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Tryck: Interak, Polen 2026
Welcome to Companion!
Like any language, learning English is not something that happens in a straight line.
None of us suddenly starts speaking in fully-formed sentences with perfect grammar and precisely the right word in the right place every time. It’s also a process that is different for everyone; it’s often messy and frustrating, but it can also be glorious and rewarding.
The best way to learn any language is to immerse yourself in it by reading, writing, listening and speaking as much as possible. Take every opportunity you have to use English, inside and outside the classroom, and your skills will develop rapidly.
Companion is both a road map and a search engine to help you with this development; in it, you will find original texts about real places and people and incidents, as well as practical things that will be useful to you when using English in your future life and career.
No-one ever read a book and learned a language, and in Companion there is a lot of focus on exercises for active learning, where you take what you have read or heard and respond to it by thinking about it, writing texts and speaking. The real learning takes place when you actively engage with what is in the book, turning what you have read into something new.
Learning is a journey, and sometimes we don’t even know what route we’ll take; in truth, the destination doesn’t really matter, it’s what happens along the way that counts.
What is certain is that every journey is more rewarding when shared with someone else, and we hope that Companion can guide you, wherever your studies in English take you in our global world.
Philip O’Connor
Maria Lantz
Deni Beslagic
Stockholm, Feb 2026
WELCOME TO COMPANION 3
The Structure of Companion 8
ONE LANGUAGE, MANY CULTURES 12
A Short History of the British Empire 14
Levelling the Playing Field 23
How the World Started Singing in English 27
Folk Music’s Place in History 33
A Giant of Folk Music 37
The Power of Protest Music 42
Grammar – The Building Blocks 46
Showcase Your Writing! – Comparative Text 52
Say Your Piece! – Oral Presentation 53
This unit explores how English has spread across the world through history, culture, sport, and the arts, and how it continues to shape identities in former colonies and beyond.
You examine both positive and negative consequences of cultural contact, focusing on language, power, and exchange.
Through global case studies, you develop intercultural awareness and the ability to discuss historical and contemporary issues in English.
ENGLISH – YOUR GLOBAL PASSPORT 54
A Common Business Language in a Global World 56
Your CV 62
The World As Your Workplace 70
Building a Career in English 76
The Dream Job? 82
The World is Your Playground 89
Grammar – Sense(s) of Belonging 94
Say Your Piece! – An Interview 100
Showcase Your Writing! – CV and Cover Letter 101
This unit focuses on English as a practical tool for work, travel, business, and international cooperation.
You explore how English functions in global workplaces, supply chains, recruitment processes, and cross-cultural communication.
Emphasis is placed on real-life language use, preparing learners to communicate clearly and confidently in future studies and working life.
MEDIA MATTERS 102
More than a Century of Change 104
A Closer Look at Journalism 111
What News Journalism Isn’t 117
The Hierarchy of Sources 123
Social Media 128
Grammar – Connecting and Relating 135
Say Your Piece! – A Timeline 140
Showcase Your Writing! – A News Story 142
PATHWAYS TO THE FUTURE 144
Artificial Intelligence – The Future of Learning? 146
AI Ethics in Practice 154
The Race for an HIV Vaccine 160
Recording our Future – But What Will it Be? 166
You Are what You Eat – Food Security in the 21st Century 172
Solar Power and Self-Milking Cows 178
Grammar – Linguistic Pointers 182
Say Your Piece! – A Panel Discussion 188
Showcase Your Writing! – An Opinion Text 189
FROM A SPARK TO A FLAME 190
The Building Blocks of Creative Writing 192
The Dramatic Arc – the Foundation of Storytelling 198
The Character Arc 205
Putting it all Together – the Three-Act Structure 211
Turning Arcs and Acts into Stories
– How to Write a Bestseller 216
Holding Out for a Hero – The Joy of Comic Books 222
Grammar – Doing Work 226
Say Your Piece! – A Story Pitch 232
Showcase Your Writing! – An Opening Scene 233
This unit examines how Englishlanguage media works, how news is produced, and how information spreads in a globalised world.
You learn to analyse journalistic styles, evaluate sources, and distinguish between fact, opinion, and misinformation.
The unit strengthens critical media literacy and encourages responsible consumption and discussion of news in English.
This unit explores future opportunities in education, careers, and personal development, highlighting how motivation, effort, and decision-making shape life choices.
You encounter real-life perspectives on success, equality, and ambition across different professions and cultures.
The unit encourages reflection on goals and values while developing language skills for discussing plans, experiences, and aspirations.
THE NATIONAL TEST & HOW TO PASS IT 234
A Snapshot of Your Skills 236
Top Tips for Top Marks 238
Say Your Piece! – The Oral Part Explained 242
Meeting Life’s Challenges – Practise Speaking 245
Here to Hear – Succeeding at Listening
Comprehension 248
Three Ways Global Warming is Changing the Planet – Practise Listening 250
On Thin Ice – Practise Listening 251
Reading Between the Lines – Tips and Tricks 252
Bits of News – Practise Reading 255
Can You Figure It Out? – Practise Reading 261
One-Word Gaps – Practise Cloze Test 262
Manhattan Skyline – Practise Cloze Test 263
Mashco Piro – Practise Reading 265
The Write Stuff 272
The Future of Work – Practise Writing 275
FROM PURPOSE TO STRUCTURE 276
Compare and Contrast – Comparative Text 277
CV – Curriculum Vitae 280
Cover Letter – Personal Communication 284
News Story 286
Navigating the Social Media Ecosystem 290
Opinion Text 292
Opening Scenes 296
The Five-Paragraph Essay 298
This unit prepares you for the national test by consolidating reading, listening, writing, and speaking skills in exam-like formats.
You practise strategies for understanding instructions, managing time, and responding clearly and accurately in English.
The focus is on building confidence, accuracy, and independence in assessment situations.
This section helps you understand how different text types serve different purposes and how clear structure supports effective communication.
You are guided through common written genres used in the written assignments in the book, with a focus on planning, organisation, and audience awareness.
The section supports independent writing by providing models, strategies, and language guidance that help you express ideas clearly and appropriately.
SUCCESS IN SPEAKING 301
One-to-One Conversation 302
Useful Phrases 303
Oral Presentations 304
Interviews 306
Panel Discussion 308
Story Pitch 309
Elevator Pitch 310
This section explores how different kinds of spoken communication serve specific purposes and how clear structure and delivery strengthen your message.
You are introduced to common speaking situations in the book, with attention to preparation, interaction and adapting to your audience.
The section encourages confident oral communication by offering examples, practical strategies and helpful language you can use to express yourself.
GRAMMAR REFERENCE SECTION 311
1. Getting It Right 311
1.1 Contractions 311
1.2 Confusing Pairs 311
2. The Building Blocks 312
2.1 Parts of Speech 312
2.2 Phrase Types 312
2.3 Clause Types 313
2.4 Clause Elements 314
2.5 Subject-Verb Agreement 314
2.6 Sentence Structure 315
3. Nouns and Noun Phrases 315
3.1 Types of Nouns 316
3.2 Need for Determiners 316
3.3 Grammatical Number 317
3.4 Genetive 317
4. Verbs and Verb Phrases 318
4.1 Verb Forms 318
4.2 Participles 318
4.3 Irregular Verbs 319
4.4 Main and Auxiliary Verbs 319
4.5 Modal Verbs 319
4.6 Tenses: Combining Time and Aspect 320
4.7 Future Forms 320
This section provides a clear and accessible reference to essential English grammar needed for reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
It supports you in revising and consolidating key structures, helping them notice patterns and avoid common errors.
The section is designed as ongoing support that you can return to throughout the course.
4.8 Conditionals 321
4.9 Passive Voice 321
4.10 Tag Questions 322
5. Adjectives and Adverbs 322
5.1 Comparisons 323
5.2 Possessive Adjectives 323
5.3 Indefinite Adverbial Forms 324
6. Pronouns 342
6.1 Personal Forms 324
6.2 Determinative Pronouns 325
6.3 Interrogative Pronouns 326
6.4 Relative Pronouns 326
6.5 Indefinite Pronouns 327
7. Prepositions 328
The Structure of Companion
Companion follows the principles of Task-Based Language Teaching, where you use the knowledge you already have and the English you already know to complete meaningful tasks, learning new words, facts, and ways of expressing yourself through the texts.
Structure
To prepare you for the reading and the follow-up tasks, each text begins with Spark Plugs. These give you a frame of reference and tell you what the text is about. They also give you some important keywords to understand before you start reading, as well as a few things to think about while you read.
After reading, you will be asked to answer some questions that help you check your understanding of the text, and sometimes these are followed by tasks that focus on the language in it. After that, the follow-up assignments are organised in a Think – Pair – Share format – you get to consider what you have read, discuss it with others, and then share it with the wider class or group.
Think
The first task is Think about it!, and this is done individually. This task allows you to use your prior knowledge, such as words, expressions, facts or suggestions, to answer questions connected to the text you have just read. You get time to prepare by taking notes.
Spark Plugs
Next comes the Talk about it! task, where you work in pairs or small groups. Here, you can share your notes and discuss the topic further. Because you have already prepared your ideas and made some notes, you will always have something to contribute. Finally, the group shares some of what you discussed with the rest of the class.
Sometimes, these activities end with a short writing task called Write about it! where you use both your notes and the ideas from your group discussion.
At the end of each unit, there is a contextual and functional grammar section. This sounds complicated, but it’s actually very simple – it means you work with grammar that appears in the text you have been working with, so the grammar is always connected to the exercise.
To finish the unit, there is a longer speaking task, Say Your Piece!, and a writing task, Showcase Your Writing! All the conversations you have had with your classmates and the other work you have done help to prepare you for these speaking and writing assignments. In the back of the book, you can find templates and guides to help you succeed with these tasks. The shorter writing assignments also prepare you for the final writing task, and you will find helpful support pages at the back of the book for this as well, with tips about how to write different kinds of texts and the structures to use for them.
Because the assignments follow this structure and progress step by step, you will find it easy to develop and improve. This will also help you to feel prepared for the bigger tasks at the end of each unit. The reading and exercises in Companion Nivå 1 will also give you a good, solid foundation for the work you will do next year.
One Language, Many Cultures
Spread by the British Empire over several centuries, the English language became a truly global culture export, mixing and mingling with local languages and traditions to produce something new and exciting. The spread of the language gave us new insights into other peoples and created the conditions for cultural exchange, particularly through sport and the arts.
There were also negative aspects to the British Empire, with violence and bloodshed often used as a means of subduing local people in the places they wished to colonise. From India and Pakistan to the Middle East, the fallout from the end of the British Empire still shapes our world today. However, despite all that, English has provided us with a way of bringing many diverse cultures together under a common language that we can use to learn about others and their lives.
Getting Started
In this chapter we will take a closer look at the mark the English language has made on the world, its effect on the cultures it encountered and what the relationship between Britain and its former colonies looks like today.
1. Write down all the countries in the world you can think of that have English as an official language. Share them with your teacher and the class – how many did you get right?
2. Make a list of countries that were colonised by a European power – how many did you find? Who colonised them?
3. In small groups, discuss how the effects of colonisation can be seen in former colonies. Did they adopt a lot of their coloniser’s culture, or did they do their best to preserve their own languages and traditions? How successful were they?
empire colony rivalry folk music work songs influence resources trade territories diversity
SPARK PLUGS
What we’ll be talking about: How sport travelled with the Empire, spreading its language, culture, and a love of the game across the world. Words we’ll be using: empire, colony, former, cultural exchange, legacy, rivalry, identity, adapted, dominant, equality
Things to keep in mind: For former colonies, sporting competition gives them a chance to measure themselves against their former rulers and to show how far they have come since independence. Nowhere is this more true than in cricket, a sport enjoyed by hundreds of millions around the world.
Levelling the Playing Field
One of the major arenas for cultural exchange in our world is sport. Some of the most popular global media and TV events are related to sports like football and cricket, which were spread around the world during the “golden age” of the British Empire.
While sports like football have gone on to become popular all over the world, the likes of cricket and rugby are enormously popular in certain former colonies, but less popular elsewhere. The game of basketball was invented in the United States of America before going global, but other hugely popular sports in the northern part of that continent such as American football and baseball have not spread as widely.
Though the British Empire is over, its traditional sporting pursuits remain popular in many of the territories it used to control. With time, they have also become a stage for colonised peoples to take on their former rulers in competition, adding a deeper political and cultural significance to the contests. England is no longer the dominant force that it was back when the Empire was exporting these games to the world, and it’s a long time since their international team could consider themselves the world’s best at any of them. Regardless of the colonial roots of these sports, they have become a powerful cultural force, adjusted and adapted in unique ways in the countries in which they are played.
In many former British colonies, sports like cricket and rugby have become more than just games — they have become part of their national identity. Introduced during the colonial era, these sports were first played by the colonisers and later adopted, adapted, and mastered by local players. Today, former colonies are among the world’s top teams. The spread of these games shows how traditions once imposed by the Empire have become symbols of pride, unity, and global connection.
Perhaps the legacy of colonial sport is most clearly seen in the rivalry between the former colonies and Britain itself. One of the most famous is The Ashes, a long-running cricket series between England and Australia that began in 1882. It was named after a joke that English cricket had “died” in Australia and its ashes would be taken back home to the defeated country, England. The series continues today and still carries echoes of colonial history — a friendly but fierce contest between two nations once bound by the Empire. Similar rivalries exist in rugby, where teams like South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand take great pride in defeating England, turning past hierarchies into sporting competition among equals.
On top of this, sports have also become more diverse. The enormous growth of women’s sport in the 21st century has led to new avenues of competition opening up, with women’s soccer, cricket and rugby all experiencing huge development in recent years. Once known as the “gentleman’s game”, cricket is now open to women too, and its huge popularity in places like India, Pakistan, Australia and the West Indies has gradually erased the boundaries of class and gender that accompanied the sport when it was first introduced.
arena – a place or situation where an activity happens. cultural exchange – when people from different cultures share ideas, traditions, or ways of life.
empire – a large group of countries controlled by one powerful nation. colonies – countries or regions ruled by another, more powerful country. invented – created or made for the first time. significance – importance or special meaning. dominant – the strongest or most powerful. exporting – sending something (goods, ideas, traditions) to another country. colonial era – the historical period when powerful nations controlled other lands. adopted – accepted or started using something. adapted – changed to fit new needs or conditions. mastered – became skilled at something legacy – something passed down from the past. defeated – lost to another team or player. diverse – showing a lot of variety, including many different types of people or things.
boundaries – limits that separate groups, ideas, or types of people.
Show what you know!
1. In what ways have former British colonies made sports like cricket and rugby their own?
2. What does the rivalry between England and its former colonies in sports like cricket and rugby tell us about their shared history?
3. The text mentions that sports have become “a stage for colonised peoples to take on their former rulers.” What do you think this means?
4. The Ashes is described as a “friendly but fierce contest.” What does this phrase suggest about how former colonies relate to Britain today?
5. How has the meaning of these sports changed from the time of the British Empire to today?
Think about it!
Rivalries between nations are a big thing in sport, especially when former colonies or enemies meet on the playing field. Why do you think meetings between rivals make sport more exciting – does any particular rivalry stick out to you? Take notes.
Talk about it!
In pairs or in small groups, share your thoughts. Had you thought about the same things? What was different? Try to explain your thoughts to each other.
Listen up!
Listen to Julie and Angus talking about the rivalry between England and Scotland in rugby.
• Before you begin, read through the questions so you know what to listen for. Take notes while you listen.
• After listening, answer the questions as clearly and completely as you can.
1. How do Ben and Angus show that this rivalry means more to them than just a game?
2. What memories or feelings does Angus share that show how important rugby is to him?
3. What does Ben mean when he says, “You feel all the history behind it”?
4. What do their comments about meeting “for a pint and a laugh afterwards” tell us about the relationship between the two teams and fans?
5. Rivalries can exist in sport, music, or even school life — why do you think friendly rivalry can be both fun and meaningful?
Sharpen your skills!
Idioms are expressions that have a special meaning that is different from the literal one. In Listen up! you heard two idioms — “shivers down my spine” and “fire in our bellies.” Can you figure out what these and the following idioms mean? Match each idiom with its correct meaning.
shivers down my spine to do something that is sneaky or against the rules
fire in our bellies to take criticism very seriously heart in your mouth to have an advantage over an opponent take it to heart to be in the same situation as someone else
a level playing field to be very excited or nervous in the heat of the moment keep your chin up to feel passionate or excited throw in the towel to feel an intense, pleasurable wave of emotion have the upper hand a situation that is fair and equal for everyone hit below the belt to keep going when things are going against you in the same boat to give up or admit defeat
SPARK PLUGS
What we’ll be talking about: How the English language spread through music, especially the songs sung by working people as they laboured.
Words we’ll be using: work songs, rhythm, sea shanties, melodies, chain gangs
Things to keep in mind: From nursery rhymes to national anthems, songs and music play a major role in every culture. What is the earliest song you can remember? Do you have a favourite that your parents might have sung to you?
Is there a particular song that makes you feel very connected to your culture?
How the World Started Singing in English
Long before the Beatles led “The British Invasion” of the music charts in America in the 1960s, English was being used as a language for songs and lyrics all over the world. As we have seen, the language grew enormously during the golden age of the British Empire, and musically it spread through slavery, work songs, sea shanties and military cadences used by soldiers as they trained and marched. By the time technologies were developed to allow singers to be recorded, English was already a global musical language, and the songs that were sung in it are a rich source of information about both the singers themselves, and the times and places they lived in.
The Building Blocks:
What makes up a sentence?
Language is like a big puzzle of words that like to “socialise” with other words. They come from different “friend groups” and we could categorise them based on their “looks”, “personality” and which friends they like to be around. We refer to these categories as parts of speech (or word classes). Let’s look at examples from the unit and try to gain a deeper understanding of their functions.
Example 1:
The English language became a truly global cultural export.
Activity 1
Work in pairs or small groups and discuss the following questions.
1. Which parts of speech do you recognise? Which names are similar and which differ from the terms you have learned in your Swedish class?
2. What is the function of each word class? What “work” do they do in a sentence?
3. Which parts of speech are used together with which others? Are all combinations of two parts of speech possible in any word order?
4. Imagine we had to permanently remove two parts of speech from the language. Which two would be the best candidates? Would sentences and communication still make sense without nouns, verbs, etc.?
Explain your reasoning and give examples.
Example 2:
The spread of English globally gave us new insights and created the det. n. prep. n. adv. v. pron. adj. n. conj. v. det.
conditions for cultural exchange, particularly through sport and the arts. n. prep. adj. n. adv. prep. n. conj. det. n.
Activity 2
Work in pairs or small groups and discuss the following questions.
1. Which two parts of speech were not found in example 1? How would you explain their function of them based on example 2?
2. As you can see, the word ‘English’, although it looks the same, is used differently in the two example sentences above. Based on the two word classes we have analysed it as, can you explain the two different meanings of ‘English’?
3. If we wanted to replace the pronoun used in the sentence with at least three words, what could we write there instead?
4. All the adverbs in our examples have one thing in common (in terms of how they are formed). Can you identify what?
5. Many words have “siblings” belonging to other classes. For example, the adverb truly is related to the adjective true and the noun truth. Which other “family relationships” among the words in our examples above can you point out?
As you have observed, some parts of speech naturally team up with others. Determiners (e.g. articles such as the or a/an) come before nouns. If we want to add a description to the noun, we can add an adjective between the determiner and the noun. We say that both these modify the noun. Adverbs, on the other hand, cannot modify nouns. Instead, they modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
Stretches of words that modify a main word are called phrases and named after the main word. Hence, the phrase “The English language” is a noun phrase (main word = ‘language’ = noun) and the phrase “truly global” is an adjective phrase (main word = ‘global’ = adjective).
5 10
Modifiers can also appear after a main word and form a phrase. Hence, the structure “give [someone] [some type of] insights [into something]” is analysed as a verb phrase (main word = ‘give’ = verb), whereas “through sport and the arts” can be understood as a prepositional phrase (main word = ’through’ = preposition). Please note that individual words in a sentence can form part of several overlapping phrases and that entire phrases can function as modifiers of other phrases, as illustrated in the following example:
Activity 3
Work in pairs or in small groups. Together, identify phrases based on parts of speech in the following excerpt. Take some time to think and note down a couple of word chunks you would say belong together. Identify the part of speech the main word belongs to. Then share your analysis with your class.
Example: The main word in the phrase ‘natural beauty ’ is ‘beauty’, which is a noun. Hence, it is a noun phrase.
Thanks to its natural beauty, Fiji’s economy is driven primarily by tourism, which attracts visitors to its resorts, with scuba-diving particularly popular with them. Agriculture, and in particular sugar, has long been an important part of the local economy, but climate change is now posing challenges for crops and coastal communities in the Fijian islands.
Individual words can be combined into phrases, which then build sentences. But there is another important level in grammar: the clause level. You may remember from Swedish lessons that a complete sentence needs at least one main clause, and that more advanced sentences can include more main clauses or add dependent clauses. So, what is a clause? To cut a long story short, a clause expresses one idea or action. It must
include at least a verb element (the action) and a subject (the “doer” of the action). Other clause elements, like objects or adverbials, can also be added to provide more information about the main idea expressed by the verb.
But why is this important to you? Well, a very common grammar mistake in student writing is incorrect subject-verb agreement. To avoid this, first check whether the subject is singular or plural and then determine which pronoun could replace it. If the subject is singular and could be replaced by he, she, or it, remember to add an -s to the verb that the subject is performing. If any other pronoun fits, use the base form of the verb. This helps keep your clauses clear and grammatically correct. It is especially important with plural subjects (replaced by they), where many Swedish speakers tend to overuse the -s ending to the verb.
Let’s look at some examples from the text about sports in the former colonies (p.24):
plural subject = replaced by pronoun they Sports have also become more diverse.
We don’t say ‘they has
Note! Some words are used differently here to how they were used in the original unit text, making different parts of speech. If you rely on this as your point of reference, you might need to find other ways to express the same ideas as in the original text.
The huge popularity of cricket has gradually erased the boundaries of class and gender.
singular subject = replaced by pronoun it
We don’t say ‘it have’!
Some of the most popular global media and TV events are related to sports.
plural subject = replaced by pronoun they
We don’t say ‘they is’!
One of the major arenas for cultural exchange in our world is sport.
singular subject = replaced by pronoun it
We don’t say ‘it are’!
Activity 5
Work in pairs. Fill in the gaps with correct verb forms. Follow the steps below to figure out the correct answer.
1. Identify the subject.
2. Check its quantity (singular or plural)
3. Fill in the correct verb form so that the subject and verb agree grammatically.
a) The woman with ten children ... my neighbour. (is / are)
b) Her children ... to play rugby in the evening. (likes / like)
c) Arts, storytelling and dance ... vital parts of Fijian life. (is / are)
d) Their empire also ... knowledge and cultural influence. (exports / export)
e) I, after all this time analysing clause elements, still ... a bit confused. (is / am)
f) The entire population ... making enormous contributions. (was / were)
Let’s judge!
So, let’s recap and see what you’ve learned. Are the following sentences grammatically correct or not? Explain why you deem each example acceptable or not. Try to reuse and refer to the explanations given throughout this grammar unit.
1. This sentence is correctly. CORRECT INCORRECT
2. Destinies are the future that is meant to CORRECT INCORRECT happen to someone or something.
3. We will be talking how British Empire CORRECT INCORRECT expanded for the world.
4. Native speakers is people who speaks their CORRECT INCORRECT own language.
5. Changed the countries it ruled in many CORRECT INCORRECT ways – some positive, others negative.
6. It’s was a vibrant destination for slaves. CORRECT INCORRECT
7. The British brought sports and slaves. CORRECT INCORRECT
8. The country is known for naturally beauty. CORRECT INCORRECT
9. At its peak, the British Empire ruled a CORRECT INCORRECT quarter of the world.
10. How spread the Empire English language CORRECT INCORRECT and culture?
Showcase Your Writing!
Folk music, jazz, the blues, hip-hop and punk rock have all featured songs of protest and rebellion. Your assignment is to write a comparative text . You can either choose one of the following comparisons or choose your own protest songs to compare.
Length: 300–600 words
Midnight Oil – “Beds Are Burning” (1987) vs. Coldplay – “Everyday Life” (2019)
Theme: Justice, equality, and care for people and the planet.
John Lennon – “Imagine” (1971) vs. Billie Eilish – “All the Good Girls Go to Hell” (2019) Theme: A better world and climate responsibility.
The Cranberries – “Zombie” (1994) vs. Childish Gambino – “This Is America” (2018) Theme: Violence and injustice.
Sam Cooke – “A Change Is Gonna Come” (1964) vs. Beyoncé – “Formation” (2016) Theme: Racial pride and equality.
Green Day – “American Idiot” (2004) vs. Olivia Rodrigo – “All-American Bitch” (2023) Theme: Rebellion and identity.
Bob Dylan – “Blowin’ in the Wind” (1963) vs. Alicia Keys – “We Are Here” (2014) Theme: Peace, social justice, and unity.
In your comparison, take the following into account:
» What the song is a protest against (the historical aspects).
» How the artist came to write it.
» How they are different or similar (music style, lyrics etc.)?
» What the reactions to the song were.
On p. 277 you can read about how to structure a comparative text.
Say Your Piece!
Many Swedish artists write songs in English. In doing so they potentially have a bigger audience than they would have if they sang in Swedish.
» Can you think of/name some Swedish artists who sing in English?
» What is the difference between music in your native language and in English? Does it feel different, for example when you sing along to the lyrics?
1. Choose a song by an artist who sings in Swedish, and a song by an artist who sings in English. Examine and compare the lyrics in both songs. In what ways are they similar and in what ways are they different?
2. Prepare a 3–5 minute presentation of one or both of the songs and explain why you chose them.
3. Present the song and the artist, and then discuss the song using the following headings:
» Background (who wrote it, who has recorded it?)
» What type of song is it?
» What is it about?
» What can you say about the melody and the lyrics?
» Why did you choose the song? Does it have particular significance or meaning for you?
On p.304 you can read about how to structure a presentation.
Media Matters
One of the benefits of having good English is access to news and media from all over the world. English-language news sources such as the British Broadcasting Corporation (better known as the BBC, Britain’s public service broadcaster) and American news channel CNN are available around the globe, and their coverage of world news often sets the agenda for local media. Local or regional news outlets sometimes publish news in English, as well as in their native languages. For example, when a big news story breaks in Sweden, national newspapers and websites will often carry a story in English for foreign readers and viewers. Such is the power and reach of the English language that Arabic news outlet Al Jazeera has an entire TV channel in English, as well as extensive coverage on its website. This broad range of English-language sources also poses some questions for news consumers around the world – where can we find reliable news? How do we tell what is true and not true? And how can we tell the difference between reliable sources and ones that might be deliberately trying to mislead us?
Getting Started
The world’s media is our biggest source of information and news – before we begin to examine it in detail, let’s take a look at what it is and how we use it.
1. Write down the first five media outlets (newspapers, TV channels, websites) that come into your mind.
2. Where do you get your news from? Is it from the five outlets you listed, or somewhere else?
3. When you’re looking for news, do you prefer to read, watch video clips, or listen to audio/podcasts?
4. Do your friends and family get their news from the same places, or do they use different sources?
5. Do you trust the media outlets you use to tell you the truth?
journalist editor headline source reporter deadline bias fact-checking freedom of the press censorship
How Sourcing Works
Earlier in this chapter we met Paul Julius Reuter, who went on to set up a news agency that is trusted around the world and used by many in finance when making their business and investment decisions. The hallmarks of the Reuters news agency – truth, accuracy, and freedom from bias – are the same as when he set it up, and how Reuters sources its news is a key building block when it comes to maintaining the trust of its consumers.
The agency publishes an online handbook that is available to the general public and that its journalists are expected to follow at all times. We’re going to use that handbook to dive deeper into how journalists find the news that they bring to us.
Show what you know!
Answer the following questions in complete sentences using information from the text to support your answers.
1. Why is it so important for journalists not to be influenced by their own opinions when reporting news?
2. When is it OK for a journalist to express their own opinion? And why is it still important to remember the facts of the story?
3. What is the difference between a columnist and other types of journalists?
4. What is “fake news” and how does it start and then spread?
5. Explain what happened in April 2025, what mistake did media make and how should they have acted instead?
Sharpen your skills!
Combine the following words from the text with their corresponding synonyms.
Think about it!
Fake news stories are all around us and it can often be very difficult to know what is true and what is not. Take notes about the following:
1. Can you think of a story, like the one about tariffs, that you heard and that later turned out to be fake?
2. What was the story and how did you find out that it was not true?
Talk about it!
1. In pairs or in small groups, compare your notes from Think about it! and see if you thought about the same or similar stories.
2. Now, discuss the following questions:
• Where do you get your news from? Do you think it is a reliable source? Why/why not?
• If you get news from social media such as TikTok, is there any way you can know what the source is?
• What different ways can we check a story to see if it is true?
• Do you think we have a responsibility to check where our news comes from?
Write about it!
Look through your answers to Show what you know! Use them to write a short summary of the text. Write in your own words. Length: approximately 50 words.
What we’ll be talking about: Where news comes from and how to decide if it can be believed or not.
Words we’ll be using: hierarchy, trusted, anonymous, credibility, accuracy, witness
Things to keep in mind: The first step in evaluating a news story is to ask where it came from. Who is speaking, and what are they saying? Can we believe them, or do we need to check the accuracy of what they say? Do they have any reason to lie to us or mislead us?
The Hierarchy of Sources
random – by chance ranking – position in a list preferably – if possible go on the record – speak publicly
One of the fastest ways to discover if a story is true or not is to ask a very simple question – “who said that?” If it’s the Swedish prime minister, then there’s a very good chance that it’s true – if it’s some random anonymous person with a handful of followers on a brand-new social media platform, then you might want to do some more digging.
According to the Reuters Handbook of Journalism – a guide for professional reporting standards – sources are divided into a loose hierarchy or ranking, from the most trustworthy on down. These guidelines are not set in stone – after all, someone with only a handful of followers on a social media platform could well be telling the truth, and a politician may be telling a lie – but they do give a good general guide as to how much faith we should place in what they say.
1. The most trusted source in the eyes of Reuters is something their own reporters have seen with their own eyes or heard with their own ears. Preferably, they will also have photos, videos or audio recordings to back it up.
2. The next most trusted source is a named source that is prepared to go on the record (one that agrees to have their marks attributed to them in print, online or on the airwaves). This might be an interview with the Swedish prime minister or the head of the Swedish Football Association (SvFF). When these people speak, they do so on behalf of their organisations.
3. An unnamed source may be used if they can provide information that is in the public interest that is not otherwise available. There are many reasons a source may not want to go on the record – they may not be permitted to speak about the matter publicly by their employer, or they may fear that someone might try to hurt or damage them because they released certain information.
From a Spark to a Flame
Mastering a language gives us the ability to communicate our thoughts, ideas and emotions in innovative ways, and to experience and enjoy things that have been created by others. The English language offers both a huge treasure trove of creative content, and an enormous potential to express ourselves.
Humans are a species of storytellers. Long before we could draw on cave walls and carve words into stones, we told each other stories to entertain, communicate information and preserve our history. Some of the stories we told were factual, while others were made up – what we now call fiction. These kinds of stories leverage all our human creativity into great tales, full of excitement and emotion – but how do we get started with creative writing?
Getting Started
1. Where are your favourite stories set – do you like them to take place in the real world, or in the future, or on another planet?
2. What is the best story that you were ever told by a friend or a relative? What made it so good and so memorable?
3. Have you ever had an idea for a fictional story that you would like to write?
SPARK PLUGS
What we’ll be talking about: The elements that make up a story, how they work together, and different forms of writing and creativity. Words we’ll be using: arc, plot, climax, resolution, protagonist, antagonist
Things to keep in mind: Stories you know and love – what makes them so special to you? What grabs your attention? What kinds of characters and stories do you like? What genres (science fiction, historical, thrillers) interest you most? Do you prefer the stories in books, movies or video games?
The Building Blocks of Creative Writing
There are many different kinds of creative writers, from poets and novelists to screenwriters and stand-up comics. We’re going to start our exploration of creative writing with those who write fiction or scripts for the stage and screen. These writers choose their characters, settings and plots to create a framework to tell us their stories. Every choice they make in their writing communicates something to us.
Characters
Sometimes the characters and settings are based on real people, and sometimes they are made up. Many short stories and novels take place in real places, but some are played out in imaginary worlds that writers go to great lengths to create, and vice versa.
ӹ All stories are ultimately about people (or things chosen to represent people, like animals or aliens), so the choice of characters is an extremely important one.
ӹ There are three main types of characters. First, we have the protagonist, or the main character in the story. They and their goals and problems are central to the story.
ӹ Next, we have the antagonist – they are the character or the force that opposes the main character and tries to prevent them from achieving their goals.
ӹ Then we have the supporting characters. These characters fill out the story, helping to reveal more to us about the protagonist and antagonist with their interactions and conversations, and contributing to how the story develops with their actions.
SPARK PLUGS
What we’ll be talking about: The tricks and techniques used in books, movies and video games use as they follow the path of the story, bringing us along with them. Words we’ll be using: exposition, inciting incident, climax, resolution, denouement
Things to keep in mind: No story stays in the same place – they bring us on a journey. Can you think of any examples of stories that begin in one place, and end up somewhere totally different? Or a character that starts out as one kind of person, but changes completely as the story develops?
The Dramatic Arc – the Foundation of Storytelling
Have you ever wondered how movies, books and plays are written, and how they manage to keep us engaged from beginning to end? The answer is something called the dramatic arc. Every time we watch a movie or read a book, we expect the story to go somewhere. The best stories take us on a journey, with the drama rising to a peak before the story is resolved in a happy or sad ending. We are going to look at several different kinds of dramatic arcs, but what they all have in common is that they provide a structure to the story. That structure is what makes it easy for us to understand and follow the story, and keeps us interested until the end.
Explaining the Dramatic Arc
The dramatic arc can be thought of as a curved line that the story follows, beginning from a starting point and rising through the excitement in the middle towards the climax, before falling away again at the end. There are many different shapes the dramatic arc can take, but the classic dramatic curve takes that “mountain” shape, beginning calmly and then rising higher and higher to the top where something big happens, before moving to the resolution. This simple shape – beginning, middle, and end – is one of the oldest ways of telling stories. Humans began using it thousands of years ago, and some of our best-known stories, from thrillers to Hollywood blockbusters, follow it very closely.
The Parts of the Arc
The first part of the dramatic arc is called the exposition This is where we meet the characters and learn a little about them, as well as where the story takes place. Life seems normal, but soon something will happen – we call this the inciting incident, and this is what causes our main character to act. This can be where our hero discovers or decides that they want or need something, but they cannot get it because something or someone is in their way.
engaged – interested and involved in what is happening arc – the shape or pattern of how a story develops resolved – brought to an end, the problem is solved climax – the most exciting or important moment in a story
The next step is where the excitement really gets going. We call this the rising action, as problems or conflicts appear, challenging our protagonist.
At the top is the climax, the most exciting or important moment in the story. Often it is a tough decision, a battle, or a big discovery. This is the peak of the story, where everything changes – it is the moment that the audience has been waiting for. After the climax, there is usually a falling action as the story begins to settle down again. In this phase, the characters deal with the results of the climax, any remaining questions are answered, and the story moves toward its end.
Finally, we reach the resolution (also known as the denouement). This is where the story is finished, and the problem or conflict is solved. The audience can be at ease, knowing what happened and why.
So why is the dramatic arc important? Without it, a story can feel boring or confusing. The arc gives structure, making the story easier to follow and more powerful to experience. When you write your own stories, think about this arc. Where does it begin? What problems grow? What is the climax? And how will you end it?
Write about it!
You are going to write a descriptive narrative.
1. First, set a timer for three minutes and write down as many “tricky situations” as you can think of, for example:
• a missed train
• spilling ketchup on your white shirt just before going out
• lost luggage when you arrive at your holiday destination.
2. Then, take a look at your character from Think about it! Choose one of your tricky situations and place your character in one of the situations. Length: approximately 200 words.
The National Test & How to Pass It
The National Test is one of the cornerstones when it comes to deciding what grade you will get in English. It consists of four separate tests for speaking, listening, reading and writing, and is done in the school, with a specific time allotted for each part.
Though it can be stressful for many, getting a good grade in The National Test that reflects your abilities in English is pretty straightforward. By preparing properly for the four different parts, you will be ready to show your skills when the time comes.
Before we talk about how to prepare for The National Test, let’s think about our own experiences with tests and how we feel about them. First, discuss the questions below in pairs or in small groups. Then, share your thoughts in class.
1. How do you usually feel before an important test? What gives you confidence, and what helps you stay calm?
2. Think about a time when you did really well on a test - what do you think helped you succeed that time?
3. Everyone has different strengths in English — listening, speaking, reading, or writing. Which skill do you feel most confident about, and why?
exams assessment preparation strategies speaking listening reading writing stress practice time management confidence
SPARK PLUGS
What we’ll be talking about: Different strategies for reading texts and answering questions based on them.
Words we’ll be using: context clues, prefix, suffix, underline, preview, summarise
Things to keep in mind: This part of The National Test examines our ability to read, understand and analyse information, identifying what is important so that we can answer the questions clearly and concisely.
Reading Between the Lines – Tips and Tricks
Like listening, the reading part of the test could be described as being the easiest as you are given the material to read, and all the answers should be in there somewhere!
The kinds of exercises can be different from year to year, but the purpose of all of them is to show that you’ve read the text and understood it. Sometimes you will be given a text and asked to answer questions on it. Other exercises might feature sentences or longer texts with some of the words removed. Your task is to insert words that are grammatically correct and that make sense in the context of the sentence and the overall text. For these kinds of exercises there are usually context clues – the subject of the text and the rest of the sentence will give you a pretty good idea of the word or the kind of word that is missing. A good tip is to look at the word before the gap – if it’s “an”, for instance, then you know that the missing word starts with a vowel sound (a, e, i, o or u).
Write down the word you think is missing, and any alternative you can think of. Read the sentence again to yourself, inserting the word you think is missing – does it make sense? If so, you’ve most likely got it right. If you can’t think of anything, make your best guess – you will not lose points for trying.
A Word to the Wise
Some students like to use “speed-reading” techniques, where we don’t read or expect to understand every word in a sentence. It is, however, vital to read every question carefully, as sometimes they are worded in a particular way to try to trip you up. Remember – your reading and understanding are being tested, and you have to show that you are up to the task.
insert – to put something into a space or gap clues – hints that help you figure something out alternative – another possible choice or option speed-reading – reading quickly without focusing on every word trip you up – to confuse or trick someone into making a mistake get hung up – to spend too much time worrying about one thing concrete – clear and specific
When it comes to the questions and exercises, you will often be given a list of words and a list of meanings and asked to match them. As always, begin by reading them carefully, and make sure you understand all the explanations. Some will be very easy and you can match them to the words right away.
Others will be more difficult, and some you may never have seen before. Look closely at any word you don’t understand – does it offer any clues to what it might mean? Does it use a prefix like “un” or “non”, or a suffix like “-ful” that might give us a hint? Try saying the unfamiliar word in a sentence – does it make sense?
The more words you can match, the easier it will be to find the connection between the remaining words and their meanings. Don’t get hung up on one word – if you get stuck and can’t think of a way to connect a word to a meaning, move on to the next one. You can always revisit it at the end and try again.
The Key to Reading is Practice
If you have been reading a little bit every day, you’ll find it relatively easy to do so, even under pressure during The National Test. It’s a skill that needs to be kept fresh and sharp, and the only way to do that is by doing it every day.
A Five-Step Reading Strategy
When time is limited, it’s often good to have a concrete plan for how you’re going to read the various texts and make sure you understand them – these
Bits of News
Read the following short texts and then show that you have understood by marking the best alternative − A, B, C or D.
Red-Hot Chilli Headache
A man was taken to hospital experiencing “thunderclap” headaches after eating the world’s hottest chilli pepper in a chilli-eating contest. The 34-year-old man had eaten one Carolina Reaper chilli in the contest in New York State.
1. What was the chilli the hospitalised man ate called?
A. The Thunderclap Chilli
B. New York Chilli
C. Carolina Reaper
D. Trinidad Scorpion . . .
Hungry Joe
Joey “Jaws” Chestnut regained his long-time title of champion in the Nathan’s Famous Hot Dog Eating contest at New York City’s Coney Island. Chestnut, 41, of Indiana, ate 71 hot dogs in 10 minutes, five shy of his previous record of 76, landing him the “Mustard Belt” prize for the 16th time.
2. What’s the most hot dogs Chestnut has eaten to win the contest?
A. 41
B. 71
C. 10
D. 76 . . .
A Game of Two Halves
When legendary Brazilian soccer player Pelé played his last professional game in 1977, he ended up playing for both teams. The game, played at Giants Stadium in New York, was an exhibition match between two of his former clubs, New York Cosmos and Santos. He played the first half of the match for Cosmos before representing Santos for the final 45 minutes of his career.
3. Who did Pele play for in the second half of his final game?
A. New York Giants
B. Brazil
C. Santos
D. New York Cosmos
Harry the Dog-Sitter
When dog-owner Rory Carroll found himself faced between collecting his take-away food and staying with his puppy Oscar, little did he know that the problem would be solved by world-famous pop singer Harry Styles. Carroll wanted to collect his food order with Oscar, but the Oaks Gourmet Market restaurant in Hollywood, California had a strict “nodogs-allowed” policy, leaving Oscar’s owner scratching his head as to what to do.
Suddenly former One Direction singer Styles appeared and offered to mind Oscar while Rory went in to grab his grub.
4. What is the name of the restaurant that Oscar’s owner had ordered from?
A. The Oats Gourmet Market
B. The Oaks Gourmand Market
C. The Oaks Gourmet Market
D. Oscar’s Gourmet Market . . . 5 15 20
Structures for Successful Writing
Just as sentences are constructed in a particular way to make sure others understand them, so too are longer texts. Each different variety of text follows a typical structure and is used for a clear purpose. This section explains the features of these text structures, as well as providing examples and writing templates. The text types included are to help you succeed with the Showcase Your Writing assignments.
Some Words about Writing
Writing well is one of the key skills when it comes to mastering the English language. Reading and listening may be the keys to understanding, but writing and speaking are where we get to express ourselves to others and showcase our ability to communicate.
The easiest way to become a better writer is to focus on clarity. Sure, it’s cool to be able to use complicated words and complex sentence structures, but writing clearly makes it easier for the reader to understand what you mean. The simpler and clearer your writing, the more people will be able to understand it, and the less chance that it will be misunderstood.
Even the most complex ideas and emotions can be communicated using simple, direct language – in fact, our thoughts and feelings often come across stronger when we strip things back.
Different Types of Texts
From letters to the editor to articles and travel memoirs, there are many different kinds of texts that are used for different purposes, but they all have one thing in common – each one has a structure to help get the writer’s point across.
In many cases, the different kinds of texts can overlap (letters to the editor can often be argumentative or persuasive texts, while writing about art or travel can be both discussion and reflective texts), and sometimes we use different names for similar things; the important thing is to pick a structure that helps you communicate your ideas clearly. Here are some of the most common types of texts you will be asked to write at school, and the basic structures that you will need to write them.
Compare & Contrast
A compare-and-contrast essay is a kind of discussion essay where you have two subjects that you compare. One way to structure this kind of essay is by first describing similarities, and then the differences between the two things being compared.
Structure
Introduce the two subjects or items that you are going to compare, and explain why such a comparison should be of interest to the reader. Also provide any background or detail that will be necessary for them to understand what is to come.
For the most part, there are two ways to structure the body of compare and contrast texts – the first way is introduce them, then list the ways in which they are similar, then how they are different, before finally summing up.
The second way is to introduce the subjects and then discuss an aspect in which they have both similarities and differences in each paragraph.
As an example, we could say that Sweden and Norway are both Scandinavian countries that enjoy a similar climate, but that our Norwegian neighbours have a population that is only about half the size of Sweden’s. When you’ve gone through a number of such points, you can present your conclusions to the reader.
Language
The language in these kinds of texts is often relatively formal and informative, but that doesn’t mean it has to be boring. To add colour and keep the reader interested, we can use adjectives (words that describe nouns) in our descriptions. For the example above using Sweden and Norway, we could use adjectives like cold, clean, beautiful and modern to describe the two countries.
Context is also important – you will need to explain to the reader why what you are comparing and contrasting is important, and the relevance that has in the wider world. When comparing Norway and Sweden, you might want to discuss how the two nations are often described as being among the wealthiest and the happiest in the world, before going on to compare them to each other.
Compare and Contrast – Template
Title The title should let the reader know what is being compared.
Introduction
Main body
Explain what you will be comparing. Try to make the reader interested. Give a background to the two things, or why you are comparing them.
Explain in what ways the two are similar and in what ways they are different. Explore the pros and cons of both.
Useful phrases
“Reading the book or listening to the book?”
Having experienced both… The similarities are…
One of the differences between… and…would be…
One advantage of… is that… A disadvantage of…would be that…
However…
On the other hand…
To conclude…
Conclusion
Summarise the main points. Why is it good to know the similarities and differences? Is one better than the other?
Compare and Contrast – Checklist
To conclude…
The text has a clear title that mentions the two things compared. The text is divided in paragraphs.
The text explains and describes the similarities.
The text explains and describes the differences.
The text includes pros and cons with both things that are being compared.
The writer has explained their thoughts and used examples.
There is a conclusion.
Example – Compare and Contrast
Title Two Nordic Neighbours, Different Cultures
Introduction
Body / Main Text
Sweden and Norway are neighbouring countries in Northern Europe and share many similarities, but they also have clear differences.
Both countries are part of Scandinavia and have cold winters, mild summers, and a strong focus on nature.
People in Sweden and Norway value equality, education, and a good work-life balance. They both enjoy high standards of living and strong social support systems. The Swedish and Norwegian languages are very similar, and the cultures share traditions such as midsummer celebrations and a love of outdoor activities.
However, the two countries differ in landscape and economy. Norway is famous for its mountains, deep fjords, and long coastline, while Sweden has more forests, lakes, and flatter land. Norway’s economy benefits greatly from oil and gas, which makes it one of the richest countries in the world. Sweden, on the other hand, relies more on industries like manufacturing and technology.
There are also cultural differences. Sweden is known for being more formal and organised, while Norway is often seen as more relaxed and casual. Sweden is a member of the European Union, but Norway is not, though it does cooperate closely with the EU.
In summary, Sweden and Norway are alike in values and lifestyle, but they differ in terms of nature, economy, and their international ties.
Which two things are compared?
Describe similarities
Conclusion
Describe differences
Summarise and evaluate similarities vs differences
Oral Presentations
There’s no doubt about it – some people find the idea of speaking in front of others terrifying, and they would do absolutely anything to avoid it, but the truth is that we will all have to do it at some point or another. Often our fears are a little misguided; most of the people listening to us wouldn’t like to swap places with us as we speak, and you’ll often find that they are very understanding. Regardless of whether your audience is one person, a small group or a thousand people, these ten tips will help you to make yourself clear when speaking in public.
2. Pace yourself. When we’re nervous, we all tend to speak more quickly. Be aware of this, control your breathing and take your time. Part of speaking clearly is enunciating – ensuring that you clearly pronounce all the parts of each word, and it’s a great way to keep ourselves from speaking too quickly.
3. Use simple, plain English words and short sentences. If you’re not going to learn your speech off by heart, write these supporting words on cards that you can look down at, and add any numbers or facts you’d like to use too. The simpler you keep it, the easier it will be to get your message across.
1. Aim for clarity, not perfection. Your goal is to be understood, not to sound like a native speaker. Don’t get hung up on small grammatical mistakes – as long as you communicate clearly, the audience will barely notice.
4. If you have to make a presentation using slides, do so well in advance. Use a structure you might use when writing a text with a clear introduction, a middle part containing information and context, and a conclusion.
8. Have some useful phrases and stories to fall back on and to link the parts of your presentation together, and bring the audience with you.engaged.
• Moving on to …
• If we look at …
• One of the things that stood out to me most was …
• I remember reading that …
• I think we can all agree …
7. Focus on connecting with your audience. Watch how they react to what you say – if they look like they’re struggling to keep up, speak more slowly. If they’re smiling, keep going. Look up from your notes – you don’t have to make eye contact as you speak, but looking down all the time breaks your connection to them. A good trick is to look over their heads towards something at the back of the room. Most of all, respond to them. Ask them if they understand, and then move on to your next point.
5. Use anecdotes and stories to illustrate your message. Very few people get excited listening to a presentation about numbers, but if you can spice it up with an interesting or funny story, you’ll be able to keep them engaged.
9. The vast majority of the people in your audience want you to succeed, and they want to understand what you are saying. As long as you keep it simple and clear, they will have no problem doing so.
6. Practice out loud. Before speaking to a group, practice what you want to say in the mirror, or with another student that you trust. Record yourself on your phone and listen back – most people really don’t like doing this as they don’t like the sound of their own voice, but it is a very quick and direct way to improve your speaking skills.
Grammar Reference
1. Getting It Right
Common error types in students’ writing are typically very small details that could easily be avoided if you were aware of the following two categories:
1.1
Contractions
Two short words can be merged into one unit by reducing a vowel sound (typically combining a pronoun or noun with a verb or “not”). This is common in spoken and informal writing but should be avoided in formal and academic texts. The reduction is marked with an apostrophe (’) in the position where the letter/sound has been removed.
Examples: I am à I’m they have à they’ve you are à you’re do not à don’t he has à he’s cannot à can’t
1.2 Confusing Pairs
Contracted forms might sound like other words that have a different meaning. There are also non-contracted word pairs that sound very similar but refer to different ideas. It is very important to be cautious with the spelling of these confusing pairs.
Examples: it’s – it is / it has (It’s cold) who’s – who is / who has (Who’s calling?) its – possessive (The dog ate its food) whose – possession (Whose book is this?) there – a place (The book is over there) were – past tense of are (We were tired) their – possession (Their car is red) where – location (Where are you?)
2. The Building Blocks
Spoken and written language is built by combining words into larger units. We can categorise and analyse these units on various levels to help us understand the functions of individual words. This also gives us a specialised language to talk about grammar.
2.1 Parts of Speech (Word Classes)
Individual words belong to different categories depending on their function:
Nouns name people, places, things, and ideas (e.g. teacher, city, happiness)
Verbs express actions or states (e.g. run, think, to be)
Prepositions show relationships in space, time, or meaning (e.g. under, before, with)
Conjunctions connect words or clauses (e.g. and, but, because)
Determiners introduce nouns (e.g. the, a, those)
Another category of words are the numerals, such as cardinal numbers (one, two, three) and ordinal numbers ( first, second, third ). They are usually not considered a separate part of speech. Instead, they function as determiners, pronouns, adjectives or nouns, depending on how they are used in phrases or sentences.
2.2 Phrase Types
A phrase is a unit built around a main word called the head. The type of head word (its word class) tells us the kind of phrase (noun phrase, verb phrase, etc.). Phrases can have complements or modifiers to complete the meaning or add extra information to the head word.
COMPANION – NIVÅ 1 är ett läromedel i engelska med innehåll som är relevant för både studier och omvärld, med tydliga kopplingar till hur engelska används i verkliga sammanhang.
Arbetet är upplagt så att du stegvis går från förståelse till självständig muntlig och skriftlig produktion. Fokus ligger på meningsfull kommunikation, samtidigt som du får stöd i ordförråd, grammatik och språklig struktur för att kunna uttrycka dig med ökad säkerhet och precision.
Materialet är välstrukturerat med ett genomtänkt stöd före, under och efter arbetet med texter och uppgifter. Varje kapitel avslutas med större muntliga och skriftliga uppgifter där du får exempel och skrivmallar som hjälper dig att arbeta mer självständigt och visa din språkliga progression.
Companion – Nivå 1 bygger på en tydlig pedagogisk idé och är utformad för att ge dig språklig trygghet samt de kommunikativa färdigheter som krävs för vidare studier.
