PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT 2ª EDICIÓN
Amelia Díaz Martínez
apuntes
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PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT 2ª EDICIÓN
Amelia Díaz Martínez
UNIT 1 HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT INDEX 1. Antecedents of Psychological Assessment 2. Constitution of Psychological Assessment 3. Development of Psychological Assessment 4. Psychological Assessment in Spain
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT DEFINITION Psychological Assessment is a sub-discipline of Psychology PSYCHOLOGY Object of study: human behavior in the necessary levels of complexity (the study of complex structures such as consciousness, memory, etc.). Objective: To find the general principles governing human behavior
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Object of study: exploration and analysis of the behavior of a subject (or a specific group of subjects) Objective: To verify whether the individual subject follows the general principles. Different applied objectives: description, diagnosis, selection, prediction, explanation, change and/or evaluation of treatments or interventions
1. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT ANTECEDENTS 1. MYTHICAL ANTECEDENTS: attempted to understand the behavior of people and predict future behavior or events through mythical beliefs: Astrology, horoscopes and astrological charts, depending on the location of the stars. Palmistry: by reading the palm of the hand. Cartomancy: through the Tarot. Hepatoscopy: the study of the liver of a sacrificed animal to predict future events.
Etruscan inscriptions on a bronze model of a sheep´s liver. The palm of the hand
2. RATIONAL ANTECEDENTS: Use of common sense Ancient China (2,200 BC approx.): Assessment of civil servants Ancient Greece: a) School of Pythagoras: Procedure for selecting students. b) Aristotle: Physiognomy: the psychological characteristics of a person can be evaluated through face features. c) Hippocrates: Theory of the 4 types of temperaments (sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic) from the four moods. Middle Age: a) Joan Lluis Vives: It notices the diversity of the wits and the social importance of an education tailored to the talents of learners. b) Juan Huarte de San Juan: "The Study of Wits for Sciences" (1575). People differ in their talents. These differences must be assessed to get a match of skills, different occupations and types of education. It was important for learning environment influences. He was precursor of personnel selection. Creation of the first European universities: exams for getting degrees.
3. SCIENTIFIC ANTECEDENTS a) Weber and Fechner: subjective experience: self as a way to evaluate it, the differential thresholds b) Advances in medicine: Burdach: through dissection found that mobility was associated with white brain matter whilst higher intellectual powers were associated to the gray one. Macdax and Broca: discovered one of the areas in the brain associated with language Ferrier: discovered the psychomotor centers Pinel: highlighted the value of medical records Esquirol: highlighted the importance of family records Kraepelin: 1st classification of mental disorders
Gall (1758-1828): Phrenology: study of the relationship between the anatomical conformation of the brain, the external configuration of the skull and the psychological characteristics of individuals. The diagnosis was based on the palpation of the skull to know the mental faculties in each individual according to a key that related features of the skull with specific qualities or defects. Quetelet (1796-1874): Mathematics: One of the founders of the application of statistics to social sciences. He studied biological and sociological variables, noting that both follow a normal distribution, so he developed measures of central tendency. His methods influenced authors such as Galton, Pearson or Spearman. Compulsory Education: Along the S. XIX national education systems were organized in different European countries and the United States (Moyano´s Law of 1858 in Spain). Compulsory schooling made necessary to apply psychological principles to the education (boom educational psychology). Need to assess academic performance. This focus on assessment in schools is the antecedent of the later work of authors such as Binet in France and in U.S. Evolutionary theory: DARWIN (1809, 1882) 1. He noted the existence and importance of variability (individual differences), not only between species but also intra-species. 2. He noted that these individual differences have an adaptive value: in nature there is a natural selection through survival of the fittest members. 3. In humans, the different adaptability is called intelligence. In this context the study and assessment of intelligence is highly significant. 4. He noted the evolutionary importance of heredity. The contributions of the first experimental psychologist: WUNDT 1. Creation of the first laboratory of psychology in Leipzig (1879). 2. "Foundations of Physiological Psychology" (1874): interprets psychological phenomena from the physiological point of view. 3. Denies the importance of individual differences. They were considered "errors of measurement". 4. He did not accept the possibility of a scientific psychology outside the laboratory. He did not authorize the use of questionnaires in psychological research. 5. The type of experimental psychology practiced by Wundt and his followers actually represented a limitation to the development of psychological assessment. 2. CONSTITUTION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT: THE FOUNDERS Three authors shared the authorship of the configuration of the psychological assessment as a scientific discipline: Francis Galton (1822-1911) James McKeen Cattell (1861-1934) Alfred Binet (1857-1911)
FRANCIS GALTON Founder of Psychological Assessment, Differential Psychology and Eugenic Movement "The heritage of Genius" (1869): Intelligence is innate, genetically determined. 1. Importance of data collection: Universal Exhibition in London: South Kensington Museum: Anthropometric Laboratory in London (1884): He assessed 9377 people in variables such as physical, sensory, perceptual and motor skills. 2. Emphasis on the quantitative: All aspects of the human being can be measured quantitatively and adapted to the normal curve. 3. Developed Statistics: The median, quartile deviation, correlation coefficient, and correlation tables and regression. 4. Insistence on the inheritance: Using family trees to see the development of specific characteristics (alcoholism, crime, etc.). Following his cousin Charles Darwin, he thought that man was also submitted to natural selection, which should be respected. He thought the man was headed for a regression to mediocrity; hence his advocacy of eugenics. (ex. Isadora Duncan/Bernard Shaw) (actress, singer, beautiful/great playwright; beauty/intelligence).
JAMES MCKEEN CATTELL He coined the term “mental test” and published in 1890 an article "Mental tests and measurements”, when for the first time the term is used in the psychological literature. He was an American psychologist with strong European training (He worked with Wundt and Galton). His Ph.D. was directed by Wundt and was about individual differences in reaction times.
He introduced and described tests that were administered to college students to assess their intellectual capacities. Like Galton, he believed that higher mental functions could be assessed by measuring sensory discrimination and reaction times. He rejected introspection and defended the use of objective assessment procedures. He divulged the use of tests in the U.S. and got the recognition of psychology as a science by the scientific community
ALFRED BINET He developed the first metric scale of intelligence. 1. Shared with Galton an interest in individual differences. 2. He rejected the idea that intelligence could be assessed through sensory-motor processes. 3. He defended the study of higher mental functions: intelligence must be assessed through the performance of subjects in tasks involving complex mental processes (understanding, reasoning, etc.). 4. The Ministry of Education asked him to make a scale that could be used to separate children that could continue school education from those with problems to continue it. The scale comprises 30 problems of increasing difficulty for 3 to 11 year old children, as well as children with mental retardation. 5. For Binet, the term "mental retardation" was close to the conception that we have today, that is, children whose performance was similar to children younger than themselves. He uses for the first time the term "mental age": Children Distribution: a) Normal: Children answered right to the problems of a reference group with the same chronological age. b) Retarded: They answered right to problems of a younger reference group c) Advanced: They answered right to problems of an older reference group. Stern developed the concept IQ = (MA / CA) x100; IQ (intelligence quotient); MA (mental age); CA (chronological age)
3. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
First period: Second half XIX century to 1914: Constitution Second period: I & II World Wars and interwar period Third period: 1945-1965 Crisis Fourth period: 1966-1976 The imperial behavioral decade Fifth period: The 80's: crisis of behavioral assessment Sixth period: The psychological assessment today
FIRST PERIOD, SECOND HALF OF XIX CENTURY UNTIL 1914: CONSTITUCION 1. Founders: Galton, Cattell and Binet 2. Extreme eagerness to find explanations for human characteristics. 3. Progress in neurological and psychiatric diagnosis: Guislain: provided the basis for structured interviews in patients: how, why, when, where. Snell: Developed an operating mode for the detection of symptoms of diseases by objective evidence Grashey : studied aphasia (loss of language skills) and agnosia (difficulty recognizing words or objects) following brain traumas Rieger: Presented a complete battery for mental functioning (perceptual tests, memory...) Wernicke: Found an area of language in the left temporal lobe (Wernicke´s area) 4. The social impact of Darwin's evolutionary theory. 5. Physiognomy model: facial expression as a way of knowing the person; and Phrenology model, based on skull characteristics (shape, bumps) as indicators of human functioning. Kretschmer, its main representative, made a typology of physical features, which corresponded to modes of acting, thinking and even getting sick. SECOND PERIOD, I & II WORLD WARS AND PERIOD BETWEEN THEM I World War (1914-1918): Recruitment needs 1. United States went to war in 1917; 1917: APA: Committee led by Yerkes (Terman, Otis, Woodworth).Tests were needed to classify more than one and a half million recruits according to their intellectual level and skills to perform various services 2. Collective intelligence tests, Army Alpha Test & Army Beta Test (Otis) 3. First personality inventory: Woodworth Personal Data Sheet 4. Psychological assessment acquired great prestige: Psychologist were seen as qualified professionals who could solve real life problems 5. Advances in the methodology of test construction and formation of large database of general population
Between the Two World Wars 1. Increasing expansion: Proliferation in tests construction and application 2. Psychological assessment opening to other different fields apart from intelligence, such as personality, interests, social behavior, and so on. 3. Generalization of psychological assessment to other areas (other than military) such as industrial and clinical 4. Increasing dissociation: Spectacular growth of psychometric model Clinical assessment of projective type Growth of the Psychometric model 1. The test theory is developed and refined (reliability, validity, objectivity) 2. Arises the methodology of factor analysis (Thurstone, 1935), directly affecting intelligence and creating the controversy over the multifactor (Thusrtone) or monofactor structure (Spearman) 3. Publication of Relevant Scales: * Inventory Strong Vocational Interests * Bender Gestalt Test * Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale for Adults * Kuder Preference Record * Doll Vineland Scale Maturity Development of clinical projective assessment 1. Individual assessment techniques 2. Primacy of qualitative aspects 3. Primacy of practice over research 4. Does not accept the technical and methodological requirements of psychometric model 5. Frank proposes the term "projective method" 6. Publication of relevant Scales * “Psychodiagnostik� Rorschach 1921 * Test TAT (TAT) Murray Tests in which the material offered has a minimal structure and the subject has to structure the material by projecting the basic and fundamental characteristics of his personality II World War: Selection of military personnel 1. U.S. Army developed the general classification test and other specific tests for the selection of officers and army technical corps 2. United Kingdom used tests of general intelligence with non-verbal content: Progressive Matrices Test by Raven and Dominos Test by Anstey 3. Hathaway and McKinley published the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) in 1942. One of the greatest contributions in the field of clinical personality assessment SUMMARY
1. Period of expansion of psychological assessment 2. Growing psychometric movement 3. Development of collective intelligence tests and personality Inventories 4. Rise of the projective clinical assessment 5. Important social impact of psychological assessment as an applied discipline 6. No reflection on conceptual and methodological aspects
THIRD PERIOD, 1945-1965 CRISIS Post-war Period 1. Further development of psychology in the U.S. but in Europe it is stopped 2. Development of Clinical Psychology: Eysenck in the Maudsley Hospital (1946) 3. Development of tests towards a more individualized assessment and a new methodology: Differential semantic classification, Q test, grid technique 4. Compensatory education arises: "Coleman Report" (1966): attempts to evaluate the education system 5. Modulating variables are included to improve prediction (Saunders) 6. Behavior modification appears 7. Crisis in the psychological assessment field External Crisis: Anti-test revolt with a critical social movement towards: a) The use of tests as a tool of the dominant values (economic, social, political) b) Attacking the person intimacy (personality tests) c) Deny opportunities to the disadvantaged (as in intelligence tests). Controversy: inheritance versus environment. d) Some examples: 1959: Burning the protocols of the tests in a school in Texas 1964: prohibits the use of tests in the state of California and New York Schools The U.S. Congress prohibits tests as a means of recruitment of officials Internal Crisis: focusing on the review of the scientific guarantees and psychometric aspects of testing. Reflection and rethinking of traditional models of assessment: 1. Criticisms of the psychometric model: psychometric → low predictive validity, little utility in intervention, etc. 2. Criticisms of clinical and projective models: 1954 Meehl "clinical prediction vs. actuarial prediction (statistics)" → low objectivity, reliability and validity 3. Criticism of psychiatric diagnosis. Supported by a medical model of disease Low reliability and validity of classification systems (DSM I and II) 4. Most influential polemics are introduced in psychological assessment: Actuarial versus clinical psychodiagnostic; Correlational versus experimental psychology; Heredity versus environment
FOURTH PERIOD, 1966-1976 THE IMPERIAL BEHAVIORAL DECADE Origins of behavioral psychology Russia: late s. XIX and early s. XX: Pavlov U.S.: 20´s: Watson: 30´s: Mowrer In the mid-50's three authors lay the foundation for behavior modification: 1. 1953, Skinner (USA) publishes "Science and Human Behavior". Experimental behavior analysis (functional analysis): the search for functional relations between observable aspects of behavior and environmental events that control them. 2. 1958, Wolpe (South Africa) publishes "Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition" Importance of the interview as a screening technique 3. 1960, Eysenck (UK) publishes "Behavior therapy and neurosis". Neurosis: maladaptive behavior whose acquisition and elimination can be explained in terms of classical conditioning Behavioral assessment arises with: 1. Application of learning principles to the treatment of abnormal behavior 2. In response to the problems and limitations in psychometric tests, projective and psychiatric diagnostic systems (DSM I and DSM II). Basic postulates: 1. Emphasis on the observable 2. The behavior is the result of learning 3.The assessment and treatment are closely interrelated, involving idiographic assessment Official birth of the behavioral assessment: 1965 when Kanfer and Saslow published the paper "Behavioral Analysis" 1968: Goldfried , Pomeranz and Cautela use the term "behavioral assessment" 1968: Mischel "Personality and Assessment" states that traits are “science fiction”, there are only situations. (Controversy situation/trait) Birth of community psychology: the application of behavioral techniques to social contexts and situations.
SUMMARY 1. Dissemination and pragmatic optimism of behaviorism 2. Development of functional analysis 3. Using the techniques of behavior modification and functional analysis of behavior to the study of various psychological problems 4. The "official" position of scientific psychology is behavioral psychology (although there are still other theoretical positions)
FIFTH PERIOD, THE 80'S: CRISIS OF BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT The shortcomings of the behavioral model 1. Limitations of behavioral assessment techniques 2. Become outdated approaches to behavioral assessment opposed to other models of psychological assessment 3. Consolidation of cognitive psychology 4. Growing interest in the classification of mental disorders (1980: DSM III) SIXTH PERIOD, PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT TODAY 1. The assessment is now part of the psychologist task in educational and social programs or in psychotherapy 2. Incorporation of statistical techniques to functional behavior analysis 3. Psychology is opening to new fields: health psychology 4. Reworking and extension of the models and assessment procedures in other areas: politics, social 5. Tolerant and inclusive attitude among the different assessment approaches 6. Survival of the tests. Reviewing of the traditional tests and construction of new ones 7. Cognitive Contributions: Application of the theory of information processing to the assessment of intelligence 8. Extension of the objects of study: individual, couple, group, organization, programs. 9. Incorporation of computers to the psychological assessment (tests administration and reporting via computer) 4. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT IN SPAIN PRE-SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT (GUIDED BY A RATIONALSPECULATIVE MODEL) 1.- Lucio Anneo SĂŠneca (4-65): Antecedent of Huarte de San Juan approaches to temperament 2.- Quintiliano (42-117): Procedures for improving memory 3.- St. Isidoro de Sevilla (560-636): Introspection as the most appropriate method to know oneself 4.- Avicebron (1022-1070?): Observation as the most suitable system to know himself 5.- Averroes (1126-1198): Distinguishes between active understanding (acting on mind images, generate ideas and abstractions), and passive understanding (passive without the possibility of acting). It denies the existence of personality, equating man with animals 6.- Luis Vives (1492-1540): Proposes to focus on vital activities leaving apart those inaccessible to observation and experience. Locates within the rational life functions such as intelligence, reason, memory 7.- Fox Morcillo (1526-1560?): Locations of the "inner senses" such as common sense (front lobe), memory (occipital lobe) and imagination (middle part of the brain). 8.- HUARTE DE SAN JUAN (1529-1588): Important contributions to the study of temperament and wits with the use of assessment procedures, and basic tests (repeat the alphabet in forward or reverse order) and observation. He is an important predecessor of Differential Psychology, Selection and Career Guidance and Psychological Assessment.
9.- MIGUEL SABUCO (1563-1590). He is an important predecessor of Health Psychology. With medical training, he uses different approaches to the patients: dialectic (communication and reasoning), suggestive (with the aim of influencing the disease if is simulated or with origin in the mind), hygienic (habits of cleanliness and asepsis) and medical (with surgical treatment or drug therapy). He can be considered a predecessor of the Theory of Information Processing: (Common sense --- --- Stimulation ----Memory ...) 10.- XVII, XVIII and the first half of the XIX century: Delay in the arrival to Spain of the philosophical currents from Europe. Importance of phrenology: Cubí Soler, Herrera Davila, Alvear & Muñoz Capilla. Monlau (1808-1871): with medical education includes knowledge of psychic phenomena through observation, analysis of language, the analysis of meaning and the study of the history of mankind. Scientific Psychology 1. FRANCISCO GINER DE LOS RÍOS (1839-1915) wrote, with Calderón, the only book about Psychology in 1874 "Lecciones de Psicología" taking ideas from Wund, Spencer and Fechner. He was especially interested in the application of Differential Psychology to the study of differences due to temperament, sex, character and skills. FOUNDERS 2. LUIS SIMARRO (1851-1921). One of the founders of scientific psychology in Spain, he introduced Experimental Psychology in Spain. In 1902 he obtained the first Professorship in Psychology created in Spain, as a scientist from the Faculty of Natural Sciences at the Universidad Complutense in Madrid (First Full Professor Post of Psychology in the world in a Faculty of Science). He worked at a theoretical level in fields such as consciousness, sensation, memory, intelligence and variations in individual differences, he also created some tests. 3. Turro (1854-1926): Concentrated on the study of mental processes from a genetic perspective 4. Ramon y Cajal (1852-1934): Studies on the nervous system, specifically, his discovery of the neuron was a major step toward the understanding the physiological bases of behavior 5. ACHUCARRO (1881-1918): Together with Lafora Rodríguez founded the first laboratory of Applied Psychology in Spain. 6. LAFORA RODRÍGUEZ (1886-1971): He created and promoted the establishment of various institutions such as “El Instituto Frenopático”, “El Instituto Médico- Pedagógico de Carabanchel”, “La Liga de Higiene Mental” and “El Consejo Superior Pediátrico”. He founded the first journal of psychology in Spain: “Archivos of Neurobiología”. He was interested especially in childhood and mental deficiency. His approach to infant diagnosis is threefold: to assess the physical health, the educational level, and the out of school knowledge (where he placed the psychological assessment). He was very critical of the tests, especially of the personality ones. THE FOLLOWERS Psychology begins to settle in Spain in the 20s (1920), especially in Madrid and Barcelona thanks to Mira y Lopez, Germain and Mallart. 1. MIRA Y LOPEZ (1896-1964): With a strong international projection, he organized the second (1921) and seventh (1930) International Conferences on Psychotechnics. He was a representative of the "Barcelona School ", member of the “Laboratorio Municipal
Psicotécnico” and director of the “Instituto de Orientació Profesional de Barcelona”. His work has been avoided in many books on the History of Psychology in Spain, or when it was included he was treated in a very negative way because he was considered the creator of the "Checas" (political prisons where supporters the right were locked up) in the republican side during the civil war. The handbooks he published show what his interests were: "Psychology of War" and "Forensic Psychology". He also created the Myokinetic Diagnosis (PMK). 2. GERMAIN (1897-1986): Representative of the "Madrid School," with Mira y Lopez contributed to the acceptance of psychology at the social, school, work and research levels before the Civil War. Created and adapted tests: The adaptation of the StanfordBinet was made with Mercedes Rodrigo, and he created the Madrid test (a career guidance test). 3. MALLARD (1897-1989): Created the “cuadriperceptímetro”, used for the visual assessment of perceptive dimensions. The subject perceived a square, linking the vertical to the horizontal length. It consists of a board on a support, which on its face is engraved with three fixed lines a rectangle and a vertical line moving with a command to be placed at the level where it forms a perfect square, located in the others face there is a scale telling us the accuracy or inaccuracy of the square. The exercise is repeated five times, recording the scores and points, taking away the negative points from the positive ones. It is considered an objective technique. In the 30's, Laboratories of Experimental Psychology and Applied Psychology could be found at both public and private institutions. A World Congress of Psychology was planned in Madrid in August 1936. It was never held: 1936-1939: Spanish Civil War.
TIME OF CRISIS It covers the periods before, during, and at the end of the Civil Spanish War (1936-1939). Psychology in Spain came back to be a science of the soul again. It ignored the contributions of the authors discussed in the previous phase and psychology takes an introspective religious tinge. The highlights of the period are the religious Ugarte de Ercilla (1884-1940), father Palmés (1879-1963) and Barbados (1886-1945). The last one held a frontal opposition to behaviorism as too materialistic and opposite to introspection.
UNIFIERS (Mature period) 1. After the war, everything gradually went back to normality, with contributions especially from Germain, who becomes one of the pillars of the renaissance of psychology in Spain. Any of the people who contributed to the recovery of psychology in the postwar period is considered his disciple. 2. During this period the first Department of Experimental Psychology was created at the CSIC (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas) and the School of Psychology and
Psychotechnics. The Institutes of Psychology and Psychotechnics that existed in Madrid, Barcelona and Seville went back to work again. 3. At this time the Psychodiagnosis occupied two different fields who are living together, one on the clinical use of projective tests and another of psychological tests close to psychometrics, educational guidance and vocational selection. 4. The first approximation between psychology and medicine begins in this period, with the creation of some departments of Clinical Psychology in Faculties of Medicine (Madrid), although in the 70s a excision between behavioral psychology with a medical approach, more clinical, pharmacological and even psychoanalytic took place. 5. During this period the following scales were adapted: a) The forms missing from the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test, b) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) c) Wechsler Intelligence Children Scale (WISC) d) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI, Hathaway and McKinley) e) Raven Progressive Matrices (SPM), f) The Szondi test, .... Also specific scales were created. 6. At this period begins the work of one of the leading personalities in the field of Psychology in Spain, Professor JOSÉ LUIS PINILLOS with the publication of important handbook "Principles of Psychology", with the creation of tests such as the CEP (extraversion and paranoid) and especially his teaching, that makes him to be considered as the "father" of many of the current generation of Spanish researchers (Carpintero, Pelechano, ....). 7. Important contributions in this period are also due to SIGUAN, YELA, SECADAS, YAGUE. PROPAGATORS (expansion stage) Psychology comes to the University as a section of the Bachelor of Arts (Philosophy) in 1969, although there were already subjects with psychological content materials. 1971: First graduating psychologists in Madrid and Barcelona (as a section of Philosophy and Education). 1974: Creation of University posts to elaborate subjects and do research in Psychology. During this year Behavior Therapy entered in Spain. Areas of knowledge were created that in many cases coincided with the name of university departments: social psychology, psychobiology, educational psychology, personality assessment and psychological treatment (PETRA), etc 1983: Behavioral Analysis brings the perception that "tests" and "projective procedures" were something from the "old regime". First graduates in Psychology, without being a section of Philosophy and Education (New name for the Bachelor in Philosophy, which included education)
1994: Change of study plans: subjects like philosophy, logic, anthropology, sociology and pedagogy disappear and enter new psychology subjects. 2000: New reform of the study plan. Early in the new century: Specialist in Clinical Psychology. Resident Psychologists: PIR programs. 2004: First attempts of adaptation to the Space of European Education with experimental groups at the beginning. 2007: Start of Graduate Programs and Official Masters at the University of Valencia. 1990-2012: Internationalization of Psychology in Spain. Projects and publications in international journals are at a broader level. BIBLIOGRAPHY Anastasi, A. y Urbina, S. (1998). Tests Psicológicos. Mexico: Prentice Hall. Buela-Casal, G. y Sierra, J.C. (1997). Manual de evaluación psicológica. Fundamentos, técnicas y aplicaciones. Madrid: Siglo XXI. Fernández Ballesteros, R. (2011) Evaluación Psicológica: concepto, métodos y estudio de casos I. Madrid: Pirámide. Moreno Rosset, C. (2005). Evaluación Psicológica. Concepto, proceso y aplicación en las áreas del desarrollo y de la inteligencia. Madrid: Sanz y Torres. Pelechano, V. (1988). Del psicodiagnóstico clásico al diagnóstico ecopsicológico, Vol I. Valencia: Alfaplús.
UNIT 2 CONCEPTS AND MODELS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT INDEX A. Concepts: 1. Mental testing 2. Psychodiagnostic 3. Psychological assessment 4. Psychological evaluation B. Models: 1. Psychometric, correlational or attribute model 2. Psychodinamic model 3. Medical model 4. Behavioral model 5. Cognitive model 6. Constructivist model
Mental test Psychological test Psychological Measurement
Psychodiagnostic
End of XIX century
1921
Psychological Assessment
1948
Behavior analysis Behavioral Assessment Functional behavioral analysis
Half of XX century
Behavioral eco-psychology Environmental psychology Environmental designs Behavioral ecology
Psychological evaluation
Since 60s
1964
MENTAL TESTING 1890 American origin, “mental testing” was first used by James McKeen Cattell. The term was imported from the field of Physics. They were rapidly accepted in Europe They are standard system procedures that allowed objective information in performing tasks. Test was an objective and quantitative measure, applicable to a large number of people in order to get positive and negative information. FEATURES 1. It is a process of construction, validity, application and interpretation 2. Basic model for scoring: association (the total score is the addition of right items) 3. Basic model for score interpretation: substance, factor, trait (there is a dimension behind, ex. intelligence, depression, extraversion)
TEST---------ADMINISTRATE --------INDIVIDUAL--------TRAIT---------------BIOLOGICAL TO SUBJECTS
DIFFERENCES
BASIS
STAI-----------------------------------------------------------------ANXIETY-----------AMYGDALA TRAIT HYPOCAMPUS
4. Being an objective procedure, it was always assumed that social justice was carried with its administration (no room for subjective aspects in scoring), but socio-cultural background introduced an element of social injustice (the middle and upper classes were the main beneficiaries against the lower classes, with a lower education level) 5. The dimensions underlying the tests were considered as something stable and permanent (intelligence). 6. There was confusion between Psychology and Testing, it led to the idea that psychologists were just those experts in administrating psychological tests
PSYCHODIAGNOSTIC “Psychodiagnostic” is the title of a book written by H. Rorschach (a Swiss doctor) in 1921. In it, the author presents his well-known test which consists in a set of 10 sheets with ink spots (placed on a page which was then folded in the center) which are presented to patients that are then asked to tell what they see in these sheets (In origin this was a German bourgeoisie game).
Rorschach found considerable differences between different groups of patients who had previously been identified by psychiatric diagnosis Central hypothesis: When you present unstructured material, people will structure it according to their personal way of perceiving reality. It is associated with the way they feel, think or act. If you know how a person feels, thinks or acts, you can predict how this person will feel, think or act in the future: PREDICTION Rorschach conducted an empirical but not experimental work, without theoretical assumptions. FEATURES 1. Medical-psychiatric connotations 2. Empirical-applied approach 3. Without a theoretical model 4. Associated with a trial predictive judgment: forecasting the future 5. Emphasizes the qualitative versus the quantitative 6. In honor of his medical origin, it refers only to psychopathology, negative and disturbed aspects of humans 7. It includes a model based on the substance behind the behavior. This does not have its own entity but it is a symptom of something 8. It is a typified test: with a specific material (10 sheets), which is always presented in a particular way, and whose instructions are always the same
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Term based on the title of a book published by the Office of Strategic Services in the U.S. in 1948: "Assessment of Men“. It includes the work of psychologists in the selection of soldiers in World War II. The book specifies the preference for the term "assessment" versus Psychodiagnostic because the latter emphasizes the negative, pathology and perturbed aspects of people, while the term Assessment takes into account especially the strengths and potential development of people. The approach is multi-trait, multi-method, multi-source & multi-judges. Multi-trait: assessing more than a trait Multi-method: using more than one assessment technique Multi-source: assessing more than one source of information Multi-judges: the assessment is conducted by more than one psychologist PSYCHOLOGICAL EVALUATION 1. Adams in 1964 suggests that psychological evaluation is similar to psychological assessment, but psychological evaluation always involves value judgments. 2. Its origin dates back to the first assessment of educational programs in United States,