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ARCH 696 ⮑ Spring 2022

Emily Sobolewski Knight

- Field Investigations of and Speculations on Hawai'i's Botanical Future -

On Behalf of Plants:

01 Collect 1A

Chronicle

Chart

Tree Portraiture

Tree Phenology + Morphogenesis

02 Collaborate 2A

Plant Practices + Cultural Production

Plant Perspectives

Plant Products

Dimensions of Production + Performance

03 Speculate 3A

Dimensions of Plant Potential

ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

Collect

Chronicle

Sandalwood has been present in the Hawaiian Islands for thousands of years. Although Native Hawaiians had used this scented wood, it was not until the external influence of trade that ignited the Sandalwood export. Within less than 100 years, the Sandalwood population in Hawai’i had been completely decimated. As with the many plants, value was placed on sandalwood. This value created relationships on a global scale. Santalum was valuable to the rest of the world and Kamehameha provided goods in turn for things that he saw value in. Restoration efforts are still underway to this day. Scientific research done in the early 1900s about the parasitic nature of the species greatly increased the success rate of nursery cultivation of sandalwood. Even with these discoveries, the destruction of the natural range of sandalwood within the Hawaiian islands specifically due to cattle ranching and invasive species has made it difficult for sandalwood to grow and thrive. The title of "the most expensive wood in the world" still holds after centuries of growth, harvest, and trade. Even with contemporary regulations on Sandalwood harvest, there is still theft of existing trees.

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ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

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Chart

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While the species developed naturally throughout the Pacific Ocean thousands of years ago, the most drastic movements were brought on as the result of the cultural and spiritual uses of the heartwood. Pacific trade routes that originated from the Canton market in China were the catalyst for the 'Sandalwood Trade.' The market was active from the 17th to the 19th century. Any place that Sandalwood was discovered became a port that was highly active until the heartwood supply ran dry. As sandalwood was flowing out of places like the Marquesas Islands, Fijian Islands, and Melanesia; luxury goods and supplies were flowing in as payment for this expensive wood. Turning our eyes to Hawai'i, once the sought-after wood was discovered within the island chain, the aggressive depletion of Sandalwood of all varieties began almost immediately. Unlike other islands, Kamehameha I used the sandalwood interest as a way to solidify the Hawaiian Kingdom as a port within the global trade route. With the four endemic varieties found on the islands, there was much sandalwood to be sold. Even though the sandalwood trade meant success for Hawai'i, it harmed those who were responsible for harvesting the most. There are shared accounts of the Hawaiians that were sent into the mountains accelerating the depletion of the wood by uprooting and killing any juvenile plants they could find so that no one would have to suffer as they were.

sandalwood Illahi 檀香 चंदन legno di sandal sandalo sandelhout bois de santal sandal agaci sandeltra sandalovoye derevo chandan sandal sandałowy

ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022 Taxon + Authority

Sobolewski Knight Variety

Rain (mm)

Range (m)

Distribution

—

0 - 500

—

300-3000

—

800-1500

Santalum acuminatum (R. Br.) A. DC. Santalum album L.

—

Variety

Rain (mm)

Range (m) Distribution

S. Australia

var. deckeri Fosberg & Sachet

—

250-940

Marquesas

0-700

India

—

Henderson Island

0-2000

Indonesia: Timor, Sumba, Flores, and now planted in Java, Bali, and elsewhere in Asia and the pacific

var. hendersonense (F. Brown) Fosb. & Sachet var. marchionense (Skoots.) Skottsberg

—

300-940

Marquesas

var. Margaretae (F. Brown) Skottsberg

—

c. 250

Austral Islands

var. mitiaro Sykes

—

0-10

Cook Islands

—

200-500

Society Island

—

c.60

(Raiatea)

var. raiavanse F. Brown

—

Austral Islands

Santalum lanceolatum R. Br.

—

300-1300

0-700

Australia

Santalum macgregorii F. v. Mueller

—

1000-1500

200-1800

New Guinea

Santalum murrayanum (Mitchell) C. Gardn.

—

0-500

S.W. Australia

Santalum obtusifolium R. Br.

—

1400-2000

100-700

Australia

Santalum paniculatum A. Gray

—

var. paniculatum

380-2550

38-2100

Hawai‘i

var. pilgeri (Rock) Stemmermann

760-1350

730-1970

Hawai‘i

Santalum spicatum (R. Br.) A. DC.

200-600

0-300

Australia

Santalum yasi Seeman

—

0-200

Fiji

—

0-100

Tonga

1400-1800

0-250

Australia

—

New Caledonia

var. austrocaledonicum

—

New Caledonia and isles loyalty

—

1000-1500

0-300

Vanuatu

var. minutum Halle

800

100-200

New Caledonia (NW part of the island)

var. pilosulum Halle

1000-2500

0-800

New Caledonia

Santalum boninense (Nakai) Tuyama

—

1000

50-100

Ogasawara Island

Santalum ellipticum Gaudichaud

—

50-1300

0-1390

Hawaiian Islands

Santalum fernandezianum F. Philippi

—

Juan Fernandez (extinct)

Santalum freycinetianum Gaudichaud

—

Hawaiian Islands

var. freycinetianum

760-3800

150-980

Moloka‘i, O‘ahu

var. lanaiense Rock

500-1000

90-900

Lana‘i, Maui

var. pyrularium (Gray) Stemmermarm

900-3800

15-1150

Kaua‘i

Santalum haleakalae Hillebrand

—

850-1900

18002590

Maui

Santalum insulare Bertero var. insulare

—

<1000

Tahiti

var. alticola Fosberg & Sachet

—

20002066

Tahiti

Santalum austrocaledonicum Vieillard

Taxon + Authority

Santalum insulare Berterovar. raiateense(J. W. Moore) Fosberg & Sachet

ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

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Distribution of Santalum in Hawai'i

Species

Island Distribution

S. freycinetianum var. pyrularium

var. freycinetianum var. lanaiense S. haleakalae S. ellipticum

X eX

S. ellipticum

S. paniculatum var. paniculatum

var. pilgeri

Island distribution: Ly-Laysan, N-Ni'ihau, K-Kaua'i, O-O'ahu, Mo-Moloka'i, L-Lana'i, Ma-Maui, Ka-Kaho'olawe, H-Hawai'i | X - Present, eX - Extinct | Data from Stemmerman (1980)

S. freycinetianum S. haleakalae S. paniculatum

ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

Global Sandalwood Trade

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Tree Portraiture

Sandalwoods are a hemiparasitic species. They are photosynthetic but require nutrients and water from surrounding companion species. These 'hosts' will be tapped into through their root structure. This is true for all santalum species found globally. Even with this global connection, focusing on the four species here provides a different perspective of the native habitats. The species found on the Hawaiian islands vary greatly concerning size and form but share similarities in the flower and fruit shape. Each species has adapted to its sublimate and performs to protect the surrounding species. Documentation of the sandalwood in Hawai'i has been limited. After the sandalwood trade, it was assumed that the species here had gone extinct. Each species is fighting to make a comeback. More work is being put into understanding the growth of the trees, and how each element is performing and supporting its growth. The sandalwood that I was able to personally access is still in a very juvenile phase. Both specimens are being negatively impacted by their environments, The habitat that they were once in has been shifted and destroyed which has made the population re-growth all the more difficult.

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ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

TOLERANCES

Prefer full sun but can survive with up to 60%70% shade. (Optimum shade is 25%). Are sensitive to fire in first years of growth but will send out shoots when more mature.

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LEAVES

Leaves are 4-9cm (1.6 - 3.5 in) and are 1.3 - 7.5cm (0.5 - 3in) wide. The freycinetianum species have an acute to rounded apex. Juvenile leaves appear red/ purple and are green with maturity.

FLOWERING

Most species will bloom within 3 - 4 years of growth but heavy flowering will take place after 7 - 10 years. The inflorescence on all sandalwood species has a similar form but varies in shape and color.

FRUIT

Mature fruits transform from a bright green when juvenile to a reddish purple. At maturity the drupe like fruits are almost black. Measuring 8-24mm (0.3 - 1in). The seeds within the fruit are hard and woody kernels.

ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

FLOWER + FRUIT

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At roughly 3 - 5 years of age, sandalwood trees will start producing flowers and fruit. Once the tree has attached to proper hosts, a boom in seed production will take place.

BARK + TRUNK

Although the bark is lightly scented of the rich sandalwood odor, the most sought-after part of the sandalwood tree is the heartwood. The heartwood is the dark most center part of the trunk. It does not begin forming until a tree has reached 30 years of maturity. During the sandalwood trade in Hawai'i, men would light the forests on fire to sniff out the sandalwood scent within the bark. Root suckers will shoot out from a host tree. Creating further opportunities for sandalwood to spread. Can be considered mildly invasive if unchecked (although not seen as an issue due to its value)

ROOTS Companion Species Root

Haustoria

Sandalwood Root

Although sandalwood sends out roots to get moisture from the soil, it receives the majority of its nutrients from surrounding plants that which it attaches itself. Through a haustorium, sandalwood trees will send out roots to latch onto other plants. Sandalwood hosts can be short-term (small shrubs and trees) or long-term (large trees). If in the proper environment, sandalwood can kill between 5 - 7 long term hosts within its lifespan (40 - 50 years)

ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022 Each species of sandalwood found throughout the islands has evolved to thrive within their respective environments. These changes can be seen in their flower and fruits.

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ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

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COMPANION SPECIES

Species that sandalwood can connect to through the haustorium are plenty. There are many native species that the sandalwood grows with and needs to survive. If these species are present, there is a likely chance that there's sandalwood shoot nearby.

Koa Acacia koa

Strawberry Guava Psidium cattleianum

‘a’ali’i Dodonaea viscosa

'Akia Wikstromeia sandwicensis

koai‘a Acacia koaia

Loulu Pritchardia remota

'Ohi'a lehua Metrosideros polymorpha

ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

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SPECIMEN 01: AIEA LOOP TRAIL

SPECIMEN 02: UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I AT MANOA

WIND: With its location at the top of a ridge, wind gusts can have negative impacts on the tree. SLOPE: The steep slope can affect the root suckers being sent off by the mother sandalwood plant. In addition, the rocky base can impact the ease of root suckers breaking through. EXISTING VEGETATION: The surrounding species present have affected the growth of the trunk creating a weak point in the trunk. SHADE: While sandalwood trees can handle a moderate amount of shade in their juvenile years, it can affect their growth in the long term.

WIND: This specimen is located between multiple buildings which creates a wind tunnel. EXISTING VEGETATION: The surrounding species are part of the sandalwood's native habitat, but there is little maintenance being done and the surrounding species are suffering. SHADE: This is a highly shaded area and gets minimal sunlight throughout the day. This tree is past the point of tolerating high levels of shade and will struggle. HUMANS: The walkway adjacent to the sandalwood tree is highly trafficked and pedestrians walking by can touch and interfere with the tree, stunting its growth.

ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

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Rattus exulans | Rat Actions: Feeds on seeds and fruit dropped by Sandalwood Location: Ground

Corvus hawaiiensis | Hawaiian Crow Actions: Feeds on seeds and fruit produced by Sandalwood Location: Canopy + Ground

N, K, O, Mo, L, M, Ka, H

H - Extinct

Mus musculus | Mouse

Sus scrofa | Pig

Actions: Feeds on seeds and fruit dropped by Sandalwood

Location: Ground

N, K, O, Mo, L, M, Ka, H

Loxioides Bailleui | Palila

Capra hircus| Ibex

Actions: Feeds on seeds and fruit produced by Sandalwood Location: Canopy + Ground

Actions: Feeds on foliage and tramples juvenille trees. Location: Ground

K, O, H

K, Mo, M, H

Paroaria coronata | Cardinal

Axis A. axis | Chital

Actions: Feeds on seeds and fruit dropped by Sandalwood Location: Canopy Ground

Actions: Feeds on foliage and tramples juvenile trees. Location: Ground

O, H

Mo, L, M

Homo sapiens | Mouse

Bos taurus. | Cow Actions: Feeds on foliage and tramples juvenile trees.

ended. These animals not only eat the leaves off of the tree itself, but will trample and shoots therefore

Actions: Harvest of wood, seeds, and foliage for multiple uses.

compromising the health of the tree.

Location: Ground

The birds and animals that interact with sandalwood here in Hawai'i have shifted with the introduction of farming and human presence. Birds were primarily responsible for seed dispersal, but with the introduction of mice and rats who eat the seeds, natural reproduction is struggling. Presently the largest threats to sandalwood are grazing cattle and hooved animals that have been introduced since the trade

N, K, O, Mo, L, M, Ka, H

Location: Ground N, K, O, Mo, L, M, Ka, H

Key: N - Ni'ihau, K - Kaua'i, O - O'ahu, Mo - Moloka'i, L - Lana'i, M - Maui, Ka - Kaho'olawe, H - Hawai'i

Plant Phenology + Morphogenesis

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There was much mystery surrounding sandalwood and its growth patterns and behaviors. Once the sandalwood trade had run aground and the focus was shifted to re-growing the depleted sandalwood, much progress was made in the scientific analysis of the growth of the species. The life cycle of the sandalwood tree begins with a seed that is produced from a mature tree. There is another option for a new sandalwood tree to form and that is through root suckers being sent off from a tree.

Bloom Time: 7 days

Whether or not the tree produces fruit or suckers depends on its' nutrient intake. Sandalwood growth must be done with suitable host species for survival. Its bloom and growth rate are all dependent on the number of nutrients coming in from the haustorium. The health of the surrounding community plays a role in the viability of sandalwood. Through an in-depth look at the growth of sandalwood, and the performance of its roots, flowers, and leaves there is much to be learned about its potential to be restored and protected in the wild.

In Hawai'i, there is a large bloom window for santalum. The bloom periods are spring-summer, and late summer-fall. The majority of the fruit and seed production will take place during this time.

ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

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Life Cycle | Santalum sp.

Viable seeds can be produced once the tree starts to bloom.

Sandalwood seeds are only viable for a short period of time and need to be planted within three days of harvest.

Presence of pollinator species is required to produce fruit from a bloom.

ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

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Once a sandalwood plant has reached 2ft tall, they require the presence of other host species. If there are not proper nutrients present the sandalwood will not survive.

Seedlings may stop growing for a number of weeks in a "waiting period". This happens when the seeds have exhausted all of their stored energy.

ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

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Growth Rate: 1' - 2' 3" per year

Once sandalwood is fully established, root suckers will begin to be sent out. This will also take place if the tree is under stress.

Some species of sandalwood will begin to produce new growth that has a reddish/brown tint to it at this stage. Fruiting and flowering will be begin starting at 3 years of age. Bloom strength is impacted by surrounding hosts.

Collaborate

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Plant Practices + Cultural Production

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The demand for Sandalwood has spawned much documentation of maintenance and manipulation that best supports quick growth for harvest. This has created nurseries that's sole purpose is to grow sandalwood most quickly and efficiently possible. The Australian government in hopes of creating a healthy sandalwood production facility documented a growth and care guide following a Vanuatu nursery. This documentation has the potential to be used to restore native sandalwood populations in spaces where the historical harvest has drastically impacted the number of trees growing naturally. Inter-cropping with other native species can restore the natural ecosystems while benefiting surrounding communities.

Incorrectly Pruned:

- Lollipop shape caused when too many lower branches have been removed. - Too many branches at top make tree topheavy and unstable

Correctly Pruned:

- tapers form the top for a lower center of gravity - one trunk and a single leader at the top - canopy extends two thirds of the height of the tree

This planting strategy is being used in India to make sure that the host species not only benefit sandalwood growth but also the surrounding community by planting plants with edible yields.

Plant Collaboration

Sandalwood's scent dominates the ethnobotanical products made around the world. The use of the heartwood for incense, oils, and scented powders is what sandalwood is known for. Incense made of sandalwood has been used around the world for thousands of years. Often burned in religious ceremonies, sandalwood plays an integral role in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sufism, Zoroastrianism, and other East Asian religions. Although the uses vary between each religion, sandalwood is most often ground into a paste or a powder to be burned. The heartwood and roots are the most used in the sandalwood tree. The other parts of the tree have a multitude of uses that not only supports humans' aesthetic purposes but can be incorporated into the care of cattle and livestock. The seeds themselves are edible but have also been used to make lei as well as paint. These uses are not often chosen as the seeds are mostly saved for propagation and growth. Even though the leaves and bark do not offer the same scent that sandalwood is known and sold for, people have utilized and ensured that all parts can be used.

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ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

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ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022 1. Scented Base

Materials

Types of Manufactured Incense

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1. Scented Base Dried herbs, woods, and other naturally scented materials form the base of incense

2. Grinding Tool

2. Grinding Tool To ensure that all of your herbs are mixed completely and are of a uniform grain the use of a grinding tool is important. This can be done with a mortar and pestle, grinding stone, or a grater plate. Mechanical grinders are more frequently used today.

3. Water

Joss Stick

Powder

3. Water Water is used to bring the mixture together and will evaporate to not impact the burn of the incense.

4. Binding Agent

Coil

4. Binding Agent Depending on the natural elements included in the incense, a binding agent such as a botanical gum, sap or powder will help keep the flame alive and ensure uniformity of burn.

5. Needle or Toothpick

5. Needle or Toothpick A small and pointed pick is important with the creation of incense cones. Pricking the cones aids in air circulation and helps with a symmetrical burn path.

Cone

Stick

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ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

Step 1: Grind sandalwood into a fine powder. The powder should all be the same grain and should have no discernible sandalwood chips. This can be done with a mortar and pestle, grinding stone, or a grater plate.

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Step 4: Squeeze any excess water out from the paste to ensure easy malleability

* if using sandalwood chips a mechanical grinder can also be used.

Step 2: Transfer sandalwood powder into the primary mixing bowl. The addition of a botanical gum, sap or powder (Agar Agar, Makko powder or marshmallow root) will help bind the powders together. Mix until homogeneous.

*At this time any additional scents or powders can be added in to the mixture.

Step 5: Separate a small portion of the paste (est. 1 1/2 tsp) and place on non dominant hand. Pinch and press down into palm with your pointer and thumb to form a cone. The aim is for a symmetrical cone for even burning.

Step 6: Set formed cones on a flat surface once finished molding. Prick each cone with a needle or toothpick through the center to guide burning.

Step 7: Dry cones for at 3 - 5 days before burning. Store in a cool dry place between uses.

Step 3: Begin incorporating small amounts of water at a time. The mixture will transition from a damp sand to a large clump. Once the mixture holds together when compressed it is ready to form into cones.

Step 8: Light cone from top point and place on a non-flammable surface. Best if lit indoors away from drats and winds.

ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

Speculate

Plant Products

While high-intensity growth practices are in place all around the world to cultivate as much sandalwood as possible, there are other restoration efforts taking place that has drawn upon the traditional growth habits of the sandalwood species found in Hawai'i. Háloa Áina is a family-owned business that has committed to restoring the dryland forests where sandalwood was once abundant on the big island. Their primary goal is to maintain a sustainable sandalwood business. The ranching movement throughout the islands is still impacting the native ecosystems due to the unchecked quantities of invasive grasses and trees. Háloa Áina is taking steps to remove invasive species while nurturing sandalwood and other dryland species to support the native species that have been threatened. This will eventually lead to the harvest of naturally aged sandalwood trees (~40 - 50 years) which will be processed and turned into the sought-after scented products. The difference between commercial sandalwood production and the practices in place by Háloa Áina is that sandalwood will be allowed to reach its end of life stage with little intervention. Once the canopy of the sandalwood tree is less than 50%, the trees can be harvested, but the priority of Háloa Áina is to allow the trees to benefit the ecosystem before being turned into a product.

Photograph by: Michelle Mishina

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ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

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Plant Perspectives and Companions

One of the largest plant and animal communities that have been affected by herding and grazing is the mixed mesic tropical dry forest. Located on the windward slopes of most of the islands between 750 to 1,250 m (2,460 to 4,100 ft). These forests are not considered true rainforests as they generally receive between 39 - 98 in of rainfall per year. Characterized by drought periods during the summer and wetter conditions in the winter, this endangered forest houses about 25% of Hawai'i's native species. The mixed mesic dry forest is present in places with very steep slopes. The windward mountainous regions are rocky and steep. The trees and under story vegetation that are present strengthen the cliff-side and provide erosion control. During the wetter seasons, there is a higher risk of landslides. The dominant canopy species are koa and ohia. Below these large trees, the shade creates the potential for habitat regeneration and protection. All plant species present to support the native birds and insects by providing food and shelter. The birds support the trees by spreading their seeds, and the insects are integral in pollination.

CANOPY: dominated by Acacia koa and/or Metrosideros polymorpha. SECONDARY CANOPY: Psychotria spp., Antidesma platyphylum, Bobea spp. and Santalum frecinetianum. UNDERSTORY: Microlepia strigosa, Odontosoria chinensis, Alyxia stellata, and Coprosma spp.

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Species Present | Mixed Mesic Tropical Dry Forest

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Wind Gusts

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Dimensions of Design

The history of sandalwood has shown us that there has only been one goal when this plant is present: harvest and sell for high value. The sacred and religious uses, the love of the smell, and the difficulty of getting the heartwood have run sandalwood numbers to near extinction. The negative effects of the sandalwood trade are plenty, but the shining light through all the destruction comes from the research and analysis put into the growth and maintenance of the species. Now that it is known that sandalwood requires host species to survive, populations are being restored and protected. Even though the heartwood is the prized aspect of the tree, there are many potentials for sandalwood to be useful for more than just a cosmetic value. The original environment in which sandalwood once inhabited abundantly in Hawai'i has seen drastic shifts and introductions from foreign species. One of the largest impacts has been from strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) has created a stronghold within the ecosystem, snuffing out other endemic species. Sandalwood's hemiparasitic nature can be drawn upon and used strategically to check and maintain the invasive strawberry guava. Sandalwood has used strawberry guava as an intermediate host for nutrients. Through a series of longterm moves, sandalwood can be restored, strawberry guava can be controlled, and more vulnerable mesic species can have the opportunity to return to their original range.

ARCH 696 ― Spring 2022

Species Catalogue The key actors at play in this proposed planting strategy draws on both species currently present within this dry mountainous region and those which were once a critical part of the ecosystem.

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Existing

Step 01: Removal | Planting Lack of habitat for native birds and pollinators.

Partial removal of strawberry guava to allow open space for sandalwood planting

An overabundance of strawberry guava Invasive species (feral pigs, rats, mice) responsible for seed dispersal

0’ CAL S

1”

Hedge barrier of a'ali'i to prevent feral pigs from eating the remaining strawberry guava.

Juvenile sandalwood is planted every 5 - 10 ft. Provides enough space for haustorium to attach to invasive plants.

’ 10 ’0”

0 =1

0’ CAL S

1”

’ 10 ’0”

0 =1

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Step 02: Removal | Harvest | Planting

Step 03: Maintain | Preserve

Re-introduction of dryland mesic keystone species such as Koa and 'O'hia lehua to serve as long term hosts for growing sandalwood. Long term hosts planted every 15 - 30 ft

Pruning and maintenance of a'ali'i to ensure a barrier between reconstructed habitat and pests remains.

Strawberry guava to be removed as trees die, Maintenance to ensure population growth does not go unchecked.

Sandalwood to be allowed to come to the end of its life naturally before harvest. Once sandalwood has lost 50% of its canopy, it can be harvested and replaced.

Once canopy and understory trees have been re-established, replanting of ferns and other undergrowth to take place.

Removal of dead strawberry guava trees. Wood to be saved for multiple uses.

’ ”

0’ CAL S

1” =

’0 10

0’ CAL S

1”

’ 10 ’0”

0 =1