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Information Leaflet Animal Health and Welfare Although conservation site managers wish to maintain high standards of animal welfare, many are inexperienced in stock care or management. In the past, this has resulted in ‘ecologically-sound’ regimes that have, unfortunately, underestimated the grazing animals’ needs. Obviously animal health and welfare is a huge topic. This leaflet summaries some of the main considerations associated with conservation grazing. Further detailed information can be found on the GAP resources webpage which has links to other sites plus the publication ‘A Guide to Animal Welfare in Conservation Grazing’. You should also seek advice from your vet and other experienced livestock keepers. Good animal health and welfare requires • Sufficient time and attention to the planning and preparation of the grazing scheme (see Box 1). • Competent, diligent stockmanship and good animal husbandry skills. • Adequate resources. Contents in this leaflet • The five freedoms. • Risk assessments for stock. • Dogs. • Overwintering stock. • Choice of grazing animal. • Good stockmanship. • Stock checking and action plans. • Signs of health / ill-health. • Animal Health Plans and biosecurity. • Specific health conditions. • Responsible use of medicines. • Stock breeding. ©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

Box 1. Preparations before animals arrive on site • Complete a Grazing Impact Assessment. • Prepare a grazing strategy that »Meets » your conservation aims. »Complies » with all relevant legislation. »Maintains » good standards of animal health and welfare. Include >>Stock species, type, age and sex, breeding or non-breeding. >>Stocking density. >Time > of year grazing will occur. >>Duration of grazing.

• Ensure you have informed the relevant authorities and obtained the appropriate licences. »Fully » assess the site and determine how grazing will fit in with other site management objectives, e.g. wildlife, landscape, public access, heritage, community, legal, grant etc.

• Perform detailed risk assessments for »The » stock. »Staff » and volunteers. »The » general public.

• Identify any works necessary before grazing can commence. Consider »Fencing. » »Access » points plus animal transportation on / off site – will these be disrupted in adverse weather? »Handling » facilities. »Water » availability. »Adequate » shelter. »Signage. »

• Prepare an Animal Health Plan »Include » biosecurity measures.

• Clarify stock checking procedures. • Develop

»Action » plans for any emergencies. »Procedures » for casualty animals / fallen stock. »A » lone working policy for staff involved with stock management.

• Ensure your staff have been trained in

»Stock » handling and management. »The » use and handling of animal medicines.

• Make sure you have insurance to cover »3rd » parties. »Stock » injury or loss.

• Address anything else relevant!

Grazing Animals Project Original Document 2007; Revised 2019

Page 1 Written and Designed by Pen Rashbass

Animal Health and Welfare

The Five Freedoms These are 1. Freedom from hunger and thirst. By ready access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and vigour. 2. Freedom from discomfort. By providing an appropriate environment including shelter and a comfortable resting area. 3. Freedom from pain, injury or disease. By prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment. 4. Freedom to express normal behaviour. By providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animals’ own kind (Figure 1). 5. Freedom from fear and distress. By ensuring conditions and treatment to avoid mental suffering.

Suffering may also occur if an animal is unable to take appropriate action to control its own welfare e.g. if it is unable to find shelter during adverse weather conditions. You need to decide at what point the intensity and duration of stress reaches the threshold of suffering e.g. some hunger is acceptable because it encourages stock to move around the site in search of food. However, it should not be so prolonged that the animal becomes malnourished or is forced to eat harmful plants that it would otherwise avoid. Similarly, some winter weight loss in conservation grazing animals can be acceptable provided health is not compromised.

Figure 1. Healthy Hebridean sheep grazing on a SSSI in Derbyshire

Pen Rashbass

They • Provide a broad overview of the requirements that an animal needs to maintain good physical and mental wellbeing. • Can be used to develop a pragmatic, comprehensive checklist to identify the strengths and weaknesses in any husbandry system.

They do not mean that animals in your care should always be completely shielded from exposure to every stress. Instead, you should aim to prevent suffering that could occur if an animal fails to cope or has difficulty coping with abnormal conditions because they are too severe, too prolonged or too complex.

©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

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Animal Health and Welfare

Risk Assessments It is important that prior to introducing animals, site managers plus the grazier carry out assessments that identify potential risks to • Humans (staff, volunteers, the public) – see other GAP publications and HSE for advice. • The livestock. Every conservation site is different, so you need to walk around it to identify possible hazards (see Box 2). These will alter throughout the year, so risk assessments should preferably be performed during the same season(s) that the animals will graze the site.

To perform a detailed risk assessment for livestock you will need to know • Your grazing system. »» The ecological aims and objectives. »» Proposed timing and duration of grazing. »» Stock type to be used – sheep, cattle, ponies, goats, pigs and whether they are breeding or non-breeding. »» Site infrastructure – water supply, areas where stock will graze, fences, access etc. »» Source of grazing animals.

• Your grazing animal.

»» Appreciation of the relevant species’ welfare requirements. If necessary, enlist the help of a competent person to help assess this.

Box 2. Risk Assessments - Type of Hazard Categorised into each of the Five Freedoms Disease Basic Requirements (Refer to 3rd freedom) (Refer to 1st and 2nd freedom) • Internal (e.g. endoparasites) • Food • External (e.g. fly-strike, ectoparasites) »Lack » of availability (quantity and quality) »Impeded » access (e.g. snow, flood) • Biosecurity (e.g. previous grazing stock, • Known mineral deficiencies (consult local vet if neighbouring fields, water contamination, wildlife) necessary) • Other (e.g.infectious, non infectious, acute, chronic) • Water Physical Harm from Man-made Structures »Lack » of availability (quantity) »Quality » (salinity, pollutants, water-borne diseases) »Accessibility » (physical access, freezing, drought)

Physical Harm from Natural Elements (Refer to 2nd and 3rd freedom) • Fire • Flood • Poisonous plants • Excess feed (e.g. equine obesity predisposing to laminitis) • High natural levels of minerals / heavy metals (e.g. high copper levels, old lead mines) • Ground conditions (e.g. cliff edges, marshland, old mineshafts) • Entrapment (e.g. bogs, old mine shafts, brambles) • Water bodies (e.g. drowning, exposure, injury entering / exiting water) • Weather (extremes of heat, cold, wet) • Lack of shelter • Insects • Predators (foxes, badges, crows especially at lambing)

©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

(Refer to 3rd freedom) • Fences • Bridges / crossing points • Debris (including fly-tipping) • Electrical supply • Shooting • Vandals • Dogs • Other (e.g. soil contamination)

Psychological Stress (fear or distress) from Natural Factors (Refer to 4th and 5th freedom) • Inability to demonstrate natural patterns of behaviour • Negative social interaction (e.g. bullying) • Weather (extremes of heat, cold, wet) • Lack of shelter / well-drained lying area Psychological Stress (fear or distress) from Man-made Factors (Refer to 5th freedom) • General • Dogs • Vehicles / machinery • Noise (e.g. shooting, aircraft) • Vandals

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You will also need to revise the risk assessment if the grazing system alters in any way e.g. if you introduce a different grazing species, alter the time of year that grazing occurs or if public access to the site increases. Two issues (dogs and overwintering stock) will be considered in more detail as they are common problems that affect many sites across the UK. Further discussion on other potential hazards is provided in GAP’s ‘A Guide to Animal Welfare in Conservation Grazing.’

Dogs (Advice of how to minimise the risk of injury to walkers with dogs from livestock is available in the GAP ‘Grazing Public Sites’ leaflet).

Kevin Caster

Dogs off a lead or under poor control may chase or even kill livestock and wildlife. In the past, grazing has been stopped on some sites because of dog-related issues.

Figure 2. Appropriate signs can advise the public and help protect your livestock.

For each hazard, you need to • Weigh up the risks. • Decide on precautions (Figure 2). • Put the results into practice. • Keep a written record on file. • Make sure the risk assessments are regularly reviewed, especially in response to any incidents. • Keep good notes so that any trends or particular issues can be identified and dealt with. Some hazards (e.g. feed availability) will vary from year to year, so it is prudent to review the assessment annually.

©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

In addition to direct injury from bites, stock running in panic from a dog are not thinking. They can fracture limb bones, (e.g. by putting their leg in a rabbit hole), brake through fences, run into traffic, run off cliff edges or run into water courses and subsequently drown. Dog worrying can cause the flock / herd to disperse, mothers to become separated from their young and pregnant ewes to abort. Dog faeces can also be a health issue for livestock. Diseases that can be passed to stock include • Hydatid disease in sheep caused by the tapeworm, Echinococcus granulosus. • Bovine neosporosis (However the main mode of transmission for this disease is from infected dam to fetus through the placenta). Owners should be encouraged to clean after their dog and not leave the waste wrapped in plastic bags, either on the ground or tied to a branch.

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Possible management options include • For visitors.

»» A multi-faceted approach is often more effective than a single policy. »» Wardening, steering and regulations appear to work best. »» Leaflets and signs can work as part of a comprehensive strategy. »» Increase understanding and decrease fears with events such as ‘meet the animals’.

• For Livestock.

»» Train your animals to get used to dogs. »» Remove any stock that do not react well to people and dogs. »» Llamas or alpacas can be used within a flock as guard animals against dogs (and foxes).

• Zoning.

»» Create areas where dogs are free to run off the lead and areas where there is no dog access. This can help integrate dog use with horse riding, picnicking, children play areas and sensitive conservation areas. »» Clearly indicate areas where dogs must be kept on leads (and whether this restriction is permanent or seasonal). »» Create dog trails and routes to steer people with dogs away from sensitive areas at certain times of the year.

Overwintering Stock The challenge of balancing the ecological objectives of a site with livestock welfare is often exacerbated in winter. Problems for animals associated with this season may include • Adverse weather conditions including heavy snow / prolonged periods of rain / flooding. • Frozen water sources. • Waterlogged ground which can lead to poaching in areas where the animals congregate / vehicles come on the land. »» Poaching is often worse with certain soil types e.g. heavy clay – See Figure 3.

• Vegetation has lower nutritional value than at other times of the year. • Supplementary feeding is not normally allowed on environmentally-sensitive sites managed under agri-environmental schemes. • Increased difficulties in accessing the site and / or transporting stock off the site. One solution is to plan your grazing so that animals can be removed from the site between late December and March. Obviously, you need somewhere else to put them, and therefore must have available either indoor housing or sufficient ‘sacrificial’ land that is not in an agri-environmental scheme.

Pen Rashbass

Figure 3. During winter and wet weather, poor grazing management can result in heavily poached ground.

©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

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Animal Health and Welfare

If the animals have to remain on an environmentally-sensitive site over winter. • Choose hardy livestock with lower growth rates that should be able to cope with harsher conditions (see below). »» Make sure they are in good condition before winter starts.

• Ensure stock

»» Have access to a well-drained lying area. »» Are provided with shelter from adverse weather conditions.

Appropriate landscape features may suffice, but remember to take foliage loss, prevailing wind direction and location of possible snow drifts into consideration. • Make arrangements in advance to ensure that suitable feed and water is available in an emergency. »» If possible, store feed in a dry location on site so you do not need to bring a vehicle onto the land.

• Hold back some grazing to minimize the need for supplementary feeding. • If supplementary feed is necessary.

»» Locate feed sites on drier parts of the site (but avoid areas of special interest) »» Ensure all animals including any ‘shy’ feeders get their ration. Either >> Spread it out widely (along a fenceline can stop them trampling and wasting too much). >> Or put out sufficient so that all can access the feeder ad lib during the day. »» Determine what type of feed (e.g. hay / silage / concentrate) is most appropriate for both animal and site. If necessary, analyse the nutritional value of the sward and seek specialist advice. »» Scottish National Heritage have produced guidance notes on supplementary feeding.

• If ground poaching is a problem, carefully consider

»» The grazing regime and stocking density. Either >> Stock at a very low density. It is a very common problem to underestimate the amount of land required per animal in winter.

©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

>> And / or rotate the stock very frequently through small enclosures. In some planned mob grazing schemes, the stock are moved twice a day in very wet weather – but this is often not practical for many conservation grazing sites. »» Where you locate water troughs, mineral blocks and any supplementary feeding sites. >> If possible, move these frequently.

• If exceptional bad conditions are forecast (e.g. deep snow / flooding), try to »» Prevent stock (especially sheep) from gathering in places where they may be buried by snow. »» Allow stock to move naturally or else shepherd them to safer areas. »» Remove stock from areas that are in imminent danger of flooding.

Choice of Grazing Animal One of the main problems for nature conservation grazing is how to overcome selective feeding whilst ensuring that high standards of animal welfare are not compromised. You need to consider • Time of year that grazing will occur. • Stocking density. • Duration of grazing. • ‘Type’ of animal (see below). • Practicalities. These include »» Method of enclosure. »» Handling system. »» Staff or grazier involvement to manage the animals. »» Interactions with the public.

When determining the best ‘type’ of animal, you should consider • Species. Different species have »» Different grazing characteristics. »» Varying levels of ability to cope with hazards e.g. cattle are less likely to be worried by dogs.

• Breed. Different breeds have different levels of hardiness.

»» Native breeds often cope better >> On unimproved habitats as many have natural adaptations to thrive on rougher, lower nutrient forage. >> In poor weather conditions.

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• Previous experience. This can also affect how willing an animal is to browse diverse vegetation. Factors include »» If raised on pasture or high concentrate diet. »» If reared on improved or unimproved land. »» What they have learnt from their mother, social groups and general experience. »» Whether they have previously grazed the site at a similar time of year.

• Age and sex.

»» Young, pregnant or lactating animals will have more demanding nutritional and husbandry requirements than older or nonbreeding animals. »» Young heifers or steers may be more boisterous and inquisitive than older animals. »» Old animals can loose their teeth and may not cope in some habitats.

• Conformation.

»» Animals with structural deformities (e.g. undershot or overshot jaw) may not cope with tough or woody vegetation.

• Health status.

»» Animals with a chronic underlying illness (e.g. Johnes Disease, Maedi-Visna, BVD) or high parasite burden or recurrent lameness etc. will struggle more.

You should carefully assess the temperament of ‘new’ animals before putting them on difficult terrains or exposing them to the public. Any disruptive animals should be removed from the site Spend time training your stock. In the long term, this will save you considerable time and effort. It will also decrease the risk of injury.. Training could include • Regular careful contact and handling with the stock-keeper. • Coming when called. • Calmly following the stockperson. • Getting them used to entering trailers and the site handling system. • Respecting an electric fence • Confronting them with things they are likely to meet e.g. dogs and bicycles. ©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

Good Stockmanship Those responsible for the site management should make sure that the stock are cared for by a sufficient number of well-motivated and competent staff. Your stock-keeper is the most significant influence on your livestocks’ welfare The stock-keeper’s capabilities (plus that of any assistants) are a major determining factor in deciding the size of the herd / flock. This should not be increased (or even set up) unless s / he has the time and skills necessary to safeguard the welfare of every animal in his / her charge. A good stockperson has ‘stock sense’ – the ability to understand why livestock behave in a certain way. Furthermore, a skilled handler will use subtle, calm, yet confident, gestures to ensure that the animals remain calm when they are being handled or gathered. S / he is particularly observant of • Signs of good and ill health (see below) • Small alterations in »» Individual animal behaviour. »» Herd / flock dynamics.

• Anything in the environment that may upset an animal e.g. feed and water availability, fencing, ground conditions, handling system, high winds, shadows, unusual sounds etc. These insights enable the stock-keeper to anticipate problems or recognise them at their earliest stages. This in turn, allows him / her to take control of a situation rather than just react to it. The stockperson also needs to have good animal husbandry skills and be competent at providing appropriate treatments e.g. giving vaccinations, worming stock, treating footrot in sheep etc.

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Animal Health and Welfare

Delegation The stock-keeper can delegate tasks to another. However, that individual must be competent to perform the allocated duties. For example, stock checkers need to be able to assess whether livestock are healthy or not. • .A stock-checker does not replace the role of the animal keeper / grazier. • Site managers / graziers should still undertake regular stock checks. • A volunteer or anyone without a contract should never be given overall responsibility. • GAP offers one day Livestock Checkers training courses

Stock Checking and Action Plans The health and welfare of animals depend upon regular supervision Checks should preferably be performed on a daily basis. Tracking devices may be useful when stock are grazing remote or challenging sites. These could be collars fitted with a GPS or radio transmitter or even just a bell. Even in these situations, stock should be carefully inspected at least once a week. Figure 4. Checking inquisitive, yet calm Highland cattle.

The frequency of inspection will also depend on factors which affect stock welfare, These vary throughout the year. For example, increased checks will be required when • Lambing / calving / foaling / kidding. • Fly-strike is a risk. • Adverse weather conditions are forecast. • Stock are introduced to a site that they have not grazed previously. • The sites have public access where »» Gates may be left open or fences cut. »» Dogs may frighten stock. »» Animals may be fed inappropriate things.

Care should be taken that daily checks do not just become head counts. During inspections, check • Stock – pay particular attention for signs of loss of condition, injury, distress, illness or infestation e.g. lameness, fly-strike, sheep scab. • Infrastructure e.g. fences (include whether electric fences still have a strong current). • Water availability. • There is sufficient quality grazing. • Gates are locked or properly closed. • There are no new hazards. When checking stock, initially review them from a distance. Then approach them for a closer inspection (Figure 4). Assess whether the flock / herd is settled, grouped and behaving as expected. Any individual that is on its own or behaving abnormally e.g. listless, lame, scratching excessively should be given a more thorough inspection.

Pen Rashbass

Although vehicles and trained sheep / cattle-dogs can make gathering and checking stock quicker, you can often perform a more thorough assessment by taking the time to stand or walk quietly amongst them. ©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

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Animal Health and Welfare

Stock checkers should ensure that they protect their own health and safety when checking stock. They should for example • Carry a charged mobile phone. • Assess the site conditions. • Ensure sufficient daylight remains. • Ensure weather conditions are satisfactory. • Avoid possible problems with the public. • Have adequate equipment and guidance including

Action plans should contain information on all relevant contacts, including those required in an emergency e.g. vet, fire brigade, police, and relevant disposal authority. The action plan should also make clear • Who is responsible for stock / infrastructure e.g. site manager or grazier. • Guidance of what procedure to follow and who to contact if the incident is

»» Personal protective equipment. »» Lone working policy.

»» Immediately rectifiable e.g. shut open gate. »» Requires assistance e.g. fix broken fence, treat lame animal. »» An emergency e.g. ‘down cow’.

If a checker finds a problem with the stock or site, then the registered keeper and site manager should be informed and records kept.

Action plans can also be drawn up for • Managing ill or injured animals / fallen stock (see Box 3). • Transporting animals. • Ensuring sufficient water is available. • Supplementary feeding if required. • Dealing with adverse weather conditions. • Lambing/calving/foaling. • Anything else!

Livestock check forms (Figure 5) and action plans (Figure 6) are useful tools, no matter who performs the daily checks.

Figure 5. Example of a Livestock Checkers form

Name of Stock Checker: Date:

Site/Compartment Time:

Are all the animals there?

Weather: Yes

Are gates and fences secure?

Yes

Are all the animals in the right place? Yes

Is adequate good quality water accessible?

Yes

Do all animals have their identification markers?

Yes

Are there adequate mineral block / supplements?

Yes

Have any strays come in?

Yes

Is the site free of hazards?

Yes

Are all the animals healthy?

Yes

Is access clear?

Yes

Are the animal behaving normally?

Yes

Are signs legible?

Yes

Is adequate food accessible?

Yes

Is everything else OK?

Yes

If NO marked for any of the above, make a note of the reasons here

©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

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Animal Health and Welfare

Inform site manager / grazier of site visit and check equipment/information. Check that there is sufficient daylight to complete the exercise.

Contact Details Grazier................................. Site Manager....................... Vet.......................................

Carry out agreed site / livestock checks.

Is there a problem?

Do you need a 2nd opinion?

YES

Complete report form with appropriate notes. Inform site manager / grazier when leaving site.

Contact grazier / site manager for advice.

Can you safely resolve the situation on the spot?

Is it a clear emergency? e.g. dog attack, broken leg, traumatic wound.

an animal is down and will not

rise, contact the grazier & vet* straight away.

YES Undertake remedial action e.g. close gate, fill water, right a cast ewe.

In a clear emergency e.g. where YES

In non-emergency e.g. to return strays, deal with a lame animal, repair a fence. Contact grazier / site manager.

Stay with animals until vet and grazier arrives. Warn others of any danger.

Follow grazier’s advice e.g. Stay with animals until grazier arrives / Warn others of any danger / Safe to leave for grazier to review.

Complete report form with. appropriate notes.

* It may not always be appropriate for the checker to contact the vet without first discussing with the grazier / site manager

Figure 6. Flow diagram of a simple action plan for checking stock

If a single unwell / injured animal needs to be penned for any reason, it should always be housed with a companion so that it do not become unduly stressed due to separation anxiety

Box 3. Dealing with Casualty Stock You need to know: • What to do, who to contact etc. • Where and how to dispose of ageing (cull) animals • How you will dispose of dead (fallen) stock (e.g. National Fallen Stock Scheme) • Whether the stock are fit to travel and what exemptions are allowed for casualty stock (See GAP leaflet on Handling, Gathering and Transporting stock) • The legal requirements

»Paperwork » requirements for the carcass as well as the herd / flock, e.g. notifying the British Cattle Movement Service and sending them cattle passports , amending the holding register.

• Whether you will arrange for a post-mortem.

©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

Signs of health / ill-health As ‘prey’ animals, grazing livestock instinctively mask signs of weakness, illness and pain to make themselves less of a target for potential predators. This ‘stoic’ trait can make it difficult for even experienced stockpeople to detect the early stages of a disease. See Box 4 for visible signs that can be looked for during a routine stock check. If there are any signs of potential ill-health, the animal should be examined by an experienced stockperson or vet. If an animal is unable to stand for any reason: • Provide access to food and water. • Provide shelter. • Support the animal in upright position e.g. with bales. • Turn animal regularly (every few hours).

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Box 4. Visual Signs Detectable on a Routine Stock Check of Healthy and Potentially Unhealthy Animals Healthy

Potential Ill-health

General Appearance

Alert, active, yet calm Holds its head up and is aware of its surrounding Inclined to bunch as a herd / flock If lying down, will stand up as you approach (Very tame animals may not do this)

Skin / Coat / Fleece / Mane

Separated from group Stuck in fence / bush or restricted by foreign object e.g. baler twine / wire Depressed, listless and sluggish does not want to move, Not interested in its surroundings. Hunched back/other unusual posture/ Abnormal resting behaviour e.g. shivering, kicking at underside, convulsing, excited / nervous / irritated behaviour

Coat smooth, even textured, glossy in summer and duller in winter Clean, even texture fleece (`Some sheep breeds shed their fleece naturally)

Appetite and rumination

Signs of injury, bleeding Rough or standing on end Abnormal scratching or biting own skin Bare patches, scaliness or dandruff Flies attracted to one area on an animal or to a single individual

Should eat and drink normally. Good / adequate body condition. Ruminants chew the cud 6 - 8hr/day

Loss of appetite, difficulty in swallowing Loss of body condition Lack of rumination, Bloated abdomen

Head erect In cattle, the muzzle should be moist and they tend to lick their noses with their tongues In sheep and goats, the nose should be cool and dry There should be no or little saliva dripping from the mouth (Excess salivation can be stress-related)

Injury to head or around horns Discharge from nose or mouth Nose / mouth blisters or bleeding ulcers Abnormal swellings around head, neck, cheek or jaw Abnormal mouth movements Holding head at an abnormal angle

Stands evenly on all of 4 feet Walk easily, steadily and regularly with all of its feet taking its weight Top of hooves free from injury or sores

Eyes

Reluctant to move, even when prompted Unwilling or unable to stand on all 4 feet. Uneven gait Swollen joints, injured or damaged hoofs Horse hooves curling at the front Legs tilting or twisting Sores at top of hooves

Bright, open, alert Inner eyelid membranes pink to light red

Ears

Any discharge around eyes especially if thick and yellowy-greenish Cloudiness or ulceration of cornea Swollen or closed eyelid(s) Very pale inner eyelids (and gums)

Mobile ears which move in the direction of any sound or to get rid of flies. Position depends on species and /or breed of sheep

Any discharge Injury to ear tag sites

Breathing

Breathing smooth and regular at rest (may be difficult to detect) (Stress /movement / hot weather will increase the rate of breathing)

Persistent coughing, wheezing or other abnormal sounds Rapid or irregular breathing Flaring nostrils / panting (may be stress-related)

Small, firm and even in maiden heifers, or Distended, pink and uniform in tone after calving. (A prominent milk vein where the belly joins the front of the udder is normal after recent calving)

Uneven sized teats, injury to teats Swelling, lumps or redness in one or more teats. Veins prominent. Blood, watery fluids or clots from teats if in milked (weight loss / listlessness in offspring)

Vulva (if present)

Closed vulva, no discharge, pink to slightly red mucous membranes

Sheath (if present)

Swelling of vulva, whitish discharge, foul smell, decomposing foetal membranes protruding

Free from swellings or injury

Swellings, injury, ulceration, bleeding

Droppings or dung

Usually firm, but variations in diet effect texture

Traces of blood, mucus or watery, scouring (diarrhoea), constipation

Urine

Clear No signs of pain or difficulty in urinating.

Urine muddy or red, thick consistency, offensive smell with blood or mucous Evidence of pain or difficulty on urinating

Head and neck

Movement and legs

Udder / milk (if present)

Animal Health and Welfare

Dung consistency Looking at dung can also help assess the animals’ state of health. Blood or mucus may indicate gut parasites. Diarrhoea or constipation can reflect diet, worms or possible ill-health from other causes. Body Condition score (BCS) Livestock in a conservation grazing system often fluctuate in a ‘natural’ cycle where they loose weight during autumn / winter and then compensate for this during spring / summer. In these situations, winter weight loss can be acceptable provided health is not compromised. The BCS is an assessment of the amount of muscle and fat that each individual cow, horse, sheep or pig is carrying (it is not informative in goats as they tend to put on weight around the belly rather than the back and rump). It indicates whether an animal has had adequate feed to meet its nutritional demands during the previous few weeks. Loss of condition in a single animal may indicate ill-health. Loss of condition in several may signify a shortage of food.

Kevin Caster

Figure 7. Exmoor ponies being given supplementary feed along a fenceline. These needed additional feed after delayed onset of spring growth on a newly restored heathland. Most ponies responded well and held condition, but the animal in the front was found to have an additional skin mite infection (with treatment the pony recovered). This is an example where additional investigation may be required to identify the underlying cause of body condition loss.

©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

Once an animal drops one full condition score, it takes several weeks of additional quality feed to get back into condition (Figure 7). Factors that decrease BCS include • Insufficient feed intake (both quality and / or quantity). • Increased nutritional needs caused by e.g. »» Lactation. »» Mid-late pregnancy especially if carrying multiple fetuses. »» Chronic illness. »» Prolonged stress e.g. prolonged periods of bad weather.

With experience, a visual examination of the areas over rump, back and ribs can be informative. However, in long-haired breeds and, especially in full-fleeced sheep, it is often necessary to feel the animal. It is therefore worth getting into the habit of routinely checking the BCS when stock are being handling for another reason, e.g. Tb testing or treating lame sheep. Your Animal Health Plan should include an action plan specifying how to deal with very thin animals that fall below a pre-agreed trigger score e.g. moving them to a sheltered location where they can be given good quality fodder plus be easily monitored. More details about condition scoring can be found in GAP’s ‘A Guide to Animal Welfare in Conservation Grazing’ and by following the internet links on the GAP website. Rumen fill This gives an indication of how a cow’s rumen has been working in the last few hours. Rumen fill can be assessed by looking at the triangular area between the short ribs and hip on the animal’s left side. A sunken empty-looking rumen may imply insufficient feed intake, while an overinflated rumen may indicate bloat.

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Animal Health Plans and Biosecurity Pro-active disease prevention for the whole flock / herd will help you maintain high stock welfare standards.

However, every conservation livestock grazing system is different and therefore you should adapt and tailor the template so that it is specific for your own set-up.

A good Health Plan will • Help the stockperson keep the livestock healthy . These will be more capable of achieving your conservation and production targets. • Focus on using animal husbandry skills, good pasture management and nutrition to prevent disease, diminish stress and reduce routine use of medicines. • Save you time and money. • Help ensure that animals get any necessary medical treatment at the correct time and with the correct dose.

When preparing and using your plan • Work with your vet. • Keep it simple and workable – the plan only needs to be as detailed as your grazing operation (and / or assurance scheme) requires. • Consider including an ‘events’ calendar (Box 5). This will help remind you about specific tasks / risks. • Choose a format that suits you and your co-workers best. It could be

Downloadable Health Plan templates are available from assurance schemes (e.g. Organic Association Assurance, Freedom Foods, Red Tractor etc.) or by doing a web-search for ‘animal (or species specific) Health Plan’.

»» Paper-based. »» A wall planner. »» On a single computer. »»‘Cloud’ based – useful if multiple people at different locations (e.g. registered keeper, site manager, vet) need to discuss the document in real time.

Box 5. Forward Planing: example showing four months of a flock plan ‘events’ calendar Management

Vaccines

Parasites

Diseases

January

BCS pregnant ewes. Move to fresh grazing.

February

BCS pregnant ewes Scanning (40-90 days)

Look out for abortion

March

Heptovac-P all sheep profile). (including Move to fresh grazing. rams and Increase feed in ewes hoggs). with multiple fetuses.

Pregnancy toxaemia – ensure correct BCS

April

Lambing

Monitor fluke risk on NADIS website – treat if necessary. (toxoplasma and enzootic abortion)

Bolus all with Co, Se, I.

BCS pregnant ewes. Blood test (metabolic

(12th April-13th May)

Monitor colostrum intake. Keep lambing records.

©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

FEC ewes – treat thin pregnant ewes if necessary. Monitor Nematodirus risk on SCOPS website.

Grazing Animals Project Original Document 2007; Revised 2019

Ewes – mastitis, metabolic disease e.g. pregnancy toxaemia,

hypocalcaemia, hypomagnesia. Lambs e.g. starvation, hypothermia, navel ill, joint ill, watery mouth, scouring

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Box 6. Suggested Health Plan Contents • Introduction.

»Summarise » the grazing site and grazing regime. Consider Including

• • • • • • •

>The > aims, objectives and expected outputs for grazing the site. >>Cross compliance / management restrictions that affect the land. >>How the total area is split up. >The > grazing plan i.e. how and when the animals will be used to achieve the grazing (e.g. extensive low stocking density, ‘rational’ rotational mob grazing).

The livestock. Numbers, ages, types of stock. Whether they are owned or borrowed. Expected products of the grazing enterprise. Housing. Feed and Water. Biosecurity for »Incoming » and returning livestock. »People. » »Buildings. » »Equipment. » »Other » (include warning signs to public, regular worming own dogs etc.)

• Policies for

»Vaccination. » »Parasite » Control. »Fly-strike » control. »Foot » care. »Any » hazard flagged in the site risk assessment. »Any » diseases that have presented problems in the past and could cause a problem in the future.

• Routine procedures e.g. ear tagging, Tb testing, navel dipping, tail docking, castration. • Protocols for transportation, casualties, euthanasia and fallen stock. • Record Keeping. »Holding » register. »Continuous » flock/herd records. »Passports. » »Animal » movements. »Medicine » record.

• Training.

»GAP » courses. »Herd / flock » clubs (often run by vets), courses, farm walks, on-line webinars and videos etc. »NPTC » qualifications e.g. veterinary medicine use, animal transportation.

• Fire and Emergency Procedures.

It is important to review and update the plan regularly to ensure that it continues to work for you. This should be done annually or whenever a health problem arises. During a review, consider how the plan can be adapted so that any future disease recurrence can be reduced and / or dealt with more promptly. If drawing up a plan completely from scratch, consider including the topics covered in Box 6. Disease prevention To decrease the risk of disease outbreaks in your stock • Select appropriate breeds that can adapt well to your local conditions. • Establish biosecurity measures (see below). • Use good husbandry techniques e.g. »» Appropriate stocking density »» Pasture management »» Access to clean water.

©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

• Provide access to sufficient, high quality forage plus any required mineral supplementation. • Treat any sick animal immediately. »» If necessary, consult a vet for advice on treatment and future prevention.

• Use your Health Plan to ensure that you remember to check for seasonal risks and that no treatment nor management tasks are missed. • Monitor and record for »» Health e.g. BCS. »» Additional feed / mineral supplementation. »» Disease outbreaks e.g. lameness, faecal egg counts (FEC), abortion rates etc. »» Results e.g. lambing/calving rates, forage analysis, blood results etc. »» Medication (see below).

• Benchmark and set targets. If targets are not met, investigate the cause and revise the Health Plan.

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Biosecurity Biosecurity measures are the steps taken to prevent the introduction and spread of infectious disease. They are a crucial part of disease prevention and control. You do not want to introduce • A disease you don’t have. • A problem you don’t have e.g. antibiotic or anthelmintic resistance. Infectious disease can be spread by • Introduction of diseased animals. • Introduction of animals incubating a disease i.e. animals are infected but not yet showing symptoms. • Introduction of healthy stock that are carriers for a disease. • Vehicles and trailers, equipment, clothing and footwear of people (vet, other farmers, stockpersons, volunteers, contractors, salesmen, service personnel, knackerman the public etc.) who may move between flocks / herds. • Feedstuffs especially if contaminated with faeces. Box 7. Five ways to improve biosecurity 1. Livestock movement and contact. This is the most likely route for introducing disease. Where possible run closed herds and flocks • Otherwise buy from accredited schemes or trusted sources • Reduce risk from contact with neighbouring stock – double fence boundaries and don’t share water troughs • Diseases can also be introduced indirectly by people, equipment, vehicles, manure etc. 2. Hygiene. Maintain high hygiene standards around the holding, during transport (always use clean trailers), in animal buildings and in feed storage areas • Provide, and regularly change disinfectant footbaths (with footbrush) • Use DEFRA-approved disinfectants for cleaning • Fence off stagnant ponds and water courses – use mains water where possible • Control rodents and wildlife access to feedstores, bedding and water troughs • Regularly worm your own cats and dogs • Put out notices asking the public to clear up their pet dog’s faeces. 3. Health Plans. Use and update these regularly. ©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

• Contaminated water e.g. surface water, shared troughs, streams and rivers. • Manure handling or manure dust. • Other species e.g. dogs, cats, wildlife, rodents, birds and insects. • Land infected by previous grazing stock. Good biosecurity (see Box 7) not only applies to newly purchased stock, but also to stock returning from grazing other sites. Animals that have been away from the main holding could have mixed with other livestock (or their by-products from previously grazing), wildlife or contaminated water supplies. Remember, animals from high health status herds / flocks may have more ‘naive’ immune systems and so are vulnerable to developing disease if mixed with less ‘clean’ stock. Never mix animals together without considering the possible disease risks Make sure all staff and volunteers working with stock are fully aware of your biosecurity procedures.

4. Diagnostic tests and preventative vaccines. Prevention is better than cure • Discuss options with your vet • Knowing the disease status is important •There are a number of health accreditation schemes that can be useful for identifying suitable vendors • If purchasing cattle from England or Wales, the ibTb interactive map provides information of current and previous Tb breakdowns around the vendors location.

5. Quarantine. Check quarantine periods for key diseases (e.g. on NADIS or Moredun websites) • Treat for internal parasites (and sheep scab) • Put through a footbath • Always keep introduced animals isolated – e.g. double-fenced fields with at least 3m separation, separate barns and separate water troughs • Wherever possible, ensure best practice quarantine conditions i.e. feed, water and inspect last • Disinfectant, foot brush and separate overclothes should also be provided at the entrance to the quarantine area • Wash hands on exiting quarantine area • Take care when handling and disposing of contaminated bedding, waste and feed.

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All quarantined animals should be closely and regularly inspected for signs of disease. If you have any concerns about an animal’s health, contact your vet to discuss diagnosis, treatment and future management.

Specific Health Conditions This section briefly reviews a few conditions that may affect more than one species of livestock. These are • Fly-strike. • Internal Parasites. • Lameness. • Mineral and trace element imbalance. • Poisoning. • Stress. • Found Dead. Many other health conditions can also affect stock. If in doubt, consult your vet. Fly-strike Fly-strike caused by blowflies is a very serious condition that causes great suffering. If left untreated it will result in a slow, painful death. It can affect any animal that has a wound or dirty, matted coat / fleece. Sheep and youngstock (calves, foals, lambs, kids) tend to be particularly susceptible. For other conditions associated with ectoparasites see Box 9 (on page 18).

Pen Rashbass

Figure 8. Fly-strike eggs and maggots on a calf.

©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

Strike is most prevalent during warm, humid conditions. Depending on the weather, the at-risk period in the UK can extend from April to November. Blowflies tend to lay their eggs on • Any dirty fleece / coat especially around the anus if there is a build up of soft dung. • A moist umbilicus in youngstock. • Matted wet coats / fleeces where there is prolonged moisture next to the skin (e.g. after several prolonged downpours or near the prepuce of males). • A site of any injury including »» Any wound or inflammation. »» Footrot lesions. »» Recently inserted ear-tag sites. »» Castration or tail-dock ring sites. »» After any recent surgery e.g. castration.

Some types of blowfly seem to strike even relatively clean areas on sheep. The eggs (which look like small grains of rice) hatch into small larvae (Figure 8). Initially, these cannot enter the skin, but they secrete fluid containing enzymes. This helps break down the skin connective tissue causing local inflammation and irritation which attracts further flies to lay their eggs. It also enables maggots when they are a bit older to burrow into the animal’s body. At these very early stages, the only indication that there may be a problem is that several flies are attracted to one animal or to a single spot on the animal. As the larvae start to move and irritate the animal, subtle signs to look for are a slight rise in part of the fleece or hair, a twitching tail (if the strike is near the anus or on the tail) or a shiver along its body (if the strike is along its body). As the maggot secretions increase, you may notice a discoloured wet patch that often feels slightly soapy to the touch. There is also a distinctive foul smell.

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As the condition progresses, the animal becomes more depressed. It may separate itself away from the group or remain lying down for longer than expected when you approach. Secondary bacterial infection can also develop. Untreated animals may die within a few days especially if young or were previously in poor condition. Prevention is definitely easier than treatment (see Box 8). Box 8. Prevention and Treatment of Fly-strike Prevention. • Carefully monitor both stock and fly levels throughout the fly-strike season.

»Monitor » blowfly population with flytraps – to make a DIY trap. Cut off the top ⅓ of a 2l plastic bottle. Put a slither of offal / liver (bait) into the bottom bit. Invert the top piece so it acts like a funnel into the bottom part. Hang near the stock.

• Crutch all sheep, remove all dags and matted hair. • If scouring (have loose faeces), investigate cause e.g. parasites, diet. »If » necessary, alter gut parasite management.

• Treat and monitor any injuries - consider

»Sealing » wounds e.g. with Stockholm tar. »Spraying » localised insecticide or insect repellent (if short acting this may need to be regularly repeated especially after any rain).

• Treat lameness promptly. • Apply medium-long acting (6 -8 weeks) insecticide / repellent in April / early May. However,

»Mothers » will lick their young (this action often removes eggs and larvae). »Plan » the dates of this 1st application and of sheep shearing so that the risk to humans handling insecticide-treated wool is minimised.

• Shearing reduces the highly humid environment near the sheep’s skin, but does not completely remove the risk of fly-strike. A 2nd dose of long acting (16+ week) insecticide after shearing can give added protection throughout the rest of the season. • Remove all dead carcases of both wildlife and stock promptly (the latter is a legal requirement). ©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

Kevin Caster

As the maggots grow and start to burrow into the body, the animal becomes increasingly uncomfortable and restless. You may notice it kick its belly, turn to nibble its body, stamp its feet or scratch along a fencepost. Sometimes it may run in short gallops and then lie down.

Figure 9. Headfly damage.

• Keep vulnerable animals on more exposed, airy paddocks and away from humid areas. • Select breeds / individual animals that are less susceptible to »Worms – and » therefore less like to scour. »Footrot – either » by breed or via vaccination.

• Plan breeding season so youngstock are not born at peak fly-strike season. • Avoid planned operations e.g. planned castration of colts / young bulls. Treatment. • In all cases, clip the affected area to remove the wool / hair. Don’t leave clippings on the ground – dispose of them safely. • Remove as many maggots as possible. • Make sure you use an effective product (insecticide) that will treat strike and not just prevent it. »This » can either be a diluted dip or a proprietary pour-on / spray treatment – a repellent won’t work. Read the product label carefully. Use an effective dose and concentration. »Treat » the affected area and surrounding coat / fleece.

• If the skin layer is breached, give

»Antibiotics » to treat any secondary infection. »Oral » electrolytes e.g. those used to treat calf scour. »Good » nursing – the animal may take several weeks to recover.

• Call your vet if you are in any doubt. • In the most severe cases, the kindest option is humane slaughter.

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Box 9. Other conditions associated with ectoparasite plus treatment options

• Sheep Scab. A significant welfare issue causing intense itchiness that can be very debilitating with significant loss of condition, secondary infections, fleece loss, hypothermia and eventually death. It is caused by a mite that is transmitted by direct contact with infested sheep or from contaminated fields, neighbouring flocks, handling facilities, trailers, shearing equipment, handlers’ clothing etc. (the mite can survive unto 18 days away from a host animal). Strict biosecurity and quarantine procedures are important. If suspected, it is important to contact your vet to confirm the diagnosis as there is increasing resistance to 3-ML injectables. A new blood test can detect the scab mite before the onset of clinical symptoms. In Scotland, scab is a notifiable disease. • Lice. Affect all livestock, however, the different louse species are host specific. They tend to affect stock in poor body condition, so heavily infested animals should be carefully examined to determine whether there are any underlying health issues. The Health Plan should also be reviewed. Usually lice spread between animals by direct contact. In the UK, infestation is most prevalent in winter and early spring. Heavy infestations cause irritation leading to rubbing against feed barriers, fence posts etc. resulting in hair / wool loss and disrupted feeding patterns. In sheep it is important to distinguish lice infestation from scab – your vet can help with this. • Midges. Affect all stock. May cause irritation and / or allergic reactions. They also can act as vectors to spread various infectious diseases. »Sweet » itch in equines is caused by an allergic reaction to the saliva of biting midges. The animal becomes distressed and will rub and bite at the lesions in an attempt to relieve the itching. This results in further damage and bleeding which in turn can an lead to secondary fly strike and/or bacterial infection. »Vector » spread of several infectious diseases. As climate change occurs, these conditions may become more prevalent across the UK. Vaccines are available for Blue Tongue and Schmallenberg. Their use should be discussed with your vet.

• Ticks. There are at least 20 species in the UK. They feed on a wide range of host species that graze on tickinfested habitats – these tend to be dense vegetation and warm, wet conditions. Conditions caused by ticks include tick-borne fever, tick pyaemia, and louping ill. These usually affect sheep, but can also cause disease in other species including humans, cattle, horses, goats, dogs and pigs. The zoonotic disease, Lyme disease is also transmitted by ticks. If human Lyme disease is suspected, it is important to seek medical attention as soon as possible. Further details are available from the NHS website.

©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

• Flies. There are multiple fly species that can infest livestock. These can be divided into 3 main groups. »Blowflies » causing fly-strike (myiasis) – see main text. »Biting » (bloodsucking) flies e.g. horn, horse and stable flies. Infested animals switch their tails, shake and toss their heads and / or kick at the bite site. The constant irritation means that the stock do not graze normally and they can loose condition. Bites can continue to bleed and this attracts other insects. »Non-biting » flies e.g. face, head and house flies. These are attracted to secretions around the eyes, nose and mouth. They are also attracted to oozing blood from wounds and to the udders of cattle.

>>Headfly can be a major problem during summer months e.g. they are attracted to injuries around the base of horns of sheep (Figure 9). Affected sheep often isolate themselves and continually rub their heads to escape the irritation. If not treated, they become depressed, stop eating and loose condition. Subsequent fly-strike and secondary bacterial infections can occur. Headfly has also been associated with the transmission between cows of bacteria that cause summer mastitis. >>Face flies generally disrupt grazing behaviour. They are also thought to be a significant cause of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (New Forest disease). This can potentially leading to loss of sight in the infected eye.

• Treatment. Prevention is key.

»Environmental. » Know your land and know the pests.

>>Whenever possible avoid grazing ‘problem pastures’ at peak risk times. >Try > to decrease stock exposure to maggot populations in organic matter e.g. use rotational graze stock so that they are frequently moved away from heavily dunged ground; minimise exposure to poor quality water sources; regularly move feed sites and mineral blocks; Also dispose of any carcasses promptly. If stock are penned, make sure these are regularly cleaned and manure disposed. >>Improve local habitat for natural predators. >>Some organic farmers use ‘fly trap barrels’ to decrease fly numbers around their stock.

»Organic » preparations e.g. garlic licks, sprays containing citronella and / or tea tree oil, neem oil, apple cider vinegar ± washing-up detergent to act as an emulsifier. These need regular re-application esp. after wet weather. »Chemical. »

>> Pour-on fly control preparations should be applied before the anticipated fly season and re-applied as directed by the manufacturer’s instructions. Your local vet or SQP can help determine which product is most appropriate to meet your needs. >Alternative > products include organophosphate dips for sheep and insecticide impregnated ear-tags for cattle. >All > chemicals used to control ectoparasites have potential environmental consequences.

»Physical » barriers. Examples include

>Any > wounds should be covered e.g. with Stockholm tar – this may need to be reapplied until the wound is healed. >>Organic farmers sometimes use oil to smother lice.

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Internal Parasites Livestock pick up infective larvae living on the pasture. The number of parasites on a particular pasture at any time is dependent on the previous grazing strategy plus the current weather conditions. In general, youngstock are most at risk. With cattle, it also depends on the time of year that the calves are born, whether they are grazed with their mothers or have been weaned. Heavy worm burdens in young animals can result in scouring, permanent gut damage, poor nutrient and trace element uptake, stunted growth, coughing or even death. In contrast, adult livestock that are fit and healthy tend to develop immunity to most internal parasites. Healthy adult stock (including pregnant animals) in good condition do not require regular blanket anthelmintic treatment. However, liver fluke (in all ruminants) and Haemonchus contortus (in sheep and goats) are exceptions to this. If either of these are a problem on your Box 10. Liver Fluke (Fasciolosis) • Can infect all grazing animals but mainly affects sheep and cattle. • Causes severe liver damage, loss of body condition, decreased fertility, sickly offspring and dams with decreased milk yield. Animals may develop anaemia, lethargy and decreased appetite. Affected sheep may suddenly die. Cattle may develop chronic diarrhoea. • Animals become infected by grazing wet pastures containing the parasite and its intermediate host – the mud snail. These tend to thrive in mild winters and wet summers. • Definitive diagnosis is by post mortem examination or by abattoir reports of livers.

»»Faecal or blood sample tests can be useful, but all those currently available may give misleading results depending on the time of year and maturity of the fluke parasite within the animal.

• NADIS provide monthly parasite forecasts indicating the risk of fluke across the UK. ©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

land, then all animals in the herd/flock should be treated at appropriate times of the year. See Box 10 for more information about liver fluke. It is important that stock-keepers do not rely on wormers (anthelmintics) as the sole means of control Websites e.g. COWS (Control of Worms Sustainably) and SCOPS (Sustainable control of parasites in sheep) provide detailed guidelines about managing parasites in cows and sheep respectively (see Box 11). You should also seek advice from your vet. Conservation grazing schemes tend to have fewer issues with parasites than more intensive farming systems. However, significant problems with worms can still arise if • Incoming stock are not quarantined effectively (see Box 11). • Animals, when treated, are not dosed effectively. • The same paddocks are used every year to graze youngstock. • A number of flukicides are available to control infection, but not all of these target all stages of the parasite life-cycle. • There is an increasing incidence of parasite resistance to triclabendazole. You need to take measures to limit this problem in your stock.

»If » your animals suffer from liver fluke, it is important to devise a treatment regime with your vet as part of your Health Plan to ensure that the most suitable flukicide is used at the appropriate time of year and is based on the current parasite forecast. »Discuss » quarantine treatments for all new (and returning) animals with your vet. The choice of treatment will depend on risk which varies with time of year, the weather, whether your land is a suitable habitat for mud-snails and the triclabendazole- resistance status of any fluke already on your property. »For » more details see NADIS, SCOPS and COWS websites.

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Good grazing management is key to control parasite levels on your land A good control plan includes • A long term worming strategy that plans ahead, is reviewed regularly and adapted when necessary. • Knowledge of the different parasites, when they are a threat and which are on your land. »» This enables you to target parasites more effectively with the most appropriate product and will significantly reduce the risk of developing resistance. »» NADIS (National animal disease information service) provide monthly forecasts indicating risk levels across the UK.

»» SCOPS publish daily Nematodirus forecasts that predict the hatch date for this particularly nasty parasite that can quickly kill lambs. Nematodirus has a longer life cycle than other worms. Eggs tend last from one spring till next and newly hatched larvae the following spring cause damage to the gut of 6-12wk old lambs. »» Liver fluke treatment should take into account the risk of having contaminated mud snails on your land, the stage of development of the parasite (mature vs. immature), the time of year and the weather conditions. (See Box 10).

Box 11. Summary of SCOPS Principles

Although initially produced for sheep, these can be applied to manage parasites in all livestock.

SCOPS Principle

Notes

Quarantine effectively

Quarantine is important to minimise the risk of importing either anthelmintic-resistant parasites or new parasites including Haemonchus (barber’s pole stomach worm)Quarantine procedure: 1.Yard. On arrival, keep sheep on hard standing. Do not put them directly onto pasture nor let them come in contact with other sheep 2.Treat sheep with wormer groups that are least likely to have resistance. Treat against scab if this is a risk. Discuss the best treatment options with your vet. 3. After 24-48hrs put onto pasture that has carried sheep in the current season – This will let the incoming animals pick up the worms that are already on your land. Keep isolated from the main flock for at least 3 weeks

Select the most appropriate product

Take into account the target parasite(s), the time of year and the resistance status on the holding. If possible, choose a narrow spectrum product to deal with the specific parasite issue. Avoid combination products unless they are necessary.

Treat effectively

Always check and calibrate equipment before use. Dose to the heaviest animal in the group. Use good technique and make sure that the full dose is given every time. Failure to do so will reduce performance and speed up resistance. Partially resistant worms will survive if animals are under-dosed. Store products correctly.

Avoid unnecessary treatments

FECs can be used to help determine the need to treat, provide information about the level of contamination on pasture and test for effectiveness of the treatment. They should be used in conjunction with other information including time of year, age, stocking density and lamb performance. If necessary seek help with interpretation from your vet.

Test for drug resistance

Use drench and faecal egg count reduction tests (FECRT). The timing of the post-drench test depends on the wormer used. Ideally, FECs should reduce by 90% or more

Maintain a susceptible worm population on the pasture

If sheep are wormed properly, the only worms surviving treatment will be resistant to the chemical used. If these animals are put on clean (or low worm burden) pastures, the only eggs dropped will be resistant and all worms that develop from these will also be resistant. To avoid this, at least 10% of the fittest sheep should NOT be treated (All should be dosed if liver fluke or Haemonchus is being treated). Alternatively, if you do need to treat the whole group, return them to dirty pasture for 4-5 days so they can pick up a few susceptible worms before moving them to clean grazing.

Reduce dependence on anthelmintics

Use FECs combined with grazing management strategies that reduces the worm burdens on your land. Also ensure that youngstock are grazed on cleaner pastures (see main text on page 21 for more details). In the longer term, consider developing a breeding strategy that improves animal resilience to parasites.

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• Grazing management that reduces / avoids high worm burdens on pastures.

»» Know which pastures are high, medium or low risk. Draw up an annual pasture ‘parasite risk’ map based on the previous year’s grazing rotation. Also mark any areas that are may carry mud snails infected with fluke parasites. Example of high/medium/low risk for sheep are >> High risk includes land grazed within the previous year with lambs. These have lower immunity and higher gut worm burden. Nematodirus will remains high risk in spring / early summer for at least 1-2 seasons after lambs have grazed that pasture. >> Medium risk include grazed by nonlactating ewes the previous year or earlier in the season. Grazed by cattle or cut for silage of hay earlier in the season. >> Low risk include new leys or forage crops, Grazed by cattle or cut for silage or hay the previous year. No sheep grazed on that pasture for at least 1 year. »» Grazing quality. >> Graze stock on mixed pastures containing plants with natural anthelmintic properties e.g. birdsfoot trefoil, plantain, sanfoin, chicory. >> Avoid making lambs graze very low sward heights (less than 3-4cm) as infective larvae are concentrated near the bottom of plants. »» Pasture contamination can be reduced by >> Low stocking densities. >> Grazing cattle and sheep together (grazing sheep and goats together do not show this benefit). >> Rotate grazing between cattle and sheep during the season. >> If no alternative livestock breeds are available, graze with dry (or post weaning) mature females with good BCS. Older, non-pregnant animals tend to develop immunity to most, but not all, gut parasites. They can ingest large quantities of infective larvae and this will reduce the level of contamination in high risk pastures (N.B. This does not apply to reducing the Nematodirus risk to lambs).

• Good quarantine procedures to minimise the risk of importing

»» Anthelmintic-resistant parasites. »» New parasites onto the holding including Haemonchus (Barber’s pole stomach worm) >> This parasite can cause severe anaemia and even death (diarrhoea is not a feature). Heavy infestations can occur very quickly. Adult sheep / goats do not develop good immunity.

• Faecal Egg Counts (FECs) to monitor worm burdens before symptoms occurs.

»» This leads to less anthelmintic being used without any loss in flock / herd performance. In many cases, stock actually do better because they are treated at the right time.

• Use effective treatments and test for resistance. • Provision to allow youngstock to develop immunity to worms present on the holding. • Breed stock for resistance. Some native breeds and individual animals within a breed have greater immunity to worms. This trait is passed to their progeny. • Discuss using a cattle lungworm vaccine with your vet.

Lameness In order to maintain high welfare standards, livestock need sound feet and good mobility. It is important to detect and treat any lame animals quickly. However, early signs that an animal is lame can be subtle plus may come and go depending on the ground conditions underfoot. Signs of lameness can vary and may include • Limping. Uneven rhythm of strides and / or uneven weight-bearing. • Unwillingness to stand or move. • Short strides or abnormal foot placement. • Leg swing –either wide or narrow. • Head nod – indicates foreleg lameness. • Holding a foot up or dragging a toe. • Standing imbalanced with an unsymmetrical body posture. • Restlessly moving from one foot to another. • Arched back. This may increase as the animal starts moving from a standing position. • Sheep may ‘kneel’ while grazing.

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Some of these signs can also indicate illhealth from another cause and if a foot / leg problem cannot be found, a more complete examination is required. If in doubt, seek advice from your vet. Previously, it was recommended that all livestock had regular hoof trimming as part of their care. However, recent studies have shown that routine hoof trimming is actually detrimental to sheep foot well-being and a new ‘five point plan for lameness’ has been introduced for this species (Box 12). If followed, the incidence of lameness in a flock can significantly decrease. Other conservation grazing stock species usually require less frequent trimming than domestic equines or dairy cattle. However, hoof growth should still be monitored carefully.

Diet, animal age, general health, and ground conditions all effect hoof condition. Furthermore, some animals require more attention than others. Long-term monitoring of hoof condition, with and without trimming, will distinguish those individuals with consistent problems from those who have good feet. Animals with bad feet should not be used for breeding. When trimming is required, it should be performed by someone who is competent to carry out the appropriate assessment and treatment for that species e.g. a registered farrier who has experience working with non-shoed equines or a member of The National Association of Cattle Hoof Trimmers. The latter often have appropriate equipment to safely handle cattle (Figure 10) – if you have horned cattle, check that the hoof trimmer is happy to work with these.

Box 12. The ‘Five Point Plan’ to Treat Lameness in Sheep (see AHDB Beef and Lamb for more details) Treating individual lame sheep is important. Most lameness is caused by footrot or scald – both are caused by the same infectious bacteria. Treat even mildly lame sheep quickly. This reduces disease spread so fewer sheep become lame and fewer sheep require treatment. Routine trimming the whole flock is NOT required nor recommended. Principle

Five Points Notes Quarantine Quarantine incoming stock for 28 days minimum. Inspect all sheep. Treat even mild cases. Consider footbathing at least twice with either 10% zinc sulphate or 3% formalin. Bacteria are spread between sheep via the ground – especially warm, damp areas. Mud lodged between the toes may damage the skin and allow bacteria to enter. Try to improve underfoot conditions wherever possible. Think carefully about where and how sheep are handled. Move mineral buckets and troughs regularly. Consider using hydrated lime around handling / high-traffic areas.

Treat

Catch within 3 days of becoming lame (the sooner the better.) Inspect. Clean away dirt. Do NOT trim hoof until certain of diagnosis. Diagnose correct cause and seek vet advice if unsure. Treat appropriately e.g. for footrot and scald, use antibiotic injection and spray – do NOT trim. Use a footbath if large numbers of lambs have scald. For Shelly hoof, no treatment if sound, but gentle half-moon trim or V-cut in hoof to prevent soil impaction – if infected beneath the impaction, use appropriate antibiotics. Mark affected limb and record ear-tag number. Separate lame sheep if possible.

Build Resilience

Cull

Cull sheep with misshapen or chronically diseased feet (these ewes and rams act as a source of infection for the rest of the flock). Cull any ‘repeat offenders’ i.e. those treated >2x in any season.

Establish Immunity

Vaccinate

There is an effective vaccine that stimulates a sheep’s immunity against footrot bacteria. It can be used to treat and prevent both scald and footrot.

Reduce Disease Challenge

Avoid

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Figure 10. Specialist hoof trimmers often have a hydraulic crush. This lets them secure cattle safely while they trim their hoofs.

Laminitis is a painful condition of the hoof. In equines • It is very serious and can be fatal. • It may be triggered by a range of factors including eating too much high quality grass. • Most British native ponies are susceptible if they are kept on, or have access to, improved grass swards. Any equine that develops laminitis requires • Veterinary advice. • Specialised foot care from an experienced farrier. • Adjustment to their management and grazing regime. Mineral and trace element imbalance Ruminants require at least 15 different mineral nutrients in their diet to maintain good health and productivity. These mineral elements are often categorised depending on how much is needed. When an animal requires a relatively large amount, they are called macro-minerals (or just minerals) e.g. calcium, magnesium, sodium. In contrast, if only small amounts

are required in the diet, they are known as trace elements (or micronutrients) e.g. copper, selenium, zinc, cobalt, iodine. Too little (deficiency), too much (toxicity) or an imbalance of some of these can cause serious health problems. Farmers are often aware of the effect of some mineral imbalances on their livestock e.g. milk fever (low calcium), grass staggers (low magnesium), white muscle disease (low selenium), swayback (low copper) and copper toxicity. (See the NADIS website for more details on specific mineral and trace element deficiencies / toxicities). However, other trace element deficiencies can be more insidious in onset and may just present as poor growth, low fertility or just general ill-thrift and low productivity. The picture is further complicated as some trace element deficiencies can act synergistically with other conditions e.g. gut parasite problems can be exacerbated in animals with cobalt deficiency.

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If you suspect a trace element deficiency, it is worthwhile discussing it with your vet as part of your Health Plan – supplementation is expensive if it is not required.

Considerations to take into account include • The amount of mineral nutrients that an individual animal requires depends on a number of different factors including its age (e.g. whether it is still growing), weight, level of activity and whether it is pregnant or lactating. • Different species, breeds (and even strains within a breed) and ages vary in how well they absorb, store and utilise available minerals. »» This makes some breeds more or less susceptible to deficiencies / toxicities e.g. North Ronaldsay, Suffolk and Texel sheep are more susceptible than Scottish Blackface and Cheviots. Growing lambs are also more susceptible than adult sheep.

• Natural availability of minerals varies across the UK depending on the underlying geology, soil type, time of year, weather plus the current and previous management of the land. »» Different pastures within the same holding often have different trace element availability.

• The amount of soil ingested with fodder can affect how efficiently minerals are absorbed through the animal’s gut lining. • The trace element content of different plants within the same soil can vary significantly e.g. legumes and forbs tend to have higher trace element content than grasses. »» Animals grazed on a diverse mixed sward may not show the same trace element deficiencies as those grown on lush grass. »» The amount of nutrients in a plant varies throughout the year.

Kevin Caster

It is not always possible to gauge whether there are appropriate trace element levels for your stock from soil or fodder analysis, alone – often blood / tissue analysis is required.

Figure 11. Highland cow enjoying a mineral lick

»» If the soil itself lacks any particular nutrient then the fodder from that land will also be deficient no matter what plants are growing.

• Too high or too low levels of the same element can cause problems e.g. copper and selenium in sheep. • Availability of some trace elements are effected by the presence of others e.g. copper utilisation can be blocked by molybdenum, sulphur and iron.

Poisoning Livestock can be poisoned from a variety of sources including • Plants – including garden plants when discarded or accidentally grazed. • The soil e.g. high lead levels. • Landfill and fly-tipping. • Water contamination. • Mistaken concentrations of therapeutic products e.g. copper toxicity in sheep from mineral supplements meant for cattle. • Overdosing with medication. • Inappropriate foodstuffs from the public. It is important to closely monitor all animals when they are introduced to a new site to ensure that they do not preferentially eat plants that are poisonous to them.

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In most situations, livestock tend to learn to moderate or avoid actively growing poisonous plants. However, there is an increased risk of poisoning from plants if • There is a lack of quality feed for any reason including adverse weather conditions e.g. heavy snowfall, drought. Most incidents happen during these periods. • The animal lacks experience because »» It is young. »» It has not previously experienced those particular plants e.g. if intensively reared.

• The plant is wilted, cut or inadvertently included in hay/silage bales.

»» All debris from poisonous plants produced from cutting, clearing or windfall should be removed from the site. »» Ragwort must be cleared from pasture if it is being used for hay / silage.

It is seldom practical or desirable to remove all poisonous plants from grazed conservation sites. However, if the toxic source cannot be controlled and poisoning poses a significant risk (e.g. at certain times of year), then grazing animals should be excluded from those areas during that season. Other sensible precautions include • Carry out a risk assessment for all possible causes of poisoning.

»» Review this annually or whenever the grazing system changes e.g. increase in stock density, a change in grazing season or introduction of a new type of animal.

• Have emergency procedures to deal with severe weather conditions. • Promptly remove all debris from »» Poisonous plants produced by cutting, clearing or windfall. »» Fly-tip material.

• If the source of poison is localised, it may be possible to fence off the area. • If soil has high lead levels, it is important to minimise soil ingestion (see Box 13). ©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

Box 13. Grazing Land with High Lead Levels It important to minimise soil congestion. • Maintain a dense sward with good growth. • Consider removing stock when sward is thin. • Don’t allow land to be over-grazed / poached. • Don’t allow grazing on waterlogged land. • Fence-off bare areas of soil. • Flatten any molehills. • Provide salt licks and mineral blocks. • Use a trough water supply, rather than natural pools of run-off water. • Calibrate mowers to minimise soil uptake when making silage. If produce from stock grazing these sites, may enter the food chain. »Check » levels of lead complies with limits set by the Food Standards Agency. »Introduce » a minimum withdrawal period of at least 16 weeks before slaughter.

For more information on specific toxic agents see the NADIS website. Stress Some stress is acceptable if the animal can do something to alleviate the situation e.g. some hunger will encourage stock to move around the site in search of food. However, stress can also kill – not just from the immediate situation, but also by decreasing the ability of an animal to mount a strong immune response either to fight infections or in response to vaccinations. This means that stressed animals are more likely to become ill. Box 14. Physical Signs of Stress These include • ‘Fight or flight’ aggression. • Ears back, head up, whites of eyes showing. • Making noise (sheep tend to be silent). • Increased respiratory rate +/- panting. • Excessive salivation. • Isolation from herd / flock. • An elevated heart rate. • Abnormal pacing or behaviour. • Lethargy. • Dehydration. • Decrease in or lack of appetite. • Weight loss (long term).

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See Box 14 for physical signs of stress. For every procedure, always consider whether it can be done less stressfully Causes of stress include • Lack of sufficient quality food or water. • Lack of dry shelter. • Extreme weather conditions. • Injury. • Fear of dogs, people, vehicles etc. • New environment. • Weaning – affects both dam and offspring. • Gathering and handling stock. • Transporting stock – especially if trailer has insufficient ventilation. • Alteration to the social structure of a herd / flock by adding or removing stock. • Bullying from other stock. • Isolation from its own kind e.g. if being housed for prolonged treatment. • Unfamiliar objects or handling systems. • Overcrowding. • Infections e.g. BVD, Johnes, chronic lameness. • Pests e.g. flies, mosquitoes, lice and ticks. Found Dead There are several reasons why stock may be found dead. Unfortunately, often the animal has not ‘suddenly died’, but rather any signs were previously missed because checks were either not sufficiently frequent or sufficiently thorough. Subsequent predation after death often occurs if the body is not found and removed immediately. This may make the actual primary cause difficult if determine. There are many possible reasons why stock die. Common causes include • Trauma. »» Dog attack. »» Accident. »» Drowning, lightening strike etc. »» Injury from bolus or drenching gun.

• Poisoning. • Infections and infestations including

»» Septicaemia e.g. secondary to injury, castration, vaccination with dirty needles, »» Internal parasites e.g. liver fluke, Nematodirus, Haemonchus, Coccidiosis. »» Fly-strike.

• Pregnancy and birthing problems. • Neonatal problems e.g. hypothermia and exposure, starvation, neonatal septicaemia, trauma, overlaying, suffocation. • Full-fleeced sheep getting cast on its back. If one or more of your animal die(s) • Review the circumstances.

»» Evidence of trauma. »» Clues in the immediate surrounding area. (e.g. poisonous plants, debris etc.). »» Weather conditions and time of year. »» Age and sex of animal. »» Grazing history including any concentrates or minerals (especially recent changes). »» Vaccination history. »» Any recent procedure including surgery, castration, drenching or bolusing. »» Any recent stresses e.g. transportation, handling.

• Discuss with your vet if the cause of death is unclear or if you require further advice – a post mortem examination may be informative. • Carefully check the remaining stock for any signs of ill-health or injury. • Review, and if necessary, alter your livestock management strategy. • Fulfil your legal obligations. »» If there is any possibility (however slight) that the death has been caused by a notifiable disease then you must inform your vet / Defra / Animal Health. »» Arrange legal disposal. »» Update your records. »» Return cattle passport to BCMS. »» If the fallen stock is cattle over 48 months old, its carcase must go for TSE testing.

• Contact your insurance provider / police if appropriate.

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Responsible Use of Medicines Use veterinary medicines as little as possible, but as much as necessary Veterinary medicines are an important part of controlling and treating disease. However, prevention is always the best policy. This can be achieved by • Strong biosecurity and knowledge of the health status of any bought-in animals. • Good hygiene practices. • Good stockmanship and animal husbandry. »» Minimise stress during handling etc.

• Balanced nutrition and good grazing management.

Box 15. Vaccination For more information on vaccines see RUMA. • A vaccination programme is an important part of your Health Plan. • It should be customised for your situation and include all relevant animals. • Work in partnership with your vet. • Vaccines, when properly stored, transported and administered

»Help » reduce the severity of a disease by stimulating the immune system so that it will respond quickly and effectively to any future challenge from the diseasecausing microbe (bacteria, virus, fungus, parasite). »Will » achieve a high level of protection »Can » be very cost effective. »Will » NOT compensate for poor hygiene, poor nutrition, poor ventilation (if animals are housed) or existing poor health.

When giving vaccines • Use at the correct time, interval, dose and route of administration. • Give to all appropriate animals. • Minimise stress before during and after vaccination. • Use good hygienic technique, clean equipment and sterile needles. Ensure that needle tips are kept clean and sharp. Consider using a Sterimatic® attachment. • Ensure adequate safety for people and animals. • Accurately record information and review how effectively the vaccine is working. • Dispose of vial, needles and syringes appropriately.

• Clean drinking water. • Appropriate vaccinations (see Box 15). • Monitoring herd / flock performance and benchmarking to determine whether there may be any underlying issues that could otherwise be missed. • Knowledge of the specific disease risks on your holding. Animal medicines should always be used responsibly to achieve the desired therapeutic effect while minimising the risk of side effects (Box 16). Always remember that every application of an antimicrobial increases the risk of resistance developing.

Reasons why vaccination may not work. • Insufficient vaccine given .

»This » includes failing to administer a booster vaccine at the correct interval.

• • • •

Not administered by the correct route. Incorrect dosage. Out-of-date vials. Stored or transported incorrectly e.g. allowing temperature fluctuations. Most vaccines require cool storage. Check your fridge is holding its temperature, especially in summer and use a cool box to transport vials. Only take out vaccine bottles when you need to use them. • Too long a period between making up the vaccine and its administration to the animal.

Reasons why an animal may have a poor immune response (either to an infection or to a vaccine). • Poor nutrition including »An » inadequate overall diet. »Deficiency » in individual feed ingredients, especially proteins, some vitamins and trace elements.

• Stress – avoid administrating vaccines close to other medications or when performing other stressful husbandry tasks. • Dam is close to birth. • Very young or old animals. • The animal is unwell. • Ineffective vaccination process. • Inherited animal diseases that compromise the immune system. These are usually rare.

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If not used properly, animal medicines have the potential to cause harm to • The individual animal by. »» Over / under-dosage. »» Injury while administering (poor technique).

• Your own and the national herd / flock by increased antimicrobial resistance. • Humans by

»» Antibiotic resistance. »» Contamination from residues remaining on coat or in meat (especially if withdrawal periods not complied with). »» Injury while administering medication. »» Zoonotic infection. »» Being absorbed through the skin – some pour-on preparations (e.g. some anthelmintics and ectoparasite treatments) are designed to do this. Repeat exposure can build-up in the body over time and can result in long-term health problems.

• The environment by

»» Pollution of water courses e.g. from pour-on medication or sheep dips. »» Anthelmintic effects on dung-beetles e.g. by ivermectin related wormers. »» Effecting invertebrate populations and soil microbial health.

Box 16. Give Veterinary Medicines Responsibly • Comply with The Veterinary Medicines Directive (VMD) Code of Practice with respect to purchase, storage, administration, recording and disposal.

»Ensure » that any person giving veterinary medicines has been properly trained. »Comply » with COSHH and Risk Assessments – The NOAH compendium has up-to-date datasheets. »All » staff (both administering and assisting) should wear relevant PPE and make sure any open injuries are covered. »Correctly » restrain the animal and /or use remote methods of administration e.g. slap injectors, hook dosing, remote injectors. »Use » good hygienic technique plus well-maintained, clean equipment and sterile needles. >If > using a multi-injector consider using a Sterimatic® attachment. >There > are now needleless injectors available for pigs.

• Hazardous objects e.g. needles and medicine bottles should be disposed of safely and in-line with current legislation. • Wash hands after handling. ©Rare Breeds Survival Trust

It is therefore important to only give medicines when required e.g. • Animals are noticeably unwell. • When any animal is in obvious pain. • A vet has advised a specific treatment. • Laid out in your Animal Health Plan. • Required by any statutory measure (e.g. sheep scab treatment in affected animals). • Seasonal control measures are specifically recommended by NADIS or SCOPS e.g. treatment of liver fluke, Nematodirus, blue tongue. The consequences of • Overdosing include

»» Animal develops signs of toxicity. »» Potential impacts on recovery. »» Increased risks to humans due to an extended withdrawal period. »» Increased risk to the environment. »» Increased cost.

• Underdosing include

»» Less effective treatment and poor response. »» Increased development of resistance. >> In bacteria to antibiotics. >> In parasites to anthelmintics.

• Strictly adhere to your current Animal Health Plan and your vet’s prescribing instructions. • ‘Off label’ use must be approved by your vet. • To reduce the risk of resistance developing, do not use antibiotics ‘just in case’ and think carefully about anthelmintic use. »Target » animals that require treatment. >Don’t > just routinely blanket treat everything >Know > what parasites are on your pasture.

»Abide » by the relevant RUMA, SCOPS and COWS guidelines. These will limit / slow further development of resistance to antimicrobial treatment in farm animals • Check the expiry date and date the bottle was first opened. • Calculate the correct dose to comply with the authorised use. • Calibrate all equipment properly. • Weigh the animals – don’t guess. • Administer the correct dose by the correct route according to the product label and your vet’s instructions. • Complete the recommended course.

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Stock Breeding If the sole aim of your enterprise is to use livestock to help manage the habitat on one or more sites then you don’t really need to breed livestock. However, if your business plan includes producing stock for economic purposes or if you wish to maintain a closed herd / flock for biosecurity reasons, then you will need to breed replacement animals. Breeding from your livestock will impact on the year-round management of your animals, so it is not something that should be taken on lightly. Considerations include • Sufficient experienced, competent staff available to check and manage any potential problems.

»» Additional checks are required during late pregnancy and while offspring are very young. »» Inexperienced staff may result in >> Problems being missed at an early stage when they may have been easier to manage. >> Severe damage / increased incidence of death if a female giving birth is in difficulties. >> Increased neonatal deaths. »» If you need to assist in a delivery then good hygiene of yourself and your equipment is essential. »» Have your vet’s phone number readily available just in case.

• Choice of breeding stock.

»» Breed for traits that suit your system. >> Native breeds often cope better on unimproved habitats. >> Choose individuals with positive attributes e.g. good feet, high immunity to gut parasites, strong mothering instinct, high milk yield etc. »» Do NOT breed from an animal >> With structural deformities. >> With recurrent history of lameness. >> With an unsuitable temperament e.g. aggressive or highly-strung individuals. >> Which has previously had a problem that may affect the ability of a dam to rear her offspring successfully. »» For considerations about choosing and keeping male breeding animals see Box 17.

• Indoor or outdoor birthing?

»» Indoor >> Primitive breeds can become very stressed when penned. If you intend to birth these breeds indoors, make sure the stock are used to the environment well in advance. >> Pens should be sufficient in number and size, easily accessible and on a dry, well-drained site. >> Cleanliness and hygiene of equipment and pens are important. Prevent the build-up and spread of infection by making sure that animals have enough clean bedding and that the pens are regularly cleaned and disinfected. Disinfect pens between animals. >> Each pen should have a hay rack, feed trough and water bucket. »» Outdoor >> An ‘eyes on, hands off’ policy is best. >> Choose fields for birthing that are dry, well drained and have minimal public access. Dirty, wet, and muddy ground greatly increases the likelihood that weak or sick newborns will die. >> Put up appropriate signs around fields. >> Provide shelter and / or windbreaks. If necessary build temporary shelters e.g. from pallets or a secured IBC container with one side cut open. >> Plan and have easily accessible resources available to deal with emergency situations e.g. to manage a female who is in difficulty giving birth or dealing with a sick newborn. >> If moving dams and newborns between pastures make sure any youngsters hiding in long grass are not left behind.

• Time of year to produce offspring.

»» Some species (e.g. cattle) are capable of breeding all year round, others (e.g. most sheep breeds) are seasonal breeders. »» Many stock-keepers plan births and limit the length of the breeding season so that >> The weather is anticipated to be better. >> Dams and growing youngstock have plenty of fresh lush grazing. >> Management tasks and grazing rotations are easier to organise. »» If possible avoid youngstock being born during peak fly-strike season.

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• Nutrition and dietary supplements.

»» Breeding animals (both males and females) need to maintain good body condition and have balanced nutrition to maximise fertility and productivity. >> The fluctuations in weight often associated with conservation grazing needs to be minimised, so that breeding stock do not loose too much condition in winter nor become over-fat in summer. >> Over-fat or thin stock may have decreased fertility. >> Obese over-conditioned females have an increased incidence of prolapse. >> Poorly fed pregnant females may struggle to give birth and often have a limited colostrum / milk supply. »» Know your animals’ nutritional requirements e.g. excessive feed given to a female ewe carrying a single fetus in the last few weeks of pregnancy can result in a large lamb and problems giving birth. In contrast, an enhanced ration with additional magnesium given to a cow in the last few weeks of pregnancy can prevent prolonged calving. »» Supplemental feeds e.g. buckets, blocks and mineral licks can help improve colostrum supply and offspring survival. If used, choose one with appropriate ingredients that suits your animals’ needs. These can be expensive, so seek advice if necessary. »» Further information on nutrition for sheep and cattle can be found on the AHDB website.

• Screening tests and vaccinations – discuss with your vet which are appropriate for your breeding herd / flock

• Handling Stock »» Heavily pregnant animals should be handled with care to avoid distress / injury that may precipitate premature birthing.

»» However, if a heavily pregnant female requires treatment (e.g. a lame ewe) then this needs to be done as soon as possible. »» It is illegal to transport an animal that’s considered unfit for travel (unless they are being transported for veterinary treatment). This includes >> Heavily pregnant females where > 90% of the expected gestation period has passed. >> Females who have given birth during the previous 7 days. >> Very young animals.

Box 17. Male animals Include a section in your Health Plan on introducing new males. This should include disease screens, vaccination protocols and liver fluke / worming treatments. • Be especially cautious of a rented or older male that may have served several different herds / flocks – he may be carrying diseases that could be transferred to your stock. Some infections cause infertility or pregnancy loss due to abortion or resorption. • Choose a breeding male that has »Good » fertility – if necessary seek advice from your vet or an experienced stockperson. »Appropriate » size suitable for your breeding females. You do not want to risk producing over-large offspring that may have birthing problems – especially if birthing outdoors. »No » conformational abnormality. »Sound » feet. »Good » temperament.

• Ensure he is good condition prior to mating. • Plan where you will keep him when separated from his females.

»Beef » bulls are banned from fields or enclosures with public access unless accompanied by cows or heifers. »Make » sure all fences are secure. Your neighbour will not appreciate your bull breaking through to his prize herd of Friesian heifers!

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Care of the newborn Most (but not all) well-conditioned native breed livestock dams will manage to deliver on their own and be perfect mothers. Their newborn will require little from you apart from treating their umbilical cords and navels with iodine. Newborns should be up and have suckled within the first two hours after birth (and usually much sooner). Severe weather, difficult delivery, injury, illness, exhaustion or a poor mother (either physically or psychologically) can all interfere with this. When checking newborns, remember the 3Qs of colostrum – quality, quantity, quickly. Newborn animals must receive sufficient good quality colostrum in the first few hours of life Newborn animals are born without a primed immune system. Colostrum is ‘liquid gold’. It is rich in fat, protein, vitamins and is very energy dense. It is also a good source of antibodies and these early feeds are vital to give the newborn some protection against infection.

An easy test to determine if a newborn needs additional help is to put your finger in its mouth. The inner cheek should be warm and there should be a sucking reflex. A cold mouth and / or no sucking reflex, indicates a problem – the newborn needs to be warmed up and given colostrum. Other considerations include • Have emergency facilities available to deal with weak newborns and / or severe weather conditions. • Be familiar with resuscitation techniques and survival aids, such as feeding by stomach tube and use of a warmer box. • Don’t blanket treat all newborns with antibiotics ‘just in case’. • Remember that even normally placid females can become aggressive when their protective maternal instinct is aroused. Figure12. A healthy Highland calf

Pen Rashbass

The first 24 hours are critical – both the dam’s milk and the newborn’s gut physiology change rapidly in the first day after birth – initially the colostrum has high antibody levels, but this swiftly declines over the next 24-36 hours. Over the same period, the newborn stops being able to absorb antibodies through its gut lining and the opportunity for direct transfer of some ‘passive’ immunity from colostrum into the newborns’ bloodstream is lost .

Youngstock are also very susceptible to hypothermia, especially in the first few hours before they have properly suckled or been dried off by their mother. A newborn may need to be moved to a shelter or even a warming box if it • Is shivering. • Has not suckled. • Is lethargic. • Has difficulty raising its head.

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