ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina I
Academic English: Writing a Research Article Natural Sciences
ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina III
Academic English: Writing a Research Article Natural Sciences
Leen De Boom
ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina IV
Academia Press Eekhout 2 9000 Gent Tel. 09/233 80 88 Info@academiapress.be
Fax 09/233 14 09 www.academiapress.be
De uitgaven van Academia Press worden verdeeld door: (België) J. Story-Scientia bvba Wetenschappelijke Boekhandel Sint-Kwintensberg 87 9000 Gent Tel. 09/225 57 57 Fax 09/233 14 09 Info@story.be www.story.be (Nederland) Ef & Ef Media Postbus 404 3500 AK Utrecht info@efenefmedia.nl
www.efenefmedia.nl
Opmaak: Le Pur et L’Impur Leen De Boom Academic English: Writing a Research Article Natural Sciences Gent, Academia Press, 2011, XII + 396 p. This book belongs to a series of five books for doctoral students and researchers from different disciplines: • • • • •
Arts, Humanities and Law (Catherine Verguts) (Bioscience) Engineering (Leen De Boom and Katrien L. B. Deroey) Life Sciences and Medicine (Katrien L. B. Deroey, in collaboration with Dominique Neyts) Natural Sciences (Leen De Boom) Social and Behavioural Sciences (Catherine Verguts)
A teacher’s manual is available upon request.
ISBN 978 90 382 1813 7 D/2011/4804/163 NUR1 840 U 1641 Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigd en/of vermenigvuldigd door middel van druk, fotokopie, microfilm of op welke andere wijze dan ook, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de uitgever.
ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXERCISES
IX
INTRODUCTION: YOU AS A WRITER
XI
Unit 1: 1.1. 1.2. 1.3.
ACADEMIC STYLE Managing Tone Improving conciseness Enhancing flow
1 2 8 14
Unit 2: 2.1. 2.2. 2.3.
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY Lexical accuracy Spelling accuracy and consistency Consulting the Internet during the writing process
27 28 31 34
Unit 3: 3.1. 3.2. 3.3.
THE (THEORETICAL) BACKGROUND Referencing Reporting verbs Evaluative language
37 38 41 48
Unit 4: 4.1. 4.2. 4.3.
INTRODUCTIONS Framing the research question Highlighting a need Presenting your research
53 57 61 66
Unit 5: 5.1. 5.2. 5.3.
METHODS Structure Flow and conciseness Vocabulary
81 82 87 92
V
ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina VI
Academic English: Writing a Research Article l Natural Sciences
Unit 6: 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. 6.5.
RESULTS Describing and justifying the procedure and/or results Adequately referring to visuals Describing general findings Including more detailed findings Commenting on the findings
103 105 107 111 114 116
Unit 7: 7.1. 7.2. 7.3.
DISCUSSIONS Consolidating your research space Indicating limitations of the study Recommending action or further research
123 129 136 141
Unit 8: 8.1. 8.2. 8.3.
ABSTRACTS, TITLES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Abstracts Titles Acknowledgements
161 162 166 167
REFERENCE SECTION Unit 1: 1.1. 1.2. 1.3.
VI
ACADEMIC STYLE Managing tone Improving conciseness Enhancing flow
169 171 172 182 186
Unit 2: ACADEMIC VOCABULARY 2.1. Lexical accuracy 2.2. Consulting the Internet during the writing process
197 198 201
Unit 3: 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6.
203 204 213 219 227 241 248
ACADEMIC GENRES (Theoretical) background sections Introductions Methods Results Discussions and conclusions Abstracts
ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina VII
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.7. Titles 3.8. Acknowledgements
250 252
Unit 4: GRAMMAR REFERENCE SECTION 4.1. Adjectives and adverbs 4.2. Adverbial position 4.3. Conditionals 4.4. Linking expressions 4.5. Parallel Constructions 4.6. Participle clauses 4.7. Passive Voice 4.8. Punctuation 4.9. Quantifiers 4.10. Relative clauses 4.11. Spelling accuracy and consistency 4.12. Tenses 4.13. Verb agreement
255 256 257 259 262 263 265 267 269 281 282 286 292 293
UNIT 5: 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. 5.6.
297 298 300 300 301 302 302
WRITING AIDS Books on academic writing General websites on academic writing Search engines and dictionaries Journal style guides Grammar books Editing / Revising / Proofreading
KEY
307
INDEX
381
SOURCES
385
VII
ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina IX
EXERCISES
ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina XI
INTRODUCTION: YOU AS A WRITER
Exercise 1 First, answer these questions individually. Then discuss in groups.
1.
What type of texts have you written so far (for example, research articles, letters and emails, scholarly assignments and progress reports)? What type of text will you be writing in the near future?
2. What is your attitude towards writing (negative – neutral – positive)? Do you know why? What exactly do you (dis)like about writing?
3. What have you been praised for or criticized for in the past as a writer?
4. What do you think are the main differences between writing in your mother tongue and in English?
5. What would you like to learn about writing research articles? In other words, what do you expect from this course?
XI
ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina 1
Unit 1:
ACADEMIC STYLE
Session aims • • • • •
Writing in a sufficiently formal register Adopting an impersonal style Writing clearly and concisely Structuring paragraphs and sentences Clarifying the relationship between points
• Language focus: Relative clauses
1
ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina 2
Academic English: Writing a Research Article l Natural Sciences
>>
To achieve fluent academic discourse, your text needs the correct tone, conciseness and a good flow. These three criteria will be discussed in more detail in this unit.
1.1. Managing Tone A. Formality Exercise 1 Read the following passage which is taken from an introduction. Underline the formal elements and complete the scheme below the text. (1) Catalytic asymmetric hydrogenation is one of the most widely used and reliable catalytic methods for the preparation of optically active compounds. (2) Some attractive features of this transformation include high enantioselectivity, low catalyst loadings, essentially quantitative yields, perfect atom economy, and mild conditions. (3) For these reasons, asymmetric hydrogenation is the most utilized synthetic asymmetric methodology in industry, and forms the critical transformation in several commercial scale processes. (4) Logically, discovery of high-performance chiral catalysts crucially depends on the development of appropriate ligands. (5) This field is in constant development, with new generations of ligands appearing every year. formal elements
2
examples
ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina 3
UNIT 1: ACADEMIC STYLE
Formality is achieved by: ➞ Formal vocabulary • Avoid colloquial vocabulary (words and expressions used in everyday spoken language) (exercise 2); • Limit the use of run-on expressions such as ‘and so forth’ and ‘etc.’.
1
➞ Formal grammatical constructions • Do not contract words; • Be careful about using imperatives and direct questions; • Replace phrasal verbs by single-word verbs (exercise 3); • Place adverbs with the verb (exercise 4); • Write in a more impersonal style (exercise 5). Reference section: Formality
Exercise 2 Replace the colloquial phrases in bold by more formal language. 1.
During island growth, the increase of the strain concentration at the island edge makes it more and more difficult for adatoms to reach the island, which leads to the formation of homogeneously sized islands.
2. As far as we know, these S-matrix elements are the only rigorously defined quantities of the theory. 3. The resulting plasma oscillations and screening differ a lot from those in bulk media. 4. However, there is not very much research dealing with these fundamentals of ESD. 5. We can see that all experimental points fall slightly to the right of the curve.
3
ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina 4
Academic English: Writing a Research Article l Natural Sciences
6. Among the general theoretical models that we can apply to a wide range of molecules, the G2, CBS, and B3LYP-DFT models have been the most successful. 7.
This paper is about the statistical mechanics of the isotropic and the weakly anisotropic quadratic-layer antiferromagnet.
8. The system is put into practice both in software and in reconfigurable hardware.
Exercise 3 Choose a verb from the list to replace the less formal words in bold. You may have to change the form/tense of the verb. clarify constitute attribute 1.
reduce enable arise
enhance expedite reduce
facilitate offer investigate
The primary advantage of this design is that it makes the synthesis of ac wave forms possible without the uncertainty introduced by switching transients.
2. [Title:] Intracellular sequestration of sodium by a novel Na+/H+ exchanger in yeast is made better by mutations in the plasma membrane H+ATPase. 3. The silyl protecting group also had the added benefit of making the polarity of the desired compound smaller and making purification by column chromatography easier. 4. We looked into the relationship between the reflection efficiency of a holographic polymer dispersed liquid crystal (HPDLC) and the liquidcrystal/polymer phase separation structure.
4
ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina 5
UNIT 1: ACADEMIC STYLE
5. In this case, the mechanism of the THz radiation was put down to the carrier motion in the surface depletion electric field. 6. It is well known from optics that the speed of light in a transparent medium is made smaller by a factor of n (the index of refraction) as compared with vacuum. 7.
1
At this stage we are unable to come up with a convincing explanation for this observation and can merely speculate that ion source conditions favouring production of clusters may also lead to the formation of warmer clusters.
8. Many of the discrepancies in the meanings of vulnerability come from different epistemological orientations and subsequent methodological practices. 9. These elements make up almost 37.5% of the mouse genome. 10. The short length of the sequence is particularly important for speeding up chemical synthesis using Fmoc chemistry. 11. A large number of studies have been conducted on the structure of Fe-N films to make the origin of the enhanced magnetic moment clear.
!
Language focus: Adverbial position
In academic writing, single adverbs tend to be placed with the verb (midposition). If there is no auxiliary, the adverb in midposition is placed before the main verb. Whereas mammalian enzymes use UDP-glucuronic acid, the plant enzymes typically use UDP-glucose in the transfer reactions.
5
ANS_Opmaak 1 24/06/13 15:15 Pagina 6
Academic English: Writing a Research Article l Natural Sciences
When the verb ‘be’ is on its own, the adverb comes after it. These observations are generally consistent with results obtained from Ca 2+ binding studies on the purified integrin (18) and synthetic peptides corresponding to the individual loops of each EF-hand (19). The adverb is usually placed after the first auxiliary verb, except for the adverb of manner. Compare: The surface sol-gel process (SSP) was originally developed by Kunitake and coworkers. (after the first auxiliary) The interaction between small bioactive ligands with proteins has long been acknowledged as one of the main topics of molecular biology. (after the first auxiliary) The Vilsmeier dimethylformamide-thionyl chloride reagent13 provided halo derivatives which could be successfully converted to the 7,8-dihydro-7thiones. (after ALL auxiliaries) Reference section: Adverbial position
Exercise 4 Find a single adverb to replace the words in bold and place it with the verb. 1.
In general, the curves of gain versus excitation rate have downward curvature for photon energies near the gain peak.
2. All symmetric resonances were assumed to be p-wave for our analysis, but after that they were analysed as s-wave to test whether the asymmetry induced would have been detectable in the present data. 3. In essence, the underlying geometries are determined by at least two stronger primary interactions in all complexes. 4. With the flow ratio decreasing from 16.5, Si peaks display asymmetrical broad peaks which are shifted to a lower binding energy all the time.
6