Type:
Solution Manual
Essentials of Educational Resource: Psychology Big Ideas To Guide Effective Teaching Edition:
6th Edition
Author(s):
Jeanne Ormrod Brett D. Jones
Instructor’s Manual Brett D. Jones
Essentials of Educational Psychology Big Ideas to Guide Effective Teaching Sixth Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod University of Northern Colorado, Emerita
Brett D. Jones Virginia Tech
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction to Educational Psychology ............................................................................. 1 Chapter 2: Learning, Cognition, And Memory ...................................................................................... 9 Chapter 3: Complex Cognitive Processes ......................................................................................... 26 Chapter 4: Learning in Context .......................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 5: Motivation and Emotions .................................................................................................. 49 Chapter 6: Cognitive Development .................................................................................................... 59 Chapter 7: Personal, Social, and Moral Development ....................................................................... 67 Chapter 8: Instructional Strategies ..................................................................................................... 75 Chapter 9: Strategies for Creating Effective Classroom and School Environments .......................... 83 Chapter 10: Assessment Strategies ................................................................................................... 89 Appendix A: Supplementary Lectures .............................................................................................. 100 Appendix B: Handouts ...................................................................................................................... 204 Appendix C: Additional Resources ................................................................................................... 231 Appendix D: Commercial Videos ...................................................................................................... 245 References for the Instructor’s Manual and Accompanying Instructor’s Manual Slides .................. 247
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Preface
PREFACE I would like to thank the authors of the previous editions of this Instructor’s Manual for their contributions; they are listed below along with the text they included in their Prefaces. As an educational psychologist, I enjoy sharing our interesting field with others. I hope that you find many useful tips and activities in this manual that will help you in your teaching. — Brett D. Jones (author for third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions) I have been a faculty member in the College of Education for over 20 years. During that time, I have taught undergraduate courses in Special Education, Human Growth and Development, and Educational Psychology. For the past decade or so, I have taught graduate courses in Human Growth and Development and undergraduate courses in Educational Psychology. In addition to teaching traditional, face-to-face courses, I also have designed and teach online sections of Human Growth and Development and Educational Psychology. I am pleased to have the opportunity to work with Jeanne Ormrod in the development of this Instructor’s Manual for the second edition of the Essentials text, which I think is the best textbook available for undergraduate students who aim to become teachers. The content of this manual incorporates activities and assignments that are included in MyEducationLab, a valuable resource to complement instruction and enhance student learning. — Rhoda Cummings (author for the second edition) I count the opportunity to teach courses in Educational Psychology as one of the highlights of my career as a faculty member in Education. It has been a wonderful challenge to find creative ways to introduce prospective teachers to the fascinating world of what it means to teach and to learn. In the pages that follow Jeanne and I have brought together a variety of ideas that we hope will serve you well as you work with your prospective teachers. — Jayne A. Downey (co-author for the first edition) I first taught a course called “Educational Psychology” in the fall of 1974. At this point, I have probably taught the course in one form or another at least 50 times. Yet each time I teach students about educational psychology, I do it somewhat differently than I have before, partly because the field changes so rapidly and partly because, with every new group of students, I continue to discover how I can do something just a little bit better than I have done it in the past. Much of this manual has been derived from my own experiences teaching and writing about educational psychology. I have raided my file cabinets for the many hands-on activities, discussion topics, handouts, transparencies, and homework assignments I have used successfully over the years. I have pulled together some of the misconceptions that my own students tend to have when they first appear in my classroom. I have developed supplementary lectures concerning topics I have included in my own course at one time or another when instructional objectives required them. Whenever I have removed or condensed discussions of certain topics in order to make room for new material, I have used the deleted subject matter to create new lectures and activities. In a few instances, I have also drawn on the experiences of former and present colleagues; I give them credit when I have done so. If you are teaching educational psychology for the first time, I hope that the suggestions and materials I provide here will help you develop a course that not only is informative and useful for your students but also promotes their interest, engagement, and excitement. If you are an experienced teacher, I hope you will find a few intriguing ideas for diversifying your teaching strategies. I am always eager to hear about the things that do and don’t work for you. Keep in touch. — Jeanne Ellis Ormrod (co-author for the first edition)
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Features of the Manual
FEATURES OF THE MANUAL This instructor’s manual includes resources to accompany the content presented in the Essentials of Educational Psychology textbook. It has been designed to help instructors show their students the usefulness of educational psychology principles. The manual content can be helpful to instructors in any type of course related to educational psychology, regardless of the course format (e.g., small, large, seminar, lecture, online). Instructors should feel free to select the resources that are most applicable to their course; there is something in this manual for everyone! Organization of the Manual All of the chapters in this manual are organized similarly in that they each contain the following sections: •
a Chapter Overview paragraph that briefly explains the purpose of the chapter;
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an Introduction section that includes the textbook chapter outline;
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a Big Ideas section that contains the big ideas for the textbook chapter; and
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a Case Study section that provides the questions and answers to the case study presented at the beginning of the textbook chapter.
After these four sections, each chapter in this manual is divided into the same sections that are presented in the textbook. Each of these sections contains most or all of the following resources: •
Outline—The outline provides a list of the main headings within the corresponding section of the textbook.
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Textbook Slides—The textbook slides are PowerPoint slides available as files separate from this document. The slides contain text that is consistent with, and often directly from, the content in the textbook. All of the slides are numbered with the chapter number and slide number. For example, “Textbook Slide 6.2” indicates that the slide corresponds to the second slide in Chapter 6. There are no directions for using these slides; they are provided primarily to save instructors the time needed to create their own slides from the textbook content. These slides are best used in combination with the activities presented in this manual and the Instructor’s Manual Slides.
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Instructor’s Manual Slides—The instructor’s manual slides are PowerPoint slides available as files separate from this document. These slides correspond to activities or lectures in this manual and are typically not referenced in the textbook. The instructions for using these slides are provided in this manual. These slides are individually numbered similar to the style used for the Textbook Slides.
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Discussion Topics—The discussion topics are questions intended to generate discussion among the students. Some of these questions have clear-cut answers, whereas others do not. The questions provide a way of eliciting important ideas from the students.
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Activities—Almost all of the activities have been used in educational psychology courses and have been found to be engaging and enlightening for students.
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Out-of-Class Activities—The out-of-class activities are designed to be conducted outside of regular class time due to their length, the resources needed to complete them, and/or the fact that they require an observation component (e.g., observing in a classroom).
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Supplementary Lectures—The titles of the supplementary lectures are listed within the relevant manual section, but are provided in Appendix A.
To support the content in the resources above, the following appendices are provided at the end of this manual: •
Supplementary Lectures (Appendix A)—The supplementary lectures either expand on topics presented in the textbook or introduce topics not specifically addressed in the textbook. Some of the lectures are based on material that was deleted from the textbook due to lack of space. Others v ..
Features of the Manual
originate from general educational psychology courses or advanced courses in learning, cognition, and measurement. The lectures allow instructors to supplement textbook material in directions appropriate for their objectives. Please note, however, that the lecture content is not reflected in the test bank for the textbook. •
Handouts (Appendix B)—Referenced in each chapter of this manual are handouts that accompany some of the activities and lectures described in the manual. The handouts can be printed and copied as needed for distribution in classes that use the Essentials of Educational Psychology textbook.
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Additional Resources (Appendix C)—The additional resources appendix includes references to other books, chapters, and articles related to the content in the textbook and is provided for instructors interested in learning more about the topics in the textbook.
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Commercial Videos (Appendix D)—The commercial videos appendix includes a list of some companies that sell commercial videos.
Pearson eText and Learning Management System (LMS)–Compatible Assessment Bank Pearson eText The Pearson eText is a simple-to-use, mobile-optimized, personalized reading experience. It allows you to easily highlight, take notes, and review key vocabulary all in one place—even when offline. Seamlessly integrated videos and other rich media will engage you and give you access to the help you need, when you need it. To gain access or to sign-in to your Pearson eText, visit: https://www.pearson.com/pearson-etext. •
Video Examples: One of the features in each chapter is the Video Examples that illustrate principles or concepts aligned pedagogically with the chapter. Some videos provide examples of educational psychology principles or concepts in action by showing students and teachers in classrooms. Other videos show students or teachers describing their teaching strategies or experiences.
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Content Extensions: Some of the chapters include Content Extensions that provide more information about a specific topic or foundational theory. This feature is intended to supplement the information in the text, often by providing additional details, background, or context for the topic or theory.
LMS-Compatible Assessment Bank With this new edition, assessments are included in LMS-compatible banks for the following learning management systems: Blackboard (9780136817758), Canvas (9780136817703), D2L (9780136817918), and Moodle (9780136817871). These packaged files allow maximum flexibility to instructors when it comes to importing, assigning, and grading. Assessment types include: •
Learning Outcome Quizzes: Each chapter Big Idea is the focus of a Learning Outcome Quiz that is available for instructors to assign through their Learning Management System. The Big Ideas identify chapter content that is most important for learners and serve as the organizational framework for each chapter. The quiz questions focus almost exclusively on meaningful learning and, often, on application of key concepts and principles related to scenarios and problems. In general, the quizzes have been written with a particular principle in mind: When used in the LMS environment, these multiple-choice questions are automatically graded and include feedback for the correct answer and for each distractor to help guide students’ learning. As we say in Chapter 10, Assessment activities can be learning experiences in and of themselves.
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Application Exercises: Each chapter provides opportunities for students to apply what they have learned through Application Exercises. One Application Exercise is available for each Big Idea within the chapter. The exercises require students to watch short videos, read scenarios, or think about situations and then answer open-ended questions. When used in the LMS environment, a model response written by experts is provided after students submit the exercise. This feedback helps guide students’ learning and can assist the instructor in grading.
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Chapter Tests: Suggested test items are provided for each chapter and include questions in multiple choice and short answer/essay formats.
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Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Chapter Overview As the introductory chapter, Chapter 1 includes three primary topics, one related to each of the chapter’s three big ideas. The first two topics relate to teachers’ professional knowledge and skills, as well as how teachers can use research findings to enhance their knowledge, skills, and practices. The third topic involves study strategies that readers can use as they study the material in this textbook. The broader aim of this topic is to ensure that teachers understand how to study so that they can teach their own students how to use effective study strategies. Introduction This chapter of the Instructor’s Manual follows the outline of the textbook topics. This manual does not include information related to the Summary or for your Case Study Practice Exercises listed in the outline that follows. Chapter Outline from the Textbook •
Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter
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Case Study: The “No D” Policy
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Big Idea 1.1: Developing Expertise as a Teacher
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Big Idea 1.2: Using Research Findings to Make Instructional Decisions
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Big Idea 1.3: Strategies for Learning and Studying Effectively
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Summary
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Case Study Practice Exercises: New Instructional App
Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter 1.1 Effective teachers continually work to enhance their professional knowledge and skills. 1.2 Effective teachers use research findings and research-based theories to make decisions about instructional strategies, classroom management, and assessment practices. 1.3 Students read, study, and learn more efficiently when they plan appropriately and use effective strategies. Textbook Slide: 1.2 Case Study: The “No D” Policy Questions and Answers •
The questions presented at the end of the case study in the textbook are as follows and the answers are provided below each question. 1. What strategies does Ms. Smith use to develop her students’ writing skills?
o She gives them feedback and individualizing instruction when needed to help them improve their skills.
o She allows students to revise and resubmit assignments. o She gives all students the chance to improve and demonstrates her commitment to helping them learn and develop their writing abilities. 2. How might Ms. Smith’s policies and behaviors motivate her students? 1 ..
Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology
o Her policies help students to succeed. Students’ successes, even minor ones, can motivate them to continue to succeed and improve their writing.
o By surveying students and listening to their feedback, she demonstrates that she respects and cares about students’ opinions and their development as writers. If students trust Ms. Smith and feel a connection with her, they’re more likely to listen to her and be motivated to participate in class activities. Textbook Slides: 1.3 and 1.4 Introduction Learner-Centered Instruction and Educational Psychology o
The brief introduction in this chapter discusses learner-centered instruction and defines educational psychology.
Textbook Slides: 1.5 and 1.6 Big Idea 1.1. Developing Expertise as a Teacher 1.1.a. Outline Big Idea 1.1 Effective teachers continually work to enhance their professional knowledge and skills. •
Learn as much as you can about the subject matter you teach, about teaching strategies, and about learners and their development.
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Believe that you can make a difference in students’ lives.
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Continually reflect on and critically examine your assumptions, inferences, and teaching practices.
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Communicate and collaborate with colleagues.
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Learn as much as you can about the culture(s) of the community in which you are working.
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Keep up to date on research findings and innovative evidence-based practices in education.
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Integrate action research into your ongoing classroom practices.
1.1.b. Textbook Slides: 1.7 to 1.11 1.1.c. Discussion Topics
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What are the potential advantages and challenges in including students with disabilities in general education classrooms?
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What are some practical ways in which you can engage in reflective teaching as a teacher?
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What type of things can you do now and in the next few years to begin to network and share ideas with other teachers?
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What are some practical ways that you can learn about the culture(s) in the community in which you will work?
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When you become a teacher, what are some ways in which you can keep up-to-date on research findings and innovative practices related to your teaching area?
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What are some examples of topics that a teacher could identify as being appropriate topics to study using action research? 2 ..
Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology
1.1.d. Activities •
Activity: Video Example 1.3 Show the video used in the textbook Application Exercise 1.2 and ask students to describe the types of data that the teacher could collect to answer her research question.
Big Idea 1.2. Using Research Findings to Make Instructional Decisions 1.2.a. Outline Big Idea 1.2 Effective teachers use research findings and research-based theories to make decisions about instructional strategies, classroom management, and assessment practices. •
The effectiveness of various classroom practices can best be determined through systematic research.
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Educational psychologists focus on the scientific study of psychological principles that are relevant to education.
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Research can provide quantitative information, qualitative information, or both.
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Different kinds of research lead to different kinds of conclusions.
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Drawing conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships requires that all other possible explanations for an outcome be eliminated.
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Principles and theories can help synthesize, explain, and apply research findings.
1.2.b. Textbook Slides: 1.12 to 1.22 1.2.c. Discussion Topics •
What is educational psychology and when did it become a discipline?
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Think about other courses you’ve completed. Which courses have included concepts related to educational psychology?
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What other disciplines include concepts related to educational psychology?
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Think about what it will be like when you are a teacher; or if you already have teaching experience, reflect on your teaching experiences. What are three questions that you would like to ask an educational psychologist? Make sure that your questions are within the scope of topics studied by educational psychologists.
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What principles and theories of learning, child development, and/or motivation have you learned in your previous courses? Does the textbook discuss these principles and theories? If not, why do you think they may have been omitted?
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What kinds of diversity are you likely to see in any single group of students? Brainstorm ideas related to personality, motivation, culture, religion, and family income level. What implications might such diversity have for classroom practice?
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In educational research, what are the advantages of having control groups that receive either no intervention or a placebo intervention that is unlikely to have much of an effect? What are the disadvantages? Consider the perspectives of research participants, teachers, and society at large.
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Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology
1.2.d. Activities •
Activity: Getting to Know Students’ Names If you have a small class (no more than 35 students), you can use this activity to help you and your students get to know one another on the first day of class. 1. Have the students form groups of three or four. The exercise is most effective if the students in each group don’t know one another. For example, you might: •
Divide the number of students in the class by three and have students count off by that number. For example, if there are 30 students in the class, have them count off by 10 (30/3) and group all the 1s together, 2s together, etc.
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Assign groups by using your class roll, so that the first three students on your roll are in one group, the next three are in the second group, etc.
2. Ask the students to find out the following information about each member of their group: •
Name
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Birthplace and/or hometown
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Career goals
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A unique characteristic or pastime (something that will “individualize” each student)
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(Allow about 5 or 10 minutes for groups to interact.)
3. Choose one group and ask each group member to introduce another group member to the entire class, providing information about name, birthplace/hometown, career goals, and unique characteristic/pastime. Do likewise with one or more additional groups, until about half of the groups have spoken. 4. Stop to review and “test” the class on the names of the students who have been introduced up to this point. 5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 with the remaining groups. •
Activity: Ormrod’s Own Psychological Survey (OOPS Pretest) On the first day of class, you may want to introduce the idea that your students probably have many misconceptions about the subject matter they will be studying in your course. If so, you may want to administer Ormrod’s Own Psychological Survey (OOPS Pretest) as an in-class activity. This is the same survey that is presented in the textbook. You can copy and give students Handout 1.1 (located in Appendix B), or you can present Textbook Slide 1.14 in class if you prefer to show it in PowerPoint instead of copying the handout. 1. Distribute copies of (or show the slide of) the OOPS items and give students about 2 minutes to complete it. 2. Ask for a show of hands to indicate how many students think each statement is true and how many think it is false. Record the number of “trues” and “falses” for each item on the board. 3. Briefly explain why each of the statements is true or false (you can use Textbook Slide 1.15 to show the correct answers and the textbook’s discussion of the OOPS items for guidance). 4. Point out that adults often have misconceptions about learning, development, and motivation, as well as about effective instruction, classroom management, and assessment practices. Urge your students to be continually on the lookout for ideas presented in the course that conflict with their existing beliefs. Encourage them to express their concerns 4 ..
Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology
about any new ideas that seem counterintuitive or illogical based on what they already know and believe. •
Activity: Bad and Better Research This activity illustrates the importance of separating and controlling variables in a research study. It is accompanied by Handouts 1.2 and 1.3 (located in Appendix B). Each student will need only one handout; shuffle your copies of the two handouts so that they are mixed in a more or less random fashion. Describe the activity as one that will give students a feeling for how a researcher might conduct an experiment to study how people learn. 1. Divide the class into two halves based on their seating in the room (left half vs. right half). 2. Tell the right half to “ignore” what you say to the left half. 3. Tell the left half that you are going to read them a list of 15 words and that they will have to write down as many words as they can remember once you have finished the list. Read these words at a rate of about one word per second: kitchen
bandage
ribbon
telephone
violin
brush
key
fan
plate
ketchup
sink
blanket
broom
rose
picture
4. Tell the left half to write down as many words as they can remember and to “ignore” you while you speak to the right half of the room. 5. Tell the right half that you are going to read them a list of 15 words and that they will have to write down as many words as they can remember once you have finished the list. Read these words at a rate of about one word per second: fork
salt
table
chair
cup
pepper
saucer
plate
knife
spoon
placemat
glass
candle
butter
napkin
6. Tell the right half to write down as many words as they can remember and give them sufficient time to do so. 7. Have students count the number of words they remembered correctly by either reading both lists again or by showing Instructor’s Manual Slide 1.2. Write the final scores on the board, and compute separate means for left half v s right half (you may simply want to estimate the mean by looking at the scores). The mean for the right half will almost certainly be larger. ersu
8. Ask both groups to describe strategies that they used. Among other things, the right half will probably tell you that they associated the words with a table setting. Discuss the hypothesis tested in the experiment: Interrelatedness facilitates recall. 9. Have the class identify confounding variables that prohibit one from drawing any sound conclusion about why the right half did better. There are many, including these: 5 ..
Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology •
The right half got a preview of the task by observing what the left half was asked to do (i.e., they probably ignored your instructions to “ignore” what you said to the left half).
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The right half heard the word plate twice (it appears in both lists).
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The left half was recalling the words under noisier conditions (i.e., you were talking).
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There was no random assignment to groups. Perhaps people who sit on the right side of the classroom are more motivated to learn or are just naturally better learners.
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Perhaps someone coughed during the first list, making some words difficult to hear.
10. Now tell the class that you are going to conduct a second experiment on learning. Place a copy of either Handout 1.2 or Handout 1.3 upside down on each student’s desk, with the two handouts being distributed in a more or less random fashion. 11. Tell the students that they will study the list for 2 minutes, and that they will then have to recall the words in order. 12. Have them study their lists for 2 minutes, and then allow them time for written recall. 13. Have the students score their own lists. Then ask them to describe strategies they used in learning their lists. At this point, it should become evident that Handout 1.2 was organized alphabetically (with the first letters beginning with A, B, C, etc.) and that the alphabet could serve as a retrieval cue. Handout 1.3 had the same words, but in random arrangement. 14. Put scores for the two lists on the board, and compute or estimate the mean for each group. You may also wish to distinguish between two subgroups in the “Handout 1.2” group—those who noticed the alphabetic scheme and those who did not—and compute or estimate separate means for these two subgroups. 15. Ask students to identify those confounding variables in the “bad” experiment that were eliminated in this “better” experiment. 16. Discuss the need for control in educational research and the fact that confounding variables preclude conclusions about cause-effect relationships. When students read research, they should be thinking about other possible explanations for the observed results. Caution students to be critical of what they read. •
Activity: Classifying and Analyzing Research Studies Find several examples of research studies in recent professional journals. Divide the class into groups of a few students each and give a different study to each group (alternatively, give each group an abstract or summary from several different articles). Ask group members to identify whether the study is descriptive, correlational, or experimental in nature, and to determine what conclusions can appropriately be drawn from the results.
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Activity: Classifying Research Studies This activity gives students practice in distinguishing among descriptive, correlational, and experimental research. It can be completed in class either individually or in cooperative groups; it can also be completed as a homework assignment. It is accompanied by Handout 1.4 (located in Appendix B) or Instructor’s Manual Slides 1.3 to 1.12. 1. Distribute Handout 1.4. Ask students to consider whether each of the results described reflects a descriptive, correlational, or experimental study. In each case, students should explain their reasoning. Alternatively, show Instructor’s Manual Slides 1.5 to 1.12 one at a time and discuss each one. 2. Solicit students’ conclusions and their rationales within a whole-class discussion. You might want to show Textbook Slide 1.19 as an example of variables that are correlated. Correct answers are as follows: 6 ..
Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology •
Study #1: Descriptive—It describes the most common strategy used to learn spelling words, but it does not relate this strategy to another variable.
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Study #2: Correlational—Teachers’ beliefs at the beginning of the school year (either that girls and boys read equally well, or that girls are better readers) are consistent with the pattern of reading achievement test scores at the end of the year. The experimenter does not specifically manipulate teachers’ beliefs but examines them as they already exist.
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Study #3: Correlational—There is a relationship between parental education and the amount of reading to children, but the educational level of the parents is not manipulated by the experimenter.
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Study #4: Experimental (Quasi-experimental)—The classes were assigned to an experimental or control condition.
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Study #5: Descriptive—The amount of wait time after teacher questions is reported, but it is not related to another variable.
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Study #6: Correlational—Perceptions of teacher caring and student effort are positively related. Teacher caring is not manipulated, so it’s not an experiment..
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Study #7: Experimental—The experimenters determine which students get the training and which do not.
Question for students: Why do researchers sometimes conduct correlational studies rather than experimental studies, even though only experimental studies allow conclusions about cause-effect relationships? Answer: There are often legal, ethical, or practical considerations that make experimental studies impossible. For example, an experimenter who is studying the effect of parent-child reading sessions on cognitive development cannot, either realistically or ethically, ask parents to read to their children less frequently than they might otherwise do. 1.2.e. Out-of-Class Activities •
Summarize the mission statements of three organizations that represent educational psychology (e.g., American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association). Answer questions such as: What is the purpose of the organization? Is the organization relevant for teachers? How can teachers become involved with the organization?
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Find out how to access and use databases (such as E RIC or PsycINFO) through your university’s online library catalog.
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Locate three different professional journals that publish research articles related to human learning, child development, motivation, and/or classroom practice. Describe the kinds of research studies that each of these journals publishes.
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Browse through professional research journals to find one example each of descriptive, correlational, and experimental studies related to psychology and/or education.
1.2.f. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •
Lecture 1.1: Why Do We Need Research?
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Lecture 1.2: Variables, Constants, and Control
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Lecture 1.3: Basic and Applied Research
Big Idea 1.3. Strategies for Learning and Studying Effectively 7 ..
Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology
1.3.a. Outline Big Idea 1.3 Students read, study, and learn more efficiently when they plan appropriately and use effective strategies. •
Before you study, prepare for your study session.
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During your study session, use effective study strategies.
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At the end of your study session, evaluate your progress and schedule additional study sessions as needed.
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Be an active participant and put forth mental effort in your learning and studying processes.
1.3.b. Textbook Slides: 1.23 to 1.28 1.3.c. Discussion Topics •
What are the most effective study strategies that you use as a student? (You can also group the strategies into categories to show the similarities between the strategies. Possible groups include those that involve relating new information to what you already know, organization, visualization, elaboration, and rehearsal.)
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What strategies do you use that are not very effective? Why do you use them if they are not very effective? (Students might say that the less effective strategies require less effort and that these strategies are good enough to help them pass a test. This could lead to a discussion of how assessments can affect the ways in which students study and learn.)
1.3.d. Out-of-Class Activity •
Teach a fellow student one or more effective learning strategies from this chapter (strategies that they don’t already know or use). Have them try the strategy in one of their courses and report back to you about how it worked. You can ask them questions such as: Did the strategies help you to remember the information better? Did the strategies increase your longterm memory of the material? Did your grade improve?
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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory
CHAPTER 2: LEARNING, COGNITION, AND MEMORY Chapter Overview This chapter focuses on learning, which is the major aim of most instructional approaches. Most students, regardless of age or experience, will find this chapter interesting because it addresses issues related to learning and memory that they have experienced throughout their lifetime. These ideas complement the ideas and strategies provided in Chapter 1 (Section 1.3, Strategies for Learning and Studying Effectively), and it can be helpful for the instructor to make connections between the ideas in this chapter and the ideas in Section 1.3. Introduction This chapter of the Instructor’s Manual follows the outline of the textbook topics. This manual does not include information related to the Summary or the Case Study Practice Exercises listed in the outline that follows. Chapter Outline from the Textbook •
Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter
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Case Study: Studying for a Test
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Big Idea 2.1: Thinking and Learning in the Brain
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•
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Functions of the Brain
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Teaching Strategies: Supporting Optimal Brain Functioning
Big Idea 2.2: A Model of Human Memory o
Sensory Register, Attention, and Working Memory
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Teaching Strategies: Remembering the Limitations of Attention and Working Memory
Big Idea 2.3: Long-Term Memory o
The Nature of Long-Term Memory
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Storing Information in Long-Term Memory
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Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Effective Long-Term Memory Storage Processes
Big Idea 2.4: Learning as Active Construction o
Knowledge Construction
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Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Effective Long-Term Memory Storage Processes
Big Idea 2.5: Why Learners May or May Not Remember What They Have Learned o
Recalling Information
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Teaching Strategies: Facilitating Retrieval
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Summary
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Case Study Practice Exercises: Vision Unit
Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter 2.1 The brain continues to change and learn over the course of a lifetime. 2.2. Attention and working memory limit the amount of information that learners can process and remember. 2.3 Learners can use strategies intentionally to store information in long-term memory. 9 ..
Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory
2.4 Learners actively create much of what they know and believe about the world based on their existing knowledge and beliefs. 2.5 Human memory is fallible: Learners don’t remember everything they learn, and sometimes they misremember what they’ve learned. Textbook Slide: 2.2 Case Study: Studying for a Test Questions and Answers •
The questions presented at the end of the case study in the textbook are as follows and the answers are provided below each question. 1. What strategies did Kayla use to study for the test? o
She paid attention and took notes during class, skimmed the textbook, and made flashcards on her phone.
2. What other strategies could Kayla have used to prepare for the test? o
She could have started studying earlier in the week and begun reading the textbook the prior week when the teacher assigned it.
o
She could have related the information to her existing knowledge and experiences, organized it, used visual images, and elaborated on it.
3. Do you think that Kayla is likely to remember most of what she learned in the future, such as in 2 months or next year? Why or why not? o
Because Kayla learned the material mainly by repeating the information on the flashcards and not by using other strategies to any significant extent, she is unlikely to remember what she learned for very long. She may be able to get a good grade on her test the next day, but without reviewing the material again or using other strategies, she probably won’t remember much of the information in 2 months or a year.
Textbook Slides: 2.3 and 2.4; Slides 2.5 and 2.6 appear in the Introduction before Big Idea 2.1 Big Idea 2.1. Thinking and Learning in the Brain 2.1.a. Outline Big Idea 2.1 The brain continues to change and learn over the course of a lifetime. Functions of the Brain •
The various parts of the brain work closely with one another.
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Most learning probably involves changes in neurons, astrocytes, and their interconnections.
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The brain functions in close collaboration with—rather than in relative isolation from—the rest of the body.
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Knowing how the brain functions and develops tells us only so much about learning and instruction.
Teaching Strategies: Supporting Optimal Brain Functioning •
Provide ongoing intellectual stimulation, but don’t overdo it. 10
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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory •
Encourage physical exercise.
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Encourage students to get plenty of sleep.
2.1.b. Textbook Slides: 2.7 to 2.11 2.1.c. Discussion Topics •
Do you think that it is important for teachers to understand the anatomy of the brain? Why or why not?
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What specific activities have you seen teachers implement that would support students’ optimal brain functioning?
Big Idea 2.2. A Model of Human Memory 2.2.a. Outline Big Idea 2.2 Attention and working memory limit the amount of information that learners can process and remember. Sensory Register, Attention, and Working Memory •
Sensory input stays in a raw form only briefly.
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Attention is essential for most learning and memory.
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Working memory has a short duration and limited capacity.
Teaching Strategies: Remembering the Limitations of Attention and Working Memory •
Grab and hold students’ attention.
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Keep the limited capacity of working memory in mind.
2.2.b. Textbook Slides: 2.12 to 2.14 2.2.c. Discussion Topics •
What strategies do you use to help you pay attention during class?
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What do your teachers do to help you pay attention during class?
2.2.d. Activities •
Activity: Sensory Register This simple activity illustrates the role of the sensory register by showing how a visual memory trace persists for a fraction of a second. Before class, you will need to construct a thaumatrope, a gadget that is spun quickly so that your mind combines two images into one. Cut a circle out of a piece of cardboard that is the same color (ideally white) on both sides. Draw a picture on each side of the cardboard. As a simple illustration, the circles below show a birdcage on one side of a circle and a bird on the other. Note how the bird is upside-down relative to the birdcage because you will need one image to be upside-down relative to the other to get the desired effect. Punch a small hole on each side of the circle as shown in the illustration below and attach a piece of string several inches long at these two holes. (Long rubber bands work as well.) 11 ..
Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory
1. In class, show both sides of the thaumatrope. 2. Ask a student to assist you and have your assistant hold the ends of the two strings such that the cardboard circle and strings are horizontal and somewhat (but not overly) taut. Then rotate the circle over and over numerous times (at least 20, perhaps more) so that the two strings are well twisted. 3. Ask your assistant to pull on the two sides of the thaumatrope in opposing directions, allowing the strings to untwist and the cardboard circle to spin. If your students are sitting close enough, they should see the two images as a single picture (e.g., a bird inside a birdcage). 4. Ask your students to explain this illusion using what they have learned about human memory. (Explanation: The sensory register maintains an image for a fraction of a second. The two pictures are being seen close enough in succession that traces of both are in the sensory register at the same time.) Note: Thanks to Fred Bloise for the reminder of these simple gadgets. •
Activity: Cocktail Party This activity is designed to illustrate the effects of attention in a “cocktail party” situation. 1. Introduce the activity only as a means to enable students to get to know one another better. 2. Give each student a scavenger hunt-like task, asking them to find a classmate who: •
Has run a marathon
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Has a pet bird
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Can skateboard
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Has a child
Prefers butterscotch to hot fudge
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Has been to France
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Can’t swim
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Grows flowers
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Has at least four siblings
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Is a Glee fan
3. After a reasonable amount of time, have students return to their seats. Ask them questions such as these: •
How much of other people’s conversations did you hear?
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What specific things attracted your attention to conversations other than yours?
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Were there times when you were not attending to the person speaking to you because of something another group was talking about?
4. Follow up on their answers by making these points: •
It is difficult to pay attention to more than one message at a time. 12
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•
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You don’t always pay attention to the person speaking to you, especially if that person’s message is less interesting than another message being presented at the same time.
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What’s true for you with respect to attention will also be true for your students.
Activity: Limited Capacity of Working Memory This activity illustrates the limited capacity of working memory via a classic digit span task. 1. Tell students that you are going to present a series of number strings and that they are to write down each string as soon as you have finished reading it (stress that they are not to write the numbers down while you read them) (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.2 and then go to blank Manual Slide 2.3). Then read the first number string below, presenting the digits at a rate of about one per second. Allow students time to write what they remember. Follow the same procedure for the remaining strings. 2961 83591 614729 3816527 41758362 572634981 2. Ask students to cover up their answers and once again write down the third string you read. Because almost no one will be able to do this, you can point out that the task definitely involves “working/short-term” memory. 3. Read the number strings again (or show Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.4), asking students to check their answers. Ask students to indicate by a show of hands how many got the four-digit string correct, the five-digit string correct, and so on, each time writing the number of hands raised on the chalkboard. Virtually all of them should have recalled the first two strings correctly, but very few should have gotten the nine-digit string correct. 4. Describe George Miller’s magic number 7 ± 2—the idea that we can typically remember from five to nine digits at one time (G. A. Miller, 1956). Point out that it is probably impossible to describe the exact capacity of working memory (e.g., Simon, 1974); nevertheless, it is clear that working memory can hold only a relatively small amount of information at once. Relate students’ performance on the digit span task to the limited capacity of working memory (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.5). 5. If a few students correctly recalled the nine-digit string, ask them to describe the strategies that they used. They will typically describe grouping (chunking) the digits into threes or some similar organizational strategy. 6. Ask for a student volunteer to do another number memory task. Tell the student that you will read a second series of number strings and that he or she must recall them in reverse order. Read the first number string below (one digit per second), have the student respond, read the second string, and so on, until the student has incorrectly recalled two strings in a row. The student will probably have difficulty remembering as many digits as he/she did before. 7628 39415 916382 7451938 13 ..
Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory
35861249 618592473 7. Discuss the “working” component of working memory—that there may be a tradeoff between how much information we can store in working memory and how much we must process that information. •
Activity: The Limits of Working Memory Put students in a group with two other students. Give the groups a list of several different examples of tasks that teachers might give their students. Ask students to decide whether the task imposes a reasonable or unreasonable cognitive load. A variation on this activity is to have the groups develop their own tasks, share them with the rest of the class, and have the class discuss whether the task imposes a reasonable or unreasonable cognitive load. Some examples of tasks are as follows: •
A third-grade teacher asks his students to put down their pencils and solve the following math problem in their head: 284–96.
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An English teacher shows some vocabulary words in a PowerPoint slide show and students copy the words and definitions using a pen and paper. While the students are writing, the teacher provides examples of how the words can be used in sentences.
2.2.e. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •
Lecture 2.1: Attention (includes Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.6)
Big Idea 2.3. Long-Term Memory 2.3.a. Outline Big Idea 2.3 Learners can use strategies intentionally to store information in long-term memory. The Nature of Long-Term Memory •
Long-term memory is composed of declarative and procedural knowledge.
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Long-term memory has a long duration and virtually limitless capacity.
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Some declarative knowledge is stored as concepts.
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Information in long-term memory is interconnected and organized to some extent.
Storing Information in Long-Term Memory •
Some long-term memory storage processes are more effective than others.
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Practice makes knowledge more automatic and durable.
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Automaticity frees up working memory capacity for other tasks.
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With age and experience, children acquire more effective learning strategies and use them more intentionally.
Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Effective Long-Term Memory Storage Processes •
Help students learn concepts through the use of defining features, examples, and nonexamples.
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Help students organize ideas by making connections among them.
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Facilitate visual imagery. 14 ..
Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory •
Present questions and tasks that encourage elaboration.
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Suggest mnemonics for hard-to-remember facts.
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Focus assessments on meaningful learning rather than rote
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learning.
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Provide many opportunities to practice important knowledge and skills.
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Be on the lookout for students who have unusual difficulty with certain cognitive processes.
2.3.b. Textbook Slides: 2.15 to 2.23 2.3.c. Discussion Topics •
What strategies do you use to help you learn and remember the things that you read in your textbooks and hear in your lecture classes?
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What do your teachers do to help you learn and remember course information?
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What common misconceptions do children (and possibly adults as well) have related to the subject domain(s) you will be teaching?
2.3.d. Activities •
Activity: Developing a Mnemonic
Give one or more of the paired-associate or serial learning tasks on Handout 2.1 (located at the end of this manual in Appendix B) to each group. Ask the group to develop a mnemonic to facilitate learning of the information. •
Activity: Identifying Effective Learning Strategies
Photocopy passages from various introductory college textbooks and give one passage to each group. (You may want to choose textbooks that are relatively dry and boring.) Ask the group to identify strategies for helping learners process the material in ways that should facilitate effective storage and retrieval. •
Activity: Meaningful Learning
This activity illustrates the importance of being able to relate new information to the things we already know. 1. Ask students to take out a pen and piece of scrap paper (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.8). Tell them that you are going to read them two 20-word sentences. As soon as you have finished reading each one, they should write down as much of the sentence as they can remember. Read the first sentence below, then give students sufficient time to write what they remember. Do the same thing with the second sentence. (1). After walking a long time in the hot sun, we felt thirsty, so began to look for a cool stream. (2). An important coordinating center in the hypothalamus integrates the involuntary nervous system, which enervates smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands. Your students will probably write the first sentence without complaint, but many will make little if any attempt to recall the second sentence.
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2. Ask students which sentence was easier to recall (they will invariably tell you that the first was easier). Then ask them why the first sentence was easier. Their responses can provide a lead-in to a discussion of meaningful learning: Things are easier to remember when we can relate them to things we already know (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.9). You might also ask if any students have taken a course in human physiology. If so, ask them whether they found the second sentence easier to remember than their classmates did. 3. Explain that you will now read a list of 10 little-known facts (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.10). When you are finished reading the entire list, they should write down as many of the facts as they can remember. Read the sentences on Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.11 and give students enough time to write what they can recall. 4. Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.11 to the students and ask them to score their responses (giving themselves half points for remembering parts of items). Then ask how many students remembered the first sentence (counting two halves as one), the second sentence, etc. Use the chalkboard/whiteboard to record the number of students remembering each sentence. 5. Ask students why some facts were more memorable than others. You can interpret their responses in terms of the ideas on Instructor’s Manual Slides 2.12 and 2.13. 6. Explain that some early learning theorists preferred to study how people learn things that they can’t make sense of; therefore, they devised learning tasks involving nonsense syllables. Tell students that you will present five pairs of such nonsense syllables. Afterward, you will give the first “word” in each pair and ask them to recall the second. Present the paired-associate on Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.14 for 6 seconds. Then present the paired-associate on slide 2.15 for 6 seconds and continue in a similar manner for slides 2.16, 2.17, and 2.18. You will end on the blank slide 2.19. 7. Tell students that you are going to present the first word in each pair and ask students to write down the word that goes with it. Start with Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.20 and continue until you end at slide 2.25. Show each slide until students are finished writing down their answers. Once they have attempted to recall all five paired-associates, present slide 2.26 so that they can score their responses. 8. Ask students how easy they found the task to be. Then ask them if anyone was able to make the pairs meaningful in some way (e.g., “The CAFe was SIMply elegant”). Explain that people often try to impose meaning where none exists—that meaningful learning is a very “natural” learning process. •
Activity: Organization Facilitates Memory
This activity illustrates organization as a process that facilitates memory storage and retrieval. It is accompanied by Instructor’s Manual Slides 2.28 to 2.36. 1. Tell students that you will be giving them two learning tasks and ask them to take out a piece of scrap paper. Tell them that in the first task, you will present a list of 20 words; once you have finished the list, they should write down as many of the words as they can remember, in any order that they choose. Read the following list of words at a rate of about one word per second. pumpkin
shirt
barber
doctor
spoon
bowl
carrot
lettuce 16
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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory
sock
pants
knife
fork
Lawyer
shoe
squash
cup
belt
cabbage
secretary
nurse
Give students sufficient time to write down all the words they remember. Do not discuss this task just yet. 2. Tell students that the second learning task involves remembering where the white and black dots are in a configuration of 25 dots. Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.28 for 10 seconds, then show blank slide 2.29 and ask students to draw the 25 white and black dots in the relative locations they remember seeing them. Do the same thing for Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.30 and then go to blank Slide 2.31 and ask them to draw again. 3. Show students Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.32 so that they can check their answers. Ask them which set of dots was easier to remember, and why. They should tell you that the second set was easier because it looked like the letter M. 4. Returning to the first learning task, ask two students to read their lists of words. Students will likely recall the words in categories (i.e., as clothing, eating utensils, vegetables, and professions.) Ask students if they notice a common pattern in how different people remembered the words (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.33). They will probably recognize the category-related recall. Show them Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.34 and have them check their answers. Then ask them if they would have remembered the list better if you had read it in the order shown on the right side of Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.35. And maybe many of them recalled them in categories similar to those shown on the right side of the slide. 5. Ask students to derive a principle of learning from their performance on the two learning tasks. Eventually, the class should express the idea that memory is easier when information can be organized in some way (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.36). •
Activity: Elaboration
This activity illustrates how we often impose the things we know on new information. It was originally published in Ormrod (1989, pp. 68–70) and was modeled after Haney (1973). It is accompanied by Handout 2.2 in Appendix B. 1. Introduce the activity by telling students that you want to find out how good their memories are for details. Tell them that you will read a short story and then have them take a true-false test about some of the details presented in the story. Read the following story: John had had a busy day at the office. As he was driving home late that night, he stopped at a neighborhood convenience store to pick up a pack of cigarettes. After completing his errand, John stayed on for a few minutes to talk with the pretty store clerk. A heavyset man entered the store and, brusquely pushing John aside, walked up to the counter. He handed the clerk a large canvas bag and insisted that the contents of the cash register be placed into it. The clerk reluctantly obeyed his order. The man then sped away with the filled 17 ..