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Academic English: Writing a Research Article Life Sciences and Medicine
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Academic English: Writing a Research Article Life Sciences and Medicine
Katrien L.B. Deroey in collaboration with Dominique Neyts
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Academia Press Eekhout 2 9000 Gent Tel. 09/233 80 88 Info@academiapress.be
Fax 09/233 14 09 www.academiapress.be
De uitgaven van Academia Press worden verdeeld door: (België) J. Story-Scientia bvba Wetenschappelijke Boekhandel Sint-Kwintensberg 87 9000 Gent Tel. 09/225 57 57 Fax 09/233 14 09 Info@story.be www.story.be (Nederland) Ef & Ef Media Postbus 404 3500 AK Utrecht info@efenefmedia.nl
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Opmaak: Le Pur et L’Impur Katrien L. B. Deroey, in collaboration with Dominique Neyts Academic English: Writing a Research Article Life Sciences and Medicine Gent, Academia Press, 2011, XII + 316 p. This book belongs to a series of five books for doctoral students and researchers from different disciplines: • • • • •
Arts, Humanities and Law (Catherine Verguts) (Bioscience) Engineering (Leen De Boom and Katrien L.B. Deroey) Life Sciences and Medicine (Katrien L.B. Deroey, in collaboration with Dominique Neyts) Natural Sciences (Leen De Boom) Social and Behavioural Sciences (Catherine Verguts)
A teacher’s manual is available upon request.
ISBN 978 90 382 1812 0 D/2011/4804/162 NUR 632 U 1640 Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigd en/of vermenigvuldigd door middel van druk, fotokopie, microfilm of op welke andere wijze dan ook, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de uitgever.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXERCISES
XI
INTRODUCTION: YOU AS AN ACADEMIC WRITER
XIII
Unit 1: 1.1. 1.2. 1.3.
ACADEMIC STYLE Managing tone Writing concisely Establishing flow
1 3 9 13
Unit 2: 2.1. 2.2. 2.3.
INTRODUCTIONS Framing the research question Highlighting a research need Presenting your research
33 35 47 53
Unit 3: 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4.
METHODS The content of Method sections Constructing Clear Method sections Verb phrases in Method sections Establishing flow in Method sections
59 60 62 66 70
Unit 4 : 4.1. 4.2. 4.3.
RESULTS The content and structure of Results sections Referring to tables and figures Describing your findings
Unit 5 : DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 5.1. The Discussion section as a persuasive text 5.2. The content and structure of Discussion sections
77 79 80 83 99 100 111
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Academic English: Writing a Research Article l Life Sciences and Medicine
Unit 6 : 6.1. 6.2. 6.3.
ABSTRACTS, TITLES, AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Abstracts Titles Acknowledgements
REFERENCE SECTION Unit 1: 1.1. 1.2. 1.3.
VI
ACADEMIC STYLE Managing tone Improving conciseness Enhancing flow
129 130 133 139
145 147 148 154 157
Unit 2: ACADEMIC VOCABULARY 2.1. Lexical accuracy 2.2. Consulting the Internet to enhance lexical and grammatical accuracy
165 166
Unit 3: 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. 3.8.
ACADEMIC GENRES Literature reviews Introductions Methods Results Discussions and conclusions Abstracts Titles Acknowledgements
171 172 180 185 187 191 195 196 198
Unit 4: 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 4.7.
GRAMMAR REFERENCE SECTION Adjectives and adverbs Adverbial position Conditionals Linking expressions Parallel constructions Participle clauses The passive voice
199 200 201 203 205 206 208 209
169
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.8. 4.9. 4.10. 4.11. 4.12. 4.13. UNIT 5: 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5.
Punctuation Quantifiers Relative clauses Spelling Tenses Verb agreement
211 222 224 229 231 233
WRITING AIDS Books on academic writing General websites on academic writing Grammar books Search engines and dictionaries Editing / Revising / Proofreading
235 236 237 238 239 240
KEY
243
INDEX
277
SOURCES
283
VII
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PREFACE
This book aims to improve your academic writing in general and your research article writing in particular. The knowledge, skills, and insights you will acquire should make you a more confident, effective, analytical and successful writer. Although it is intended for use in class, you will find that this book can equally be used for independent study. To maximise (continuous) learning, a variety of activities is offered in addition to the exercises. Working with your writing • In these tasks you apply what you have learnt to your own writing, thus reinforcing the learning process and encouraging you to write. Independent learning tasks • These tasks will expand your vocabulary as well as your knowledge about research articles in your specific research area and target journals. Orientation tasks • These form an opportunity to learn from the knowledge and experience of fellow writers and orientate you to the main issues of the unit by raising your awareness of how much you already know about these. Accuracy focus • These tasks focus on common language problems.
My sincere thanks to Dominique Neyts, whose pedagogical experience, common sense, and sharp eye provided invaluable input for the draft of this book; her willingness to collaborate and her good humour were also much appreciated. I am also grateful to Catherine Verguts for her hard work in coordinating the publication process for all five books and for doing so with her usual cheer, tact and
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Academic English: Writing a Research Article l Life Sciences and Medicine
patience. Thanks also to Liselotte Van Vlem for her contribution to the Reference section. I hope this book will boost your academic writing career, whether you are a novice or a more experienced writer.
Katrien L. B. Deroey August, 2011
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EXERCISES
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INTRODUCTION: YOU AS AN ACADEMIC WRITER
Orientation task Think about these questions individually first and then discuss them in small groups.
1.
What are your three main concerns about academic writing in English?
2. What have you learnt so far from (i) the academic writing you have done and from (ii) any experiences with the publication process?
3. What advice have you received so far about (i) academic writing in general and (ii) getting published specifically that you have found helpful?
XIII
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Unit 1:
ACADEMIC STYLE
1 Session aims • Developing your awareness of what constitutes an academic writing style • Enabling you to write more concisely • Familiarising you with structuring principles at paragraph and sentence level which enhance the clarity and readability of texts • Language focus: Adverbial position • Language focus: Relative clauses • Accuracy focus: Easily confused words
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>>
The characteristics of academic writing discussed in this unit help establish an appropriate relationship with your audience, convey an acceptable attitude towards the research you are reporting, and maximise the impact of your message.
Exercise 1 The following excerpts are from popular scientific articles. What language features do they contain that you would try to avoid when writing academic research articles? 1.
Several recent studies of sleep and sleeplessness show that slumber is especially important for doing clever stuff with information, such as extracting the gist of what has been learned, combining facts in interesting ways and dealing with the day’s emotions.
2. Doctors routinely urge their patients to quit smoking and exercise regularly. But what if there were a blood test that could show smokers and couch potatoes the damage their lifestyle was actually wreaking on their chromosomes? 3. It turns out that people differ in how they perceive many if not all odors, and most of us have at least one scent we cannot detect at all. 4. The team wondered what would happen if the diabetic mice got a top-up of substance P, so they injected some directly into the pancreas. Astonishingly, the diabetes vanished overnight and the mice remained free of it for weeks and, in some cases, months. 5. Chronic itch is a major underreported disease. Many patients-as many as 17 percent of adults, according to one study-suffer from it, and many of them never seek medical help. They think they can scratch it away. Because it’s not cancer, you don’t die from it, so people don’t take it seriously. But a majority of chronic itch is resistant to treatment.
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UNIT 1: ACADEMIC STYLE
1.1. Managing tone
>> • • •
The tone of your writing should be sufficiently formal and impersonal, as this helps
foreground the research; create a credible author persona; and establish an appropriate relationship with the reader.
1
Reference section: Managing tone
A. Formality Formality is mainly achieved by • • • •
avoiding colloquial or spoken language; placing adverbs with the verb; not using questions (in some fields) or exclamations; and writing words in full (e.g. ‘cannot’) instead of using contractions (e.g. ‘can’t’).
Exercise 2 Identify and replace less formal language, making any changes necessary to keep the sentence grammatical. 1.
Subjects were also encouraged to acknowledge the feeling that something was wrong, even when they could not put their finger on it.
2. As far as we know, Experiment II demonstrated for the first time that an ultra brief sleep episode provides an effective memory enhancement. 3. The toxic responses differ a lot.
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Academic English: Writing a Research Article l Life Sciences and Medicine
4. On top of this, every population consists of many different interest groups that want to use the available space for different purposes. 5. Improved analytical approaches are necessary to meet the more and more stringent regulatory requirements for the determination of impurities in API S. 6. It looks like histidine 229 in protein L2 is essential for 50S peptidyl transferase activity. 7.
After 80 years, more than three quarters evidenced major impairment. Given these findings, it is no wonder that many elderly persons complain that food lacks flavour.
8. In the current study we want to present an evaluation of the ITS2-PCR. 9. The negative outcome of metabolic engineering can be blamed on the interdependence between metabolic pathways and the fact that most aspects of metabolism are the result of several genes. 10. This interaction is made better by other sequence motifs.
>>
4
Quite a few single-word verbs (e.g. ‘examine’, ‘establish’, ‘implement’) have synonyms which consist of several words (e.g. ‘look at’, ‘find out’, ‘carry out’). In academic writing, the single verbs are generally preferred over the multi-word expressions, which are more common in less formal writing and in speech. Compare:
•
Informal language The social worker looked at the client’s history to find out which interventions had previously been carried out.
•
Academic, formal language The social worker examined the client’s history to establish which interventions had previously been implemented.
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UNIT 1: ACADEMIC STYLE
Exercise 3 Choose a single-word verb from the list to replace the less formal alternatives in bold, making any changes necessary to keep the sentence grammatical. abandon accumulate address 1.
determine effect elucidate
enable encounter enhance
initiate investigate necessitate
propose raise
1
We looked into the feasibility of genetically modifying their growth.
2. The tenacity with which Candida infects indwelling biomedical devices makes their removal necessary to bring about a cure. 3. It is important to find out the roles played by individual inhibitor genes. 4. The problem of disease resistance is being dealt with on many fronts. 5. In light of these complications we have given up this approach and now favour the use of a wider gastric conduit (6 cm diameter) with a pyloroplasty. 6. In general, four possible mechanisms are brought up to explain the therapeutic effect of HFS. 7.
Prompted by the potential broad value of using molecular transporters to make drug delivery possible or better, we started up a program aimed at making the structural features of Tat49–57 that are required for its cellular entry clear.
8. A number of terrestrial plants build up large quantities of metals such as zinc, manganese, nickel, cobalt and copper in their shoots. 9. This is largely the result of the initially limited supply of paclitaxel and other obstacles which came up during early clinical development that restricted the drug’s availability to a few investigational centers.
5
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Academic English: Writing a Research Article l Life Sciences and Medicine
10. Such large responses often bring up concerns about adverse health consequences, particularly for chronically ill individuals.
!
Language focus: Adverbial position
In academic writing, it is relatively common to find certain single adverbs (e.g. of time, frequency, and manner) with the verb (i.e. in “mid-position”) rather than at the beginning or end of the sentence (Swales & Feak, 2004). Note that putting such adverbs in initial position makes them appear stressed. An exception is linking adverbs (e.g. ‘however’, ‘nevertheless’), which normally appear sentence-initially. Often these postmortem studies occur in cases where a large regional infarct is found at necropsy. ➞ These postmortem studies often occur in cases where a large regional infarct is found at necropsy. However, no studies exist in which sleepiness has been measured continuously and objectively during normal work. ➞ However, no studies exist in which sleepiness has been continuously and objectively measured during normal work.
Exercise 4 Replace the phrases in bold with single-word adverbs and place these with the verb. Note the different mid-positions with full verbs, ‘be’ and auxiliaries. The genetic programming module genetically manipulates the candidate predictors. It was often necessary to boil the chloroform. The Bland and Altman method was orginally designed to compare different methods.
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