 36:3 (2002), 658n. 12 Spate, ‘Partition of the Punjab and of Bengal’, 202–3. 13 ‘Building a City from Scratch – The New Town of Milton Keynes’ (1967), ITN Archive, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8nP5YtIuAJg [accessed 26.08.24]. 14 Tim Marshall, Prisoners of Geography: Ten Maps Telling You Everything You Need to Know about Global Politics (London: Elliott and Thompson Limited, 2016), 200–2; Daniel Haines, ‘(Inter)Nationalist Rivers?: Cooperative Development in David Lilienthal’s Plan for the Indus Basin, 1951’, Water History 6:2 (2014), 138. 15 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO]. AQUASTAT Transboundary River Basins – Indus River Basin (Rome, Italy: FAO, 2011), Table 1. 16 ‘Know Punjab’, Government of Punjab, India, https://punjab.gov.in/ know-punjab [accessed 06.03.25].
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17 James M. Douie, ‘The Punjab Canal Colonies’, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 62:3210 (1914), 611; Khushwant Singh, A History of the Sikhs: Volume 2: 1839–2004, 2nd edn (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004), 116. 18 Spate, ‘Partition of the Punjab and of Bengal’, 208; F.J. Fowler, ‘Some Problems of Water Distribution between East and West Punjab’, Geographical Review 40:4 (1950), 591; Mahesh Rangarajan, ‘Environmental Histories of India: Of States, Landscapes, and Ecologies’, in Edmund Burke and Kenneth Pomeranz (eds), The Environment and World History (Berkeley/Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2009), 240. 19 Spate, ‘Partition of the Punjab and of Bengal’, 209; Amjad Iqbal, ‘Over 2,500 Indian Sikhs Attend Annual Pilgrimage’, The Dawn (22 November 2015), https://www.dawn.com/news/1221378 [accessed 28.08.22]. 20 Navtej K. Purewal and Virinder S. Kalra, ‘Adaptation and Incorporation in Ritual Practices at the Golden Temple, Amritsar’, Journal of Ritual Studies 30:1 (2016), 75–6. 21 Quoted in Stephen C. McCaffrey, ‘The Harmon Doctrine One Hundred Years Later: Buried, Not Praised’, Natural Resources Journal 36:4 (1996), 972. 22 Quoted in McCaffrey, ‘Harmon Doctrine’, 981; Haines, ‘Disputed Rivers’, 641. 23 McCaffrey, ‘Harmon Doctrine’, 967, 1002. 24 Haines, ‘(Inter)Nationalist Rivers?’, 134, 138, 142; Haines, ‘Disputed Rivers’. 25 Joya Chatterji, ‘The Fashioning of a Frontier: The Radcliffe Line and Bengal’s Border Landscape, 1947–52’, Modern Asian Studies 33:1 (1999), 188, 199. 26 Md. Munsur Rahman et al., ‘Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Delta, Bangladesh and India: A Transnational Mega-Delta’, in Robert J. Nicholls et al. (eds), Deltas in the Anthropocene (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020), 23–51. 27 Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve (National Park). Bird Life International, Data Zone. Site Description (2004 Baseline). https://datazone.birdlife.org/ site/factsheet/sundarbans-biosphere-reserve-(national-park)-iba-india; Kazi Ahsan Habib et al., ‘An Overview of Fishes of the Sundarbans, Bangladesh and Their Present Conservation Status’, Journal of Threatened Taxa 12:1 (2020), 15156. 28 Habib et al., ‘Overview of Fishes of the Sundarbans’, 15160, 15165. 29 Chatterji, ‘Fashioning of a Frontier’, 222. 30 Chatterji, ‘Fashioning of a Frontier’, 210, 215; Kimberley Anh Thomas, ‘The River-Border Complex: A Border-Integrated Approach to Transboundary River Governance illustrated by the Ganges River and
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Indo-Bangladeshi Border’, Water International 42:1 (2017), 43, 45. 31 Chatterji, ‘Fashioning of a Frontier’, 221–5. 32 Amitav Ghosh, The Great Derangement: Climate Change and the Unthinkable (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2016), 6; Rohan D’Souza, ‘Event, Process and Pulse: Resituating Floods in Environmental Histories of South Asia’, Environment and History 26:1 (2020), 31–49. 33 Chatterji, ‘Fashioning of a Frontier’, 224; Haines, ‘Disputed Rivers’, 640. 34 Thomas, ‘River-Border Complex’, 44. 35 Thomas, ‘River-Border Complex’, 43–4; Punam Pandey, ‘Revisiting the Politics of the Ganga Water Dispute between India and Bangladesh’, India Quarterly: A Journal of International Affairs 68:3 (2012), 267–81. 36 Sikander Abu Jafar, ‘This Struggle Will Go On’, in Poems for Bangla Desh: The Voice of a New Nation. Translated from the Bengali by Pritish Nandy. Selected by Tambimuttu (London: Lyrebird Press, 1972), 50. 37 Shaheedulla Qaiser, ‘To the Mother of a Martyr’, in Poems for Bangla Desh, 30–1. 38 Humayun Azaad, ‘The Blood Bank’, in Poems for Bangla Desh, 66. 39 Sen, Ganges, 349. 40 Indira Gandhi, ‘Address to the Plenary Session of the United Nations Conference on Human Environment at Stockholm, Sweden, on 14 June 1972’, reproduced in ‘Poverty and Pollution’, The Spirit of India: Volumes Presented to Shrimati Indira Gandhi by the Indira Gandhi Abhinandan Samiti: Volume One (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1985), 272. 41 Sen, Ganges, 343. 42 Archana Chaudhary, ‘A Journey Down the Ganges in the Age of Modi’, Bloomberg (2 May 2019), https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2019ganges-journey/ [accessed 28.08.22]; John Irwin, ‘The Ancient Pillar-Cult at Prayāga (Allahabad): Its Pre-Aśokan Origins’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 2 (1983), 253. 43 Hannan McCormick et al. (eds), State of the Thames 2021: Environmental Trends of the Tidal Thames (London: Zoological Society of London, 2021). 44 Tseqaye Gabre-Medhin, ‘Nile’ (written in English, 1997), in Beckett and Tebeje (eds), Songs We Learn from Trees, 71–3. 45 Rohan D’Souza, ‘Water in British India: The Making of a “Colonial Hydrology”’, History Compass 4:4 (2006), 621–8. 46 B.L. Verma, ‘Delhi Water Supply and Sanitation’, India International Centre Quarterly 9:3/4 (1982), 311, 314, 317. 47 John Vidal, ‘Himalayas Hydroelectric Dam Project Stopped after Scientist on Hunger Strike against the Project Almost Dies’, The Guardian (13 March 2009); Georgina Drew, ‘Transformation and Resistance on the Upper Ganga: The Ongoing Legacy of British Canal Irrigation’, South
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Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 37:4 (2 October 2014), 670–83; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Himalaya, expanded edn (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991), 173; Sen, Ganges, 347. 48 Guha, Unquiet Woods, 155–7, 162, 166, 170, 178; D’Souza, ‘Event, Process and Pulse’, 31–2. 49 Guha, Unquiet Woods, 177. 50 See e.g. Guha, Unquiet Woods, 178ff; Sen, Ganges, 346–53; Georgina Drew, ‘Mountain Women, Dams, and the Gendered Dimensions of Environmental Protest in the Garhwal Himalaya’, Mountain Research and Development 34:3 (2014), 235–42; ‘The Tehri Dam, India – Stumbling Toward Disaster’, Cultural Survival (24 February 2010), Catastrophe, https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/ tehri-dam-india-stumbling-toward-catastrophe [accessed 06.03.25]. 51 ‘Save the Ganga Movement’ – An Initiative to Protect River Ganga (4 September 2009), India Water Portal, https://www.indiawaterportal.org/ articles/save-ganga-movement-initiative-protect-river-ganga [accessed 06.02.25]; Nandini Oza, The Struggle for Narmada: An Oral History of the Narmada Bachao Andolan, by Adivasi Leaders Keshavbhau and Kevalsingh Vasave (Hyderabad: Orient BlackSwan, 2022). 52 Ganges River Dolphin, WWF, https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/ ganges-river-dolphin; Indus River Dolphin, WWF https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/indus-river-dolphin; Amazon River Dolphin, WWF, https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/amazon-river-dolphin [all accessed 06.05.25]. 53 DG Correspondent, ‘Dolphin Declared the National Aquatic Animal of India’, Blog, Delhi Greens (27 May 2010) [accessed 06.05.25]. 54 DG Correspondent, ‘Dolphin Declared the National Aquatic Animal of India’; Government of Pakistan Tweet (24 February 2019), 4:10 p.m., https://twitter.com/GovtofPakistan/ status/1099703121058717697?s=20&t=nXmpRDjYLjjnQeEniM_WVw [accessed 06.05.25]; ‘Indus River Dolphin’, WWF. 55 Rita Brara and Maria Valeria Berros, ‘A World Parliament of Rivers’, Springs: The Rachel Carson Center Review 1 (2022), https://springs-rcc. org/attributing-legal-personhood-to-rivers/ [accessed 24.04.25]; Isabella Kaminski, ‘River Ouse May Become First in England to Gain Legal Rights’, The Guardian (1 March 2023). 56 Rights of Rivers: A Global Survey of the Rapidly Developing Rights of Nature Jurisprudence pertaining to Rivers (Cyrus R. Vance Centre/Earth Law Centre, International Rivers, undated, c. 2021), Section 4.4.1 India, https://www.internationalrivers.org/resources/reports-and-publications/
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rights-of-river-report/ [accessed 06.05.25]. 57 Bushra Quasmi, ‘Rivers as Legal Persons: A Regressive Step’, Economic and Political Weekly 52:30 (2017), 26.
Chapter 10: Birth of a River 1 2
3
4
5 6
7
8
Mr and Mrs S.C. Hall, The Book of the Thames: From Its Rise to its Fall (London, 1859), 4. Jonathan Schneer, The Thames: England’s River (London: Little, Brown, 2005), x; Thames River Trust, ‘The Thames River Basin’, https://www. thamesriverstrust.org.uk/the-thames-river-basin/; ‘“Water and Wetland Index – Critical Issues in Water Policy across Europe (2003)”: Results Overview for the Thames River Basin (United Kingdom)’, WWF (2003), 1, https://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/wwithamesuk.pdf [both accessed 12.05.25]. ‘Early Ice Age’, GeoEssex’ [accessed 15.07.22]; Andrew S. Goudie and Denys Brunsden, The Environment of the British Isles: An Atlas (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1994), 2, 5. Margaret E. Collinson, Fossil Plants of the London Clay (London: The Palaeontological Association, London, 1984); ‘Introduction’, in British Regional Geology: London and the Thames Valley, compiled by M.G. Sumbler, 4th edn (London: HMSO for the British Geological Survey, 1996), 3–4; R.A. Ellison and J.A. Zalasiewicz, ‘Palaeogene and Neogene’, in British Regional Geology (1996), 94, 103–4. ‘Introduction’, in British Regional Geology, 4; Ellison and Zalasiewicz, ‘Palaeogene and Neogene’, 92. Samuel Pepys, The Diary of Samuel Pepys (22 September 1665), https:// www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1665/09/22/; ‘East India Company ships at Deptford’, Royal Museums Greenwich, https://www.rmg.co.uk/ collections/objects/rmgc-object-13352; Jon Cotton, ‘The Early River Thames: The Iron Age and Before’ (24 February 2017), Brewminate: A Bold Blend of News and Ideas [all accessed 06.03.25]. M.G. Slumbler et al., ‘Quaternary’, in British Regional Geology, 132; Cotton, ‘Early River Thames’; Walter Thornbury, ‘Bagnigge Wells’, in Old and New London: Volume 2 (London, 1878), 296–8, in British History Online, http://www.british-history.ac.uk/old-new-london/vol2/pp296-298; ‘John Conyers’, The British Museum, https://www.britishmuseum.org/ collection/term/AUTH233374 [both accessed 18.04.25]. ‘A letter to the publisher, written by the ingenious Mr. John Bagford’, in Leland’s Collectanea (1715): Joannis Lelandi Antiquarii de Rebus Britannicis Collectanea: cum Thomae Hearnii Praefatione Notis et Indice
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ad Editionem Primam (London, 1770), lxiii–lxvi. 9 D.P. McCarthy, ‘The Biblical Chronology of James Ussher’, Irish Astronomical Journal 24 (1997), 73–82; Handaxe, British Museum Cat. No. SLAntiq.246. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/ H_SLAntiq-246 [accessed 18.04.25]. 10 Lisa Hendry, ‘First Britons’, Natural History Museum (NHM) Blog https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/first-britons.html [accessed 15.02.25]. 11 L.C. Dale, ‘An Analysis of the Furze Platt Handaxes at the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto’, Lithics: The Journal of the Lithic Studies Society 41 (2020), 66; Slumbler et al., ‘Quaternary’, 129, 130, 132; Derek Hodgson, ‘The First Appearance of Symmetry in the Human Lineage: Where Perception Meets Art’, Symmetry 3:1 (2011), 45. 12 L.C. Dale, ‘Early Neanderthal Social and Behavioural Complexity during the Purfleet Interglacial: Handaxes in the Latest Lower Palaeolithic’ (unpublished PhD thesis, Durham University, 2022), 16–17; Dinnis and Stringer, Britain, 53. 13 Ian Sample, ‘First Humans Arrived in Britain 250,000 Years Earlier than Thought’, The Guardian (7 July 2010); Nick Ashton et al., ‘Hominin Footprints from Early Pleistocene Deposits at Happisburgh, UK’, PLoS ONE 9:2 (2014), 1–13; Chris Gosden, Prehistory: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 29–30. 14 Josie Mills, ‘Migration Event: When Did the First Humans Arrive in Britain?’, University College London [UCL] Blog (24 February 2019), https://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/researchers-in-museums/2019/02/24/migrationevent-when-did-the-first-humans-arrive-in-britain/ [accessed 23.04.22]; ‘First Pioneers in Northern Europe 900,000 Years Ago’, British Museum Blog, https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/projects/first-pioneersnorthern-europe [accessed 21.04.22]. 15 Ancient Human Occupation of Britain (AHOB) Database: Happisburgh 1 Epoch: Middle Pleistocene; Biozone: ‘Cromerian’; MIS: 13, https://www. ahobproject.org/database/showSite.php?View=FAUNA&LocNum=25; AHOB Database: Happisburgh 3 Epoch: Early Pleistocene; Biozone: ‘Cromerian’; MIS: 21, https://www.ahobproject.org/database/showSite. php?View=FAUNA&LocNum=745 [both accessed 07.03.25]; Dinnis and Stringer, Britain, 43; Song Xing et al., ‘Middle Pleistocene Hominin Teeth from Longtan Cave, Hexian, China’, PLoS ONE 9:2 (2014), 2, 4; Yangheshan Yang et al., ‘Last Record of Trogontherium Cuvieri (Mammalia, Rodentia) from the Late Pleistocene of China’, Quaternary International 513 (2019), 30–6. 16 Dinnis and Stringer, Britain, 81–3. 17 Slumbler et al., ‘Quaternary’, 110. 18 ‘Mammoth Bones at Trafalgar-Square’, The Times (21 November 1924), 17;
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Chris Manias, ‘Hippos of the Thames’, History Today, 66:4 (2016). 19 Slumbler et al., ‘Quaternary’, 110, 129; ‘First Pioneers in Northern Europe 900,000 Years Ago’, British Museum Blog. 20 Luc Amkreutz and Sasja van der Vaart-Verschoof (eds), Doggerland: Lost World under the North Sea (Leiden: Sidestone Press, 2022). 21 Dinnis and Stringer, Britain, 93; Cunliffe, Europe between the Oceans, 36–7; Olav Odé et al., ‘Mapping a Drowning Land’, in Amkreutz and van der Vaart-Verschoof (eds), Doggerland, 38–41. 22 Cunliffe, Europe between the Oceans, 37 (maps); Odé et al., ‘Mapping a Drowning Land’. 23 Dinnis and Stringer, Britain, 143; ‘Cheddar Man FAQ’, NHM Blog, https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/research/projects/human-adaptation-diet-disease/cheddar-man-faq.html [accessed 15.02.25]. 24 Richard Bradley, The Prehistory of Britain and Ireland, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 7. 25 Dominic Perring, ‘London’s Hadrianic War?’, Britannia, 48 (2017), 42–3. 26 Battersea Shield, British Museum no. 1857,0715.1, https://www.british museum.org/collection/object/H_1857-0715-1; The Waterloo Helmet, British Museum no. 1988,1004.1, https://www.britishmuseum.org/ collection/object/H_1988-1004-1; La Tène, British Museum, https://www. britishmuseum.org/collection/term/x111161 [all accessed 07.05.25]. 27 Bradley, Prehistory of Britain and Ireland, 166. 28 Salway, Roman Britain, 16, 19; Barry W. Cunliffe, The Celts: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 80. 29 William Shakespeare, The Life and Death of Richard the Second, Act 2, Sc. 1, http://shakespeare.mit.edu/richardii/richardii.2.1.html [accessed 15.02.25]. 30 Michael B. Charles and Michael Singleton, ‘Claudius, Elephants and Britain: Making Sense of Cassius Dio 60.21.2’, Britannia, 53 (2022), 175; A.A. Barrett, ‘Claudius’ British Victory Arch in Rome’, Britannia 22 (1991), 1; Salway, Roman Britain, 13, 24–5. 31 John Schofield and Tony Dyson, Archaeology of the City of London (London: City of London Archaeological Trust, 1980), 6; Cunliffe, Celts, 18–21, 88–9; Salway, Roman Britain, 8, 19–21. 32 Quote from The Panegyrick Oration, Ascribed to Mamertinus, in Praise of the Emperours Dioclesian and Maximian; Intituled only to Maximian, in Aylett Sammes, Britannia Antiqua Illustrata, Vol. I (London: 1676), 310; Salway, Roman Britain, 12; Cunliffe, Celts, 89. 33 Tacitus, ‘Agricola’, Agricola and Germania, no. 11, page 9. 34 Tacitus quoted in Salway, Roman Britain, 33. 35 Barry Cunliffe, ‘The Temple of Sulis Minerva at Bath’, Archaeology 36:6 (1983), 16–23; Salway, Roman Britain, 54–5.
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36 M. Rhodes. ‘The Roman Coinage from London Bridge and the Development of the City and Southwark’, Britannia 22 (1991), 179–90; ‘London Span’, Arizona Republic (19 April 1968), 18. 37 J.N. Adams, ‘“Romanitas” and the Latin Language’, The Classical Quarterly 53:1 (2003), 184–205. 38 Peter Ackroyd, Thames: Sacred River (London: Vintage Books, 2008), 23–4. 39 Peter Rowsome and Mark Burch, Londinium: A New Map and Guide to Roman London (London: Museum of London Archaeology, 2011); Ian Blair and Jenny Hall, Working Water: Roman Technology in Action (London: Museum of London, 2003), 13–14. 40 Rowsome and Burch, ‘Londinium: A New Map’; BHM Aquincumi Museum and Archaeological Park, http://www.aquincum.hu/en/aktprogram/beporzok-napja-2025; ‘Roman Amphitheatre’, Alexandria Portal, http://www.alexandria.gov.eg/Alex/english/Roman20Amphitheater.html [both accessed 15.02.25]. 41 Stephen D. Myers, ‘The River Walbrook and Roman London’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Reading, 2016), 1–2; Rowsome and Burch, ‘Londinium: A New Map’. 42 Rowsome and Burch, ‘Londinium: A New Map’. 43 Isca Howell et al., Roman and Medieval Development South of Cheapside: Excavations at Bow Bells House, City of London, 2005–6, MOLA Archaeology Studies Series 26 (London: Museum of London Archaeology, 2013), 9, 76, 87. 44 Barbara West and Gustav Milne, ‘Owls in the Basilica’, London Archaeologist 7 (2002), 31–5. 45 A.J. Parker, ‘The Birds of Roman London’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 7:2 (July 1988), 197, 212, 217; Peter Holden and Tim Cleeves, RSPB Handbook of British Birds, 3rd edn (London: Christopher Helm, 2010), 120; Bailleul-Lesuer, ‘Exploitation of Live Avian Resources in Pharaonic Egypt’, 9–10. 46 Parker, ‘Birds of Roman London’, 208. 47 Salway, Roman Britain, 26–7. 48 Cunliffe, Celts, 88–91; Salway, Roman Britain, 30–1; Hazel Muir, ‘Boudicca Rampaged through the Streets of South London’, New Scientist (21 October 1995) [accessed 06.03.25]; Rowsome and Burch, ‘Londinium: A New Map’. 49 Salway, Roman Britain, 26–7; ‘History of Hadrian’s Wall’, English Heritage, https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/hadrians-wall/ hadrians-wall-history-and-stories/history/; ‘The Antonine Wall’, https:// www.antoninewall.org/ [both accessed 06.03.25].
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50 Blair and Hall, Working Water, 9; Bronze head of Hadrian (117–138 ce), British Museum, no. 1848,1103.1, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1848-1103-1 [accessed 06.03.25]. 51 ‘Archaeologists Reveal Details of Huge Fort Built by Romans on Route into London 2,000 Years Ago’, Museums.EU, The European Museums Network, 17 May 2016, https://museums.eu/article/details/116222/ archaeologists-reveal-details-of-huge-fort-built-by-romans-on-routeinto-london-2000-years-ago [accessed 06.03.25]; Blair and Hall, Working Water, 16, 23; Ian Blair et al., ‘Wells and Bucket-Chains: Unforeseen Elements of Water Supply in Early Roman London’, Britannia 37 (2006), 8; Salway, Roman Britain, 32; Myers, ‘River Walbrook and Roman London’, 202. 52 London Museum, ‘Lost Rivers: The Walbrook’, https://www.london museum.org.uk/collections/london-stories/lost-rivers-the-walbrook/; Mithraeum, Bloomberg Philanthropies, https://www.bloomberg.org/arts/ advancing-the-arts-around-world/mithraeum; Danubian Riders, London Museum, https://www.londonmuseum.org.uk/collections/v/object-448174/ danubian-riders [all accessed 05.04.25]; John Schofield and Tony Dyson, Archaeology of the City of London (London: City of London Archaeological Trust, 1980), 22–3. 53 Rowsome and Burch, ‘Londinium: A New Map’. 54 Nick Bateman, ‘Death, Women, and the Afterlife: Some Thoughts on a Burial in Southwark’, in John Clark et al. (eds), Londinium and Beyond: Essays on Roman London and its Hinterland for Harvey Sheldon, CBA Research Report 156 (Council for British Archaeology, 2008), 162–6. 55 Martin Henig, ‘Glass and Copper-Alloy Pendant’, in Howell and Blackmore, Roman and Medieval Development South of Cheapside, 58–9. 56 Salway, Roman Britain, 98–101; David Williams and César Carreras, ‘North African Amphorae in Roman Britain: A Re-Appraisal’, Britannia 26 (1995), 240. 57 John Blair, The Anglo-Saxon Age: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 23–4; Ian Wood, ‘The Mission of Augustine of Canterbury to the English’, Speculum 69:1 (1994), 16. 58 John Schofield and Tony Dyson, Archaeology of the City of London (London: City of London Archaeological Trust, 1980), 20–9; Dominic Perring, London in the Roman World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022), 350–70. 59 Victoria Ridgeway, Secrets of the Gardens: Archaeologists Unearth the Lives of Roman Londoners at Drapers’ Gardens (Brockley: Pre-Construct Archaeology, 2009), 56–65; James Gerrard, ‘Wells and Belief Systems at the End of Roman Britain: A Case Study from Roman London’, Late
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Antique Archaeology 7:1 (2011), 551–72; Peter Guest, ‘The Hoarding of Roman Metal Objects in Fift h-Century Britain’, in F.K. Haarer (ed.), AD 410: The History and Archaeology of Late and Post-Roman Britain (London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, 2014), 117–29; Salway, Roman Britain, 78; Rowsome and Burch, Londinium: A New Map. 60 Cunliffe, Celts, 99. 61 Derek Keene, ‘The Walbrook Study: A Summary Report. Social and Economic Study of Medieval London’ (London: Centre for Metropolitan History, Institute of Historical Research, 1987), 2; Douglas Killock, ‘London’s Middle Saxon Waterfront: Excavations at the Adelphi Building’, Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society 70, Supplement (2019), 129–65; R. Cowie, ‘Lundenwic – “unravelling the Strand”’, Archaeology Today 8:5 (1987), 30–4. 62 Historic England Research Records: Blackfriars Ship I, Hob Uid: 405065, Heritage Gateway, https://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/ Results_Single.aspx?uid=405065&resourceID=19191 [accessed 06.05.25]; Historic England, Kent: Building Stones of England (Swindon: Historic England, 2023). 63 R.L. Terrington et al., ‘Quantifying Anthropogenic Modification of the Shallow Geosphere in Central London, UK’, Geomorphology 319 (2018), 15–34.
Chapter 11: Shadows of an Imperial River 1
British Library: T. Milles, Custumers Alphabet and Primer. Conteining their creede . . . their Ten Commandements . . . and Forme of Prayers. Togither with a pertinent Answere to All such as . . . would faine perswade others that the bringing home of Traffique must needes decay our shipping, etc (1608). 2 E. Spenser, The Faerie Queen, Book IV, Canto XI, from The Complete Works in Verse and Prose of Edmund Spenser (London, 1882), compiled by Risa S. Bear, University of Oregon, https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/ server/api/core/bitstreams/5792a02b-164d-4de4-98a9-37ab8c8463bc/ content [accessed 06.03.25]; A. MacColl, ‘The Temple of Venus, the Wedding of the Thames and the Medway, and the End of The Faerie Queene, Book IV’, The Review of English Studies 40:157 (1989), 39. 3 Spenser, Faerie Queen, Book IV, Canto XI. 4 John Denham, ‘Cooper’s Hill’ (Poems and Translations, 1668), available at https://jacklynch.net/Texts/cooper.html [accessed 07.03.2025]; T.H. Banks, ‘Sir John Denham’s “Cooper’s Hill”’, The Modern Language Review 21:3 (1926), 269–77.
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‘The Thames or the Triumph of Navigation (caricature)’, Royal Museums Greenwich, https://www.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/rmgc-object-147312 [accessed 27.05.24]. 6 Campbell, Rivers and the Powers of Ancient Rome; Ackroyd, Thames: Sacred River, 24; Vanessa Taylor, ‘Water and Its Meanings in London: 1800–1914’, in Bill Luckin and Peter Thorsheim, A Mighty Capital under Threat: The Environmental History of London, 1800–2000 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2020), 166; M@, ‘Who Is Old Father Thames’, Londonist Blog, 2017, https://londonist.com/2015/07/who-wasold-father-thames [accessed 15.02.25]. 7 David Garrioch, ‘1666 and London’s Fire History: A Re-Evaluation’, The Historical Journal 59:2 (2016), 319–38. 8 S. Healy, ‘Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Borough’, in A.D. Thrush and J. Ferris (eds), The House of Commons, 1604–1629 (Cambridge/New York: published for the History of Parliament Trust by Cambridge University Press, 2010), https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1604-1629/ constituencies/newcastle-upon-tyne [accessed 07.03.25]. 9 Francis Sheppard, London: A History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 126; The National Archives [TNA], ‘Hearth Tax return for Pudding Lane (Book 4), August 1666’, digitized at TNA Education Service, ‘The Great Fire of London: How London Changed. What Happened?’, https:// nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/education/fire-of-london.pdf [accessed 30.10.20]; Matthew Davies et al., London and Middlesex Hearth Tax, Part 1 and Part 2 (London: British Records Society, 2014); Dorian Gerhold, ‘Where Did the Great Fire Begin?’, London and Middlesex Archaeological Society Transactions, 66 (2015), 1–7. 10 Garrioch, ‘1666 and London’s Fire History’, 330–1; Margaret Makepeace, The East India Company’s London Workers: Management of the Warehouse Labourers, 1800–1858, new edn (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer, 2010), 17–39; Hazel Forsyth, Butcher, Baker, Candlestick Maker: Surviving the Great Fire of London (London: I.B. Tauris, 2016), 11. 11 Pepys, Diary of Samuel Pepys (2 September 1666), https://www.pepysdiary. com/diary/1666/09/02/ [accessed 26.05.24]. 12 James W.P. Campbell, ‘The Supply of Stone for the Rebuilding of St Paul’s Cathedral 1675–1710’, Construction History 28:2 (2013), 26–7, 35, 37, 41. 13 Eric Robinson and Martin Litherland, Holiday Geology Guide – Greenwich (British Geological Society/NERC, 1999). 14 Vanessa Harding, ‘Recent Perspectives on Early Modern London’, The Historical Journal 47:2 (2004), 435; Elizabeth McKellar, The Birth of Modern London: The Development and Design of the City, 1660–1720 (Manchester/New York: Manchester University Press, 1999), 13.
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15 Robert Hooke, England’s Leonardo, ‘Architecture’, http://roberthooke.org. uk/?page_id=166 [accessed 15.02.25]; School of Samuel Scott, ‘Entrance to the Fleet River’ (1750), London Picture Archive (City of London Corporation), accession no. 46. 16 Robert Hooke’s London, ‘A Week in the Life of Robert Hooke: Sunday 23 March to Saturday 29 March 1673’ (posted 30 March 2013), [accessed 15.02.25]; Carry van Lieshout, ‘London’s Changing Waterscapes: The Management of Water in Eighteenth-Century London’ (unpublished PhD thesis, King’s College, University of London, 2012); Nicholas Barton, The Lost Rivers of London: A Study of Their Effects upon London and Londoners (New Barnet, Herts: Historical Publications Ltd, 1962), 76–8; David Fathers, London’s Hidden Rivers: A Walker’s Guide to the Subterranean Waterways of London (London: Francis Lincoln, 2017), 61; UCL River Fleet Restoration Team, ‘The History of the River Fleet’ (2009), 7–8, https://www.camden.gov.uk/documents/20142/1458280/River+Fleet.pdf [accessed 15.02.25]. 17 Coates, Story of Six Rivers, 171–4. 18 I.E.S. Edwards, ‘Notable Acquisitions of Egyptian Antiquities in the Years 1753–1853’, The British Museum Quarterly 18:1 (1953), 15; ‘Everything You Ever Wanted to Know about the Rosetta Stone’, British Museum Blog (14 July 2017) [accessed 07.05.22]. 19 Andrew Phillips and J.C. Sharman, Outsourcing Empire: How CompanyStates Made the Modern World (Princeton, NJ/Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2020); Michael Talbot, British-Ottoman Relations, 1661–1807: Commerce and Diplomatic Practice in Eighteenth-Century Istanbul (Woodbridge, Suffolk/Rochester, New York: Boydell & Brewer, 2017); William A. Pettigrew and David Veevers (eds), The Corporation as a Protagonist in Global History, c. 1550–1750 (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2018); Makepeace, East India Company’s London Workers, 17, 24. 20 John Blake, The Sea Chart: The Illustrated History of Nautical Maps and Navigational Charts (London: Conway Maritime, 2009), 74. 21 ‘Text of HBC’s Royal Charter’ (2 May 1670), Hudson’s Bay Company. https://www.hbcheritage.ca/things/artifacts/the-charter-and-text [accessed 31.05.24]. 22 Bryony Coles, ‘The European Beaver’, in Terry O’Connor and Naomi Sykes (eds), Extinctions and Invasions: A Social History of British Fauna (Oxford: Oxbow Books/Windgather Press, 2010), 112, 115. 23 A.M. Carlos and F.D. Lewis, Commerce by a Frozen Sea: Native Americans and the European Fur Trade (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010), 4, 15–35; E.E. Rich, ‘Russia and the Colonial Fur Trade’, The Economic History Review, 7:3 (1955), 310.
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24 TNA: MPG 1/221 (map) item extracted from CO 267/11: West Africa, ‘A Draught of the Coast of Africa from the Streights Mouth to Cape Bona Esprance’ [1663–1681]; William Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt: The Royal African Company and the Politics of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1672–1752 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 11. 25 P.W. Mapp, The Elusive West and the Contest for Empire, 1713–1763 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2011); J.W. Gerard, The Peace of Utrecht: A Historical Review of the Great Treaty of 1713–14, and of the Principal Events of the War of the Spanish Succession (New York/ London, 1885), 292. 26 Jane Glover, Handel in London: The Making of a Genius (London: Picador, 2019), 47, 72, 87–8, 95; Antonia Quirke, ‘In Search of the Black Mozart: A Revealing Look at Handel’s Investment in the Slave Trade’, New Statesman (4 June 2015); D. Hunter, ‘Handel and the Royal African Company’, Musicology Now website (14 June 2015), https://musicologynow.org/ handel-and-the-royal-african-company/ [accessed 07.03.25]; David Conn, ‘The British Kings and Queens who Supported and Profited from Slavery’, The Guardian (6 April 2023). See also the Centre for the Study of the Legacies of British Slavery, UCL, https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs. 27 Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt, 12; Kenneth Morgan, Edward Colston and Bristol (Bristol: The Bristol Branch of the Historical Association, 1999); ‘Liverpool: The Castle and Development of the Town’, in W. Farrer and J. Brownbill (eds), A History of the County of Lancaster: Volume 4 (London, 1911), 4–36; Madge Dresser (with contributions from Bristol Museums Black History Steering Group), ‘Bristol and the Transatlantic Slave Trade’, Bristol Museums, https://www.bristolmuseums.org.uk/ stories/bristol-transatlantic-slave-trade/; Discovering Britain: Making Connections: A Self-Guided Walk in Falkirk (Royal Geographical Society with IBG, 2014), 4, https://www.discoveringbritain.org/content/discoveringbritain/walk20booklets/Falkirk20walk20-20written20guide. pdf [both accessed 07.03.25]. 28 Jörg Vögele, Urban Mortality Change in England and Germany, 1870–1913 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1998), 37, Table 3. 29 Fariborz Nasr-Azadani et al., ‘Downscaling River Discharge to Assess the Effects of Climate Change on Cholera Outbreaks in the Bengal Delta’, Climate Research 64:3 (2015), 257–74. 30 ‘Cholera’, Evening Mail (London) (16 November 1831), 1; E. Ashworth Underwood, ‘The History of Cholera in Great Britain’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, Section of Epidemiology and State Medicine (3 November 1947), 165–73; Bill Luckin, Pollution and Control: A Social History of the Thames in the Nineteenth Century (Bristol: Adam Hilger,
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1986). 31 Luckin, Pollution and Control, 81, 83, 87. 32 Newcastle University, Rare Book Collection: RB616.932 BEL: Gateshead Board of Health, Cholera Morbus, Collections relative to the Cholera at Gateshead, in the county of Durham (1831–32); J.P. Kay, ‘Letter to The Revd Thomas Chalmers’, The Moral and Physical Condition of the Working Classes Employed in the Cotton Manufactories in Manchester, facsimile 2nd edn (Manchester: E.J. Morten, 1832, 1969), 8. 33 Luckin, Pollution and Control, Chapter 4. 34 Luckin, Pollution and Control, 18. 35 S. Halliday, The Great Stink of London: Sir Joseph Bazalgette and the Cleansing of the Victorian Metropolis (Stroud, Glos: Sutton Publishing Ltd., 1999). 36 Thames Water’s Tideway Tunnel, https://www.tideway.london. 37 Barton, Lost Rivers of London. 38 Halliday, Great Stink, 145, 148; Dale H. Porter, The Thames Embankment: Environment, Technology, and Society in Victorian London (Akron, OH: University of Akron Press, 1998). 39 M. Bawtree, ‘The City of London Coal Duties and Their Boundary Marks’, London Archaeologist 1:2 (1969), 27–30. 40 Stawell Heard, ‘Drowning in Sewage: The Forgotten Story of the Principe Alice Disaster’, Royal Greenwich Museums Blog (1 June 2021), https:// www.rmg.co.uk/stories/blog/library-archive/drowning-sewage-sinkingprincess-alice [accessed 07.03.25]. 41 Leslie B. Wood, The Restoration of the Tidal Thames (Bristol: Adam Hilger, 1982); McCormick et al. (eds), State of the Thames 2021, 59. 42 Report to Board of Trade by Inspector of Fisheries on Injury to Fisheries by Deposit of Rubbish in Estuary of River Thames. House of Commons, Reports of Commissioners, C. 5394 (1888), 4–5. 43 J. Vernon, Modern Britain 1750 to the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 230. 44 T. Wiles, ‘[Introduction]’, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 77:3972 (1929), 186. 45 J.H. Estill, ‘The Port of London’, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 77:3972 (1929), 191–6; S. Abrevaya Stein, ‘“Falling into Feathers”: Jews and the Trans-Atlantic Ostrich Feather Trade’, The Journal of Modern History 79:4 (2007), 802–4; Beaver House, London Picture Archive: SC_PHL_01_014_83_3415. 46 John A. Burton, The Naturalist in London (Newton Abbot/London: David & Charles, 1974), 87; Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC), ‘Non-Native Marine Species in British Waters: A Review and Directory’
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(JNCC, 1997), 94, http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-1700 [accessed 20.07.22]; GB Non-Native Species Information Portal (GNNNSIP) (http://www. nonnativespecies.org [accessed 07.03.25]; P.F. Clark et al., The Commercial Exploitation of Thames Mitten Crabs: A Feasibility Study. A Report for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs by the Department of Zoology, The Natural History Museum, London DEFRA. Ref FGE 274 (2008). See also Neal Ascherson, Black Sea: The Birthplace of Civilisation and Barbarism (London: Vintage 2007), Chapter 11. 47 Nigel Watson, Port of London Authority: A Century of Service 1909–2009 (Gravesend: St Matthew’s Press, 2009), 221; ‘House Flag, Shell Mex and B. P. Ltd’, Royal Greenwich Museums, https://www.rmg.co.uk/collections/ objects/rmgc-object-383 [accessed 07.09.25]; A. Cochrane and G. Jones, ‘Samuel, Marcus, first Viscount Bearsted (1853–1927), petroleum entrepreneur’, ODNB; T.S. Eliot, ‘The Waste Land’, Selected Poems (London: Faber and Faber, 1961), 61. 48 ‘Loss of the Maria Lee’, The Times (22 October 1873); Exploring Kent’s Past: Maria Lee, Kent County Council: HER No. TQ 57 NE 38, https:// webapps.kent.gov.uk/KCC.ExploringKentsPast.Web.Sites.Public/ SingleResult.aspx?uid=MKE12492 [accessed 28.04.24]; ‘Fatal Explosion’, The Times (20 July 1889); ‘Naptha Vessel Struck by Lightning’, Northern Guardian (Hartlepool) (6 July 1900); ‘Great Fire at Purfleet’, Morning Post (12 January 1897). 49 C.T. Marvin, The Region of the Eternal Fire: An Account of a Journey to the Petroleum Region of the Caspian in 1883 (London, 1891) 318, also 236; Helen Thompson, Disorder: Hard Times in the 21st Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2023), 18–23, 67–8.
Chapter 12: Thames Gateway 1
Charles Dickens Jr, Dickens’s Dictionary of the Thames, From Its Source to the Nore, 1885: An Unconventional Handbook (London, 1885), 49. 2 Ramesh Kallidai, quoted in Mark Gould, ‘Riddle of the Hindu Relics in the Thames’, The Guardian (2 November 2005); Nikola Burdon, ‘Hindu Finds from the Thames’, London Archaeologist 10:10 (2004), 276–9; Ackroyd, Thames, 81. 3 ‘Double-Edged Sword’, London Museum, Object ID A2373, https://www. londonmuseum.org.uk/collections/v/object-37092/double-edged-sword/ [accessed 15.02.25]; see also ‘The Bridges that Built London’, BBC Four, 2012, extract on YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= MFB26RwHK6U [accessed 07.03.25]. 4 ‘A Pestilential River’, The Times (9 August 1897); ‘Reservoir Finds’, The
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Museum Policies and Practices (Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2008), 96; D.S. Murphree (ed.), Native America: A State-by-State Historical Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2012), 428. 29 US National Park Service, ‘Facilitating Respectful Return’; ‘Dickson Mounds Reopens’, Illinois State Museum: Story of the Illinois State Museum (Illinois Digital Archives), 1994, http://www.idaillinois.org/ digital/collection/p16614coll28/id/333 [accessed 04.07.22]. 30 Thompson quoted in Guillory, ‘Dilemma of Dickson Mounds’. 31 H. Dellios and R. Pearson, ‘Neighbors Mourn Dickson Mounds’ Demise’, Chicago Tribune (26 November 1991); H. Dellios, ‘Controversy Laid to Rest as Dickson Mounds Closes’, Chicago Tribune (4 April 1992); Chip Colwell, Plundered Skulls and Stolen Spirits: Inside the Fight to Reclaim Native America’s Culture (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2017). 32 Patricia Cleary, Mound City: The Place of the Indigenous Past and Present in St. Louis (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2024); C.J. Ekberg and S.K. Person, St. Louis Rising: The French Regime of Louis St. Ange de Bellerive (Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2015), 187–205; Weil and Hunter, ‘Saving Sugarloaf Mound’, 78. 33 The Osage Nation, ‘Sugar Loaf Mound’, https://www.osageculture.com/ culture/geography/sugarloaf-mound [accessed 07.07.24]; Weil and Hunter, ‘Saving Sugarloaf Mound’, 78–81; Iseminger, ‘Culture and Environment in the American Bottom’, 57. 34 B. Broom, ‘Grandmothers, Grandfathers “from long ago”: Miss. Returns Remains to Chickasaw Nation’, Clarion Ledger (n.d.); N. McGreevy, ‘Mississippi Returns Hundreds of Native Americans’ Remains to Chickasaw Nation’, Smithsonian Magazine (2 April 2021); Associated Press, ‘Mississippi State Receives Grant to Return Native Remains’, US News (14 November 2021), https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/mississippi/ articles/2021-11-14/mississippi-state-receives-grant-to-return-nativeremains [accessed 06.07.22]; cf. L. Jaffe et al., ‘The Repatriation Project. America’s Biggest Museums Fail to Return Native American Human Remains’, ProPublica (11 January 2023), https://www.propublica.org/ article/repatriation-nagpra-museums-human-remains [accessed 16.02.25]. 35 Indian Removal Act (1830), National Constitution Center, https:// constitutioncenter.org/the-constitution/historic-document-library/detail/ indian-removal-act-1830 [accessed 07.07.24]. 36 ‘Removal of Tribal Nations to Oklahoma’, Oklahoma Historical Society, https://www.okhistory.org/research/airemoval [accessed 08.07.24]; Theda Perdue, ‘The Legacy of Indian Removal’, The Journal of Southern History 78:1 (2012), 3–36. 37 Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the
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Tribes (Boston, MA, 1846). 47 American Indian Religious Freedom Act 1978 (US). 48 Gilmer, ‘In the Shadow of Removal’, 204; N.F. Holly, ‘The Plasticity of Place: The Lives of Cherokee Sacred Places and the Struggles to Protect Them’ (unpublished History MA thesis, Western Carolina University, 2012), 66; Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (website), https://ebci. com; United Ketooah Band of Cherokee Indians (website), https:// www.ukb-nsn.gov/; American Rivers, ‘Oconaluftee River’, https:// www.americanrivers.org/river/oconaluftee-river [all accessed 04.03.25]; Elizabeth Giddens, Oconaluftee: The History of a Smoky Mountain Valley (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2023). 49 Ammoneta Sequoyah, Richard Crowe, Gilliam Jackson, individually and Representing Other Cherokee Indians similarly Situated; the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians; and the United Ketooah Band of Cherokee Indians, Appellants, v. Tennessee Valley Authority, Appellee, 620 F.2d 1159 (6th Cir. 1980) [accessed 21.02.25]; H. Stambor, ‘Manifest Destiny and American Indian Religious Freedom: Sequoyah, Badoni, and the Drowned Gods’, American Indian Law Review 10 (1982), 63. 50 Ammoneta Sequoyah et al. v. Tennessee Valley Authority, 480 F. Supp. 608 (1979), Affidavit of Ammoneta Sequoyah, quoted in Holly, ‘Plasticity of Place’, 78; Gilmer, ‘In the Shadow of Removal’, 200–1. 51 Affidavit of Ross Swimmer, Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, October 24th, 1979, quoted in Gilmer, ‘In the Shadow of Removal’, 171; Cheyenne Bennett, ‘The Competing Narratives of Tellico: The TVA, Multivocality, and Contested Place-Making in the Little Tennessee River Valley’, Public Interest and Professional Anthropology in the South: Selected Papers from the Annual Meeting of the Southern Anthropological Society, Raleigh, North Carolina, April 2022, 47 (2023), 5–42. 52 Sequoyah v. Tennessee Valley Authority, 620 F.2d 1159 (1980), https://law. justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/620/1159/394634/ [accessed 21.02.25]. 53 Betsey B. Creekmore, ‘Snail Darter’, Volopedia (University of Tennessee, Knoxville), https://volopedia.lib.utk.edu/entries/snail-darter/ [accessed 13.07.24]; Pam Fuller and Matt Neilson, Percina tanasi (Etnier, 1976), Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, U.S. Geological Survey, revision date 16.08.11, https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?SpeciesID=827 [accessed 04.03.25]. 54 ‘Studies on the Ecology of Maplin Sands and Coastal Zones of Suffolk, Essex, and Northern Kent’, Report by the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (Natural Environment Research Council, 1977), 1. 55 ‘Energy and Water Development Appropriation Act, 1980 Statement on
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Chapter 14: Sold Down the River 1
2
3
4
5
6 7 8
9
William Wells Brown, Narrative of William W. Brown, A Fugitive Slave. Written by Himself (1847; London, 1849), 26, https://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/ brownw/brown.html [accessed 25.04.25]. An Act to Prohibit the Importation of Slaves, Chapter 22, 2 Stat. 426 (1807); Paul Finkelman, ‘The American Suppression of the African Slave Trade: Lessons on Legal Change, Social Policy, and Legislation’, Akron Law Review 42:2 (2015), 432, 458. H.L. Gates Jr. ‘What Was the Second Middle Passage?’, The African Americans: Many Rivers to Cross, Blog, https://www.pbs.org/wnet/ african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/what-was-the-2ndmiddle-passage/ [accessed 08.07.22]; Walter Johnson (ed.), The Chattel Principle: Internal Slave Trades in the Americas (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004); Steven Deyle, Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 147–8; A.G. Carey, Sold Down the River: Slavery in the Lower Chattahoochee Valley of Alabama and Georgia (Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 2011). Leah Preble Holmes, ‘Sold Down the River’, Mississippi Encyclopedia, Center for Study of Southern Culture (11 July 2017), http://mississippi encyclopedia.org/entries/sold-down-the-river/ [accessed 25.08.19]. R.P. Beckinsale, ‘Rivers as Political Boundaries’, in Richard J. Chorley (ed.), Water, Earth and Man: A Synthesis of Hydrology, Geomorphology and Socio-Economic Geography (London: Methuen, 1969), 346. Laura Paskus, ‘Southwest Drought Desiccates Fish before Farmers’, High Country News (8 July 2002). Beckinsale, ‘Rivers as Political Boundaries’, 344. Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt; ‘Africans in Carolina’, African Passages, Lowcountry Adaptations, Lowcountry Digital History Initiative, College of Charlston, https://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/africanpassage slowcountryadapt [accessed 04.03.25]. ‘Lovisiana by de Rivier Missisippi’ (c. 1720), ‘Lionel Pincus and Princess Firyal Map Division’, New York Public Library Digital Collections, https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/f7f4baa0-10dc-0135-92c90ab275e23d91 [accessed 16.12.22]; L. Neal, ‘I Am Not Master of Events’: The Speculations of John Law and Lord Londonderry in the Mississippi and South (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012), vii, 6, death 19,
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59; H.S. Burton and F. Todd Smith, ‘Slavery in the Colonial Louisiana Backcountry: Natchitoches, 171–1803’, Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association 52:2 (2011), 136, 151. 10 Neal, ‘I Am Not Master of Events’, 59, 66; Burton and Smith, ‘Slavery in the Colonial Louisiana Backcountry’, 151–4. 11 Burton and Smith, ‘Slavery in the Colonial Louisiana Backcountry’, 135, 163–4, 167–8. 12 Williams, ‘Louisiana Purchase and Arkansas’, 365; Charles A. Kent, ‘The North-West Territory’, Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 8:2 (1915), 268–80; Paul Finkelman, ‘Slavery and the Northwest Ordinance: A Study in Ambiguity’, Journal of the Early Republic 6:4 (1986), 351; ‘Ohio: Local History & Genealogy Resource Guide’, Library of Congress [LOC], https://guides.loc.gov/ohio-local-history-genealogy [accessed 23.02.25]. 13 T. Jefferson to W. Short, Report on Negotiations with Spain (18 March 1792), Founders Online, National Archives (US), https://founders.archives. gov/documents/Jefferson/01-23-02-0259 [accessed 23.02.25]. 14 T. Jefferson to R.R. Livingston (18 April 1802), Founders Online, National Archives (US), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/ Jefferson/01-37-02-0220 [accessed 23.02.25]. 15 Williams, ‘Louisiana Purchase and Arkansas’, 361, 364, 366; ‘Port of NewOrleans SHUT’, Mississippi Herald [Natchez] (28 October 1802), reproduced in C.T. Gontar, ‘“Port of New-Orleans Shut”: A Natchez Broadside at Archivo General de Indias’, Common Place: The Journal of Early American Life 16:2 (2016), http://commonplace.online/article/port-of-neworleans-shut/ [accessed 23.02.25]. 16 Saikku, ‘Down by the Riverside’, 85–6; Burton and Smith, ‘Slavery in the Colonial Louisiana Backcountry’, 136; R. Bailey, ‘The Other Side of Slavery: Black Labor, Cotton, and Textile Industrialization in Great Britain and the United States’, Agricultural History 68:2 (1994), 35–6. 17 Gates Jr., ‘What Was the Second Middle Passage?’; Finkelman, ‘The American Suppression of the African Slave Trade’, 467. 18 Saikku, ‘Down by the Riverside’, 86, 88, 90, 94n. Charles Mohr quoted in Saikku; Baeten, ‘Making Wet Places Drier’. 19 Bailey, ‘Other Side of Slavery’, 35; E.R. Dattel, Cotton and Race in the Making of America: The Human Costs of Economic Power (Chicago, IL: Ivan R. Dee, 2011), 37; H.L. Gates Jr, ‘Why Was Cotton “King”?’, Blog, The African Americans: Many Rivers to Cross [accessed 08.07.22]. 20 Finkelman, ‘American Suppression of the Slave Trade’; W. Johnson, Soul by Soul: Life inside the Antebellum Slave Market (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 4–5; Saikku, ‘Down by the Riverside’, 85–6.
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21 ‘An Ordinance for the Government of the Territory of the United States North West of the River Ohio’ (The Northwest Ordinance), LOC, https:// guides.loc.gov/northwest-ordinance [accessed 23.02.25]. 22 ‘Ursa Minor (Little Bear) and Polaris’, Royal Museums Greenwich, https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/ursa-minor-little-bear-polaris [accessed 27.06.22]. 23 ‘About the North Star’, LOC, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/ lccn/sn84026365/; ‘The North Star, Vol. 1 No. 37’, Smithsonian Digital Volunteers, https://transcription.si.edu/project/14480; Frederick Douglass Papers at the Library of Congress, LOC, https://www.loc.gov/collections/ frederick-douglass-papers/articles-and-essays/frederick-douglass-timeline/1818-to-1835/ [all accessed 26.04.25]. 24 A. Hines, ‘Geographies of Freedom: Black Women’s Mobility and the Making of the Western River World, 1814–1865’ (unpublished PhD thesis, Duke University, 2018). 25 ‘Missouri Compromise: Primary Documents in American History’, LOC, https://guides.loc.gov/missouri-compromise; ‘Kansas-Nebraska Act: Primary Documents in American History’, LOC, https://guides.loc.gov/ kansas-nebraska-act [both accessed 23.02.25]. 26 Finkelman, ‘Slavery and the Northwest Ordinance’, 345. 27 J.W. Trotter, River Jordan: African American Urban Life in the Ohio Valley (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1998), xiii; M. Pasquier, ‘Introduction: Religious Life on the Mississippi’, in M. Pasquier (ed.), Gods of the Mississippi (Lexington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2013), 7; J.J.F. Sensbach, ‘“The Singing of the Mississippi”: The River and Religions of the Black Atlantic’, in Pasquier (ed.), Gods of the Mississippi, 18–19; J.M. Giggie, ‘The Mississippi River and the Transformation of Black Religion in the Delta, 1877–1915’, in Pasquier (ed.), Gods of the Mississippi, 116; M. Salafia, Slavery’s Borderland: Freedom and Bondage along the Ohio River (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013); John C. Inscoe, ‘“The Ohio River Was Not the River Jordan”: A Review of Matthew Salafia’s Slavery’s Borderland’, Southern Spaces (25 November 2013). 28 A. Hurley, ‘Narrating the Urban Waterfront: The Role of Public History in Community Revitalization’, The Public Historian 28:4 (2006), 34, 37; Hines, ‘Geographies of Freedom’, 96–7; Rachel Huff man, ‘Black History Comes to Life at the Mary Meachum Celebration in St. Louis’, Explore St Louis (8 September 2023), https://explorestlouis.com/whats-new/blackhistory-comes-to-life-at-the-mary-meachum-celebration-in-st-louis/; Mary Meachum Freedom Crossing, Great Rivers Greenway, https:// greatriversgreenway.org/mary-meachum/ [both accessed 23.02.25]. 29 E. Greenspan, William Wells Brown: An African American Life (New
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York: W.W. Norton & Co, 2014), 90. 30 J.W. Schuckers, The Life and Public Services of Salmon Portland Chase (New York, 1874), 171–6; M. Reinhardt, ‘Who Speaks for Margaret Garner? Slavery, Silence, and the Politics of Ventriloquism’, Critical Inquiry 29:1 (2002), 89; ‘Map of Hamilton County, Ohio’ (1856), LOC, https://www. loc.gov/resource/g4083h.la000633/?r=0.452,0.452,0.095,0.053,0 [accessed 23.02.25]; Toni Morrison, Beloved (New York: Alfred A. Knopf Inc., 1987). 31 Hines, ‘Geographies of Freedom’, 104. 32 (Untitled), Pittsburgh Gazette (25 October 1811), 3; ‘Steam Boat’, Pittsburgh Gazette (14 February 1812), 3: ‘Steamboat Adventure: Down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers with Nicholas and Lydia Roosevelt, 1811–1812: The Transportation Revolution’ (Hanover College), https://history. hanover.edu/texts/1811/Web/Topic-transportation.html [accessed 23.02.25]. 33 F.T. Norris, ‘Where Did the Villages Go? Steamboats, Deforestation, and Archaeological Loss in the Mississippi Valley’, in Hurley (ed.), Common Fields, 73–4; Hines, ‘Geographies of Freedom’, 124. 34 Finkelman, ‘Slavery and the Northwest Ordinance’, 356; Paul Finkelman, An Imperfect Union: Slavery, Federalism, and Comity (Union, NJ: Lawbook Exchange, 1981), 168. 35 State v Hoppess, Western L.J. (Ohio) 279 (1845), quoted in Finkelman, Imperfect Union: Slavery, 168–71. 36 Hines, ‘Geographies of Freedom’, 147, citing T.C. Buchanan, Black Life on the Mississippi: Slaves, Free Blacks and the Western Steamboat (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 10. 37 Ridgley vs Steamboat Reindeer, 1857, in Hines, ‘Geographies of Freedom’, 102–3, 121–2, 127. 38 Wells Brown, Narrative of William W. Brown, 13, 62–3. 39 Emphasis in original. Wells Brown, Narrative of William W. Brown, 64–8. 40 Wells Brown, Narrative of William W. Brown, 70–8. 41 Wells Brown, Narrative of William W. Brown, vii, 68, 94–5, 99–104. 42 Wells Brown, Narrative of William W. Brown, 107–8. 43 Speech by William Wells Brown, Delivered at the Town Hall, Manchester, England, 1 August 1854, from C. Peter Ripley et al. (eds), The Black Abolitionist Papers, Vol. I: The British Isles, 1830–1865 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); Greenspan, William Wells Brown, 313. 44 Greenspan, William Wells Brown, 251. 45 William Wells Brown, A Description of William Wells Brown’s Original Panoramic Views of the Scenes in the Life of an American Slave: From His Birth in Slavery to His Death, or His Escape to His First Home of Freedom on British Soil (London, 1849).
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46 Wells Brown, Narrative of William W. Brown, vii–viii; Greenspan, William Wells Brown, 307–10. 47 W. Wells Brown, Clotel; or, The President’s Daughter: A Narrative of Slave Life in the United States (London, 1853); Greenspan, William Wells Brown, 501. 48 M.K. Stallings, ‘The Ghosts of Jim Crow Aboard the S.S. Admiral’, Monument Lab (18 July 2020), https://monumentlab.com/bulletin/theghosts-of-jim-crow-aboard-the-s-s-admiral [accessed 23.02.25]. 49 ‘How Egypt Got its Name’, Illinois State Museum (n.d.), http://www. museum.state.il.us/RiverWeb/landings/Ambot/Archives/vignettes/people/ How_20Egypt_20Got_20its_20Name.html [accessed 23.02.25]. 50 ‘History & the Story of St. Louis IX’, Basilica of Saint Louis, King of France, https://oldcathedralstl.org/history [accessed 09.07.22]; Montefiore, Jerusalem, 324–6; Stephen Humphreys, From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260 (Albany, NY: New York Press, 1977), 301–2. 51 Book of Joshua, Hebrew Bible; Charpentier, How to Read the Old Testament, 33. 52 Montefiore, Jerusalem, 17; D. Boffey, ‘“From the river to the sea”: Where Does the Slogan Come From and What Does it Mean?’, The Guardian (31 October 2023). 53 Wells Brown, Narrative of William W. Brown, Appendix, 136. 54 K.E. Fields, ‘Charismatic Religion as Popular Protest: The Ordinary and the Extraordinary in Social Movements’, Theory and Society 11:3 (1982), 322, 338, 345, 349–50; E.D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll; The World the Slaves Made (New York: Pantheon Books, 1974); E. Southern, The Music of Black Americans: A History, 2nd edn (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1983), 198; Howard Thurman, Deep River: Reflections on the Religious Insight of Certain of the Negro Spirituals (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1955); ‘“I’ve known rivers”: The Ecologies of Black Life and Resistance’ (forthcoming conference: Association for the Study of the Worldwide African Diaspora, Saint Louis, Missouri, 2025), https://networks.h-net. org/group/announcements/20037498/all-us-come-cross-water-diasporicecological-practices [accessed 04.07.24]. 55 Langston Hughes, ‘The Negro Speaks of Rivers’ (1921), in Langston Hughes, The Collected Works of Langston Hughes: The Poems, 1921–1940 (Columbia, MO/London: University of Missouri Press, 2001), 36.
Chapter 15: Globalising the River Basin 1
John Wesley Powell, ‘Institutions for the Arid Lands’, Century Magazine
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40 (May 1890), 114. 2 C.T. Smith, ‘The Drainage Basin as an Historical Basis for Human Activity’, in Chorley (ed.), Water, Earth, and Man, 109; Tennessee River, Tennessee Aquarium, https://tnaqua.org/app/uploads/2020/06/Tennessee_River.pdf [accessed 25.02.25]. 3 TVA, TVA: A Symbol of Resource Development in Many Countries (Knoxville, TN: TVA Technical Library, 1952), Epigraph. 4 Daniel Macfarlane and Andrew Watson, ‘Hydro Democracy: Water Power and Political Power in Ontario’, Scientia Canadensis 40:1 (2018), 1–18. 5 R. Minami, ‘The Introduction of Electric Power and its Impact on the Manufacturing Industries: With Special References to Smaller-Scale Plants’, Discussion Papers 223 (1974), 22; D. Schaffer, ‘Managing the Tennessee River: Principles, Practice, and Change’, The Public Historian 12:2 (1990), 15–16; ‘Niagara Falls Geology: Facts and Figures’, Niagara Parks, https://www.niagaraparks.com/visit-niagara-parks/plan-your-visit/ niagara-falls-geology-facts-figures/ [accessed 21.02.25]. 6 The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers [USACE]: ‘A Brief History’, https://www.usace.army.mil/About/History/Brief-History-of-the-Corps/ Introduction/ [accessed 21.02.25]; Bureau of Reclamation – About Us’, https://www.usbr.gov/main/about/mission.html [accessed 21.02.25]; Bureau of Reclamation [BoR], ‘Hoover Dam Chronology’, https://www. usbr.gov/lc/hooverdam/history/articles/chrono.html [accessed 21.02.25]; M.C. Robinson, Water for the West: The Bureau of Reclamation, 1902–1977 (Chicago, IL: Public Works Historical Society, 1979); Worster, Rivers of Empire. 7 David Ekblad, ‘“Mr. TVA”: Grass-Roots Development, David Lilienthal, and the Rise and Fall of the Tennessee Valley Authority as a Symbol for U.S. Overseas Development, 1933–1973’, Diplomatic History 26:3 (2002), 340. 8 Smith, ‘Drainage Basin as an Historical Basis’, 101. 9 John Wesley Powell, US Geological Survey, https://www.usgs.gov/ staff-profi les/john-wesley-powell [accessed 21.02.25]; Donald Worster, ‘Watershed Democracy: Recovering the Lost Vision of John Wesley Powell’, Journal of Land, Resources, & Environmental Law 23:1 (2003); Richard Lowitt, ‘The TVA, 1933–45’, in Erwin C. Hargrove and Paul K. Conkin (eds), TVA Fifty Years of Grass-Roots Bureaucracy (Urbana, I/ Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1983), 56–7. 10 F.D. Roosevelt, 11 December 1934, quoted in McDonald and Muldowny, TVA and the Dispossessed, 263. 11 D.E. Lilienthal, ‘Navigation on the Tennessee River’, Southern Economic Journal 4:4 (1938), 402; D.E. Lilienthal, ‘Electricity: The People’s Business’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 201
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(1939), 58–9. 12 Lilienthal, ‘Navigation on the Tennessee River’, 405; United States Congress. House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. Omnibus Transportation Bill, Hearings Before the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, House of Representatives, Seventy-Sixth Congress, First Session, on H.R. 2531 (1939), 1241; ‘Late to the Chinese Market, Ford Aims to Catch Up’, CBS News (9 July 2013). https://www.cbsnews. com/news/late-to-the-chinese-market-ford-aims-to-catch-up/ [accessed 21.02.25]; John A. DeNovo, American Interests and Policies in the Middle East: 1900–1939 (St Paul, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1963), 378. 13 Charles O. Jackson and Charles W. Johnson, ‘The Summer of ’44: Observations on Life in the Oak Ridge Community’, Tennessee Historical Quarterly 32:3 (1973), 240–1; Robert Rook, ‘Race, Water, and Foreign Policy: The Tennessee Valley Authority’s Global Agenda Meets “Jim Crow”’, Diplomatic History 28:1 (2004), 55–81; Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2012), 486–7; David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 664–5; Stanley Goldberg, ‘Racing to the Finish: The Decision to Bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki’, The Journal of American-East Asian Relations 4:2 (1995), 124, 127; Justin McCurry, ‘“There wasn’t enough about the horror”: Hiroshima Survivors React to Oppenheimer’, The Guardian (29 March 2024); BoR, Grand Coulee Dam, ‘Construction History’, https://www.usbr.gov/pn/grandcoulee/history/construction/index.html [accessed 12.07. 22]; USACE, ‘Bonneville Lock and Dam’ [accessed 12.07. 22]; ‘Surrender of Japan (1945)’, National Archives (US), https://www. archives.gov/milestone-documents/surrender-of-japan [accessed 22.02.25]. 14 Richard G. Hewlett and Jack M. Holl, Atoms for Peace and War, 1953–1961: Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2023), 9; William Prather, ‘“The Color of this Life Is Water”: History, Stones, and the River in “Suttree”’, The Cormac McCarthy Journal 4:1 (2003), 41. 15 ‘A Time for Choosing’ (27 October 1964), in Thomas W. Evans, The Education of Ronald Reagan: The General Electric Years and the Untold Story of His Conversion to Conservatism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 240 (Appendix). 16 W.E. Leuchtenburg, ‘Roosevelt, Norris, and the “Seven Little TVAs”’, Journal of Politics 14 (1952), 418–41; Rosemary Feurer, ‘River Dreams: St. Louis Labour and the Fight for a Missouri Valley Authority’, in Andrew Hurley (ed.), Common Fields: An Environmental History of St. Louis (St. Louis, MO: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1997), 221–41; Karen M.
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O’Neill, ‘Why the TVA Remains Unique: Interest Groups and the Defeat of New Deal River Planning’, Rural Sociology 67:2 (2002), 177; Gina Bloodworth and James White, ‘The Columbia Basin Project: Seventy-Five Years Later’, Yearbook of the Association of Pacific Coast Geographers, 70 (2008), 102. 17 Rook, ‘Race, Water, and Foreign Policy’, 65; David Lilienthal, TVA: Democracy on the March (1944; New York: Harper & Bros, 1953). 18 Walter C. Lowdermilk, Palestine, Land of Promise (London: Victor Gollancz, 1944), 127–8; David Katz, ‘Basin Management under Conditions of Scarcity: The Transformation of the Jordan River Basin from Regional Water Supplier to Regional Water Importer’, Water 14:10 (2022); Jan Selby, ‘The Geopolitics of Water in the Middle East: Fantasies and Realities’, Third World Quarterly 26:2 (2005), 329–49. 19 Ekbladh, ‘“Mr. TVA”’, 351; Eric Dinmore, ‘Concrete Results? The TVA and the Appeal of Large Dams in Occupation-Era Japan’, The Journal of Japanese Studies 39:1 (2013), 28. 20 Lilienthal, TVA: Democracy on the March, 201–2; TVA, TVA: A Symbol of Resource Development in Many Countries (Knoxville, TN: TVA Technical Library, 1952), Foreword; McDonald and Muldowny, TVA and the Dispossessed, 229; Rook, ‘Race, Water, and Foreign Policy’. 21 Dinmore, ‘Concrete Results?’, 2, 5, 7, 18 22, 26–8; Professor Shigeto Tsuru, ‘A New Japan? Political, Economic, and Social Aspects of Postwar Japan’, The Atlantic (January 1955), 103–7. 22 Dinmore, ‘Concrete Results’, 23, 26–7. 23 Lilienthal, TVA: Democracy on the March, 213, 217. 24 Dinmore, ‘Concrete Results’, 36; United Nations, Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, ‘Comprehensive Development of the Kitakami River Basin’, Ekistics 17:98 (1964), 14–18. 25 Dinmore, ‘Concrete Results’, 4; ‘Where Does Japan Get its Energy?’, IEA, https://www.iea.org/countries/japan/energy-mix; Yoshikazu Kobayashi, ‘Middle East Tensions Are a Crude Awakening for Japan’s Energy Security Strategy’, East Asia Forum (18 November 2024); Shivangi Mittal, ‘Japan’s Coal Imports Hit 20-month High; Exploring Alternative Markets’, S&P Global (6 November 2024), https://www.spglobal.com/ commodity-insights/en/news-research/latest-news/coal/110624-japanscoal-imports-hit-20-month-high-exploring-alternative-markets [all accessed 16.03.25]. 26 Nick Cullather, ‘Damming Afghanistan: Modernization in a Buffer State’, The Journal of American History 89:2 (2002), 524; D. Lilienthal, The Journals of David E. Lilienthal, Volume II: The Atomic Energy Years 1945–1950 (New York: Harper & Row, 1964), 470, 475.
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27 George Kiss, ‘TVA on the Danube?’, Geographical Review 37:2 (1947), 274, 302; Coates, Story of Six Rivers, 54. 28 Kiss, ‘TVA on the Danube?’, 297. 29 Dinmore, ‘Concrete Results’, 26; Cullather, ‘Damming Afghanistan’, 522; Ekbladh, ‘“Mr. TVA”’, 346. 30 Quoted in David Ekbladh, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 207; Greg Browder and Leonard Ortolano, ‘The Evolution of an International Water Resources Management Regime in the Mekong River Basin’, Natural Resources Journal 40:3 (2000), 504–5. 31 K.R. Olson and W. Frenelus, ‘Environmental and Human Impacts of Lancang-Mekong Main-Stem and Tributary Dams on China, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Vietnam’, Open Journal of Soil Science 14 (2024), 556–8, 560, 573–4. 32 Browder and Ortolano, ‘Evolution of an International Water Resources Management Regime’, 505, 507, 530; Ekbladh, ‘“Mr. TVA”’, 337, 358–61, 362, 365; Ekbladh, Great American Mission, 220. 33 Victor V. Nemchenok, ‘“That So Fair a Thing Should Be So Frail”: The Ford Foundation and the Failure of Rural Development in Iran, 1953–1964’, Middle East Journal 63:2 (2009), 264; David E. Lilienthal, ‘Enterprise in Iran: An Experiment in Economic Development’, Foreign Affairs 38:1 (1959), 135–8; Christopher T. Fisher, ‘“Moral Purpose Is the Important Thing”: David Lilienthal, Iran, and the Meaning of Development in the US, 1956–63’, The International History Review 33:3 (2011), 441, 446–7. 34 Cullather, ‘Damming Afghanistan’, 522; Christian Parenti, ‘Flower of War: An Environmental History of Opium Poppy in Afghanistan’, The SAIS Review of International Affairs 35:1 (2015), 189. 35 UN [1955–61], Multi-Purpose River Basin Development, Part 2D (ECAFE, 1961), quoted in Robert P. Beckinsale, ‘Human Responses to River Regimes’, in Chorley (ed.), Water, Earth and Man, 506. 36 Cullather, ‘Damming Afghanistan’, 521, 534, 536. 37 Cullather, ‘Damming Afghanistan’, 532. 38 Cullather, ‘Damming Afghanistan’, 528, 535–6. 39 Cullather, ‘Damming Afghanistan’, 525, 535–6; ‘FACTBOX – Afghanistan’s Battleground Kajaki Dam’, Reuters (9 August 2007), https://www.reuters. com/article/world/factbox-afghanistan-s-battleground-kajaki-damidUSB759648/ [accessed 03.03.25]. 40 Vincent Lagendijk, ‘Divided Development: Post-War Ideas on River Utilisation and their Influence on the Development of the Danube’, The International History Review 37:1 (2015), 82. 41 Quoted in Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Unarmed: Trotsky 1921–1929 (1959;
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London/New York, Verso, 2003), 178. 42 Harold Dorn, ‘Hugh Lincoln Cooper and the First Détente’, Technology and Culture 20:2 (1979), 332. 43 Dorn, ‘Hugh Lincoln Cooper and the First Détente’, 323, 335, 345–7. 44 Soviet Ukraine (1977), 13, USSR Exhibition, Los Angeles Convention Centre, 1977. 45 Richard Nelsson, ‘Second World War: Dnieper Dam Blown Up by Russians – Archive, 1941’, The Guardian (2 November 2022); Nicholas Hildyard and Josh Klemm, ‘Weaponising Water – Ukraine’s Dams Are Targets in Putin’s War’ (8 April 2022), https://euobserver.com/opinion/ 154675 [accessed 13.07.22]. 46 TVA, ‘The Global Valley’, https://www.tva.com/economic-development/ the-global-valley; ‘Classroom for the World’, https://www.tva.com/ about-tva/our-history/tva-heritage/classroom-for-the-world [both accessed 03.03.25]. 47 E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (1963; Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1991), ‘Preface’, 12. 48 Karl August Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1957). 49 James C. Scott, Seeing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT/London: Yale University Press, 1998), 3–4; Bill Adams, ‘Still Wasting the Rain?’, Future Dams Blog (9 February 2021), https://www.futuredams.org/still-wasting-the-rain/ [accessed 16.02.25]. 50 Soviet Ukraine, 19. 51 International Hydropower Association, ‘2024 World Hydropower Outlook’, https://www.hydropower.org/publications/2024-worldhydropower-outlook [accessed 09.09.24]; Damian Carrington, ‘Only a Third of World’s Great Rivers Remain Free Flowing, Analysis Finds’, The Guardian (8 May 2019). 52 Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, ‘Case Study Series – Dam Displacement’ (2017), https://www.internal-displacement.org/publications/ case-study-series-dam-displacement/ [accessed 16.02.25]. 53 e.g. James Burgess Waldram, As Long as the Rivers Run: Hydroelectric Development and Native Communities in Western Canada (Winnipeg, MN: University of Manitoba Press, 1988); Tina Loo and Meg Stanley, ‘An Environmental History of Progress: Damming the Peace and Columbia Rivers’, Canadian Historical Review 92:3 (2011), 399–427; Daniel Macfarlane and Peter Kitay, ‘Hydraulic Imperialism: Hydroelectric Development and Treaty 9 in the Abitibi Region’, American Review of Canadian Studies 46:3 (2016), 380–97.
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54 World Hydropower Congress, Paris, 2019, International Hydropower Association, https://www.hydropower.org/events/world-hydropowercongress; ‘The False Promises of Hydropower: A Joint Statement by Civil Society Organisations’ (May 2019), 6–8, https://www.internationalrivers. org/wp-content/uploads/sites/86/2020/11/Optimized-English-declaration_ iha2019_21x30_english_for_printing.pdf [both accessed 03.03.25].
Chapter 16: River at the Crossroads 1
The History and Description of Africa of Leo Africanus, Vol. I, trans. John Pory, 1600 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1896), 179. 2 Sarah Zielinski, ‘The Sahara is Millions of Years Older than Thought’, Smithsonian Magazine (17 September 2014); Jasper Knight, ‘Geology and Long-Term Landscape Evolution of the Central Sahara’, in Jasper Knight, Stefania Merlo and Andrea Zerboni (eds), Landscapes and Landforms of the Central Sahara (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023), 9–22; Thomas L.P. Couvreur et al., ‘Tectonics, Climate and the Diversification of the Tropical African Terrestrial Flora and Fauna’, Biological Reviews 96:1 (2021), 22, 26, Fig. 2 (A). 3 Zielinski, ‘Sahara is Millions of Years Older than Thought’; Kathelijn Bonne, ‘The Great Bend of the Niger River: Two Separate Rivers in the Past’ (30 April 2020), Gondwana Talks, https://www.gondwanatalks. com/l/niger-river/ [accessed 21.01.25]; Bernard Hugueny and Christian Lévêque, ‘Freshwater Fish Zoogeography in West Africa: Faunal Similarities between River Basins’, Environmental Biology of Fishes 39:4 (1994), 374, 376; Marina Gallinaro, ‘Central Saharan Rock Art Landscapes’, in Knight, Merlo, and Zerboni, Landscapes and Landforms of the Central Sahara, 207–17; Williams, When the Sahara Was Green, Map 1; Henry P. Colburn, ‘Pioneers of the Western Desert’, in Bleda S. Düring and Tesse D. Stek (eds), The Archaeology of Imperial Landscapes: A Comparative Study of Empires in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean World (New York/Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 90–1. 4 Kaitlin E. Allen et al., ‘Rivers, Not Refugia, Drove Diversification in Arboreal, Sub-Saharan African Snakes’, Ecology and Evolution 11:11 (2021), 6142; E. Bertuzzo et al., ‘River Networks and Ecological Corridors: Reactive Transport on Fractals, Migration Fronts, Hydrochory’, Water Resources Research 43:4 (2007), 3; Hugueny and Leveque, ‘Freshwater Fish Zoogeography’, 374; Timothy Avon du Feu, ‘Tropical Reservoir Fisheries; Lake Kainji, Nigeria – A Case Study’ (PhD thesis, University of Hull, 2003), 52, 61; Hepsetus odoe, Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan [accessed 01.03.25]; Malapterurus electricus,
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Fishbase, https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Malapterurus-electricus [accessed 01.03.25]. 5 Allen et al., ‘Rivers, Not Refugia’, 6142, 6144; Eli Greenbaum et al., ‘Night Stalkers from Above: A Monograph of Toxicodryas Tree Snakes (Squamata: Colubridae) with Descriptions of Two New Cryptic Species from Central Africa’, Zootaxa 4965:1 (2021), 1–44. 6 Bonne, ‘Great Bend of the Niger River’; Noemie Arazi, ‘Tracing History in Dia, in the Inland Niger Delta of Mali: Archaeology, Oral Traditions and Written Sources’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University College London, 2005), 39, 40, 101. 7 Inger Anderson et al., The Niger River Basin: A Vision for Sustainable Management (Washington DC: The World Bank, 2005), 7. 8 Luc Descroix et al., ‘Are the Fouta Djallon Highlands Still the Water Tower of West Africa?’, Water 12:2968 (2020), 1–31; Dominique Chardon et al., ‘Stabilization of Large Drainage Basins over Geological Time Scales: Cenozoic West Africa, Hot Spot Swell Growth, and the Niger River’, Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 17:3 (2016), 1164–81; Robert P. Beckinsale, ‘River Regimes’, in Chorley (ed.), Water, Earth and Maneograph, 460; du Feu, ‘Tropical Reservoir Fisheries’, 56–7; Ashley Brown and Miranda Mockrin, (WWF-US) Map, Inner Niger Delta, Freshwater Ecoregions of the World, https://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/508; Delta Intérieur du Niger, Ramsar Sites Information Service (2004), https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1365; Nigeria, Climate Change Knowledge Portal, https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/nigeria/ climate-data-historical [all accessed 01.03.25]. 9 Mackintosh-Smith (ed.), Travels of Ibn Battutah, 286; Timothy Insoll, ‘A Cache of Hippopotamus Ivory at Gao, Mali; and a Hypothesis of Its Use’, Antiquity 69:263 (1995), 330; Leo Africanus, The Cosmography and Geography of Africa (London: Penguin Books, 2023). 10 Insoll, ‘Cache of Hippopotamus Ivory’, 327, 331; Arazi, ‘Tracing History in Dia’, 106; J.O. Hunwick, ‘The Mid-Fourteenth Century Capital of Mali’, The Journal of African History 14:2 (1973), 201 (map); Labelle Prussin, ‘The Architecture of Islam in West Africa’, African Arts 1:2 (1968), 71; Jean-Louis Bourgeois, ‘The History of the Great Mosques of Djenné’, African Arts 20:3 (1987), 54; Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Civilizations: Culture, Ambition, and the Transformation of Nature (New York: Free Press, 2001), 89, 251. 11 ‘Profi le: Timbuktu’, Aljazeera (1 April 2012), https://www.aljazeera. com/news/2012/4/1/profi le-timbuktu [accessed 01.03.25]; Arazi, ‘Tracing History in Dia’, 101, 104; John Hunwick, ‘Timbuktu: A Refuge of Scholarly and Righteous Folk’, Sudanic Africa 14 (2003), 14; Tim Insoll, ‘The
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Archaeology of Post-Medieval Timbuktu’, Sahara 13 (2001–2), 9. 12 Insoll, ‘Archaeology of Post-Medieval Timbuktu’, 9, 21; Roderick J. McIntosh, ‘Before Timbuktu: Cities of the Elder World’, in Shamil Jeppie and Souleymane Bachir Diagne (eds), The Meanings of Timbuktu (Cape Town: HSRC Press/CODESRIA/IPG, 2008), 35–6; Arazi, ‘Tracing History in Dia’, 105, 148, 359. 13 J. Scheele, ‘Trans-Saharan Trade’ (21 August 2024), Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History, https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/ view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734e-176 [accessed 26.01.25]; François-Xavier Fauvelle, The Golden Rhinoceros: Histories of the African Middle Ages, trans. Troy Tice (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 169–74; Mackintosh-Smith (ed.), Travels of Ibn Battutah, 281; Ivor Wilks, ‘Wangara, Akan and Portuguese in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. 1. The Matter of Bitu’, The Journal of African History 23:3 (1982), 340–1, 344; Fernández-Armesto, Civilizations, 89. 14 L.C. Beadle, The Inland Waters of Tropical Africa: An Introduction to Tropical Limnology, 2nd edn (London/New York: Longman, 1981), 207; Williams, When the Sahara Was Green, 1; D.T. Niane, ‘Relationships and Exchanges among the Different Regions’, in Niane (ed.), General History of Africa, 616. 15 Tim Mackintosh-Smith, ‘Foreword’, in Mackintosh-Smith (ed.), Travels of Ibn Battutah, x–xi; Mackintosh-Smith (ed.), Travels of Ibn Battutah, 325n; J.E.G. Sutton, ‘The African Lords of the Intercontinental Gold Trade Before the Black Death: Al-Hasan Bin Sulaiman of Kilwa and Mansa Musa of Mali’, The Antiquaries Journal 77 (1997), 221–42. 16 Mackintosh-Smith (ed.), Travels of Ibn Battutah, 281–4; Wilks, ‘Wangara, Akan and Portuguese’, 340–1; Maurizio Dioli, ‘Dromedary (Camelus Dromedarius) and Bactrian Camel (Camelus Bactrianus) Crossbreeding Husbandry Practices in Turkey and Kazakhstan: An In-Depth Review’, Pastoralism 10:1 (2020), 6; Teka, Tegegne. ‘Introduction: The Dromedary in the East African Countries: Its Virtues, Present Conditions and Potentials for Food Production’, Nomadic Peoples 29 (1991), 6–7. 17 V. Fernandes translated in Wilks, ‘Wangara, Akan and Portuguese’, 340–1. 18 Prussin, ‘Architecture of Islam in West Africa’, 71; Bourgeois, ‘History of the Great Mosques of Djenné’, 54. 19 Mackintosh-Smith (ed.), Travels of Ibn Battutah, 284, 293; H.A.R. Gibb and C.F. Beckingham (eds), The Travels of Ibn Battuta, Vol. IV (London: Hakluyt Society, 1994), 974–6. 20 K. Kone, ‘The Soninke in Ancient West African History’, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History (28 March 2018), https://oxfordre. com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/
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acrefore-9780190277734-e-160 [accessed 26.01.25]; D.T. Niane, ‘Mali and the Second Mandingo Expansion’, in Niane, General History of Africa, 126, 128, 131, 133–5. 21 D.T. Niane, Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali, trans. G.D. Pickett; additional material by David W. Chappell and James Jones (1960/1965; Pearson Education Ltd., 2006), 85n. 22 Quoted in Niane, Sundiata, 82. 23 Niane, ‘Mali and the Second Mandingo Expansion’, 145; Niane, Sundiata, 85n. 24 Fernández-Armesto, Civilizations, 91–2. 25 Mackintosh-Smith (ed.), Travels of Ibn Battuta, 287, 292, 325n; Gibb and Beckingham (eds), Travels of Ibn Battuta, 965; John O. Hunwick, ‘An Andalusian in Mali: A Contribution to the Biography of Abū Ishāq al-Sāhilī, c. 1290–1346’, Paideuma 36 (1990), 59; ‘Timbuktu’, UNESCO World Heritage Convention, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/119/; ‘Mithqal’, n., OED; The Royal Mint, 1000g bar, https://www.royalmint.com/invest/ bullion/bullion-bars/gold-bars/royal-mint-1kg-gold-bar-cast/ [accessed 01.03.25]. 26 Peter Russell, Prince Henry ‘the Navigator’: A Life (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 118; J.M. Massing, ‘Observations and Beliefs: The World of the Catalan Atlas’, in J.A. Levenson (ed.), Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 27, 28, 118–19; Clara Estow, ‘Reflections on Gold: On the Late Medieval Background of the Spanish “Enterprise of the Indies”’, Mediaevistik 6 (1993), 92; Clara Estow, ‘Mapping Central Europe: The Catalan Atlas and the European Imagination’, Mediterranean Studies 13 (2004), 14; John Man, Xanadu: Marco Polo and Europe’s Discovery of the East (London: Bantam Press, 2009), 140–1; Catalan Atlas Legends (and translations), The Cresques Project (Source gallica.bnf.fr / BnF), https://www.cresques project.net/catalan-atlas-legends [accessed 01.03.25]: Panels III, IV, VI. 27 ‘Abd al-Raḥmān ibn ‘Abd Allāh Sa‘dī, ‘Introduction’, in John O. Hunwick (ed.), Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Saʻdi’s Taʼrīkh al-Sūdān down to 1613, and Other Contemporary Documents (Leiden: Brill, 1999); David C. Conrad, Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay (2005; New York: Chelsea House, 2010), 70–3, 117. 28 Russell, Prince Henry ‘the Navigator’, 118–19, 131–2, 200–1; The Cresques Project, Panel III.5’, https://www.cresquesproject.net/catalan-atlas-legends/ panel-iii [accessed 31.08.22]. 29 Ivana Elbl, ‘Cross-Cultural Trade and Diplomacy: Portuguese Relations with West Africa, 1441–1521’, Journal of World History 3:2 (1992), 170, 177; J. Devisse and S. Labib, ‘Africa in Inter-Continental Relations’, in Niane
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(ed.), General History of Africa IV, 667; P.E.H. Hair, ‘The Falls of Félou: A Bibliographical Exploration’, History in Africa, 11 (1984), 119. 30 Ricardo Pelizzo, ‘Timbuktu: A Lesson in Underdevelopment’, Journal of World-Systems Research 26 (2001), 273–4; John Craig, The Mint: A History of the London Mint from A.D. 287 to 1948 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), xvi, 166; Craig, The Mint, Royal African Company seal with coat of arms, British Museum Reg. no. 1838,0125.2, https://www. britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1838-0125-2 [accessed 24.12.22]; Pettrigrew, Freedoms Debt, 11–12. Ricardo Pelizzo, ‘Timbuktu: A Lesson in Underdevelopment’, Journal of World-Systems Research 26 (2001), 273–4; John Craig, The Mint: A History of the London Mint from A.D. 287 to 1948 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), xvi, 166; Craig, The Mint, Royal African Company seal with coat of arms, British Museum Reg. no. 1838,0125.2, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/ object/H_1838-0125-2 [accessed 24.12.22]; Pettrigrew, Freedoms Debt, 11–12. 31 Dubois 1897, translated in Insoll, ‘Archaeology of Post-Medieval Timbuktu’, 14; Abd al-Rahman al-Sadi translated in Hunwick, ‘Timbuktu’, 13. 32 Rosa De Jorio, Cultural Heritage in Mali in the Neoliberal Era (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2016), 15; Bourgeois, ‘History of the Great Mosques of Djenné’, 55–7, 60, 62; ‘Timbuktu’, UNESCO World Heritage Convention; Thomson Reuters, ‘Timbuktu Tombs Destroyed by Mali Islamists’, The World, Global Post (31 July 2016), https://theworld.org/stories/2016/07/31/timbuktu-tombs-destroyed-mali-islamists [accessed 04.08.24].
Chapter 17: Oil Rivers 1
British Treaty with Opobo (4 January 1873), quoted in K. Onwuka Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta 1830–1885: An Introduction to the Economic and Political History of Nigeria (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956), Appendix C, 223. 2 William Neville Geary, Nigeria Under British Rule (1927; New York: Barnes & Noble, 1965), 282–3; Letter from Johnston to JaJa, 18 September 1887, and Ultimatum, 19 September 1887, quoted in Okpete Kanu, ‘The Life and Times of King Jaja of Opobo, 1812–1895’ (MA thesis, Dalhousie University, 1970), 182–4, http://hdl.handle.net/10222/76501. 3 Geary, Nigeria Under British Rule, 284. 4 Geary, Nigeria under British Rule, 9–11; Sir Harry H. Johnson, The Story of My Life (Indianopolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1923), 181–2. 5 Geary, Nigeria Under British Rule, 284, 291, 292; Kanu, ‘Life and Times of King Jaja’, 193; Michael Lobban, Imperial Incarceration: Detention without Trial in the Making of British Colonial Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge
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University Press, 2021), Chapter 6. 6 Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830–1885: An Introduction to the Economic and Political History of Nigeria (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956), 23–5, 225; Kanu, ‘Life and Times of King JaJa’, 205–6; K.C. Murray, ‘A List of Sites, Buildings and Other Antiquities Declared to be Monuments under the Antiquities Act from February 1956 to December 1964’, Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 4:1 (1967), 167. M. Osifuye photograph, King Jaja’s Statue, 2007, https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/File:King_Jaja_Opobo_statue_2.jpg; ‘A Visit to Opobo, 1961’, from R. Henderson, ‘A Mighty Tree: Onitsha History, Kingship, and Changing Cultures’, https://amightytree.org/visit-to-opobo-december-1961/ [both accessed 01.03.25]. 7 Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 183–90. 8 Geary, Niger under British Rule, 292. 9 ‘British Treaty with Opobo, 4 January 1873’; quoted in Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, Appendix C, 215–16. 10 ‘A Note by Sir Harry Johnston’, Geary, Niger under British Rule, Appendix C, 288, 290 (emphasis in original); Johnson, Story of My Life, 182. 11 Thomas Fowell Buxton, The African Slave Trade and its Remedy (London, 1840); ‘Narrative of the Niger Expedition’, Colburn’s United Service Magazine and Naval and Military Journal, Part III (London, 1843), 223ff; Philip D. Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780–1850, Vol. 2 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1973), 303–4. 12 ‘Oil Palm’, Food and Agriculture Organisation, https://www.fao.org/3/ y4355e/y4355e03.htm [accessed 29.12.22]; Freda Wolfson, ‘A Price Agreement on the Gold Coast-The Krobo Oil Boycott, 1858–1866’, The Economic History Review 6:1 (1953), 70. 13 C. Fyfe, ‘Mungo Park (1771–1806), traveller in Africa’, ODNB; Fyfe, ‘Alexander Gordon Laing’ (1794–1826), army officer and explorer in Africa’, ODNB; E. Baigent, ‘Richard Lemon Lander (1804–1834), traveller in Africa’, ODNB; Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 60, 63, 172–3. 14 Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 61n, 206; Geary, Niger under British Rule, 288, 290. 15 T. Maluwa, ‘The Origins and Development of International Fluvial Law in Africa: A Study of the International Legal Regimes of the Congo and Niger Rivers from 1885 to 1960’, Netherlands International Law Review 29:3 (1982), 376; Dave Keating, ‘How Belgium is Being Forced to Confront the Bloody Legacy of King Leopold II’, New Statesman (9 June 2020, updated 5 October 2023); Frans Buelens and Stefaan Marysse, ‘Returns on Investments during the Colonial Era: The Case of the Belgian Congo’, The
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Economic History Review, 62 no. S1 (2009), 140. 16 Granville to Plessen, 8 October 1884, quoted in Maluwa, ‘Origins and Development of International Fluvial Law’, 372. 17 Maluwa, ‘Origins and Development of International Fluvial Law’. 18 Maluwa, ‘Origins and Development of International Fluvial Law’. 19 Kapnist quoted in Maluwa, ‘Origins and Development of International Fluvial Law’, 380. 20 ‘Memorandum on the “Niger Question” by H.P. Anderson’ (1884), quoted in Maluwa, ‘Origins and Development of International Fluvial Law’, 377, see also 374. Emphasis in original. 21 Peter Burroughs, ‘Imperial Institutions and the Government of Empire’, in Porter (ed.), Oxford History of Empire: Vol. III, 194. 22 Maluwa, ‘Origins and Development of International Fluvia Law’, 375, 382; Thomas Uwadiale Obinyan, ‘The Annexation of Benin’, Journal of Black Studies 19:1 (1988), 29–40; ‘Benin Bronzes’, British Museum, https://www. britishmuseum.org/about-us/british-museum-story/contested-objectscollection/benin-bronzes [accessed 29.12.22]. 23 Geary, Nigeria Under British Rule, 286; David Pratten, The Man-Leopard Murders: History and Society in Colonial Nigeria (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), 63; Parliamentary Papers (PP), Southern Nigeria. Report for 1908, Colonial Reports – Annual. No. 630. Southern Nigeria 1910. Cd. 4964–4, page 32. 24 Southern Nigeria. Report for 1908, 30, 32; J.A.A. Le Prince, ‘Control of Malaria: Oiling as an Antimosquito Measure’, Public Health Reports (1896–1970) 30:9 (1915), 599–600. 25 Listed in John M. Carland, The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1985), 108. 26 PP (1920), Nigeria. Report by Sir F.D. Lugard on the Amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria, and Administration, 1912–1919. Cmd. 468, page 67; O.U. Kalu, ‘Waves from the Rivers: The Spread of the Garrick Braide Movement in Igboland, 1914–1934’, Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 8:4 (1977b), 95–110; Pratten, Man-Leopard Murders, 101, 109. 27 PP (1902), Northern Nigeria: Report for the Period from 1st January 1900 to March 31st, 1901 by the High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria, Colonial Reports – Annual No. 346, 1902, Cd. 788–16, page 5; E. de C. Duggan. ‘Notes on the Munshi (‘Tivi’) Tribe of Northern Nigeria: Some Historical Outlines’, Journal of the Royal African Society 31:123 (1932), 176, 177n, 178, 179; E. de C. Duggan, ‘The Cotton-Growing Industry of Nigeria’, Journal of the Royal African Society 21:83 (1922), 199, 201. 28 Susan M. Martin, Palm Oil and Protest: An Economic History of the Ngwa Region, South-Eastern Nigeria, 1800–1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge
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University Press, 1988), 2, 106–14, 116. 29 Aba Commission, quoted in Martin, Palm Oil and Protest, 116, 117, 187n. 30 PP (1920), Nigeria. Report by Sir F.D. Lugard, 6; K. Dike Nworah, ‘The Politics of Lever’s West African Concessions, 1907–1913’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies 5:2 (1972), 248; Unilever, United Africa Company: A Brief Guide (Port Sunlight, Unilever Archives & Record Management; undated), https://archives-unilever.com/media/_file/ website-documents/uac20-20united20africa20company20booklet. pdf; Geoffrey L. Baker, Trade Winds on the Niger: The Saga of the Royal Niger Company, 1830–1971 (London/New York: Radcliffe Press/St. Martin’s Press, 1996); Brian Lewis, So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2017). 31 Toyin Falola and Matthew M. Heaton, A History of Nigeria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), Chapter 6. 32 George Awoonor Williams [Kofi Awoonor], Afro-Asian Poems: Anthology, Vol. 1 Part 2 (Colombo: Afro Asian Writers’ Bureau, 1965), 44; Duncan Yoon, ‘Cold War Africa and China: The Afro-Asian Writers’ Bureau and the Rise of Postcolonial Literature’ (unpublished PhD thesis, UCLA, 2014), 94–8.
Chapter 18: Who Are the Masters Now? 1
Germaine Dieterlen, ‘The Mande Creation Myth’, Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 27:2 (1957), 135. 2 Dieterlen, ‘Mande Creation Myth’; Jan Jansen and James R. Fairhead, ‘The Mande Creation Myth, by Germaine Dieterlen, as a Historical Source for the Mali Empire’, Journal of West African History 6:2 (2020), 93–114; ‘Glossary’, in B.A. Ogot (ed.), General History of Africa, Vol. V: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century (Oxford/Berkeley, CA: UNESCO/Heinemann/University of California: 1992), 969. 3 Anderson et al., Niger River Basin, 8. 4 David Kinnersley, Troubled Water: Rivers, Politics and Pollution (London: Hilary Shipman Ltd., 1988), 2; Quasmi, ‘Rivers as Legal Persons’, 25; G. Hardin, ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’, Science 162 (1968), 1243–8; du Feu, ‘Tropical Reservoir Fisheries’, 289; Susan Himmelweit and Roberto Simonetti, ‘Nature for Sale’, in Steve Hinchliffe and Kath Woodward (eds), The Natural and the Social: Uncertainty, Risk, Change, 2nd edn (London: The Open University, 2004), 101–3. 5 E. Wymenga et al., ‘Ecological Hotspots in the Upper Niger Basin and Inner Niger Delta. II. Existing Data and Information. A&W-report 2253b’, Altenburg & Wymenga Ecological Consultants, Feanwâlden, ‘Summary/
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Résumé’ (2017), https://www.altwym.nl/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/ Wymenga-cs-2017.-Preliminary-ecological-hotspots-Upper-NIger-Basinand-Inner-NIger-Delta-def.pdf [accessed 11.01.25]. 6 Anderson et al., Niger Basin; Tiyanjana Maluwa, ‘Legal Aspects of the Niger River under the Niamey Treaties’, Natural Resources Journal 28:4 (1988), 671–97; M.K. Mahlakeng and Hussein Solomon, ‘An Analysis of Regime Capacity and a Nascent Environmental Conflict in the Niger River Basin’, Journal for Contemporary History 2:2 (2017), 193; du Feu, ‘Tropical Reservoir Fisheries’, 46; ‘The History of NBA’, Autorité du Bassin du Niger, http://www.abn.ne/index.php?option=com_content &view=article&id=1:historique&catid=1:labn&lang=fr&Itemid=0 [accessed 05.09.22]. 7 Articles 2, 12 in ‘Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Dahomey [Benin], Guinea, Upper Volta [Burkina Faso], Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Chad. Agreement concerning the Niger River Commission and the Navigation and Transport on the River Niger. Done at Niamey, on 25 November 1964’, UN Treaties No. 8507 (1967). 8 ‘Inner Niger Delta’, GeoVille, http://globwetland-africa.org/wp-content/ uploads/2022/05/12.-FactSheet_IR_InnerNigerDelta_final.pdf; Fact Sheet, Inner Niger Delta, Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, https://www.ramsar. org/sites/default/fi les/documents/library/wwd2004_rpt_mali_press_e. pdf; Sabrina Beeler Stücklin and Karin Frei, ‘Between Water Spirits and Market Forces: Institutional Changes in the Niger Inland Delta Fisheries among the Somono and Bozo Fishermen of Wandiaka and Daga-Womina (Mali)’, in Tobias Haller (ed.), Disputing the Floodplains (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 83; ‘Announcement to Build Guinea Dam Bypasses Regional Collaborative Process’, Wetland International Blog (26 July 2017), https:// www.wetlands.org/blog/announcement-build-guineadam-bypasses-regional-collaborative-process/; Chris Baker, Peter de Koning and Mori Diallo, ‘Sustaining the Inner Niger Delta Lifeline’, Alliance for Global Water Adaptation (AGWA) (22 March 2023), https:// www.alliance4water.org/wr4er-cases/sustaining-the-inner-niger-deltalifeline; Inner Niger Delta, Freshwater Ecoregions of the World, https:// www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/508; Anderson et al., Niger River Basin, 24; Jansen and Fairhead, ‘The Mande Creation Myth’, 100, 101, 103; ‘Caspian Tern’, The Mediterranean Science Commission (CIESM), https://ciesm. org/marine/programs/seabirds/caspian-tern/; ‘The Niger River – Four Ecoregions, One Refuge’, WWF, https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?2218/ The-Niger-River-four-ecoregions-one-refuge; Water, Peace and Security Partnership, Water and Conflict in the Inner Niger Delta: A Governance Challenge (1 June 2022), 9, https://waterpeacesecurity.org/fi les/227 [all
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accessed 28.02.25]. 9 D.T. Niane, ‘Mali and the Second Mande Expansion’, in J. Ki-Zerbo and D.T. Niane (eds), General History of Africa: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition (Oxford/Berkeley, CA: UNESCO/James Currey Ltd/University of California, 1997), 56; ‘Manden Charter, Proclaimed in Kurukan Fuga’: Decision of the Intergovernmental Committee: 4.COM 13.59, UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage, https:// ich.unesco.org/en/decisions/4.COM/13.59 [accessed 28.02.25]; Mary Jo Arnoldi, ‘Cultural Patrimony and Heritage Management in Mali: The Old Towns of Djenné and the Sanké Mon Festival’, Africa Today 61:1 (2014), 48. 10 De Jorio, Cultural Heritage in Mali, 145. 11 Manden Charter, Proclaimed in Kurukan Fuga: Mali, ‘Nomination for Inscription on the Representative List in 2009 (Reference No. 00290)’, Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, UNESCO, Fourth Session, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 28 September to 2 October 2009’, p. 3, s. 2, UNESCO, https:// ich.unesco.org/en/RL/manden-charter-proclaimed-in-kurukan-fuga00290 [accessed 28.02.25]; Jansen and Fairhead, ‘The Mande Creation Myth’. 12 ‘Dream mandé – Djata’ Festival d’Avignon’ (2017), https://festival-avignon. com/en/edition-2017/programme/dream-mande-djata-7181 [accessed 28.02.25]. 13 Established in 1998. De Jorio, Cultural Heritage in Mali in the Neoliberal Era, 78, 80–1. 14 ‘The Sanké Mon: Collective Fishing Rite of the Sanké, Mali’ [UNESCO Nomination by Mali Government]. Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. Fourth Session Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 28 September to 2 October 2009. Nomination for Inscription on the Urgent Safeguarding List in 2009 (Reference No. 00289), https://ich.unesco.org/en/USL/sanke-mon-collectivefishing-rite-of-the-sanke-00289 [accessed 28.02.25]; Arnoldi, ‘Cultural Patrimony and Heritage Management in Mali’; Water, Peace and Security Partnership, Water and Conflict in the Inner Niger Delta, 11–12. 15 Stücklin and Frei, ‘Between Water Spirits and Market Forces’, 78, 82–5, 116. 16 ‘Kainji Hydroelectric Dam’, ICE, https://www.ice.org.uk/what-is-civilengineering/what-do-civil-engineers-do/kainji-hydroelectric-dam [accessed 05.09.22]; Salah El-Din El-Zarka, ‘Kainji Lake, Nigeria’, in William C. Ackermann, C.F. White and E.B. Worthington (eds), Man-Made Lakes:
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Their Problems and Environmental Effects (Washington DC: American Geophysical Union, 1973), 200, 205; du Feu, ‘Tropical Reservoir Fisheries’, 55, 57, 61, 85, 197. 17 du Feu, ‘Tropical Reservoir Fisheries’, 286. 18 du Feu, ‘Tropical Reservoir Fisheries’, 54, 70, 274–6, 284, 290, 313; Mansur Abubakar Wara, ‘The Sorko Expansion in the Waters of the Niger to the End of the 20th Century’, Annals of Global History 1:1 (2019), 1; Frank Salamone, ‘The Serkawa of Yauri: Class, Status or Party?’, African Studies Review 18:1 (1975), 88–101. 19 du Feu, ‘Tropical Reservoir Fisheries’, 45; Ian Goldin, Development: A Very Short Introduction (New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 77. 20 Abubakar Tafawa Balewa quoted in Edmund Chilaka, ‘Nigeria’s Lower Niger Dredging Campaigns, 1909–2014: The Politics of a Lugardian Inland Water Transport Project versus the Global Playbook’, Water History 15:2 (2023), 271. 21 31 August 1964 speech by Abubakar Tafawa Balewa quoted in Salihu Mohammed Niworu, ‘The Politics of Neglect in the Resettled Communities of Borgu: A Recipe for Armed Struggle’, African Research Review 11:2 (2017), 73. 22 El-Zarka, ‘Kainji Lake, Nigeria’, 200, 211; du Feu, ‘Tropical Reservoir Fisheries’, 54, 70; Niworu, ‘Politics of Neglect’, 73; Wara, ‘The Sorko Expansion in the Waters’; Ruth Shinenge Gyuse and Timothy Terver Gyuse, ‘Kainji Resettlement Housing: 40 Years Later’, Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability 1:3 (2008), 247–64. 23 Niworu, ‘Politics of Neglect’, 73, 74–5, 79. 24 ‘Kainji Hydroelectric Dam’, ICE; Ogaga Ariemu, ‘Epileptic Electricity Supply: Majority of Power Plants Performing Below Capacity – NERC’, Daily Post (2 April 2024). 25 15 February 1969 speech by Yakubu Gowon quoted in Niworu, ‘Politics of Neglect’, 73. 26 Adaobi Tricia Nwaubani, ‘Remembering Nigeria’s Biafra War that Many Prefer to Forget’, BBC News (15 January 2020), https://www.bbc.co.uk/ news/world-africa-51094093 [accessed 28.02.25]. 27 Martin Williams, Nile Waters, Saharan Sands: Adventures of a Geomorphologist (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016), 17; Lirong Dou et al., ‘Early Cretaceous (Aptian to Albian) Vegetation and Climate Change in Central Africa: Novel Palynological Evidence from the Doseo Basin’, Geological Journal 59:2 (2024), 442–4, 463–4; T.J.A. Reijers, S.W. Petters and C.S. Nwajide, ‘The Niger Delta Basin’, in R.C. Selley (ed.), Sedimentary Basins of the World, Vol. 3 (Elsevier, 1997), 151–72; Michele
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L. Tuttle, Ronald R. Charpentier and Michael E. Brownfield, The Niger Delta Petroleum System: Niger Delta Province, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea, Africa, U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 99–50H (1999). 28 ‘The Secession that Failed’, Time Magazine, 26 January 1970, 19; Nigeria, Hansard HC Deb, vol. 779, cc. 1571–1636, 13 March 1969; Nigeria and Biafra (Supply of Arms), Hansard HC Deb, vol. 782, cc. 926–7, 28 April 1969; Chibuike Uche, ‘Oil, British Interests and the Nigerian Civil War’, The Journal of African History 49:1 (2008), 113–16, 122, 129–30. See also Chijoke Uwasomba and Victor S. Alumona, ‘Militancy in the Niger Delta and the Deepening Crisis of the Oil Economy in Nigeria’, Africa Development / Afrique et Développement 38:3–4 (2013), 24; Dr Raji et al., ‘Shell D’Arcy Exploration and the Discovery of Oil as Important Foreign Exchange Earnings in Ijawland of Niger Delta, C. 1940s–1970’, Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review (OMAN Chapter) 2:11 (2013), 24; Meredith Coffey, ‘Ethnic Minorities and the Biafran National Imaginary in Chukwuemeka Ike’s Sunset at Dawn and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun’, in Toyin Falola and Ogechukwu Ezekwem (eds), Writing the Nigeria-Biafra War (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer, 2016), 265–83. 29 John Vidal, ‘Niger Delta Oil Spills Clean-Up Will Take 30 Years, says UN’, The Guardian (4 August 2011); United Nations Environment Programme, Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland: Site Factsheets, Executive Summary and Full Report (2 August 2011), https://www.unep. org/resources/assessment/environmental-assessment-ogoniland-sitefactsheets-executive-summary-and-full; Domale Keys, ‘Ogoni Women’s Climate Justice Was Decades Ahead of Today’s Debates’, Ms [Magazine] (8 March 2022); Neil Munshi and William Clowes, ‘One of World’s Most Polluted Spots Gets Worse as $1 Billion Cleanup Drags On’, Bloomberg UK (31 August 2022), https://www.bloomberg.com/news/ features/2022-08-31/shell-s-1b-oil-cleanup-left-one-of-world-s-mostpolluted-spots-dirtier-for-now; Frank Odenthal, ‘Cleaning up the Niger-Delta’ [n.d.], https://www.fairplanet.org/dossier/eco-crimesshell-and-the-niger-delta/cleaning-up-the-niger-delta/; ‘Shell – Bodo’, LeighDay, Cases, https://www.leighday.co.uk/news/cases-andtestimonials/cases/shell-bodo/; Keryn Tsimitakopoulos, ‘The Niger Delta Basin: Reform has Finally Come, but Can it Revive Investment in the Oil and Gas Sector?’, S&P Global Blog (19 January 2022), https://www. spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/ci/research-analysis/the-nigerdelta-basin-reform-has-finally-come-but-can-it-reviv.html; Shell Nigeria, ‘The History of Shell in Nigeria’, https://www.shell.com.ng/about-us/
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shell-nigeria-history.html; ‘Timeline – Shell in Nigeria’, Reuters (16 January 2024), https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/shell-nigeria2024-01-16/ [all accessed 18.02.25]. 30 Interview in Martin Patience, ‘Why Nigeria’s “Avengers” Are Crippling the Oil Sector’, BBC News (22 July 2016), https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ world-africa-36846114 [accessed 30.07.24]. 31 Odenthal, ‘Cleaning up the Niger-Delta’; Jess Craig, ‘The Village that Stood Up to Big Oil and Won’, The Guardian (1 June 2022); BMI Bodo Cleanup, ‘Bodo Cleanup: The Journey So Far and Phase 2 in Anticipation’, LinkedIn (2 September 2019), https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/bodocleanup-journey-so-far-phase-2-anticipation-bmi-bodo-cleanup/ [accessed 28.02.25]. 32 Munshi and Clowes, ‘One of the World’s Most Polluted Spots’. 33 Rebecca Ratcliffe, ‘“This place used to be green”: The Brutal Impact of Oil in the Niger Delta’, The Guardian (6 December 2019). 34 Luca Ferrini and Lucia Benavides, ‘The Fomi Dam – Potential for a Project of Shared Interest’, Nexus (29 October 2018), https://www. water-energy-food.org/ru/resources/the-fomi-dam-potential-for-a-projectof-shared-interest; ‘Niger-Niandan-Milo’, Ramsar, https://rsis.ramsar.org/ ris/1164 [both accessed 19.01.25]; Baker, de Koning and Diallo (AGWA), ‘Sustaining the Inner Niger Delta Lifeline’. 35 Monica M. van Beusekom, ‘Disjunctures in Theory and Practice: Making Sense of Change in Agricultural Development at the Office Du Niger, 1920–60’, The Journal of African History 41:1 (2000), 80–2; Office du Niger, https://maep.gouv.ml/office-du-niger/ [accessed 28.02.25]; Baker, de Koning and Diallo (AGWA), ‘Sustaining the Inner Niger Delta Lifeline’. 36 ‘Announcement to Build Guinea Dam Bypasses Regional Collaborative Process’; Fred Pearce, ‘Is China Edging Away from a Massive Dam on the River Niger?’, Dialogue Earth, Blog (7 April 2021), https:// dialogue.earth/en/water/is-china-edging-away-from-a-massive-damon-the-river-niger/ [accessed 30.07.24]; Leo Zwarts et al., The Niger, a Lifeline: Effective Water Management in the Upper Niger Basin (Altenburg & Wymenga Ecologisch Onderzoek BV, 2005); African Union Development Agency – NEPAD, 2nd PIDA Priority Action Plan (2021–2030) Projects Prospectus (June 2023), 68, https://www.nepad.org/ publication/2nd-pida-priority-action-plan-2021-2030-projectsprospectus [accessed 19.01.25]; Baker, de Koning and Diallo (AGWA), ‘Sustaining the Inner Niger Delta Lifeline’. 37 Wymenga et al., ‘Ecological Hotspots in the Upper Niger Basin and Inner Niger Delta, ‘Summary/Résumé’. 38 Delta Intérieur du Niger, Ramsar Sites Information Service, https://rsis. ramsar.org/ris-search/?solrsort=area_off_d20desc&pagetab=1 [accessed
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19.01.25]. 39 Radhika Nagrath, ‘Good News for Enthusiasts as Migratory Birds Arrive at Ganga’, The Pioneer (5 January 2017), https://www.dailypioneer. com/2017/state-editions/good-news-for-enthusiasts-as-migratory-birdsarrive-at-ganga.html [accessed 08.09.23]; Radhika Nagrath, ‘Ornithologists, Scientists Express Concern over Adverse Impact of Climate Change on Migratory Birds (29 April 2017), https://www.dailypioneer.com/2017/ state-editions/ornithologists-scientists-express-concern-over-adverseimpact-of-climate-change-on-migratory-birds.html [accessed 28.02.25]; ‘Yangtze Source Sees Rising Number of Wild Geese’, Xinhua (5 July 2018), http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-07/05/c_137303629.htm [accessed 28.02.25]; R. Scott et al., ‘How Bar-Headed Geese Fly Over the Himalayas’, Physiology 30:2 (2015), 107, 108; Montagu’s Harrier, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds [RSPB], ‘Beatrice’, 2016, https://www.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/conservation/satellite-tracking-birds/tracking-montagus-harriers. Thanks to the RSPB for their assistance. 40 Leo Zwarts, Rob G. Bijlsma and Jan van der Kamp, ‘The Fortunes of Migratory Birds from Eurasia: Being on a Tightrope in the Sahel’, Ardea 111:1 (2023), 405–6; East Atlantic Flyway: England East Coast Wetlands’, UNESCO (submitted 13 September 2023), https://whc.unesco.org/en/ tentativelists/6689/ [accessed 19.01.25]. 41 ‘Mali and France, a Timeline of Mounting Tensions’, Al Jazeera English (1 February 2022). https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/1/ mali-france-timeline-mounting-tensions; ‘Thousands in Mali Celebrate Expulsion of French Ambassador’, Al Jazeera English (5 February 2022), https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/5/thousands-in-mali-celebrateexpulsion-of-french-ambassador [both accessed 24.07.24]. 42 Niger Basin, Nexus Profi le (October 2018), https://uploads.water-energyfood.org/legacy/nexus_profi le_niger_basin__english.pdf [accessed 28.02.25].
Chapter 19: Grand Canal 1
Marco Polo in The Travels of Marco Polo, trans. and ed. Giovanni Battista Baldelli Boni and Hugh Murray (New York, 1845), 163. 2 Aiming Lin, Sun Zhiming, and Zhenyu Yang, ‘Tectonic Relationship between the Course Change of the Yangtze River and Indo-Asia Collision’, in Sean J. Landowe and Garth M. Hammler (eds), Structural Geology: New Research (New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2008), 2–4; Zhao Ying, ‘Where is the Headstream of the Yangtze?’, CGTN (updated 06 February 2020), https://news.cgtn.com/news/2020-02-05/
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Where-is-the-headstream-of-the-Yangtze--NNPiIVnUfC/index. html [accessed 15.02.25]; ‘Yangtze Source Sees Rising Number of Wild Geese’, XinhuaNet (5 July 2018), http://www.xinhuanet.com/ english/2018-07/05/c_137303629.htm [accessed 15.02.25]; Mike Searle, Colliding Continents (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 271–301; Hongbo Zheng et al., ‘Formation of the First Bend in the Late Eocene Gave Birth to the Modern Yangtze River, China’, Geology 49:1 (2021), 35–9. Kenneth Pomeranz, ‘The Transformation of China’s Environment, 1500–2000’, in Burke and Pomeranz (eds), Environment and World History, 122–3; Siying Chen et al., ‘Climate Records in Ancient Chinese Diaries and their Application in Historical Climate Reconstruction – A Case Study of Yunshan Diary’, Climate of the Past 16:5 (2020), 1876. Loukas Barton et al., ‘Agricultural Origins and the Isotopic Identity of Domestication in Northern China’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:14 (2009), 5523–8; Yinong Xu, The Chinese City in Space and Time: The Development of Urban Form in Suzhou (Honolulu; University of Hawai’i Press, 2000), 15; Kenneth Pomeranz, ‘Transformation of China’s Environment’, 125; Ch’ao-Ting Chi, Key Economic Areas in Chinese History as Revealed in the Development of Public Works for Water-Control (London: G. Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1936), 6. Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 17, 156–7; Te-Tzu Chang and A.H. Bunting, ‘The Rice Cultures [and Discussion]’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 275:936 (1976), 147; Chi, Key Economic Areas, 65; Antonia Finnane, Speaking of Yangzhou: A Chinese City, 1550–1850 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 158. Jie Tang, ‘The Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site: Living Heritage in the 21st Century?’ (unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Sheffield, 2018), 235, 297; The Grand Canal, Documents, ‘Advisory Body Evaluation (ICOMOS)’, 2014, UNESCO, 114, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1443/ documents/ [accessed 15.02.25]. Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 38; Grand Canal, ‘Advisory Body Evaluation (ICOMOS)’, 111–14. Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 51, 60–3; Sabina Knight, Chinese Literature: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 5; Robinson, Writing and Script, 31; I. Galambos, ‘The Myth of the Qin Unification of Writing in Han Sources’, Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 57:2 (2004), 181–203. Brian Lander, ‘Making Use of the Land: The Political Ecology of China’s First Empire’, Journal of Chinese History 71 (2023), 5–7, 13; Grand Canal,
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‘Advisory Body Evaluation (ICOMOS)’, 113; Lingqu Canal Submission for UNESCO (National Commission of the People’s Republic of China) (29 January 2013), https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5814/ [accessed 19.08.22]. 10 Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 108–9, 114; Arthur F. Wright, The Sui Dynasty (New York: Knopf, 1978), 143–4; Yinong Xu, The Chinese City in Space and Time: The Development of Urban Form in Suzhou (Honolulu; University of Hawai’i Press, 2000), 14–15; Grand Canal, ‘Advisory Body Evaluation (ICOMOS)’, 114. 11 Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 116. 12 Recueil Historique des Principaux Traits de la Vie des Empereurs Chinois (undated, 18th century). Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris, 10v and 11r. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b10520492s/f1.item. Translation from the French by Hélène Maloigne. 13 Bruce Connolly, ‘Discovering Jiangnan – South of the River’, China Daily (14 November 2021); Wright, Sui Dynasty, 177–81; Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 114, 116; Grand Canal, ‘Advisory Body Evaluation (ICOMOS)’, 111–14; Jindong Cai and Jing Peng, ‘Introduction of Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal and Analysis of its Heritage Values’, Special Issue of Historical Water Projects and Traditional Water Technologies in the Asia-Pacific Region, Selected from the Special Session at IAHR-APD 2016 Congress 26 (2019), 2–7. 14 Tang, ‘Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site’, 166, 211–14, 235. 15 Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 4, Physics and Physical Technology. Pt. 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics (London: Cambridge University Press, 1971), 350–1; Tang, ‘Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site’, Chapter 3, 226. 16 Tang, ‘Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site’, 227. 17 Statutes of the Yuan Dynasty, translated in Tang, ‘Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site’, 178–9. 18 Jindong Cai and Jing Peng, ‘Introduction of Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal’, 5–6; Antonia Finnane, Speaking of Yangzhou, 36; Tang, ‘Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site’, 269. 19 Kublai Khan, Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge, https://www.ames.cam.ac.uk/kublai-khan [accessed 15.02.25]; Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 169–71; Virgil Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 42–5, 254–79; Man, Xanadu, 29–30, 50–1; Tang, ‘Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site’, 156. 20 Philip Ball, The Water Kingdom: A Secret History of China (London: Vintage, 2017), 192–3; David Curtis Wright, ‘Navies in the Mongol Yuan
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Conquest of Southern Song China, 1274–1279’, Mongolian Studies 29 (2007), 207–16; Finnane, Speaking of Yangzhou, 23; René Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1970), 287. 21 Translated in Francis Woodman Cleaves, ‘The Biography of Bayan of the Bārin in the Yüan Shih’, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 19:3/4 (1956), 220. Some parentheses in original omitted. 22 Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 172, 338; Jindong Cai and Jing Peng, ‘Introduction of Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal’, 3; Grand Canal, ‘Advisory Body Evaluation (ICOMOS)’, 114; Man, Xanadu, 252. 23 Marco Polo: The Travels, 195. 24 Marco Polo: The Travels, 191–2. 25 Man, Xanadu, 348–53. 26 Tang, ‘The Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site’, 156–7, 180–3; Man, Xanadu, 251; Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, 478. 27 Randall A. Dodgen, Controlling the Dragon: Confucian Engineers and the Yellow River in Late Imperial China (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2001), 1; M.E. Lewis, The Flood Myths of Early China (Albany, NY: New York Press, 2006), 16-17; The Palace Museum, Beijing, ‘Water Studies of Ma Yuan’, https://en.dpm.org.cn/collections/collections/2011-03-31/425. html [accessed 18.06.22]; Ney Elias, ‘Notes of a Journey to the New Course of the Yellow River, in 1868’, The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London 40 (1870), 1–33; Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 190. 28 Antonia Finnane, ‘The Origins of Prejudice: The Malintegration of Subei in Late Imperial China’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 35:2 (1993), 218–20, 226–7. 29 Tang, ‘The Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site’, 173, 177–8; Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 190. 30 Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 190–1, 193; Ch’ao-Ting Chi, Key Economic Areas, 147–8. 31 Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 191; Tang, ‘Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site’, 194–201. 32 Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 190, 195, 196 (map), 210–11, 218; ‘Teapots through Time’, V&A Museum, https://www.vam.ac.uk/ articles/teapots-through-time [accessed 25.02.25]; Stacey Loughrey Sloboda, ‘Making China: Design, Empire, and Aesthetics In Britain, 1745–1851’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Southern California, 2004). 33 Finnane, Speaking of Yangzhou. 34 Nie Chongzheng, ‘An Imperial Commission for an Imperial Affair:
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On the “Kangxi Emperor’s Southern Tour Scrolls”’, Sotheby’s Blog (30 September 2020), https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/ an-imperial-commission-for-an-imperial-affair-on-the-kangxi-emperorssouthern-tour-scrolls [accessed 26.02.25]. 35 Claudia Brown, ‘A Western View of Kangxi’s Travel to the South: Fragmentary Scroll Six of his Inspection Tour Series and its Associations’, Sotheby’s Blog (29 September 2020), https://www.sothebys.com/en/ articles/a-western-view-of-kangxis-travel-to-the-south-fragmentary-scrollsix-of-his-inspection-tour-series-and-its-associations [accessed 16.02.25]; Mail Foreign Service, ‘“Give us back our treasure”: Chinese Demand Cameron Returns Priceless Artefacts Looted during 19th-Century Boxer Rebellion’, Mail Online (4 December 2013); Hui Zhong, China, Cultural Heritage, and International Law, Routledge Research in International Law (Abingdon: Routledge, 2018); ‘Kangxi Emperor’s 1689 Inspection Tour, Scroll Seven’, Wuxi to Suzhou to Tiger Kill, Mactaggart Art Collection of the University of Alberta, in ‘Recording the Grandeur of the Qing: The Southern Inspection Tour Scrolls of the Kangxi & Qianlong Emperors’, Asia for Educators, https://afe.easia.columbia.edu/qing/k7.html [accessed 16.02.25]. 36 Gao Hao, ‘The Amherst Embassy and British Discoveries in China’, History 99:337 (2014), 571–4; Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 226–7. 37 Keneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 18; Maartje Abbenhuis and Gordon W. Morrell, The First Age of Industrial Globalization: An International History 1815–1918 (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2020), 2. 38 M.E. Haq, Drugs in South Asia (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000); Orchard, ‘Shanghai’, 5; Harold C. Hinton, ‘The Grain Tribute System of the Ch’ing Dynasty’, The Far Eastern Quarterly 11:3 (1952), 343. 39 Kasian Tejapira, ‘Pigtail: A Pre-History of Chineseness in Siam’, Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia 7:1 (2018), 98. 40 Pomeranz, ‘Transformation of China’s Environment’, 125, 141; Randall A. Dodgen, ‘Hydraulic Evolution and Dynastic Decline: The Yellow River Conservancy, 1796–1855’, Late Imperial China 12:2 (1991), 56. 41 R. Davenport-Hines, ‘Gordon, Charles George (1833–1885), army officer’, ODNB; Mail Foreign Service, ‘“Give us back our treasure”’; Zhong, China, Cultural Heritage, and International Law. 42 Ch’ao-Ting Chi, Key Economic Areas, 147–8; Tang, ‘Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site’, 272, 277–8; Honig, Sisters and Strangers; Ye, ‘Grand
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Canal in Republican China’, 750–1. 43 Robert Fulton, A Treatise on the Improvement of Canal Navigation (London, 1796), 7, 142–3; C. Lindsey, ‘Robert Fulton (1765–1815), engineer and artist’, ODNB; National Park Service, Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Flooding, https://www.nps.gov/choh/learn/kidsyouth/flooding.htm [accessed 16.12.24]. 44 Tang, ‘Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site’, 248–51; Ye, ‘Grand Canal in Republican China’, 763–5. 45 D.J. Dwyer, ‘The Development of China’s Inland Waterways’, Geography 46:2 (1961), 165–7; Tang, ‘Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site’, 277–8. 46 ‘China’s Second Longest Canal Opens for Trial Operation’, Hellenic Shipping News (21 August 2023) [accessed 16.02.25]; Jean-Paul Rodrigue, The Geography of Transport Systems, 6th edn (London: Routledge, 2024), Chapter 1.
Chapter 20: The Riverfly 1
2
3 4 5 6 7 8
Gilgamesh X, 312–15, in The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian, Translated with an Introduction by Andrew George (London: Penguin Classics, 1999), 87; Andrew George, ‘The Mayfly on the River: Individual and Collective Destiny in the Epic of Gilgamesh’, Kaskal 9 (2012), 227–42. ‘China’, WEPA Database, Water Environment Partnership in Asia, updated 8 February 2023, https://wepa-db.net/database/china [accessed 08.08.24]; Ball, Water Kingdom; Knight, Chinese Literature, 36; Lihui Yang, Deming An and Jessica Anderson Turner, Handbook of Chinese Mythology (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 100–10; Robin McNeal, ‘Constructing Myth in Modern China’, The Journal of Asian Studies 71:3 (2012), 679–704; The Songs of the South: An Ancient Chinese Anthology of Poems by Qu Yuan and Other Poets, trans. David Hawkes (London: Penguin, 1985), 279n, 333n. Knight, Chinese Literature, 3; Robinson, Writing and Script, 20, 31, 37, 38, 131. Robinson, Writing and Script, 20–1. Menominee/Fols Avoine Chief quoted in Pike, Account of a Voyage up the Mississippi River, 48–9. Jeanette Winterson, Sexing the Cherry (London: Bloomsbury, 1989), 146–7; The Literary Island (London: Channel 4 Television, 1991), 59. Knight, Chinese Literature, 2. ‘Qian Chibi fu’ (‘At ‘Red Cliffs’, I) trans. Robert E. Hegel, in Robert E.
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Hegel, ‘The Sights and Sounds of Red Cliffs: On Reading Su Shi’, Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews (CLEAR) 20 (1998), 11–30, 17. 9 Gilgamesh X, quoted in George, ‘Mayfly on the River’, 237–8; ‘Ephemeroptera: Up-Wing Flies’, The Riverfly Partnership, https://www.riverflies. org/ephemeroptera [accessed 18.02.25]. 10 Knight, Chinese Literature, 25, 30, 40–1. 11 Trans. Liu Fei-Wen, Gendered Words: Sentiments and Expression in Changing Rural China (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 66; Wilt L. Idema, Heroines of Jiangyong (Washington DC: University of Washington Press, 2009), Introduction. 12 From ‘The Maiden Meng Jiang’, trans. Wilt L. Idema in Idema, Heroines of Jiangyong, 90. 13 From Qu Yuan, ‘Li Sao’ (On Encountering Trouble), in Hawkes, Songs of the South, 76–7. 14 Alfreda Murck, ‘The “Eight Views of Xiao-Xiang” and the Northern Song Culture of Exile’, Journal of Song-Yuan Studies, 26 (1996), 114–16; Idema, Heroines of Jiangyong, 162n; Igor Iwo Chabrowski, ‘Rivers as Prisms of Urban Imagining: Eastern Sichuan Work Songs’, in Martin Knoll, Uwe Lübken and Dieter Schott (eds), Rivers Lost, Rivers Regained: Rethinking City-River Relations (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2017), 177–99. 15 Murck, ‘“Eight Views of Xiao-Xiang”’, 114; ‘About Hunan’, Hunan Provincial Department of Culture and Tourism, https://whhlyt.hunan. gov.cn/whhlyt/english/AboutHunan/202205/t20220524_24630094.html [accessed 09.08.24]. Thanks to Alfreda Murck for correspondence on Xiao and Xiang rivers. 16 Murck, ‘“Eight Views of Xiao-Xiang”’, 113–14; Alfreda Murck, Poetry and Painting in Song China: The Subtle Art of Dissent (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center for the Harvard-Yenching Institute, 2000), 8–10; Knight, Chinese Literature, 32–3; Hawkes, Songs of the South, Introduction, 32–7. 17 Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story (London: Cape, 2005), 229. 18 Mao Zedong, ‘Repel the Attacks of the Bourgeois Rightists (July 9, 1957)’, in Michael Y.M. Kau and John K. Leung (eds), The Writings of Mao Zedong, 1949–1976: Vol. II January 1956 – December 1957 (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe 1993), 630; Ball, Water Kingdom, 41. 19 Chinese Posters Foundation: ‘Rain is no Dragon’s Spit’ (BG E37/35), https://chineseposters.net/search/search?keys=no+dragon+spit; ‘There is no “Dragon’s Palace” or “Dragon King” under the Sea’ (BG E37/32), https://chineseposters.net/posters/e37-32 [both accessed 26.02.25]. Thanks
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to Stefan Landsberger for translations for Chinese posters. 20 Tang, ‘Chinese Grand Canal World Heritage Site’, 266; Landsberger, ‘“Eliminate Superstition” Campaign (1965)’, Chinese Posters Foundation, https://chineseposters.net/themes/eliminate-superstition [accessed 26.02.25]; Maura Elizabeth Cunningham, ‘Q&A with Denise Y. Ho, ‘Author of Curating Revolution: Politics on Display in Mao’s China’, Association for Asian Studies (29 May 2018), https://www.asianstudies.org/ qa-with-denise-y-ho-author-of-curating-revolution-politics-on-display-inmaos-china/ [accessed 26.02.25]. 21 Judith Shapiro, Mao’s War against Nature: Politics and the Environment in Revolutionary China (Washington DC: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Ball, Water Kingdom, 293–5. 22 Chinese Posters Foundation: ‘Cleave the Peak’, 1973 (PC-1973-003), https:// chineseposters.net/posters/pc-1973-003; ‘The New Look of Mountains and Rivers’, 1972 (PC-1972-003), https://chineseposters.net/posters/pc-1972-003 [both accessed 18.02.25]. 23 Ball, Water Kingdom, 237–40. 24 Mao Zedong, ‘Swimming’ (1956), from Ten Poems and Lyrics by Mao Tsetung: Translation and Woodcuts by Wang Hui-Ming (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1975), 63. 25 ‘Chairman Mao Swims in the Yangtse’, Peking Review (29 July 1966), 4; Ball, Water Kingdom, 218–19; S. Poon, ‘Embodying Maoism: The Swimming Craze, the Mao Cult, and Body Politics in Communist China, 1950s–1970s’, Modern Asian Studies 53:5 (2019), 1450–85. 26 Mao Zedong quoted in ‘Chairman Mao swims in the Yangtse’, 5. 27 ‘Chairman Mao swims in the Yangtse’, 4; ‘Follow Chairman Mao and Advance in the Teeth of the Great Storms and Waves’, Peking Review 9:31 (29 July 1966), 7. 28 Quotations from ‘Chairman Mao Swims in the Yangtse’, 5–7; ‘Chairman Mao’s Swim in the Yangtse Inspires the People of China and the World’, Peking Review 33 (12 August 1966), 17–19; Yoon, ‘Cold War Africa and China: The Afro-Asian Writers’ Bureau and the Rise of Postcolonial Literature’. 29 Kaiya Zhou and Xingduan Zhang, Baiji: The Yangtze River Dolphin and Other Endangered Animals of China, trans. Luo Changyan (Nanjing: Yilin Press, 1992), 4–7. 30 Randall R. Reeves et al., Dolphins, Whales and Porpoises: 2002–2010 Conservation Action Plan for the World’s Cetaceans (IUCN/SSC Cetacean Specialist Group, 2003), 51; Chenge An et al., ‘Poyang and Dongting Lakes, Yangtze River: Tributary Lakes Blocked by Main-Stem Aggradation’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119:30 (2022), e2101384119, 1, 5–6.
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31 Samuel T. Turvey, Witness to Extinction: How We Failed to Save the Yangtze River Dolphin (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 4–5; Amitav Ghosh, The Hungry Tide (London: Harper Collins, 2004). 32 Poem translated by Luo Changyan in Kaiya Zhou and Xingduan Zhang, Baiji, 11–12. 33 Justin Jin, ‘Rebirth Along China’s Yangtze River’, WWF Blog (Fall 2017), https://www.worldwildlife.org/magazine/issues/fall-2017/articles/rebirthalong-china-s-yangtze-river [accessed 20.08.22]. 34 Annalisa Berta, Return to the Sea: The Life and Evolutionary Times of Marine Mammals (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2012), 9, 79; Reeves et al., Dolphins, Whales and Porpoises, 51–3; Healy Hamilton et al., ‘Evolution of River Dolphins’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 268, no. 1466 (2001), 549–56; Gillian T. Braulik et al. (eds), Report of the Workshop on Conservation of the Baiji and Yangtze Finless Porpoise, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China (28 November–3 December 2004), Co-organised by baiji.org Foundation and Changjiang Fishery Resources Administrative Committee, Ministry of Agriculture, China, http://www.iucn-csg.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/Brauliketal2005.pdf; Gillian T. Braulik et al., ‘Taxonomic Revision of the South Asian River Dolphins (Platanista): Indus and Ganges River Dolphins Are Separate Species’, Marine Mammal Science 37:3 (2021), 1022–59; ‘Rare Yangtze River Dolphin under Increasing Threat’, WWF (14 December 2006), https:// wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?89780/Rare-Yangtze-river-dolphin-underincreasing-threat [accessed 17.08.22]. 35 Braulik et al. (eds), Report of the Workshop on Conservation of the Baiji, 7; Reeves et al., Dolphins, Whales and Porpoises, 51; Xinhua, ‘Yangtze River Dolphins under Drought Threat’, China Daily, updated 25 November 2011; ‘Chinese Paddlefish and Wild Yangtze Sturgeon Extinct – IUCN’ (22 July 2022), https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/chinesepaddlefish-wild-yangtze-sturgeon-extinct-iucn-2022-07-22/; ‘Calls to Save Sturgeon as “living fossil” Fish Slip towards Extinction’, WWF (22 July 2022), https://www.wwf.org.uk/press-release/calls-save-sturgeon-livingfossil-fish-slip-towards-extinction [both accessed 22.02.25]; Yangtze Finless Porpoise, WWF, https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/yangtzefinless-porpoise [accessed 19.02.25]; MA Yun, ‘Wuhan Yangtze Finless Porpoise Breeding and Conservation Center Inaugurated at IHB’, Blog, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Hydrobiology (30 May 2022), http://english.ihb.cas.cn/newsroom/general/202206/t20220614_306477. html [accessed 26.02.25]. 36 Samuel Turvey et al., ‘Rapidly Shifting Baselines in Yangtze Fishing
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Communities and Local Memory of Extinct Species’, Conservation Biology 24:3 (2010), 782–3; Daniel Pauly, ‘Anecdotes and the Shifting Baseline Syndrome of Fisheries’, TREE 10:10 (1995), 430, https://fbaum. unc.edu/teaching/articles/Shift ingBaseline.pdf. 37 Raymond Laë, ‘Effect of Drought, Dams and Fishing Pressure on the Fisheries of the Central Delta on the Niger River’, International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences 20 (1994), 122; Animals in the Thames, ZSL, https://www.zsl.org/what-we-do/conservation/ protecting-species/animals-in-the-thames [accessed 19.02.25]; Plants and Animals, ICPDR, https://www.icpdr.org/tasks-topics/topics/biodiversity/ plants-animals [accessed 19.02.25]; Center for Biological Diversity, ‘Iconic Sturgeon of Great Lakes, Mississippi River Take Step Toward Endangered Species Protection’ (14 August 2019), https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/ news/press-releases/iconic-sturgeon-great-lakes-mississippi-rivertake-step-toward-endangered-species-protection-2019-08-14 [accessed 19.02.25]; Wildlife Institute of India, WII-GACMC. Aquatic Fauna of Ganga River: Status and Conservation (Dehradun: Ganga Aqualife Conservation Monitoring Centre, 2017), 12, https://nmcg.nic.in/pdf/ Status20report20102005202018_WII20(1).pdf [accessed 19.02.25]; WWF, ‘Calls to Save Sturgeon’.
Chapter 21: Sinking City 1
Gerald M. Friedman and John E. Sanders, Principles of Sedimentology (New York: Wiley & Sons, 1978), 274. 2 Kate Springer, ‘Soaring to Sinking: How Building Up Is Bringing Shanghai Down’, Time (21 May 2012); Jie Yin and Dapeng Yu, ‘Rising Sea Levels Could Swamp Sinking Shanghai’, 360info (17 May 2023), https://360info. org/rising-sea-levels-could-swamp-sinking-shanghai/ [accessed 19.02.25]. 3 S. Jevrejeva et al., ‘Recent Global Sea Level Acceleration Started over 200 Years Ago?’, Geophysical Research Letters 35:8 (2008), 1–4; S. Woodroffe, ‘Coastal Landscapes’, Geographical Review (September 2017), 3. 4 Orchard, ‘Shanghai’, 4; Coco Liu, ‘Shanghai Struggles to Save Itself from the Sea’, Scientific American (27 September 2011); Associated Press, ‘Rising Seas Threaten Shanghai, Other Big Cities’, NBC News (18 October 2009), https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna33368880 [accessed 23.02.25]; Duan Shaobo, ‘On Some Features of Shanghai’s Physical Environment’, GeoJournal 19:2 (1989), 240; Cecile Baeteman, ‘Subsidence in Coastal Lowlands Due to Groundwater Withdrawal: The Geological Approach’, Journal of Coastal Research (1994), 61, 65, 68. 5 Orchard, ‘Shanghai’, 15.
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6 Orchard, ‘Shanghai’, 3–4. 7 Orchard, ‘Shanghai’, 3–4, 23–5. 8 Tash Reith-Banks, ‘A City Built on Water: The Hidden Rivers under Tokyo’s Concrete and Neon’, The Guardian (13 June 2019); ‘Yangjingbang Creek, Shanghai’, University of Bristol – Historical Photographs of China reference number: Bk05-14, https://hpcbristol.net/visual/Bk05-14 [accessed 24.02.25]. 9 Orchard, ‘Shanghai’, 21–2; Ye, ‘Grand Canal in Republican China’, 740; S.R. Halsey, Quest for Power: European Imperialism and the Making of Chinese Statecraft (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 194. 10 Orchard, ‘Shanghai’, 25; Ernest O. Hauser, Shanghai: City for Sale (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1940), 237, 256; Emily Honig, Sisters and Strangers: Women in the Shanghai Cotton Mills, 1919–1949 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1986), 29, 32–3ff, 67, 118–19; Hans Derks, History of the Opium Problem: The Assault on the East, ca. 1600–1950 (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 688. 11 Orchard, ‘Shanghai’, 15; Keith Clayton, Coastal Geomorphology (Houndmills: Macmillan Education, 1979), 1–2; D. Kaniewski et al., ‘Holocene Evolution of Portus Pisanus, the Lost Harbour of Pisa’, Scientific Reports 8:11625 (2018), 10–11; Robert Dolan and H. Grant Goodell, ‘Sinking Cities: A Combination of Human Activities and Geological Processes Endangers Many of the World’s Largest Cities’, American Scientist 74:1 (1986), 41–2. 12 Orchard, ‘Shanghai’, 19, 20 (quoting F.L. Hawks Pott, 1928), 22. 13 George B. Barbour, ‘Physiographic History of the Yangtze’, The Geographical Journal 87:1 (1936), 29; Orchard, ‘Shanghai’, 22–3; Irving S. Friedman, ‘Whangpoo Conservancy Board Announces Resumption of Operations’, Far Eastern Survey 9:3 (1940), 36–7; Chien She, Dredgepoint, https://www.dredgepoint.org/dredging-database/equipment/chien-she; Schichau Seebeck Shipyard, http://www.schichau-seebeck-shipyard. com/content/articles/000000/000029.htm; ‘Little Museum of Foreign Brand Advertising in the R.O.C.’, https://www.mofba. org/2021/08/02/1937-road-map-of-shanghai-yangtze-river-delta-sponsoredby-standard-vacuum-oil-co-brands-socony-gargoyle-mobiloil/ [all accessed 23.02.25]; Yongle Xue, ‘Oil for the Engines of China: The Standard Oil Company and the Early Mechanization of China, 1927–1953’ (unpublished thesis, Department of History, Georgetown University, 2014). 14 Advertisement, ‘Menace Off Shanghai!’, Socony-Vacuum Oil Company Inc., c. 1936. 15 Orchard, ‘Shanghai’, 23; Friedman, ‘Whangpoo Conservancy Board’, 36–7; ‘What Happened at Pearl Harbour?’, Imperial War Museum Blog, https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/what-happened-at-pearl-harbor [accessed
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22.02.25]. 16 Hongbin Zheng, Yiting Pan and James W.P. Campbell, ‘Building on Shanghai Soil’, Construction History 34:1 (2019), 1; Shi Luxiang and Bao Manfang, ‘Case History No. 9.2. Shanghai, China, by Shanghai Geological Department, Shanghai, China’, in Joseph P. Poland (ed.), Guidebook to Studies of Land Subsidence due to Ground-Water Withdrawal (Michigan: UNESCO, 1984), 155–6, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000065167 [accessed 19.06.22]. 17 Zheng, Pan, and Campbell, ‘Building on Shanghai Soil’, 1–3, 13, 16. 18 A.W. Skempton, ‘Foundations for High Buildings’, Proceedings of The Institution of Civil Engineers 4:4 (1955), 246, 247; Betsy McCully, ‘New York Geology’, New York Nature, Blog, updated 2 August 2023, https:// www.newyorknature.us/new-york-geology/ [accessed 23.02.25]. 19 Zheng, Pan and Campbell, ‘Building on Shanghai Soil’, 5, Table 3; Club Concordia, The Bund, Shanghai, Historical Photographs of China, https:// hpcbristol.net/visual/oh02-03; ‘German Children at the Ceremony to Lay the Foundation Stone of the New Club Concordia, Shanghai’, University of Bristol – Historical Photographs of China reference number: LD01112, https://hpcbristol.net/visual/LD01-112 [both accessed 23.02.25]; T. Vandamme, ‘The Rise of Nationalism in a Cosmopolitan Port City: The Foreign Communities of Shanghai during the First World War’, Journal of World History 29:1 (2018), 61–2; Skempton, ‘Foundations for High Buildings’, 251–2; P. Chung, ‘Floating in Mud to Reach the Skies: Victor Sassoon and the Real Estate Boom in Shanghai, 1920s–1930s’, International Journal of Asian Studies 16:1 (2019), 1–31. 20 Thomas L. Holzer and Ivan Johnson, ‘Land Subsidence Caused by Ground Water Withdrawal in Urban Areas’, GeoJournal 11:3 (1985), 253; Shi Luxiang and Bao Manfang, ‘Case History No. 9.2. Shanghai, China’, 155. 21 Xincheng Shen, ‘Engineering Shanghai: Water, Sewage, and the Making of Hydraulic Modernity’ (unpublished PhD thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2019), 107; Frank Hannan, ‘Abstracts of Water Works Literature’, Journal (American Water Works Association) 21:12 (1929), 1727; Holzer and Johnson, ‘Land Subsidence’, 253; Shi Luxiang and Bao Manfang, ‘Case History No. 9.2. Shanghai, China’, 159. 22 Honig, Sisters and Strangers, 30–1 (Table 2), 118–19; Holzer and Johnson, ‘Land Subsidence’, 253; Theodore Shabad, ‘The Population of China’s Cities’, Geographical Review 49:1 (1959), 32; Xing Li et al., ‘Rapid Loss of Tidal Flats in the Yangtze River Delta since 1974’, International Journal Environmental Research and Public Health 17:5, 1636 (2020), 13. 23 ‘Shanghai Brings Surface Subsidence under Control’, Peking Review 15:5
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(14 April 1972), 5, 7; Frank Kehl, ‘Approach to Environmental Problems’, Social Scientist 5:10/11 (1977), 107. 24 ‘Shanghai Brings Surface Subsidence Under Control’, 7–8; ‘Liu Shaoqi’, Chinese Poster Foundation, https://chineseposters.net/themes/liushaoqi [accessed 23.02.25]. 25 ‘Shanghai Brings Surface Subsidence Under Control’, 9; ‘Yangtze River Water Conservancy Work’, Peking Review 9 (3 March 1972), 14–15; ‘Liu Shaoqi’, Chinese Poster Foundation, https://chineseposters.net/themes/ liushaoqi [accessed 23.02.25]. 26 ‘Shanghai Brings Surface Subsidence Under Control’, 5, 9; Kehl, ‘Approach to Environmental Problems’, 112. 27 Joseph F. Poland and Working Group, ‘Review of Methods to Control or Arrest Subsidence’, in Joseph P. Poland (ed.), Guidebook to Studies of Land Subsidence due to Ground-Water Withdrawal (Michigan: UNESCO, 1984), 129. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000065167 [accessed 19.06.22]; Holzer and Johnson, ‘Land Subsidence’, 253. 28 ‘Shanghai’s Sinking Under Control, Authorities Say’, China Daily (13 November 2001), http://www.china.org.cn/english/2001/Nov/22063.htm [accessed 22.08.22]. 29 ‘Shanghai is Sinking as Skyscrapers Make a Dent’, eastday.com (11 December 2001), http://www.china.org.cn/english/DO-e/23452.htm; ‘Shanghai Tries to Prevent Ground Sinking’, China Daily (10 September 2002), http://www.china.org.cn/english/2002/Sep/42481.htm [both accessed 19.06.22]. 30 ‘Shanghai is Sinking as Skyscrapers Make a Dent’; ‘Shanghai to Build 333-Meter Skyscraper’, People’s Daily (29 December 2001), http://www. china.org.cn/english/24432.htm [accessed 19.06.22]; Shimao International Plaza, Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitats, https://www. skyscrapercenter.com/building/wd/370# [accessed 11.08.24]; ‘Shanghai Still Sinking’, China Daily (19 November 2003), http://www.chinadaily. com.cn/en/doc/2003-11/19/content_282844.htm [accessed 19.06.22]. 31 Springer, ‘Soaring to Sinking’; Yang Jian, ‘Land Subsidence Reduced to Safe Level’, Shanghai Daily (23 April 2016). 32 TG, ‘Construction: Venice of the East’, ASEE Prism 18:5 (2009), 19; Hou Liqiang, ‘Rule to Put Limits on Skyscrapers’ China Daily (8 May 2020), https://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202005/08/WS5eb4b262a310a8b2411541ad.html [accessed 19.06.22]; Shanghai Tower, Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitats, https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/ building/shanghai-tower/56 [accessed 11.08.24]. 33 Yong Jiang, Chris Zevenbergen and Yongchi Ma, ‘Urban Pluvial Flooding and Stormwater Management: A Contemporary Review of China’s
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