Editorial Board: VolumE Viii
editor-in-Chief
Jane Atkinson ’24
exeCutive editor
William Huang ’24
senior assoCiate editors
Conan Chen ’24
Akhil Datla ’24
Ava Jahn ’24
Krish Mehta ’24
Kieran Yeatman-Biggs ’24
design editors
Helena Chen ’24 & Gloria Yu ’26
subMission editors
Chris Bai ’25
Audrey Cheng ’25
Mahika Kasarabada ’26
Ava Martoma ’25
Aileen Ryu ’25
Jenny Zhao ’25
Mila Cooper ’26
The human brain is an incredibly complex organ. From conception to birth, this organ undergoes significant neuronal development. Studying the intricate connections between these cells that form the basis of our existence has been difficult to do in humans. Invasive studies raise ethical concerns, and animal studies are limited. In recent years, new brain-like structures developed in petri dishes, called organoids, have presented a fascinating new research method. These clusters of cells, derived from human cells, offer a novel approach to study neurological disorders, including autism, epilepsy, and, now, brain cancer.
Organoids, derived from human stem cells, are 3D structures that mimic the brain in a petri dish. Exposed to growth-promoting nutrients, these stem cells create spherical structures resembling the human brain. Researchers can take samples of cells from patients with neurological disorders and “reprogram” them to become stem cells, which will then grow into organoids (Servick, 2021). By comparing the differences in development of these organoids with those grown from healthy cells, scientists can better study neurological disorders and their effect on human brain development.
In a study published in January 2024, stem cell biologists Benedetta Artegiani and Delilah Hendriks created organoids from fetal human brain tissue between 12 and 15 weeks post conception, also known as FeBOs (fetal brain organoids). The researchers suggested that this could “reveal more about what the human brain really looks like at this stage of development” (Reardon, 2024). At this stage, the brain grows rapidly as stem cells turn into the progenitors, or precursors, of neural cells. These FeBOs differ from stem-cell derived organoids as they are created from actual fetal human brain tissue. To create stem-cell derived organoids, the stem cells must be exposed to a mix of signaling molecules to begin growth, which may not mimic actual human brain development (Reardon, 2024). FeBOs can develop their own network
of support proteins, a necessary introduction for stem-cell derived organoids (Reardon, 2024).
The researchers placed each sample into a dish with molecules supporting cell growth. The organoids grew into 3D balls “containing neurons in their centers and progenitor cells on their outsides,” so that they didn’t fully mature into older brains (Reardon, 2024). The scientists then changed the signaling molecules surrounding the tissue, engendering the progenitor cells to mature into neurons. This process is similarly followed for stem-cell derived organoids. The neurons began to fire and connect as they would in a human brain.
Further, Artegiani and Hendriks mutated genes involved in brain cancers using the genome editor, CRISPR-cas9, in these FeBOs. They observed that the cells “grew out of control as expected and responded to cancer drugs the same way an intact brain does” (Reardon, 2024), suggesting the potential utility of FeBOs for brain cancer research. Patient studies lack information on the earliest stages of brain and disease development, while animal studies are hindered by their inability to reproduce certain human processes (Eichmüller & Knoblich, 2022). However, organoids and FeBOs allow for a non-invasive, in-depth study of neurons in the lab. Although studying neurons in a petri dish presents some limitations – such as a lack of nutrients, sensory input, and blood vessels – studying brain cancers using organoids and FeBOs provides a new way to investigate the earliest development of some neural diseases.
Another world-renowned scientist, Dr. Sergiu Pasca, transplanted stem-cell derived organoids into rat brains in 2022, studying these creations in vivo, in a real organism, along with his team at Stanford University. Transplanting these organoids into rats’ brains allowed Pasca and his team to view how different brain cells mature and develop over time in rats. Neurons from the organoids in the rats’ brains grew into a third of the hemisphere into which they were transplanted, displaying much more complex
behaviors and structures than their in vitro counterparts that had stayed in the petri dishes (Goldman, 2022). The scientists investigated Timothy syndrome, a rare genetic condition associated with autism and epilepsy, by using skin cells from an individual with the condition (Goldman, 2022). Studying the cells in a live organism’s brain allowed them to see later developmental changes, as well as behavioral effects. Pasca and his team observed that neurons associated with Timothy syndrome exhibited smaller sizes and deficiencies in branch sprouting than their healthy neuronal counterparts, meaning they had a harder time building connections with other neurons (Goldman, 2022).
However, these new techniques raise numerous ethical concerns, including the retrieval of human brain tissue from aborted fetuses. Artegiani and Hendriks, a European team, obtained “informed consent” for the tissue and did not provide compensation, a procedure required in the United States (Reardon, 2024). In addition, throughout their studies, Artegiani and Hendriks worked with bioethicists, who ensured that the FeBOs could not feel pain or become conscious (Reardon, 2024). Although organoids do not replicate working human brains in terms of electrical activity and sensory inputs, and lack connections to mature brain regions, these characteristics mitigate many ethical concerns while also raising questions about their applicability in mimicking mature human brains. Both research methods, in vivo and in vitro, could provide crucial new insights into neuro-developmental disorders and their possible causes and cures.
Eichmüller, O.L., Knoblich, J.A. Human cerebral organoids — a new tool for clinical neurology research. Nat Rev Neurol 18, 661–680 (2022). https://doi. org/10.1038/s41582-022-00723-9
Goldman, B. (2022, October 12). Human brain cells transplanted into rat brains hold promise for neuropsychiatric research. Retrieved from https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2022/10/ human-rat-brain-neuron.html
Reardon, S. (2024, Jan 9). First brain organoids grown from fetal tissue offer window on development. Retrieved from https://www.science.org/content/ article/first-brain-organoids-grown-fetal-tissue-offer-window-development
Servick, K. (2021, February 22). Brain cell clusters, grown in lab for more than a year, mirror changes in a newborn’s brain. Retrieved from https://www.science.org/content/article/brain-cell-clusters-grownlab-more-year-mirror-changes-newborn-s-brain
Alzheimer’s Disease is a neurodegenerative disorFor thousands of years, civilization has relied on the long hours and back-breaking work of farming for its survival. This labor intensive job is not an easy endeavor, but throughout the years, technological advancements have been increasingly able to aid farmers in their efforts. In today’s digitally-driven world, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is transforming farming in unprecedented ways. Although it has the potential to significantly enhance crop yield and farm health, these AI advancements are not without risks.
Farming requires both physical and mental stamina. Farmers must spend a significant amount of their time creating a planting road map and plotting out which crops to plant during each season, in order to optimize their growth based on the climate and soil nutrients during the crop rotations. AI machinery can be programmed to assist the farmers in such endeavors by performing human-like actions, ultimately exceeding a farmer’s individual capabilities within a shortened time frame. For example, the AI’s database can provide farmers with a detailed analysis of the farm, thus informing the farmers of which crops to plant depending on the everchanging complexities of climate change and the specific conditions of the land. Not only can AI act as a faster, more sophisticated brain that processes all of the data, but it can also execute the labor faster than a human (Javaid, 2022). AI’s robotic functions allow crops to be planted at significantly accelerated rates than humans can manage, resulting in more plentiful crops.
AI’s vast capabilities can help determine ways to yield the most fruitful harvest while also reducing the harmful environmental footprint of food waste. Weeds and pests are just two of the many factors that can ruin crops and cause food waste. Food waste has a negative impact on the environment because harmed crops cannot be consumed. Instead, the crops are left to rot, which increases the carbon dioxide buildup in the atmosphere. Weeds are a key culprit in damaging crop production
because farmers often plant seeds before realizing their planting has occurred in an area where underground weeds are rooted deeply in the soil. AI can detect these hidden weeds through laser technology, which can aid in producing more crops since farmers will either be informed to remove the weeds, or find a new planting space (Javaid, 2022). Also, AI can support farmers in making more informed planting choices, as well as providing ways to plant and create a more nutrient rich, weed-free soil. In addition to weeds hindering crop production, pests can also destroy approximately 40% of crops from each harvest, which can easily be minimized with the help of AI. While humans cannot monitor their produce at all times, AI machinery has the ability to be stationed around crops and spray a pesticide as needed. Additionally, machinery can create a motion to scare away the pests (Gonzalez, 2023). This modern technology is a groundbreaking advancement in farming, as it will help farmers better understand the health of both their crops and land, as well as maintain continuous surveillance on the farm.
While there are many benefits to bringing AI into farming, this modernization also presents security risks. As AI is a relatively new and developing innovation, scientists have differing opinions on the effectiveness, safety, and benefits of the rush to incorporate AI. Ranveer Changra, a director at Microsoft’s research center of agri-food, claims that, “Farm operations are a business that haven’t been exposed to a lot of these kinds of technologies. So, farmers would need appropriate security tools and awareness when using AI.” Changra believes that hackers could potentially disrupt the AI’s software, and poison food or shut down pesticide sprayers (Bassett, 2023). Tampering with software, even only minimally, could gravely impact crop production, which may then lead to food supply and demand issues.
Although AI, as with all new advancements, has associated risks, harnessing its benefits appears to outweigh potential consequences. It is important for farmers to be
educated on the dangers of novel AI technology so that they can mitigate important concerns like security risks that could disrupt the food supply and safety. Hopefully these issues can be addressed so that farmers can benefit by saving time and energy, reducing waste, and increasing crop surveillance. Thanks to AI, the future of farming holds new promise as the world is at a pivotal turning point in agricultural advancements.
References
Bassett, A. (2023, November 14). Is AI the answer to sustainable farming? The Verge. Retrieved February 11, 2024, from https://www.theverge. com/2023/11/14/23950666/ai-sustainable-farming-machine-learning-agriculture
Gonzalez, W. (2023, February 2). How AI Is Cropping Up In The Agriculture Industry. Forbes. Retrieved February 11, 2024, from https://www.forbes. com/sites/forbesbusinesscouncil/2023/02/02/ how-ai-is-cropping-up-in-the-agriculture-industry/?sh=65550c4b2b4f
Javaid, M. (2022, September 6). Understanding the potential applications of Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture Sector. ScienceDirect. Retrieved February 11, 2024, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S277323712200020X
Nicole Li ’27
It’s December of 2019, and the first instance of a mysterious virus has been recorded in Wuhan, China. Over the next few months, this lethal virus will spread rapidly over the globe and will be declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization in March 2020. Schools will shut down, countless businesses will close, and all individuals will be compelled to wear a mask and stand six feet apart. This mysterious yet deleterious virus is the coronavirus, otherwise known as COVID-19. While most vaccines take, on average, five to ten years to design and create, scientists and microbiologists were able to develop the vaccine for COVID-19 in less than one year. But what were the causes behind such extraordinary effectiveness and speed? Amidst the global health crisis, a new powerful and beneficial technology known as Artificial Intelligence, or AI, entered the drug and vaccine development field.
Drug discovery is the process of creating, designing, and producing new medicine. Over the past years, drugs have been proven to be expensive, time-consuming, and overall, difficult to produce. According to the National Library of Medicine, between the years of 2000 and 2015, the average cost of producing new drugs took over $2.5 billion dollars per every authorized molecule. In addition, it takes approximately 15 years for drugs to reach the market (Floresta, G.,Zagni, C. et al., 2022). Drug discovery takes large amounts of labor-intensive work—requiring scientists to spend hours in the lab with trial and error experiments resulting in low accuracy and reward. However with the advent of new technology such as AI, machine learning (ML), and computer-aided drug discovery (CADD), the production of drugs can be much more quick, economical, and efficacious.
AI can easily predict the efficiency and toxicity of compounds and drugs by analyzing data and applying algorithms. This means that AI algorithms can determine how deftly the drug will bind onto its target and operate. Furthermore, AI can analyze the molecules and identify
the quantity of harmful toxicity in a potential drug. As a result, it can preempt the impact of the noxiousness in the drug on the body. These tasks that AI can easily perform help researchers categorize the best potential drugs to further test and reduce the amount of repetitive cycles of trial and error experiments. Researchers are no longer obligated to invest in resources that may be ineffective or detrimental for testing. This could not only save heaps of money and time, but could also increase success rates in experiments and tests. Secondly, with its vast amount of capabilities, AI enables researchers to design new mixtures with specific and desirable properties. AI carries a vital strength; its ability to bring together an abundance of data from various different sources for interpretation and analysis. With AI, researchers can design materials with specially-made compounds tailored to meet the necessities of companies and industries.
AI is incredibly useful, but the application of AI technology in drug discovery also raises a few concerns: can AI really take over all these jobs, and if so, what will be the consequences the world will inevitably encounter? One concern is data consistency and accuracy. AI requires a consistent, high quality profusion of data, which could be inconvenient and a too-high demand for some researchers. Without completely consistent data, the predictions and results generated by the AI may be inaccurate or unreliable and as a result, useless. Data augmentation, a process of adding synthetic data to improve AI’s analysis accuracy, is a possible strategy to battle biased data. This solution will make the dataset more diverse and increase the quantity, which the AI can analyze with increased accuracy. Furthermore, as AI progressively takes on more jobs, a vexing question emerges. Is it ethically correct for AI, a machine, to assume control of work traditionally done by humans? If AI continues to develop, machines will eventually take over all jobs, such as marketing, drug development, and experimentation. Therefore, job losses in the pharmaceutical industry will be huge. According
to SEO.AI, AI is estimated to replace around 800 million jobs by 2030. In addition, 14% of workers from a study taken have already lost jobs as a consequence of the power of AI (SEO.AI’s Content Team, 2024). Unemployment rates will skyrocket and the economy will be disrupted—a consequence the world can’t afford to witness. Furthermore, depending on AI for drug development is equivalent to entrusting one’s life into the hands of a computer—a computer that may malfunction easily without notice. There are several detrimental and incorrect paths the AI can mistakenly take. AI-generated research results may contain bias, which can place minority groups at a disadvantage, causing inequality of medical treatment and exacerbating an already-prevalent issue in the U.S. Lastly, the application of AI in drug development raises perturbing questions about privacy and security. Is it safe to participate in clinical trials where AI could possess vast amounts of sensitive private information? No statistical studies have shown that AI can do a better job of securing private information. Many are worried major pharmaceutical companies will violate privacy rights and unethically utilize the data collected by AI.
Today, AI still is unable to completely replace jobs traditionally done by humans and long-established experimental methods. However, in the future, AI could very likely play a central role in developing drugs and combating infectious diseases. Whether AI in the pharmatheutical, medical, and drug development industry is good or bad, it is still very obscure and controversial. Technological advancement has always improved human quality of life, but good control is crucial to preempt and mitigate possible consequences.
Floresta, G., Zagni, C., Gentile, D., Patamia, V., & Rescifina, A. (2022). Artificial Intelligence Technologies for COVID-19 De Novo Drug Design. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(6). https://doi. org/10.3390/ijms23063261.
SEO.AI’s Content Team. (2024, January 15). AI Replacing Jobs Statistics: The Impact on Employment in 2024. SEO.AI. Retrieved February 18, 2024, from https://seo.ai/blog/ai-replacing-jobs-statistics
References
Blanco-González, A., Cabezón, A., Seco-González, A., Conde-Torres, D., Antelo-Riveiro, P., Piñeiro, Á., & Garcia-Fandino, R. (2023). The Role of AI in Drug Discovery: Challenges, Opportunities, and Strategies. Pharmaceuticals, 16(6). https://doi. org/10.3390/ph16060891
Clare Pei ’26
In June 2012, scientists Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna jointly published a paper with a team of international researchers that laid out the beginnings of what would become CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) gene-editing technology. Over the next decade, the Swiss company, CRISPR Therapeutics, and the American biotech firm, Vertex Pharmaceuticals, would develop Casgevy. Casgevy is a gene therapy treatment for sickle cell disease and beta thalassemia that uses CRISPR gene-editing technology. In December 2023, Casgevy became the first CRISPR-based treatment to be approved by the FDA to treat sickle cell disease (Feuerstein, 2023). Charpentier and Doudna were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2020 for their transformative contributions to the field of genome editing through their development of CRISPR. In January 2024, the FDA also approved Casgevy to treat beta thalassemia, a blood disorder that reduces hemoglobin production (Pagliarulo, 2024).
Sickle cell disease affects about 100,000 people in the United States, and hundreds of thousands globally – primarily people of African descent. Like beta thalassemia, sickle cell disease is an inherited blood disorder. Sickle cell disease affects hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying protein in red blood cells, causing the red blood cells produced by a patient’s body to be deformed from a healthy disk shape to a crescent or sickle shape. These sickle-shaped red blood cells can clump together and block blood vessels, which inhibits blood flow to vital areas of the body and can deprive tissues of oxygen. When this blockage occurs, patients experience periods of extreme pain that can lead to organ damage, stroke, death, and other complications. Those with sickle cell disease, especially in its more severe forms, often require hospitalization. Sickle cell disease is also a progressive disease, meaning that the patient’s health deteriorates as the disease continually inflicts irreversible damage (Feuerstein, 2023).
Before the approval of Casgevy, a bone marrow
transplant – also called a stem cell transplant – was the only known cure for sickle cell disease. Since bone marrow transplants require specific matching immune cells between the patient and donor, most sickle cell patients cannot find a donor and are left without a cure (Boodman et al., 2023). So although most sickle cell patients receive treatment to reduce symptoms and alleviate pain, their uncured condition continues to inflict damage with age. This issue is compounded by the medical community’s discriminatory negligence towards the disease because of its specificity to Black communities (Molteni, 2023). Hence, Casgevy’s approval has been transformative, giving many sickle cell patients great hope.
Casgevy uses CRISPR gene-editing technology to restart the production of fetal hemoglobin. Fetal hemoglobin is a healthy form of hemoglobin that is produced during fetal development and notably binds more strongly to oxygen molecules than adult hemoglobin. The gene that regulates fetal hemoglobin production is normally deactivated shortly after birth (Macmillan, 2023). Researchers recently found a genetic mutation that prevents the gene from being deactivated, causing the body to continue producing fetal hemoglobin after birth. Casgevy mimics this genetic mutation by cutting a specific portion of this gene, called BCL11A. The CRISPR-cas9 technology in Casgevy makes guide RNA to locate the specific spot on gene BCL11A, then uses the cas-9 enzyme to cut out the DNA segment (STAT, 2023). In doing so, red blood cells continue to produce fetal hemoglobin and are then able to retain the normal disc shape of healthy red blood cells. By treating sickle cell patients with Casgevy, the body produces fetal hemoglobin instead of the affected hemoglobin associated with sickle cell disease (Feuerstein, 2023).
Casgevy’s approval is a significant milestone in both sickle cell disease research and gene-editing therapies. Since the cells that are edited by Casgevy come from the patient’s own body, the edited cells are less likely to be rejected by the patient’s body than cells would
be from a donor when using a stem cell transplant as a cure. Casgevy also has the potential to relieve sickle cell patients of a lifetime of hospitalization, pain medication, blood transfusions, and more, by delivering a cure through a one-time procedure (Boodman et al., 2023). Furthermore, Casgevy’s approval is groundbreaking for gene-editing therapies’ future in medicine. Beginning with Casgevy, gene-editing therapies will likely redefine the landscape of medicine in the next few decades. CRISPR Therapeutics CEO Samarth Kulkani summed up the event, stating, “We can fundamentally alter the genes that cause disease to create a functional, lifelong solution with a single administration. That’s a new paradigm, and it’s only powered by genome editing” (Feuerstein, 2023).
Gene-editing therapies will be able to treat genetic disorders in a way that could never have been done before, paving the way for future CRISPR-based treatments like Casgevy.
While the transplantation of the edited cells into the patient’s body is a relatively quick one-time procedure, the entire process involves multiple steps that can go wrong – a possible downside to this treatment. The procedure first involves a patient’s blood cells being removed and taken to a manufacturing lab. The blood cells are entered into a machine to isolate the stem cells, and eventually the Cas-9 enzyme and guide RNA components of CRISPR are added to extract the BCL11A segment from the cells’ DNA. The edited cells are then grown for a period of time before being harvested for treatment in patients. To prepare for the edited cells to be infused back into the patient’s body, the patient undergoes a preparation treatment using a chemotherapy drug called busulfan. It wipes out remaining stem cells to make space for the edited stem cells to engraft and grow. The treatment drastically weakens patients’ immune systems and may cause grave side effects, including severe infections, nausea, mouth sores, and infertility. After the patient has been prepared, the edited stem cells are transplanted back into the patient’s bone marrow. The patient must stay in the hospital for weeks after the infusion to recover. All in all, the process can take up to multiple months and even a year (Feuerstein, 2023).
Although Vertex Pharmaceuticals estimated that 25,000 sickle cell patients in the US and Europe would be
eligible for Casgevy, few may decide to use the new treatment due to the long and arduous preparation and recovery processes, as well as the risk of side effects and health complications. Since a patient must be healthy enough to endure the chemotherapy treatment’s weakening, patients with more severe advanced sickle cell disease may be at greater risk. Moreover, CRISPR may make unintentional DNA edits that could affect the body in potentially harmful ways. This concern highlights the new and largely unknown risks associated with gene-editing treatment (Feuerstein, 2023).
In order to limit potential harmful effects from the chemotherapy step of the Casgevy treatment, organizations such as the Gates Foundation and National Institutes of Health have invested in the development of in vivo gene-editing therapies (Molteni, 2023). In vivo therapies would involve injecting gene-editing components directly into the patient’s body instead of taking the patient’s cells out of the body to incorporate the CRISPR components. In addition, other variations of CRISPR are also being developed to expand its use beyond cutting DNA segments as molecular scissors. CRISPR-based treatments may eventually be able to conduct base-editing – changing individual nucleotides – and prime editing – uses different enzymes to insert, delete and/or rewrite short segments of DNA (Boodman et al., 2023). To that end, Casgevy only marks the beginning of CRISPR-based treatment. Further research and development of Casgevy and CRISPR technology is focused on lessening health risks, reducing costs, and increasing the treatments’ ability to alter the genome.
Such improvement in Casgevy is also needed to reduce the cost of the treatment. After Casgevy’s approval, sickle cell patients voiced serious concerns about equity and access. Casgevy’s current price for a single dose is listed at 2.2 million dollars. This price may be considered cost-effective after accounting for a sickle cell patient’s lifetime of medical bills from pain medication, hospital visits, blood transfusions, and other treatment, but still represents a significant barrier (Feuerstein, 2023). Since sickle cell disease primarily affects people of African descent, US and UK approval of Casgevy does not reach the epicenter of cases of the disease. In the sub-Saharan, more than 300,000 babies are born with sickle cell disease ev-
ery year. Yet, the region lacks essential clinical infrastructure such as specialized medical centers needed to treat these patients. Thus, this great advancement in medicine will not be impactful without improving general healthcare first. Speakers at the Third International Summit on Human Genome Editing state that new and improved CRISPR gene therapies will not be “sufficient. ” “Innovation in pricing, payment, and intellectual property will have to be part of the answer too” (Molteni, 2023). Arafa Salim, an advocate for sickle cell patients who established the first patient advocacy organization in Tanzania, supported this statement, adding, “A new therapy can be extremely effective, even a cure for sickle cell, but if it’s not made accessible to the average patient, it won’t be used” (Molteni, 2023). The current pricing and accessibility of Casgevy limits potential users of the treatment to a small elite class of patients, excluding many of those who need it the most. Therefore, Casgevy’s approval has emphasized the need for improvement in equity and access to effectively implement the increasingly effective and advanced treatments being developed (Molteni, 2023).
Casgevy’s approval by major health regulators in the US and UK has opened a new era of gene-editing therapies in medicine. This one-time cure for sickle cell disease using patients’ own cells also represents a massive improvement in sickle cell disease treatment and research. Hence, Casgevy has shown that gene-editing therapies like CRISPR are effective technological advancements with great potential to treat and cure genetic disorders like never before. However, as technology and medicine improves, healthcare infrastructure must improve to ensure that these medicines are equitably accessible to patients. Additionally, Casgevy comes with great risks of side effects and other health complications since it still operates using chemotherapy, a traditional transplantation procedure. Accordingly, the development of Casgevy and other CRISPR-based technologies is focused on making these treatments in vivo and capable of editing genes in more ways. All in all, while Casgevy’s approval represents the effectiveness and safety of advancing gene-editing technologies, equitable access and further technological developments are needed to ensure that Casgevy and its successors can be the most impactful for patients.
KFeuerstein, A. (2023, December 8). In historic decision, FDA approves a CRISPR-based medicine for treatment of sickle cell disease. STAT News. https://www. statnews.com/2023/12/08/fda-approves-casgevycrispr-based-medicine-for-treatment-of-sickle-celldisease/.
Herper, M., Feuerstein, A., Trang, B., & Boodman, E. (2023, November 16). Key questions (and answers) about the historic approval of a CRISPR-based medicine. STAT News. https://www.statnews. com/2023/11/16/crispr-vertex-sickle-cell-beta-thalassemia-casgevy-approval/.
Macmillan, C. (2023, December 19). Casgevy and Lyfgenia: Two Gene Therapies Approved for Sickle Cell Disease. Yale Medicine. https://www.yalemedicine.org/news/gene-therapies-sickle-cell-disease#:~:text=With%20Casgevy%2C%20the%20 patient%27s%20blood,the%20gene%20for%20 fetal%20hemoglobin.
Molteni, M. (2023, March 7). With CRISPR cures on horizon, sickle cell patients ask hard questions about who can access them. STAT News. https://www.statnews.com/2023/03/07/crispr-sickle-cell-access/.
Pagliarulo, N. (2024, January 16). FDA widens approval of Vertex’s CRISPR medicine to treat beta thalassemia. BioPharma Dive. https://www.biopharmadive.com/ news/fda-casgevy-approval-beta-thalassemia-vertex-crispr/704663/#:~:text=The%20Food%20 and%20Drug%20Administration,clearance%20 in%20sickle%20cell%20disease.
STAT. (2023, December 8). New CRISPR-based sickle cell treatment, explained [Video]. Youtube. https://youtu.be/2sAGtqm3o1g?si=xew7Qy5fw4DdYFOW.
Research and testing in cardiac science has long relied on a range of traditional models, including animal models, human heart tissues obtained from surgeries, computational models, and cell cultures. However, each of those models can have unavoidable shortcomings. Procuring animal models, for example, can tend to be expensive and time consuming, and results from their studies do not always translate to humans (Thompson, 2024). Similarly, studying dead human heart tissue can only provide so much information; while they do provide valuable insights to human cardiac function, such models are typically limited by availability, ethical concerns, and the inability to study the reactions of a living heart (Dhar, 2024). Other heart simulators were ineffective as well, having a short shelf life of two to four hours while also being unable to fully capture the heart’s complexity (Thompson, 2024).
Fortunately, this age of valuable yet flawed cardiac models may very well come to an end in the near future. In January 2024, biomedical engineers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) developed an accurate biorobotic heart simulator that could imitate both the functions of a healthy heart and a diseased one (Park et al., 2024). The simulator combines pig heart tissue with a soft silicone robotic pump system to form a beating heart that transcends previous traditional models (Thompson, 2024). A clear fluid pumps through the heart in place of blood while numerous sensors record data gathered from the heart’s function, measuring blood flow, blood pressure, and more. The simulator is even customizable to allow scientists to study the heart in specific conditions; the user can change various parameters, including heart rate and blood pressure (Dhar, 2024).
Unlike previous heart simulators, the biorobotic heart can accurately replicate blood flow through the heart, allowing scientists to study the heart as if being able to physically see the live organ at work. In conjunction with its many sensors, the model allows for real-time
data collecting of blood flow and can be a physical visualization for intracardiac procedures through its compatibility with various clinical imaging technologies (Park et al., 2024). Furthermore, the biorobotic heart has a shelf life of several months; the one developed in MIT’s lab, at least, has yet to stop. The researchers have not determined the precise shelf life of the model, though they intend to do “robust shelf-life fatigue testing to see exactly how many cycles [the biorobotic heart] can [endure],” according to the study’s senior author Ellen Roche (Dhar, 2024).
The biorobotic heart will be a useful research tool in the future, with a wide range of applications to both the biological and medical fields. For one, Roche aims for the heart to act as a surgical training platform for future clinicians, medical students, and trainees (Thompson, 2024). With its customizable settings, various surgical and interventional procedures can be demonstrated on the heart by mentors, and students can gain experience working with a heart more conveniently and in a safer environment (Park et al., 2024). Even for professionals, the heart can be highly beneficial–surgeons may “tune” the heart to replicate certain diseases or cardiac issues and use the model in attempts to treat them. This ability becomes particularly useful in preparation for precise surgeries, such as mitral valve regurgitation – the disorder the MIT team focused on. Three approaches to fix the problem were attempted on the heart, and all three were successful. The team reported that the surgery was easier due to the clear artificial blood, allowing them to see exactly what they were doing while performing the surgery, and that the simulator was highly realistic in its reactions (Thompson, 2024).
Looking ahead, the team will continue working on the biorobotic heart with hopes to improve it. Currently, the scientists are trying to make the building process easier and quicker while developing more robust versions with even longer shelf lives (Thompson, 2024). Moreover, Roche hopes the team will move away from their
initial reliance on pig heart tissue. In its place, the team is looking into 3D printing a synthetic heart or even replicating heart tissue itself. Doing so could make the model easier to mass-produce, relying on more readily obtainable materials. Aside from creating a more sustainable and convenient model, a 3D-printed heart could allow for even more customization. Eventually, doctors might be able to create patient-specific models for their own patients to observe (Dhar, 2024).
Through the biorobotic heart’s ability to last several months, compared to the several hours previous simulators could last, its customizability, enabling surgeons to demonstrate and practice various surgical techniques, and its ability to accurately replicate the blood flow of a human heart, the biorobotic heart is a valuable advancement from other synthetic heart models.
A beating biorobotic heart aims to better simulate valves. (2024, January 10). Science Daily. https://sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/01/240110120213.htm
Dhar, P. (2024, January 10). First-Ever biorobotic heart helps scientists study cardiac function. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/ article/first-ever-biorobotic-heart-helps-scientists-study-cardiac-function/
Park, C., Singh, M., Saeed, M. Y., Nguyen, C. T., & Roche, E. T. (2024, January 19). Science. https:// pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38312504/ Thompson, D. (2024, January 11). Biorobotic heart imitates the real thing and could further research. https://www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2024-01-11/biorobotic-heart-imitates-the-realthing-and-could-further-research
Duru Develioglu ’27
The application of nanotechnology in the field of medicine is rapidly advancing, revolutionizing drug delivery, tissue engineering, and implant technologies. Nanotechnology deals with particles that are significantly smaller than the human eye can see, and measure around 5-100 nanometers (nm). To put this into perspective, a human hair is 50,000-100,000nm thick (Carruthers, 2023). The tiny nature of these nanoparticles allows them to enter the body in a much more seamless and less invasive way than many other medicines, which can be extremely useful across various medical applications. The particles can target specific cells and travel to specific parts of the body for drug administration or other similar reasons.
The development of nanotechnology has expanded the specificity of drug delivery of more common medications. Drug delivery of nanotechnology accurately targets areas of pain or disease through the use of nanomaterial-based devices, with the two types of these drug delivery devices being open-loop (active) and closed loop (passive) (Li et al., 2021). Closed loop drug delivery is implemented as a nanomaterial-based device that detects changes in the surrounding environment, and automatically releases the necessary medication amount (Li et al., 2021). When a drug delivery device is passive, the drug carrier moves through the bloodstream and is attracted toward the target site by certain properties including pH and temperature. An example of this is through microneedles, which are tiny hypodermic needles on wearable patches that patients can use to autonomously inject medication through the skin (Li et al., 2021). In open loop drug delivery, the devices require manual or external guidance indicating when to release the medication (Li et al., 2021). These devices include antibodies that work with a drug delivery system that is anchored to the target site (Li et al., 2021). This enhanced drug delivery specificity is a beneficial new advancement from previous ways that medication was delivered.
Nanotechnology can be used in human tissue engi-
neering because it can accurately imitate human cells and be more versatile for manipulation than more commonly used polymers and biomaterials. Nanoparticles provide additional support to biomaterials and are also excellent in guiding cell activity and integrating with other tissues in the body (Chen, 2022). For example, the medicine, Chitosan, is a natural source for tissue engineering and can be processed into many different shapes and sizes (Chen, 2022). This being said, the medicine is structurally weak, so pairing it with nanomaterials to increase the scaffold strength was proven more successful than using the conventional biomaterial alone. The three elements of tissue engineering are scaffolds, signal molecules, and cells (Chen, 2022). The scaffold is the base structural material of the engineered tissue, which needs to be strong, non-toxic, and promote cell-adhesion among other necessary properties. The signal molecules and cells work with the scaffold to create a 3D artificial extracellular tissue model for implantation (Chen, 2022). When looking at bone tissue engineering, the new bone tissue is constructed of multi-walled carbon nanotubes which produce bone repair that can fully integrate into new bone. In the future, this could reinforce artificial bone implants with nanomaterials.
Nanomaterial-based implants are able to mimic the texture, chemistry, and the process of nerve stimulation and response, to provide a more successful alternative to conventional implants (Carruthers, 2023). The implant’s nano-coating can solve many common problems including bacterial adhesion and corrosion compared to conventional metallic implants (Carruthers, 2023). These implants can also be used in joint repair called osseointegration – in which limb prosthesis is implanted into the tissue above the amputation site – allowing for better physical control of the limb as opposed to socket-based prosthetic limbs that work externally from the amputation site (Carruthers, 2023). This technique reduces residual nerve pain from the amputation site known as “phantom
pain,” and improves the range of motion for the limb, allowing for the patient to move the limb more smoothly.
Unfortunately, because nanoparticles can enter the body and travel throughout it with ease, there is a potential risk for harm to the bodies of both patients and their providers. The toxicity levels of these nanoparticles are not yet well understood, and medical professionals who use nanomaterials in administering treatment to patients are likely to risk exposure through inhalation or skin contact (Gwinn & Vallyathan, 2006). When certain particles enter the body, they can travel through the bloodstream and cross the blood-brain barrier, where they can build up and result in cell death, adverse immune responses, and neuroinflammation (Teleanu et al., 2018). When air polluted with nanoparticles is inhaled, the nanoparticles mainly target the lungs. Inhalation of these particles can cause lung inflammation, respiratory infection, and an overall increased mortality rate (Gwinn & Vallyathan, 2006). Many commonly used nanoparticles, including iron oxide, titanium dioxide, carbon-based, and silver and gold nanoparticles have the potential to cause such neurotoxic effects (Teleanu et al., 2018). These particles tend to linger in the environment for a long time, which could potentially harm human health and/or ecosystem populations. It is important for doctors to acknowledge potential risks while working with nanomaterials, and ensure they are safe for use in and around the body.
There are many applications for nanotechnology currently in action and planned for the future, and nanoparticle-based implants, tissue engineering, and drug delivery are all important examples. However, there are many unknown risks to interacting with nanoparticles, with potentially harmful particles causing toxic effects to the brain, lungs, or heart if having entered the bloodstream through unintentional ingestion or touch. Scientists are continuously searching for ways to ensure patient and provider safety while cultivating these innovative new techniques with nanotechnology.
Carruthers, T. (2023, June 19). How small is nanoscale small?. Curious. https://www.science. org.au/curious/technology-future/how-small-nanoscale-small#:~:text=A%20human%20hair%20
is%20between,one%20Hot%20Wheels%20matchbox%20car.
Chen, Ming-qi. “Recent Advances and Perspective of Nanotechnology-Based Implants for Orthopedic Applications.” Frontiers, Frontiers, 1 Apr. 2022, www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ fbioe.2022.878257/full.
Gwinn, M. R., & Vallyathan, V. (2006, December 1). Nanoparticles: Health effects--pros and cons. Environmental health perspectives. https://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1764161/ Li, Z., Ilochonwu, B. C., Davoodi, P., Bodugoz-Senturk, H., Henry, S., Liu, G. S., Kim, Y. C., Jin, X., Zhang, Y., Rouphael, N. G., Lee, K., Meng, E., Kalia, Y. N., Jiang, Q., Goecks, J., Owens, D. R., Zhang, Y. Q., Huang, Q., Li, L., … Mage, P. L. (2021, March 19). Emerging self-regulated micro/Nano Drug Delivery Devices: A step forward towards intelligent diagnosis andtherapy.NanoToday.https:// www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/ S1748013221000529#:~:text=Self%2Dregulated%20micro%2Fnano%20drug%20delivery%20 devices%20are%20smart%20drug,especially%20 the%20internal%20biological%20signals.
Malik, S., Muhammad, K., & Waheed, Y. (2023, September 14). Emerging applications of nanotechnology in healthcare and medicine. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC10536529/ (2023, January 10) Osseointegration limb replacement: More control for amputees. Hospital for Special Surgery. https://www.hss.edu/condition-list_osseointegration.asp#:~:text=the%20 recovery%20time%3F-,What%20is%20osseointegration%3F,implants%20and%20joint%20replacement%20surgery.
Patra, J. K., Das, G., Fraceto, L. F., Campos, E. V. R., Rodriguez-Torres, M. del P., Acosta-Torres, L. S., Diaz-Torres, L. A., Grillo, R., Swamy, M. K., Sharma, S., Habtemariam, S., & Shin, H.-S. (2018, September 19). Nano based drug delivery systems: Recent developments and future prospects - journal of nanobiotechnology. BioMed Central. https://jnanobiotechnology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/ s12951-018-0392-8
Technologies, C., BioAFM, B., Oxford Instruments Company, A. R., LSP, I., Merck, & AG, N. (2017, October 30). Nanotechnology in tissue engineering AZoNano. https://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4662
Teleanu, D. M., Chircov, C., Grumezescu, A. M., Volceanov, A., & Teleanu, R. I. (2018, November 27). Impact of nanoparticles on Brain Health: An up to date overview. Journal of clinical medicine. https://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6306759/
Zhang, S., Chen, X., Shan, M., Hao, Z., Zhang, X., Meng, L., Zhai, Z., Zhang, L., Liu, X., & Wang, X. (2023, February 26). Convergence of 3D bioprinting and nanotechnology in tissue engineering scaffolds MDPI. https://www.mdpi.com/2313-7673/8/1/94
Henry Tsai ’26
The scientific community has made significant progress in assessing the effects of a plant-based diet on health. Epidemiologic data shows that a clear link exists between diet and health. For example, a 1993 case-controlled study on U.S. male World War II veterans that included over 10,000 people revealed that a major risk factor for multiple sclerosis (MS), an autoimmune disease that targets the central nervous system, involves a diet that is high in animal fat (Lauer, 1994). Historically, increases in meat and dairy sales in the U.S. have corresponded with a higher incidence of multiple sclerosis (Alwarith et al., 2019). Furthermore, affluence and its association with a diet high in meat and dairy has also been associated with a higher incidence of multiple sclerosis (Alwarith et al., 2019). Dietary effects on health and chronic inflammatory conditions have been the central focus of much scientific investigation in recent years.
More recently, studies have aimed to uncover the potential role of dietary modification on inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), namely Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. These are conditions marked by inflammation affecting portions of the gastrointestinal tract causing symptoms which may include diarrhea, weight loss, nutritional deficiencies, abdominal pain, and intestinal bleeding. Scientific investigators from Japan who manage a large volume of patients with IBD felt that it was imperative to identify environmental factors that may affect the severity of the disease, as well as the response to treatment (Chiba et al., 2019). They were motivated by prior epidemiologic studies that indicated that diets high in animal fat and low in fruits and vegetables, often referred to as a “Westernized diet,” are associated with a higher risk of IBD (Chiba et al., 2019). They noted that previous research shows that dietary choices affect gut microbiota (Chiba et al., 2019). Humans have a need for high microbial diversity in the gastrointestinal tract in order to stay healthy, and a “Westernized diet” tends to reduce microbial diversity, known as dysbiosis (Chiba et al., 2019). Di-
ets leading to dysbiosis result in increased products that are detrimental to our health, such as ammonia, phenols, and sulfide (Chiba et al., 2019). Meanwhile, dysbiosis is also associated with a decrease in short-chain fatty acids, which are metabolites that have a positive effect on human health in nutrition, immunity, and maintaining an intact gastrointestinal lining (Chiba et al., 2019). Thus, researchers agree that “Westernized diets” are pro-inflammatory, and plant-based diets are anti-inflammatory (Chiba et al., 2019).
The Japanese researchers conducted their studies on 159 patients with ulcerative colitis and 70 patients with Crohn’s disease to see how incorporating a plant-based diet as part of treatment would affect achieving and maintaining remission (Chiba et al., 2019). They found that the addition of a plant-based diet along with treatment significantly improved the likelihood of remission (Chiba et al., 2019). In fact, adding the plant-based diet as part of the treatment caused some patients who initially were not responding to their medication alone to gain control of the disease (Chiba et al., 2019). Their findings also revealed that staying on a plant-based diet correlated with staying in remission (Chiba et al., 2019).
Likewise, the potential benefits of a plant-based diet on rheumatoid arthritis (RA), an autoimmune disease that causes inflammation in joints, has been extensively studied. While in some cases, the factors that lead to the disease are attributed to genetic causes, smoking, or specific infections, many researchers believe that dietary factors play a significant role in the development of RA. As in the pathogenesis of IBD, a disturbance in gut bacteria and intestinal barrier caused by a diet high in animal fat and low in fruits and vegetables may trigger inflammation leading to RA (Alwarith et al., 2019). There is a growing body of evidence that suggests that RA has a gastrointestinal component and that when certain foods are eliminated from a patient’s diet, their symptoms improve (Alwarith et al., 2019). Animal foods, including milk, dairy, and eggs,
seem to commonly be problematic for patients with RA and are associated with an increase in joint pain (Alwarith et al., 2019). Additionally, excessive body weight, also associated with a diet high in animal fat, tends to make RA symptoms more severe (Alwarith et al., 2019). A vegan diet ameliorates RA symptoms as it is associated with a lower body mass index and a decrease in inflammation at the gut level (Alwarith et al., 2019).
While many observations have been made that point to a strong association between a plant-based diet and the reduction of inflammation in certain diseases, the mechanism by which the plant-based diet reduces inflammation is not entirely clear. A report published in 2020 serving as a literature review, including 21 studies, summarizes the association of vegan and vegetarian diets with inflammatory biomarkers (Menzel et al., 2020). Inflammatory biomarkers, or indications of inflammation in the body detected with blood tests, are typically increased when patients have active symptoms of their disease, such as diarrhea in the case of IBD or joint pain in the case of RA (Menzel et al., 2020). The authors concluded that a vegan diet was associated with the lowest levels of a particular biomarker referred to as C-reactive protein (CRP), a vegetarian diet had slightly higher levels of CRP, while omnivores had the highest levels of CRP (Menzel et al., 2020). However, there were several other inflammatory biomarkers that did not seem to correlate with diet (Menzel et al., 2020). Nonetheless, the authors suggest that since CRP is strongly established as a biomarker of inflammation, and is found in their review to be substantially lower in those with a plant-based diet, they conclude that a vegetarian or vegan diet has the potential to reduce inflammation across several diseases (Menzel et al., 2020). They noted that the reduction in CRP levels occurs approximately 2 years after a plant-based diet is initiated (Menzel et al., 2020).
While these data strongly support the potential role of dietary modifications in patients with a host of inflammatory diseases and provide evidence on a biochemical level linking diet and inflammation, more research is needed to define the underlying mechanism of how diet affects disease. While it is easy to assume that a plantbased diet will help in just about any inflammatory condition, clinicians need better ways to identify patients
who will truly benefit from dietary modifications to avoid making broad sweeping recommendations to all patients.
Alwarith, J., Kahleova, H., Rembert, E., Yonas, W., Dort, S., Calcagno, M., Burgess, N., Crosby, L., & Barnard, N. D. (2019). Nutrition Interventions in Rheumatoid Arthritis: The Potential Use of Plant-Based Diets. A Review. Frontiers in nutrition, 6, 141. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2019.00141
Chiba, M., Ishii, H., & Komatsu, M. (2019). Recommendation of plant-based diets for inflammatory bowel disease. Translational pediatrics, 8(1), 23–27. https://doi.org/10.21037/tp.2018.12.02
Lauer K. (1994). The risk of multiple sclerosis in the U.S.A. in relation to sociogeographic features: a factor-analytic study. Journal of clinical epidemiology, 47(1), 43–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/08954356(94)90032-9
Menzel, J., Jabakhanji, A., Biemann, R., Mai, K., Abraham, K., & Weikert, C. (2020). Systematic review and meta-analysis of the associations of vegan and vegetarian diets with inflammatory biomarkers. Scientific reports, 10(1), 21736. https://doi. org/10.1038/s41598-020-78426-8
Ella Fessler ’25
As of January 9th, 2024, the Translational Synthetic Biology Laboratory of the Department of Medicine and Life Sciences (MELIS) in Barcelona, Spain, has successfully transformed the skin bacterium, Cutibacterium acnes, into a chronic acne treatment.
Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes), while very accessible due to its abundance on the skin, was previously considered an uncontrollable, “intractable bacterium.”
Nastassia Knödlseder – one of many scientists studying C. acnes – describes that, “it was incredibly difficult to introduce DNA and get proteins produced or secreted from an element inserted into its genome” (SciTech, 2024). This being said, scientists chose C. acnes as an ideal candidate for genetic engineering because of its location in hair follicles where it has close proximity to sebum, an oily substance that helps maintain skin homeostasis.
Acne is a widespread skin condition affecting upwards of 50 million people in the USA every year (National, 2024). It is caused by either the blockage or the inflammation of hair follicles and nearby sebaceous glands that secrete lubrication for the hair, and can be very hard to treat depending on its severity. Acne presents as whiteheads and blackheads emerging from skin pores, and can build up under the skin. While teens are typically most affected by acne, people of all ages, from newborns to older adults, can experience severe acne. While usually on the face, back, chest, and shoulders, acne can appear anywhere on the body (Science, 2024). Currently, the leading treatment for cystic and severe acne is a drug called isotretinoin, otherwise known as Accutane. While Accutane can immensely help those struggling with acne, there are many prevalent and harmful side effects such as pain in bones, joints, and ligaments and the breaking of microbiome homeostasis, which causes dry and delicate skin. Accutane often kills both harmful and helpful bacteria, which contributes to side effects by compromising the skin’s homeostasis. In addition, those taking Accutane must be very careful not to become pregnant, as it can
cause many congenital disabilities (Mayo, 2024).
Pimples form when glands produce too much sebum. When the extra sebum combines with dead skin cells, the mixture can block hair follicles and irritate the skin (Phys.com, 2024). A team of scientists, led by Nastassia Knödlseder, successfully edited the genome of C. acnes to secrete and produce neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL). This protein nullifies the symptoms of acne and helps kill sebocytes, a cell type located in sebaceous glands, which produce sebum (Knödlseder, 2024). Their research shows that when the C. acnes secrete NGAL proteins in skin-like conditions, acne resulting from blockages goes away. The researchers had their study of C. acnes approved on November 17th, 2023, and published on January 9th, 2024, in the highly regarded scientific journal, “Nature Biotechnology.”
Currently, the study is being conducted on mice. Scientists group 1-4 mice in each cage and have a specific 12-hour light to 12-hour dark ratio. Scientists repeatedly apply the bacteria to a 2 x 5 cm shaven area of the back each day for three consecutive days. Then, scientists allow the mice to behave naturally for two more days, until finally euthanizing the mice and collecting skin biopsies to study the effect of applying the bacteria (Knödlseder, 2024). Although the studies on mice have heavily influenced the scientific world’s understanding of C. acnes’ effect on acne, the findings cannot be directly applied to humans because the skin of a mouse is significantly different from that of a human. Mice skin is looser, and has more hair, fewer lipids, and different sweat patterns than human skin. Due to the importance of skin in testing C. acnes to predict human effects, scientists are now attempting to develop more accurate models to better replicate human skin. 3D printing or finding animals with skin more closely resembling that of humans are both potential ways to solve this issue (SciTech, 2024).
While there is still much research to be done before testing C. acnes on natural human skin, the future
for this research is promising, and scientists are having breakthroughs every day. In addition, this experiment has opened the door to many skin diseases that C. acnes and other bacteria can help with. For example, one European project called “SkinDev” looks into how C. acnes can be engineered to help eczema, severe irritation, and dermatitis. Scientist Nicole Y. Lee is researching a different bacteria called Nitrosomonas eutropha to help improve keratosis pilaris, a skin condition caused by an overproduction of keratin (Knödlseder, 2024).
Research on the influence of C. acnes on acne is an exciting feat for the world of medicine and acne. The scientists working on this study are making monumental steps, and the scientific world is waiting in anticipation to see what will happen next with this research.
Knödlseder, N. (2024). Delivery of a sebum modulator by an engineered skin microbe in mice [Abstract]. Nature Biotechnology. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-023-02072-4.epdf?no_publisher_access=1&r3_referer=nature
Mayo Clinic. (2024). Isotretinoin Side Effects. https:// www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/isotretinoin-oral-route/side-effects/drg-20068178
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Physical.org. (2024, January 9). https://phys.org/ news/2024-01-skin-bacteria-secrete-molecules-acne.html?utm_source=ground.news&utm_medium=referral
SciTech Daily. (2024, January 9). https://scitechdaily. com/biotech-breakthrough-smart-skin-bacteriaengineered-to-treat-acne/?utm_source=ground. news&utm_medium=referral
Smart skin bacteria are able to secrete and produce molecules to treat acne. (2024, January 9). Science Daily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/01/240109121141.htm
