SCC English Dept. Scholarly Journal – Two Waters Review Vol. 3, Issue 2

Two Wate Rev r

Old Game

New Rules

Two Waters Review

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Old Game

New Rules

Two Waters Review

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Old Game

New Rules

Digital Hoarding: Old Game, New Rules

DIGITAL HOARDING: OLD GAME, NEW RULES

Esther Tachie-Menson

At the top of the screen, the phone displays a warning alerting the user of the limited storage available in their digital photo gallery. For what seems like the eighth time this month, the user must browse through their thousands of videos and photos to remove anything that is no longer relevant to them. After an hour of scrolling, they give up and return to watching their videos, having convinced themselves that practically everyone with a phone has the same issue. They will just have to buy more digital storage space later. However, these habits may cause more damage than society realizes. Now called digital hoarding, this accumulation of digital information is becoming increasingly excessive. Despite the surge in social-media-free lifestyles, there are still many other ways digital information can build up. The accumulation of hundreds of videos, photos, and documents saved on personal, work, and academic devices has increasingly become an inconvenience. This disturbance is not only a strain on digital storage, but on mental health as well. Digital hoarding is an aftereffect of vulnerable emotions and defining features of technology, especially social media influences, which can result in poor health that can be reversed or avoided.

Digital hoarding is a modern expansion upon physical hoarding that has moved the struggles of the physical world and applied them to a digital context. In an academic paper titled, “Digital Hoarding: A New Subtype of Traditional Hoarding Disorder,” researchers Jennifer Freeman and Kathrin Renschler refer to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) diagnostic criterion of a hoarding disorder. According to the authors, hoarding is defined by the DSM-5 as “an ongoing difficulty with discarding personal possessions, regardless of their actual economic or monetary value” and “an accumulation of a large number of possessions causing clutter in active living areas to ‘the extent that the intended use of those areas is no longer possible’” (qtd. in Renschler and Freeman). This statement suggests that hoarding has two key elements: a hesitancy or reluctance in discarding items and an accumulation to the point of inconveniencing daily life. It should be noted that the economic or monetary value of said items is not relevant when discussing a hoarding disorder. In other words, whereas some people would argue that compiling items of high monetary value is collecting, this statement considers all items that meet this criterion to be hoarding. However, the latter part of this interpretation highlights a physical aspect of hoarding, one that does not specifically apply to digital hoarding. Renschler and Freeman state that digital hoarding can inconvenience daily life. For example, “the digital equivalent of not being able to use the stove or shower due to cluttering is not

being able to get a software update due to insufficient storage capacity or no longer being able to receive emails due to a full inbox” (Renschler and Freeman). This substitution is important as this means that hoarding occurs outside of a physical context. Although digital hoarding does not involve difficulty discarding physical items, when applied to the modern-day life that involves technology, the DSM-5 diagnostic criterion suggests that the authors would still consider digital hoarding to be a hoarding disorder.

From an emotional viewpoint, digital hoarding can take hold of people’s identities, which are often supported by emotions that can become vulnerable. In Stuff: Compulsive Hoarding and the Meaning of Things, psychology professors Randy O. Frost and Gail Steketee sought to learn what compulsions drive hoarders. In their book, the authors shared the story of a retired gallery owner and arts producer in his mid-sixties named Colin, who expressed his struggle with giving objects away, stating, “Concerns about his [Colin’s] own personal value seemed to lie behind Colin’s addiction… The pathos of his words echoed that of many hoarders whose self-image has become dependent on the object they believe represents them” (Frost and Steketee 75). When people feel lost, they begin to engage in behaviors that arouse pleasure in the brain and reduce negative emotional states, such as stress and anxiety. For many people, this coping mechanism often manifests itself as alcoholism or drug addiction. In Colin’s life, he found comfort in hoarding random objects people gave him. From cuff links to wingtip shoes, Colin believed that his collection became a representation of his self-image, especially since he was no longer able to express his values through his work.

Frost and Steketee found that this dilemma more commonly affects elderly people. Moreover, the authors found that elderly hoarders or “collectors” often form their identity around inanimate objects. The authors claim that many collectors view their collections as their legacy to pass on to the world, leading scholars to suggest “collecting is a way to manage fears about death by creating a form of immortality” (Frost and Steketee 55). Just as physical hoarding can create a sense of comfort, digital hoarding can also be seen as a representation of a person’s self-image. Compiling thousands of photos on social media to document one’s personality is an example of this behavior. Saving personal belongings helps aging people feel less forgotten and invisible, as it becomes increasingly harder to find self-purpose as they grow older. Collecting items seen as valuable builds a sense of importance of usefulness in their lives, making them feel more remembered and noticed.

Digital hoarding not only imitates the consolation of physical hoarding but is now a simple consequence of living with digital devices. In her article, “Storing Too Many Digital Items on Your Devices Could Be a Sign of a Disorder, Experts Say,” Taylor Nicioli states that “Everyone with a digital device will likely face

such clutter at some point.” This new age of technology brings many struggles that were much less prevalent in the past. Nicioli believes that the struggles that come with digital hoarding are not new but have adjusted to modern life. Defining features of technology make accumulating media easier than physical accumulation. When discussing the difficulty of discarding digital items, Renschler and Freeman write:

While some hoarders may accumulate physical belongings for the same reason that it is easier than having to deal with deciding which items to discard, the cost of doing so is likely higher compared to a digital context. In other words, a lack of necessity to discard may exacerbate a perceived need to save items in a digital context (and increase avoidance behaviors).

The authors conclude that digital hoarding can cost significantly less. This can further enforce hoarders’ hesitancy to discard unneeded digital media since there is less incentive to do so. Renschler and Freeman also point out the fact that digital items do not take up as much space as physical items. Therefore, it is much easier to accumulate them and avoid discarding unneeded items. Moreover, this aspect of digital hoarding can affect people of all ages. For these reasons, as well as the financial aspect, Renschler and Freeman believe digital hoarding can be seen as a much easier form, and maybe a more prevalent form, of hoarding.

Social media influences can also encourage people to engage in behaviors that can lead to digital hoarding. In the article titled “When We Can Share Everything Online, What Counts as Oversharing,” lifestyle and wellness reporter Shayla Love talks about how common it currently is to overshare information online and how social media has normalized this practice that was once seen as dangerous. She explains how this concept first came to mind when a new Instagram friend freely divulged personal details with her. Thus, she began to question just how much oversharing has changed over time. Her curiosity leads her to learn about the different forms of oversharing and how this behavior is generally seen as a way for people to communicate and connect with others to form relationships. However, oversharing can also be tied to anxiety, attention seeking, and cyberbullying (Love). Yet some people who have social anxiety may overshare with the intent of seeking sympathy or attention from others. People online can use this vulnerability to bully others, leading to feelings of isolation. In addition, a social media user’s level of engagement with social media correlates with materialism, leading them to engage in digital hoarding behaviors that, oftentimes, people cannot afford. In Pellegrino et al.’s Frontiers in Psychology journal article, researchers conducted a study to determine how social media platforms may enhance negative consumption behaviors, the dire consequences for countries’ economies, and individuals indulging

in these behaviors. Pellegrino et al. explain that a survey was given to social media users to learn the demographics of people who used three of the most popular e-commerce platforms in Thailand: Lazada, Shopee, and Chilindo. From the survey, researchers found that social media intensity (SMI) and a social media user’s level of engagement with social media correlate with negative consumption habits such as showing off expensive luxury items or services and unplanned shopping that can increase debt, stress, and anxiety (Pellegrino et al). Pellegrino et al. concluded that “As SMI has been shown to have a direct impact on enhancing negative consumption habits, tools that measure and limit the virality of misleading marketing campaigns which target vulnerable audiences should be implemented.” In other words, the amount of time a user spends on social media, combined with various advertisements users encounter while scrolling social media, can push people to buy items they do not need. In a digital world where influencers are constantly promoting new products to their viewer, many people can fall into the trap of showing off expensive luxury items, apps, and services that they otherwise would not have deemed necessary. Over time, this unplanned shopping can increase debt, stress, and anxiety as spending can spiral out of control, leaving people with an excessive number of digital and physical items that they hardly ever use.

Additionally, out of fear of missing out (FOMO), people often save digital information impulsively, believing it may be of use later, even though saved digital information holds more temporary than long-term value. The academic journal paper titled “Digital Hoarding in Everyday Hedonic Social Media Use: The Roles of Fear of Missing out (FOMO) and Social Media Affordances,” written by Wu et al. ,focuses on different forms of anxiety that trigger it. In a study conducted by Wu et al., researchers collected information from questionnaires distributed through four social media platforms in China to examine the relationships among FOMO, social media affordances, and digital hoarding. Based on the responses, researchers identified information anxiety and attachment anxiety as strong contributors to FOMO (Wu et al.). As one of their major findings, the researchers stated, “when using social media, we often save shared information on a whim or to solve an immediate problem – information which might be of no use in the future and can be easily erased” (Wu et al.). Just as professors Frost and Steketee found attachment anxiety to be a precursor to physical hoarding, Wu et al. found the same applied to digital hoarding. They expanded upon this premise, stating that the ability to share online content is also an affordance that strengthens the relationship between FOMO and accumulating.

Furthermore, in her 2023 Master of Science dissertation, “How the Fear of Missing Out drives young Consumers to make Impulse Purchases: An experimental Study on (Over)spending,” Alma Elise Pauline Tippmann cites a

study conducted by Rifkin et al that found, quote, “…exposure to social media photos produces FOMO, reduces enjoyment of the ongoing activity, and raises anticipated enjoyment of the missed event.” This hyper focus on what may happen in the future detracts from what is happening in the present. As a result, FOMO also reduces enjoyment of what consumers have or are experiencing in the present because they are too preoccupied with what they may miss out on in the future (Tippmann). People may justify saving social media content because they believe they will reference it later and possibly share it with another person. However, the information is often only needed in the moment and has no real use in the future, and it detracts from the present.

Consequently, a reluctance to discard unneeded digital items or disengage from sharing information online can result in anxiety that results in a cycle that is hard to break. In an interview, mining engineer Samuel Tachie-Menson explained why he takes time to organize his emails multiple times a day, stating, “I wouldn’t say I get anxiety when I have a lot of emails, but I do feel stressed when I do not manage them.” A lack of organization can hinder people’s ability to prioritize, as it can be difficult to even decipher the specific information one has. As Tachie-Menson explains, he tends to stress about emails when he does not organize them because he does not know which emails are important and which are irrelevant. Similarly, Taylor Nicioli cites information from Dr. Susan Albers, a clinical psychologist at the Cleveland Clinic in Ohio. Nicioli shares that Dr. Albers warns digital device users of the dangers of living with technology, stating, “‘It’s something that triggers a lot of stress and anxiety, the collection of emails, pictures, open tabs — an overwhelming number of digital items that trigger overload’” (qtd. in Nicioli). Lacking a clear grasp of which information is valuable and which is trivial can lead to stress. People may continue hoarding as a way to calm their anxiety and provide comfort, resulting in more anxiety that forms a cycle which contributes to the overall health concerns of digital hoarding.

Moreover, excessively saving information online can result in impaired mental function, such as hindering productivity and decreasing happiness. Nicioli takes a more relatable approach to digital hoarding. She compares digital clutter to digital hoarding and explains how the latter may harm the brain and how it can develop into a disorder. Nicioli relates that Dr. Emanuel Maidenberg from UCLA and Dr. Sanjaya Saxena from the Boston-based International OCD Foundation shared how they believe saving information online has moved past holding onto memories or important documents, to the extent that it has now been labeled as digital hoarding disorder. Even though hoarding may have moved from the physical world to the digital world, the consequences on people’s mental health still exist and may be even more prevalent as people engage with digital devices daily.

Fortunately, there are methods to reverse or prevent the negative effects of digital hoarding. Prioritizing and only saving digital information that is essential in the moment can help decrease digital hoarding. In the interview, Tachie-Menson shared that to combat the 200-plus emails he receives every day, he cleans out his email multiple times a day. He deletes emails that are not important and then tags the important emails to arrange them in different folders (TachieMenson). This way, he has a basic idea of what each email is about, and he can read and respond to them later in order of importance. Making a designated space for important information, whether it is an online folder or iCloud storage, is a good way to separate digital media that is useful in the moment from unneeded content. As for the unneeded content, for many people, it is best to immediately delete information that is not needed the moment it comes across the page or enters the email inbox, and unsubscribe when possible. This way, people do not have to grapple with attachment anxiety or hesitancy in deleting irrelevant content later on, helping decrease digital hoarding.

Human brains favor clarity over chaos, so refraining from saving digital information that people encounter can improve mental function. When interviewed by Nicioli, clinical psychologist Dr. Susan Albers explained, “‘Digital clutter is just as stressful as actual clutter in our physical world …Our brains are really predisposed to favor clarity and simplicity over chaos, and that’s how it can feel when you have a million tabs open’” (qtd. in Nicioli). The reason digital hoarding can generate stress and anxiety is that the brain favors organization. Thus, when it is constantly fed excessive amounts of information that is not strategically categorized or even relevant, this can take a toll on the brain’s ability to process information properly and efficiently. To avoid this negative consequence, Dr. Albers proposed emphasizing clarity and simplicity over chaos online (qtd. in Nicioli). This can mean setting boundaries when using digital devices. For example, only allowing notifications from apps of high priority can help limit the amount of information the brain is exposed to throughout the day. Refraining from using a digital device for a day can create an even stronger barrier that will allow the mind to relax for a few hours without the constant and inevitable interruptions of the internet.

Present-day life almost requires people to use electronic devices. From scanning QR codes at a restaurant for the menu to sharing family photos with friends on social media, it is hard to go a single day without accessing and excessively saving some form of digital media. Digital hoarding is a consequence of digital life that takes hold of feelings of isolation and FOMO pushed by social media influences, resulting in mental stress that can be decreased by limiting exposure to digital information. As the world begins to integrate more technology into human life, it is important to be aware of not only the benefits but also the consequences of digital life. Digital hoarding may be a

simple consequence of online information; however, people must educate themselves on the many ways they can avoid falling into the unbreakable cycle of accumulating irrelevant data and push themselves to exercise restraint and organization to fuel a healthy lifestyle, regardless of the future advancements of digital life.

WORKS CITED

Frost, Randy O., and Gail Steketee. Stuff: Compulsive Hoarding and the Meaning of Things. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2010.

Love, Shayla. “When We Can Share Everything Online, What Counts as Oversharing?” The Guardian, 25 Jan. 2024, www.theguardian.com/wellness/2024/jan/25/oversharing-social-media-privacyanxiety.

Nicioli, Taylor. “Storing Too Many Digital Items on Your Devices Could Be a Sign of a Disorder, Experts Say.” CNN, 15 Nov. 2024, www.cnn.com/2024/11/15/health/digital-hoarding-clutter-wellness/ index.html.

Pellegrino, Alfonso, et al. “The Dark Side of Social Media: Content Effects on the Relationship Between Materialism and Consumption Behaviors.” Frontiers in Psychology, Apr. 2022. National Library of Medicine, pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9096894

Renschler, Kathrin, and Jennifer Freeman. “Digital Hoarding: A New Subtype of Traditional Hoarding Disorder?” Brown University Child & Adolescent Behavior Letter, vol. 39, no. 2, Feb. 2023. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.1002/cbl.30686.

Tachie-Menson, Samuel. Interview. Conducted by Esther Tachie-Menson, 28 Mar. 2025.

Tippmann, Alma Elise Pauline. How The Fear of Missing Out Drives Young Consumers to Make Impulse Purchases: An Experimental Study on (Over-)Spending. Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Dissertation, 2023 www.proquest.com/openview/142ae7f995edcad0aa9811f21cd0 0908/1?cbl=2026366&diss=y&pq-origsite=gscholar.

Wu, Dawei, et al. “Digital Hoarding in Everyday Hedonic Social Media Use: The Roles of Fear of Missing out (FOMO) and Social Media Affordances.” International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 40, no. 18, Sept. 2024, pp. 539–414. EBSCOhost, research-ebsco-com.ezproxy. scottsdalecc.edu/c/bpbmvp/viewer/html/rjnkydmy2n

Eternal Legacy in a Culture of Disposability

ETERNAL LEGACY

IN A CULTURE OF DISPOSABILITY

Sarah N. Zenker

People in the Western world approach existence with a pervasive sense of disposability. In today’s culture, there seems to be a circular relationship in which the implicitly apathetic attitudes of people contribute to the development of low-quality goods and relationships that lack meaning, and are increasingly treated as replaceable. This speaks of a broader cultural shift toward impermanence, with a focus on immediate gratification, often at the expense of substance and quality. It is widely known that humans are influenced by their environments, and there is no exception when it comes to the current culture. Not only does the current culture of disposability impact the day-to-day lives people lead, it also changes the way they leave their mark on the world. Legacies, which are established based on culture, allow people to symbolically extend themselves past their own deaths. The modern culture of disposability motivates people to connect with systems of value, leading them to generate value-based legacies through impactful actions, which in turn support the survival and reproduction of human populations.

The way people act in society illustrates the modern culture of disposability. First, and perhaps most obviously, material items are being disposed of and replaced quickly, which encourages the production of low-quality items. In an article by Flanagan (2024), Jacqui Sadashige, a lecturer at Penn’s College of Liberal and Professional Studies states,

I came across this statistic from Earth.org that says since 2000, clothing sales have doubled annually, while the average number of times an item has been worn decreased by more than 30%. The consumption is going up, the wearing is decreasing, and disposal is increasing.

In other words, people get less wear out of each item in their wardrobe than they used to. This suggests that people are assigning less value to each article of clothing, and it is evidence that hyper-consumerism is contributing to a decline in quality of items. A rapid-consumption cultural model paves the way for companies to capitalize on consumers by offering vast amounts of low-cost, lowquality products that are generally viewed as disposable. Plastic food packaging, particleboard furniture, and the planned obsolescence of technology are further evidence of the declining quality and temporary utility of material items in the modern world.

Lifestyles centered around expendable items are not without consequences; people are also being treated as disposable. In his article, Lynch (2016) highlights that, “In four separate studies, Gillath and co-author Lucas

Keefer of the University of Dayton tied the view that objects are disposable to an attitude that social relationships also could be replaced.” This suggests that the societal theme of disposability primes individuals to view people as disposable too. Expanding on this concept, Omri Gillath, the lead researcher on the paper Lynch discusses, and current psychology professor at University of Kansas, states,

We’re suggesting this is a broad phenomenon where we all tend to look at relationships to co-workers, friends and social network members as replaceable. Even in romantic relationships, when I ask my students what would they do when things get difficult, most of them say they would move on rather than try to work things out … .

According to Gillath, many people are not willing to make much effort to address problems in relationships, which implies a lack of loyalty and indicates that relationships are not highly valued. By approaching relationships with a disengaged attitude, individuals signify that others are unimportant and replaceable if the relationship goes awry. Similar to modern consumerism leading to a decline in the quality of material goods, the modern lackadaisical approach to others is leading to a decline in the quality of many relationships. Low-quality relationships, which lack the meaning associated with loyalty and are based on the diminished value of the individuals involved, are indicative of the current culture of disposability.

Large-scale manifestations of individuals being treated as disposable are also echoed on a much broader scale within companies. In Zimmerman (2024), Jeffrey Pfeffer, a professor at the Stanford Graduate School of Business states,

Implicit contracts are violated in the corporate world on a daily basis. Workplaces not only fail to acknowledge past employee loyalty and contributions, but they also renege on what has been implicitly or explicitly promised, such as pensions and retiree health care.

Pfeffer’s statement highlights the ignorance of the moral and ethical obligations of companies to properly reward their employees for their dedication and loyalty. Based on his overall statement, and his use of the words “daily basis,” it is clear that it is common for companies to not have much respect for their employees. Failing to fulfill promises after some employees have demonstrated decades of company loyalty and have relied on these promises for their future security, indicate companies’ perceived low importance of their employees. By extension, the lives, goals, and families of employees are often not considered when companies make decisions that will directly impact them. This is clear evidence of the larger-scale devaluation of people and their lives, which is characteristic of the modern culture.

With a consumer environment of disposability, alongside romantic partners,

friends, and companies treating people as increasingly disposable, individuals may come to view their own lives as more fleeting. Increased perceived transience of life necessarily implies that death is fast-approaching, which frightens many people and motivates them to connect with systems of value that will outlive them.

Humans are aware of their inevitable mortality and find comfort in the dissipation of anxiety provided by associating with belief systems. People are anxious about death because of its enigmatic quality and unspecified time of personal occurrence. This concept is the basis of Terror Management Theory (TMT). To further explain TMT, Alparslan and Kuşdil (2024) outline that death anxiety,

leads [a] person to find a foundation that will make human existence eternal. At this point, the person tries to suppress the sense of terror created by the awareness of death and to make it tolerable, adopting religious or secular beliefs and ideologies to console and comfort himself/herself. (p. 290)

This suggests that instead of reconciling with their own deaths, people attempt to mitigate anxiety about their mortality by embracing religious and secular belief systems, which are collections of value-based legacies. Both religious and secular belief systems act as truth-holders of death’s unknowable aspects and support people with answers, helping them contemplate death in a way that feels less threatening. Religious belief systems offer support through a view of the world in which there is life after death, suffering has divine purpose, and a greater power knows what happens after people die, while secular belief systems tend to focus on personal, narrative-based legacies and moral responsibility to others (Manning, 2019, 2023). The support provided in both instances require a type of intermediary between humans and death: a higher being or community belonging. The intermediaries provide symbolic separation between individuals and death, and they also invite personal bonding with such truth-holders, which can have a comforting effect. With the current culture of disposability contributing to a heightened awareness of inevitable death, people are increasingly driven to reconcile themselves with death’s enigmatic qualities by associating with secular and religious belief systems: mediums for diffused legacies.

Through dedication to belief systems, people connect with something that will outlive themselves. According to Alparslan and Kuşdil (2024), by closely associating with religious belief systems, individuals effectively transcend themselves, “through [bonding] with the transcendent being and co-religionists” (p. 291). In other words, association with religious belief systems reduce selffocus. Oreg and Taubman (2024) provide a more expansive view and state that,

Defining oneself as a member of a particular nation, as one who belongs to a community and shares a collective identity, provides a sense of selfworth … and guarantees that the individual’s legacy will not be lost with their death … . (pp. 2-3)

Taken together, these statements suggest that all belief and value systems, both religious and secular, as well as other defined groups of people, provide personal self-transcendence and reduced self-focus in the form of a collective identity. The process of integrating with a collective identity connects people with the values the group upholds. As Oreg and Taubman mentioned, people can leave lasting legacies through their associations with collective identities. Deceased members of these groups can offer “guidance” to their survivors, symbolically living on through the values that guide their survivors’ decisions and actions. In this way, a person’s legacy can be instantiated in his/ her personal association with the value system of their group. As people are drawn to associate with belief and value systems to negate death anxiety in an increasingly disposable environment, they are supplied with a connection to something that will endure through their own deaths and are provided a medium through which they may symbolically continue.

In order for the values associated with belief and value systems to continue into the future —granting legacy-leavers symbolic immortality—their essence must be successfully shared with others. In a culture that increasingly dispenses with the tangible, legacies of value must be transmitted in ways that rely less on tangible items, making them effective in their transmission despite cultural changes. The human instinct to move and perform actions is deeply rooted and has been sustained through the cultural shift toward disposability. Perhaps for this reason, lasting legacies are realized when people observe and are moved by the impactful actions of others—actions that reflect the other’s value system— and are inspired to emulate them.

Meaningful day-to-day actions performed with an outward focus can evoke admiration, encouraging the formation of legacies of value. To start, Maslow (1970) observes that emotionally healthy, admirable high-achievers, whom he calls self-actualized, are preoccupied with addressing problems outside of themselves. According to Maslow, self-actualization includes pursuing meaningful relationships (pp. 165-166) and generally striving upward to improve society (pp. 159, 179-180). Together, Maslow’s statements imply that an outward focus is helpful to establish relationships and improve the broader community. A prime example of outward-focused problem-solving is in the child-rearing process. To successfully nurture the development of their children, many parents learn to put their own whims aside. The outwardly focused dedication to the development of children aligns with Maslow’s description of the outwardly focused traits that admirable people exhibit while striving in a positive direction.

As expected, adults admire their parents through recollections of their positive actions, including those observed during childhood. During qualitative interviews about legacy transmission, Hunter (2007) observed that parental legacies were influential to her participants. She states that,

Jasmine, a 78-year-old woman with children, felt strong admiration for her father. He was a self-made man who had many accomplishments on the world stage. He had lived a life of giving and caring for others, and had urged her to do the same. … Often, the women broke down and cried when talking about their mother. Their mother’s honesty, caring, and love were mentioned again and again (pp. 323-324).

It is clear, through their emotional responses, that Hunter’s interviewees were impacted by their parents’ ways of living in the world. They experienced the meaningful products of their parents’ value systems through day-to-day firsthand observations of their parents’ actions. Actions signify underlying value structures; therefore, values can be inferred by actions. The aspects of being self-made, giving, caring, honest, and loving are frequently proclaimed in Judeo-Christian doctrine, which many of the interviewees openly follow. Not all participants had children, but it is likely the participants who had children raised them with similar principles because they admired their own parents’ approaches. Their parents left behind impactful legacies of value through their meaningful and outwardly-focused actions that demonstrated care for their children and the broader community. The sense of admiration for parents comes from within. In this way, legacies of value are deeper and more sophisticated than other types of legacy—traits that allow for resilience in a culture of disposability. The admiration and subsequent imitation of the participants’ parents’ approaches to life are evidence of the enduring quality of legacies of value.

Awe-inspiring altruistic acts and impressive accomplishments are also kinds of legacies that invite people to improve themselves, supporting legacies based on value. To describe awe, Keltner and Haidt (2003) put forth two factors that are required for an emotion to be classified as awe: perceived vastness and required accommodation of a stimulus into a pre-existing cognitive framework (p. 303). They explain that in this context, accommodation occurs, “when mental structures expand to accommodate truths never before known” (p. 304). This hints that awe has a real impact on people because once a new stimulus is processed cognitively and neural networks adjust accordingly, the person could be considered physiologically different than they were before the experience. According to Shiota et al (2014), people can experience awe as a result of their own accomplishments or those of others, and describe the awe experienced by their own accomplishments as “amazement bordering on disbelief, rather than pride” (p. 364). Shiota et al. also include that awe increases prosocial behavior,

citing new research (p. 366). They also maintain that people experience “elevation” when observing altruistic actions, which motivate observers to participate in behaviors that also help others. Together, these statements by Shiota et al. indicate that altruistic behaviors could evoke awe, falling into the same category as “remarkable accomplishments,” because they can both result in outcomes of outwardly focused feelings and behaviors in observers.

Based on the research by Keltner and Haidt as well as Shiota et al., when people observe acts of altruism or spectacular accomplishments—actions that evoke awe—they sense they are subordinate in values to the action performer, as awe’s sense of vastness implies their own inaction relative to the ideals embodied in the act. Through implied subordination, the observers’ untapped potential is roused, and their consciences encourage an embodiment of the spirit of the original act. In other words, awe-inspiring actions encourage observers to follow the underlying value structures of the person taking the action because the observers’ consciences alert them to both their own inadequacies and current potential. By feeling inspired to emulate the actions of others, people may unconsciously adopt their values, thereby supporting the other person’s value system and legacy.

As previously proposed, impactful actions are based on values, and people can create legacies through them by inspiring others to follow their example, thus continuing those values into the future. The continuation of altruism and/ or other values that have supported the interrelations of a community help the community persevere into the future. As a result, people may have unconscious biological motivations to leave value-based legacies because they support the survival and reproduction of their families and communities.

To begin with, leaving a positive legacy may have a beneficial impact on the reproductive success of a person’s family. Feehly (2023) explains recent research by Brett Waggoner and Jesse Bering at the University of Otago: “They found that people’s hypothetical dating choices were negatively influenced by familial transgressions, such as the knowledge that serious crimes have been committed by a close biological relative of the prospective date, even one not involved in their upbringing.” This means that people who leave negative legacies may have detrimental impacts on the biological reproduction of their families. Based on this, Feehly infers that, “legacy-seeking behaviours might be an adaptation to give our biological kin favourable conditions for finding a mate and reproducing” (p. 41). This idea posited by Feehly suggests that if a person is aligned with a system of values that encourages behaviors which are generally viewed in the culture as positive, their family may be more likely to reproduce. This increases the likelihood of that person’s genetic material being continued, even if it is not through their own offspring. Since the goal of the reproductive drive is to successfully continue the species, people may find

themselves unconsciously motivated to leave legacies of value, which aid in the reproduction of their family.

However, the transmission of legacies of value extend well past supporting familial offspring, they can also benefit the community. Hunter and Rowles (2005) conducted qualitative interviews in which their participants were encouraged to reflect on their lives and discuss their own legacies. Hunter and Rowles discern that,

While values are implicit in all forms of legacy, we found that explicitly passing along personal, social and cultural values was seen as an important part of parenting, of one’s long-term social responsibility to the community, and of one’s responsibility to transmit one’s cultural identity to the next generation. (p. 341)

In other words, their participants wanted to bequeath wisdom gained and the values that successfully maintained them through their lives—concepts which indicate altruistic intentions toward future generations. Value systems that prioritize altruistic behaviors like sharing food, helping others, and cooperating can increase the community’s survival and reproductive success while influencing the environment children are raised in. In this way, value systems held by people that do not have children can have an impact on the environment of others’ potential offspring. Through value-based actions like exemplary mentorship, creation of uniquely moving art, or generation of influential pieces of writing that become ingrained in the culture, even people without children can create a profound ripple effect on the social fabric of a community by transmitting the essence of their value system.

To summarize, the modern Western culture of disposability devalues people and places emphasis on the finitude of life. Since material items are tossed away with such frivolity, people are increasingly unconsciously aware of the approaching disposability of their own bodies. They are left fearful and grasping for some way to ensure their lives and deaths are not without ultimate purpose. This urges people to connect with something enduring, like value and belief systems. By doing so, individuals transcend themselves and integrate with a collective of values. Even when an individual dies, the large outreach of values the individual was a part of will still continue indefinitely into the future, effectively granting the individual symbolic immortality. To support the continuation of their value systems, people share its principles with others. Value-based legacies are transmitted through peoples’ meaningful and awe-inspiring actions, which can be emulated and passed to both biological and cultural descendants. Given that there is biological utility in altruistically maintaining the social order and supporting the continuation of the species through values, it is logical to deduce that the drive to transmit legacies, specifically related to value, may be supported unconsciously. Additionally,

since the current culture is not conducive to passing material possessions to descendants, legacies must be created in ways that do not rely on them. Legacies of value withstand the modern culture of disposability because they are transmitted through different means: the inner voice of observers, which draws attention to their personal potential in moments that inspire. Legacies of value are not carried by people like material heirlooms that could be lost, stolen, or discarded; they are carried through people.

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Feehly, C. (2023). The legacy paradox. New Scientist, 260(3460), 40–43. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. https://doi-org.ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu/10.1016/s0262-4079(23)01926-7.

Flanagan, M. (2024). Fast fashion. University of Pennsylvania | Environmental Innovations Initiative. https://environment.upenn.edu/events-insights/news/fast-fashion

Hunter, E. G. (2007). Beyond death: Inheriting the past and giving to the future, transmitting the legacy of one’s self. Omega: Journal of Death & Dying, 56(4), 313–329. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. https://doi-org.ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu/10.2190/OM.56.4.a

Hunter, E. G., & Rowles, G. D. (2005). Leaving a legacy: Toward a typology. Journal of Aging Studies, 19(3), 327–347. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaging.2004.08.002.

Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition & Emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Retrieved from EBSCOhost https://doi-org.ezproxy.scottsdalecc edu/10.1080/02699930302297.

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Manning, C. (2019, Winter). Facing death without religion. Harvard Divinity Bulletin. https://bulletin. hds.harvard.edu/facing-death-without-religion/.

Manning, C. (2023). Facing death without religion: How non-religious elders imagine death and how that shapes their lives. Journal of Religion, Spirituality & Aging, 1–20. DOI: 10.1080/15528030.2023.2243855.

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Oreg, A., & Taubman – Ben-Ari, O. (2024). Spontaneous war weddings as a reaction to a national trauma: A terror management theory perspective. Death Studies, 1–14. DOI: 10.1080/07481187.2024.2386063.

Shiota, M. N., Thrash, T. M., Danvers, A. F., & Dombrowski, J. T. (2014). Transcending the self: Awe, elevation, and inspiration. Handbook of Positive Emotions (pp. 362–377). The Guilford Press. Zimmerman, E. (2024). Jeffrey Pfeffer: Why companies no longer reward loyal employees. Stanford Graduate School of Business. https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/insights/jeffrey-pfeffer-whycompanies-no-longer-reward-loyal-employees.

A Case

for Preserving Retail Space in the Age of E-Commerce

A CASE FOR PRESERVING RETAIL SPACE IN THE AGE OF E-COMMERCE

Maxwell Phillips

A CASE FOR ADAPTIVE REUSE

In an era where e-commerce is rapidly expanding, online shopping accounts for about 16.1% of total retail sales, according to the U.S. Census Bureau (2024). But, according to Statista, brick-and-mortar stores still make up most sales at 83.8%. Despite the quickness and convenience of shopping online, inperson stores still provide that feeling of customer service and sociality. Online shopping simply can’t compete with brick-and-mortar personalized service and the feeling of shopping (Petro, 2019). PricewaterhouseCoopers is a global leader in professional services, specializing in audit, consulting, and tax advisory. PwC (2023) found that over 50% of in-person shoppers prefer to verify the quality of a product before purchasing it. Further research shows that about 67% of men and 77% of women enjoy going shopping in person (Petro, 2019), which is a majority of men and women who prefer brick-and-mortar over e-commerce. E-commerce has undoubtedly shaped our habits as shoppers, and the appeal of in-person retail shopping has gained back momentum from the pandemic and is a necessity for our communities and cultures. Retail spaces should be preserved and strategically adapted through adaptive reuse, transforming underutilized buildings into community-centered, sustainable environments that align with modern shopping trends and social needs. This approach maintains local character while addressing evolving consumer expectations.

PRESERVING COMMUNITY VALUE

THROUGH REPURPOSING

Repurposing retail spaces has far more value than completely overhauling. Derek Wyatt (2023), Managing Director at RCLCO Real Estate Consulting (a firm with over 50 years of experience), emphasizes the growing trend of revitalizing existing retail spaces to meet contemporary needs. In RCLCO’s publication “Retail Reimagined,” various examples illustrate how former bigname stores are being turned into community centers and experiential spaces better suited for the local community without totally destroying or overhauling them. The evidence shows the significant advantages of revitalizing existing retail properties rather than opting for a complete overhaul. By repurposing structures, developers can conserve resources, reduce construction waste, and preserve the local architecture. Revitalization and transformations often address important community needs, like education and/or medical centers. By doing

that, these retail shopping centers still enhance the economic and social quality of the area. These adaptive reuse projects typically have shorter construction timelines and lower costs compared to ground-up development, making them the clear and better decision. These statistics challenge the idea that new construction is the sole path to progress, instead highlighting the innovative potential in reimagining existing spaces.

MCKINSEY’S VISION FOR MODERN MIXED-USE RETAIL

The rise of vacant commercial buildings post-pandemic has created new opportunities for adaptive reuse. McKinsey & Company, one of the world’s most respected consulting firms with a long history of data-driven economic and business insights (Mischke, 2023), explored the post-pandemic real estate landscape in their report “Empty Spaces and Hybrid Places.” In the report, McKinsey highlights that the pandemic dramatically reduced the demand for retail and office spaces in densely populated urban areas. This created a surplus of vacant commercial properties. Rather than overhauling the buildings, the report emphasizes the opportunity to repurpose them into mixed-use developments that include residential, community, and flexible workspace options. This would revitalize neighborhoods while reducing environmental and financial costs. The evidence supports the idea that adaptive reuse offers a more sustainable and economically viable solution than complete overhauls. By converting these existing retail properties to serve multiple functions, cities and retail shopping center owners/companies can respond to shifting needs, like the rise of hybrid employment and the housing shortages, without wasting resources. It also helps maintain the local architecture and character of the local economy rather than completely destroying it. McKinsey’s analysis reveals that the smartest way forward is not to overhaul but to work creatively with the current retail shopping centers (Mischke, 2023), making revitalization a more practical and valuable path than complete demolition.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF REVITALIZATION

Revitalizing community retail spaces through adaptive reuse offers a significantly more sustainable alternative to new construction, both environmentally and economically. A 2024 peer-reviewed study published in the Journal of Sustainable Real Estate Development by Taylor and Francis explores the environmental and economic benefits of adaptive reuse in urban development. The authors assess how repurposing buildings compares to full demolition and new construction, particularly in the context of historical retail structures. According to the study, adaptive reuse of existing structures can

lead to an 82% reduction in global warming potential, a 51% decrease in smog formation, a 27% drop in acidification, and a 21% decline in eutrophication in comparison to full scale overhauling (Hu & Świerzawski, 2024), which are significant findings for eco-conscious real estate companies and environmental advocates alike. Economically, the revitalization of older retail properties attracts new businesses, stimulates local job creation, and boosts local tax revenue while preserving the cultural and architectural heritage of the local area. The evidence highlights how revitalization not only reduces environmental harm but also delivers measurable economic gains. Adaptive reuse avoids the resource intensity and waste generation of new construction, aligning with sustainability goals, which can even provide some tax breaks in some states. It also maintains the heritage of the local communities, which can draw customers, tourists, and long-term investments. Compared to complete overhauls, revitalization offers a balanced solution that protects both the environment and local communities, proving that sustainability and growth can go hand in hand.

REVITALIZING HERITAGE AND IDENTITY

Revitalizing heritage buildings through adaptive reuse, the process of repurposing old buildings for new, modern functions without demolishing their original structure, strengthens both local economies and community identity. Emilie Savoie, Dr. J.P. Sapinski, and Dr. Anne-Marie Laroche, who specialize in environment and urban sustainability, examine how repurposing heritage buildings can contribute to sustainable development. Published on ResearchGate, a peer-reviewed journal blog, the study focuses on identifying strategic drivers that make adaptive reuse both environmentally responsible and economically viable. The authors emphasize that adaptive reuse significantly reduces material consumption and greenhouse gas emissions while preserving the embodied energy of existing structures. Their research also reveals that revitalization projects often create stronger ties between the built environment and community identity, which can increase public support and drive local economic renewal. Additionally, adaptive reuse can lower project costs over time by avoiding the need for demolition, new materials, and extended construction timelines, which are all positives for development companies. Revitalizing retail spaces offers a more sustainable alternative to full overhauls by reducing emissions, conserving materials, and preserving the embodied energy of the existing structures (Savoie et al., 2025) than full overhauling and redevelopment. The environmental advantages, such as reduced emissions and resource conservation, demonstrate a clear benefit over starting from scratch. As well as the social and economic benefits, including stronger community engagement and long-term cost savings, highlight how revitalization supports holistic urban sustainability. Unlike overhauls that may erase local history, adaptive reuse fosters community connection while still allowing for modernization.

SERVING MODERN NEEDS

THROUGH ADAPTIVE REUSE

Revitalizing community retail spaces strengthens communities by creating spaces that serve modern-day needs. In the article “Redefining Communities With Adaptive Reuse” by Ella Krygei (2025), a content editor for BOMA International, a respected authority in commercial real estate, discusses how adaptive reuse projects can transform underutilized buildings into communitycentric spaces that address local needs. The article highlights the ASPIRE Center in Chicago’s Austin neighborhood, a mixed-use development that integrates vocational training, community resources, and flexible public spaces. Designed with input from local organizations, the center meets the specific needs of residents, exemplifying how adaptive reuse can create functional spaces that serve everyday community needs, which also relates to the reuse of retail shopping centers. Revitalizing retail spaces through adaptive reuse enhances community strength by transforming underutilized structures into functional spaces that address everyday needs. By preserving the existing built environment, such initiatives maintain the historical and cultural heritage of local communities, promoting a sense of identity and belonging among residents. Moreover, the introduction of essential services within these repurposed spaces encourages local engagement and economic activity, further reinforcing community ties. In contrast, complete overhauls often result in the loss of historical context and can disrupt established social networks, underscoring the benefits of adaptive reuse in fostering resilient and cohesive communities.

THE REBOUND OF RETAIL DEMAND

POST-PANDEMIC

The rise in retail demand following the pandemic reinforces the need to revitalize and adapt physical retail spaces to meet modern consumer expectations. Yilun Zha and Dr. Tracy Hadden Loh of the Brookings Institution, experts in real estate and urban development, explore how retail spaces are evolving to meet new consumer and community needs. They highlight that, despite the challenges faced during the pandemic, demand for retail space has risen beyond pre-pandemic levels. They note that the national vacancy rate for retail is actually at a five-year low. That indicates a robust recovery and underscores the sector’s capacity to adapt to evolving consumer behaviors. The authors suggest that the revitalization of retail spaces can serve as hubs for local engagement, offering essential modern services and fostering economic growth within communities. The evidence supports the claim that revitalizing retail spaces contributes to community strengthening by transforming underutilized areas into vibrant centers that address everyday needs. The observed decrease

in retail vacancy rates signifies a shift towards more dynamic and communityfocused retail environments. By repurposing existing retail spaces to align with current consumer preferences, communities can enhance accessibility to essential services, promote local economic development, and foster social interaction in retail. In contrast, neglecting these spaces or just completely overhauling them may lead to increased vacancies and a diminished community. This highlights the importance of strategic revitalization efforts.

CONCLUSION

While e-commerce is continuously growing, retail spaces still play an important role in our communities. Instead of completely overhauling and destroying them, we should look at ways to reimagine and reuse the buildings we already have. Revitalizing existing buildings not only saves money and reduces waste, but also helps keep the character of communities intact. Experts and CRE professionals alike agree (Wyatt, 2023; Loh, 2024) that adaptive reuse is more sustainable, more cost-effective, and more community-focused than complete overhauls. We are still in a time when shoppers still value the inperson experience of customer service and the feeling they get of shopping. Retail space shouldn’t be erased; it should be transformed. The real question is not whether we should preserve retail, but how we can make it more useful for modern shopping, communities, and the future. We are still in an era when shoppers still appreciate the in-person experience of customer service and the mood they get from shopping. Retail space needs to be reimagined, not wiped off the map. The question should not be, “Should we save retail?” but rather “How do we make it useful for today’s shopping, communities and future?

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bureau, US Census. “Monthly Retail Trade - Quarterly Retail E-Commerce Sales Report.” Www. census.gov, 17 May 2024, www.census.gov/retail/ecommerce.html

The official government report provides up-to-date statistics for quarterly retail e-commerce sales in the United States. It offers key data for understanding the ongoing shift in consumer behavior from traditional retail to online platforms. The resource is especially valuable for tracking retail trends and comparing in-store versus digital sales performance over time. Its credibility as a U.S. Census publication makes it a strong foundation for research related to commercial real estate, retail evolution, and economic forecasting.

Hu, M., & Jakub Świerzawski. (2024). Assessing the environmental benefits of adaptive reuse in historical buildings. A case study of a life cycle assessment approach. Sustainable Environment, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2024.2375439

This peer-reviewed article explores the environmental advantages of adaptive reuse through a life cycle assessment of historical buildings. The authors use a case study approach to quantify energy savings, emissions reductions, and material efficiency when reusing structures versus new construction. The study supports the argument

that preserving and repurposing existing buildings contributes significantly to sustainable development goals. The article is especially relevant for discussions on sustainable real estate practices and the environmental value of historic preservation.

Krygiel, E. Redefining Communities With Adaptive Reuse | BOMA International. (2025, March 4). BOMA International. https://boma.org/resource/redefining-communities-with-adaptive-reuse/

This article from BOMA International discusses how adaptive reuse projects are transforming communities by revitalizing underused or abandoned buildings. Krygiel highlights case studies and practical examples where commercial spaces have been successfully repurposed to meet modern needs while preserving local identity. The article also emphasizes the role of sustainability and economic resilience in adaptive reuse. As a publication from a respected real estate association, it provides credible industry insight into how adaptive reuse aligns with community development and commercial investment strategies.

Mischke, J. (2023, July 13). The impact of the pandemic on real estate | McKinsey. Www.mckinsey. com. https://www.mckinsey.com/mgi/our-research/empty-spaces-and-hybrid-places

The McKinsey Global Institute article analyzes how the pandemic re-shaped real estate trends, particularly through the rise of hybrid work and declining demand for traditional retail and office spaces. Mischke explores how urban cores are adapting and suggests strategies for rethinking underused properties. The report combines data-driven insights with forward-looking analysis, making it valuable for anyone researching the future of retail and adaptive reuse. McKinsey’s credibility as a global consulting firm enhances the authority of the insights provided.

Petro, Greg. “Consumers Are Spending More per Visit In-Store than Online. What Does This Mean for Retailers?” Forbes, 29 Mar. 2019, www.forbes.com/sites/gregpetro/2019/03/29/consumers-arespending-more-per-visit-in-store-than-online-what-does-this-man-for-retailers/.

This Forbes article explores consumer behavior patterns, highlighting that shoppers often spend more per visit in physical stores than online. The article discusses how this trend presents strategic opportunities for more brick-and-mortar types of retailers despite the growth of e-commerce. Petro emphasizes the improvement of instore experiences and merchandising in driving higher spending. The piece is useful for understanding the value of maintaining retail spaces and supports arguments for revitalizing physical retail stores.

PricewaterhouseCoopers. “Consumers Seek Frictionless Experiences in a World of Disruptions.” PwC, www.pwc.com/my/en/publications/2023/consumers-seek-frictionless-experiences-in-a-world-ofdisruptions.html.

The report by PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) explored changing consumer expectations, mainly the growing demand for seamless, tech-enabled retail experiences. It outlines how disruptions such as inflation, supply chain issues, and digital transformation are reshaping retail. The article makes a point of rising expectations for speed, personalization, and convenience. As a globally respected consulting firm. PwC provides credible data and strategic insights for businesses navigating the evolving CRE environment.

Savoie, É., Sapinski, J. P., & Laroche, A.-M. (2025). Key factors for revitalising heritage buildings through adaptive reuse. Buildings and Cities, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.5334/bc.495

This peer-reviewed article identifies the key social, economic, and environmental factors that contribute to the successful adaptive reuse of heritage buildings. The

authors examine case studies and policy frameworks to highlight how older buildings can be revitalized and sustainable to meet modern needs. Their approach provides both theoretical and practical insights, making the article a valuable resource for urban planners and developers focused on sustainable redevelopment. The publication’s academic rigor and focus on real-world application strengthen its relevance to CRE and preservation efforts.

Tracy Hadden Loh. (2024, August 15). Six facts about the post-pandemic commercial real estate market in the US and what they tell us about the future of retail. Brookings. https://www brookings.edu/articles/six-facts-about-the-post-pandemic-commercial-real-estate-market-in-theus-and-what-they-tell-us-about-the-future-of-retail/

In this Brookings Institution article, urban policy expert Tracy Hadden Loh presents six key insights into how the CRE market in the U.S. has shifted in the post-pandemic world. The article brings up the changing role of retail, the impact of hybrid work, and the need for adaptive strategies to revitalize vacant commercial retail spaces. Loh supports her findings with data and analysis, offering policy-relevant recommendations for sustainable urban development. The article is a credible and accessible source for a better understanding of broader economic influences on the CRE market and retail spaces.

Wyatt, Derek. (2023, May 18). Retail Reimagined: 8 Ways Retail Spaces are Being Converted and Revitalized - RCLCO Real Estate Consulting. https://www.rclco.com/publication/retail-reimagined8-ways-retail-spaces-are-being-converted-and-revitalized/

Derek Wyatt’s article for RCLCO explores innovative approaches to transforming underused retail properties into functional, community spaces. The article outlines eight adaptive reuse strategies, including conversions into residential units, medical centers, and logistics hubs. Wyatt supports each example with real-world case studies and industry data, making this a practical resource for developers and investors. RCLCO’s expertise in real estate consulting adds credibility, and the article effectively demonstrates how reimagining retail contributes to broader economic and social revitalization.

“Retail Sales Share by Sales Channel U.S. 2025.” Statista, www.statista.com/statistics/829220/shareof-retail-sales-by-channel-us/.

This Statista chart provides a clear breakdown of the U.S. retail sales by channel, comparing classic retail and e-commerce revenue distribution. The data shows ongoing trends in consumer preferences and purchasing behavior, making it a useful tool for evaluating the performance of physical retail amid the e-commerce era. As a trusted statistics platform, Statista offers concise and reliable visuals that support data-driven research. This source is particularly relevant for analyzing the role of inperson retail within the broader commercial landscape.

Meditation and the Developing Brain: Tibetan Buddhist Practice and Neuroplasticity

MEDITATION AND THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: TIBETAN BUDDHIST

PRACTICE AND NEUROPLASTICITY

Katherine de Boda

Enlightenment, in many Western interpretations, is often understood through a Judeo-Christian narrative. The resurrection of Christ, for instance, is not depicted as the result of disciplined effort or gradual mental development, but as an act of divine intervention, sudden, complete, and unattainable through human practice. This contrasts sharply with Buddhist accounts, which describe awakening as a progressive transformation cultivated through systematic training of attention, emotion, and perception. This difference has become increasingly important in recent decades because neuroscience, psychology, and contemplative studies have begun examining long-term Tibetan Buddhist meditators to understand the mechanisms underlying such transformation. Researchers now identify measurable alterations in brain architecture, neural coordination, and bodily regulation that parallel traditional descriptions of advanced meditative realization. Therefore, even while enlightenment is traditionally described as a purely spiritual attainment, contemporary neuroscientific research on long-term Tibetan Buddhist meditators reveals structural, functional, and physiological changes that support emotional stability, compassion, and non-dual awareness, suggesting that these qualities arise from identifiable and measurable brain–body mechanisms.

In Buddhist philosophy, particularly within Tibetan Mahāyāna lineages, enlightenment is not a miraculous event but the full maturation of the mind’s inherent potential. This potential is grounded in Buddha-nature (Tathāgatagarbha), the principle that every sentient being possesses an innate seed of awakening that can be cultivated through disciplined mental training. Tibetan teacher ZaChoeje Rinpoche explains enlightenment as, “a mind that actually reaches its fullest potential,” emphasizing development rather than divine intervention. The path is gradual, cumulative, and grounded in transformation of attention, emotion, perception, and self-understanding.

A foundational quality on this path is equanimity, a balanced steadiness of mind that allows practitioners to experience thoughts and feelings without being overwhelmed by them. Far from emotional detachment, equanimity reflects a stable openness that supports clarity and resilience. It forms the psychological ground for deeper insight by reducing reactivity and stabilizing attention. There is an ease and calm that transcends the specific events that initially generated anxiety, reflecting a state of alert, awake presence grounded in the immediacy

of the present moment rather than in reactive or ruminative thought. This shift is often observable in everyday experience following meditation practice and remains for some time even though exterior circumstances remain unchanged.

Another core concept is non-dual awareness, a perceptual mode in which the ordinary division between subject and object dissolves. In everyday experience, the mind habitually constructs a sense of self that appears separate from the world it perceives. Buddhist teachings describe non-dual awareness as a direct encounter with experience in which this boundary relaxes, revealing a more continuous and interconnected mode of perception. ZaChöje Rinpoche articulates this understanding through the traditional metaphor of the sky, explaining that the, “[…] nature of the mind is like the still sky,” and that the, “[…] true self, or true enlightened nature, is already there.” In this view, thoughts, emotions, and bodily sensations are not obstacles to awareness but transient phenomena that move through an underlying field that remains undisturbed. In this expansive mode of experience, awareness is clear, awake, and continuous, while mental and sensory events fluctuate like clouds without obscuring the sky-like nature of mind itself. When no longer contracted around self-referential thought, this nature is experienced as buoyant, expansive, and naturally imbued with qualities of love and compassion. Importantly, Rinpoche emphasizes that such recognition is not reducible to conceptual understanding, noting that, “[…] even the Buddha said that if he tried to put certain experiences into words, he would distort them,” underscoring that, “[…] non-dualism is experiential.” Though profound, this shift is presented not as a metaphysical abstraction but as a trainable capacity, cultivated gradually through contemplative practice.

A third essential term is bodhichitta, which unites compassion and insight. On one level (relative bodhichitta), it is the heartfelt aspiration to achieve awakening for the benefit of all beings. On a deeper level (absolute bodhichitta), it is the direct realization of reality’s non-dual nature. Rinpoche describes it as the “[…] aspiring mind to achieve enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings […] to achieve your [fullest] potential […] as a being.” Bodhichitta, therefore, represents both the motivation and the experiential transformation at the heart of the Buddhist path.

For centuries, Tibetan meditation manuals and firsthand accounts have described consistent developmental patterns: increased attentional stability, enhanced emotional balance, refined interoceptive awareness, vivid clarity of perception, and deepening compassion. These qualities are not treated as isolated experiences but as cumulative outcomes of long-term practice that gradually reshape the mind’s habitual tendencies.

This conceptual background is essential for understanding why neuroscientific investigation is relevant. If Buddhist traditions describe enlightenment as a developmental process, requiring changes in attention,

emotion, perception, and self-processing, then empirical research on long-term meditators can illuminate whether these qualities correspond to measurable brain–body changes. In this framework, structural, functional, and physiological findings are not merely isolated phenomena but potential correlates of the mental transformation described in Buddhist teachings.

A central claim in contemplative neuroscience is that long-term meditation produces measurable structural neural plasticity, enduring changes in brain architecture, particularly in areas supporting attention, sensory discrimination, and emotional steadiness. In their landmark magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study, Lazar et al. found that experienced meditators showed increased cortical thickness in the medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate, regions essential for sustaining attention, integrating sensory information, and modulating emotion (Lazar et al. 1). These findings demonstrate that meditation does not simply refine mental habits; it alters the physical architecture of the brain. Tibetan accounts describe awakening as a stabilization of clarity and presence, and these structural findings offer a neurological counterpart to that gradual strengthening.

Structural research also suggests that meditation may buffer against agerelated cortical thinning. Lazar and colleagues reported that the prefrontal regions of older meditators resembled those of much younger individuals and exhibited significantly less age-related decline than non-meditators (Lazar et al. 1). In Buddhist terms, long-term practice is said to build resilience and deepen clarity with age; structurally, meditation appears to preserve the neural scaffolding that supports equanimity and sustained awareness.

Another dimension of structural neuroplasticity involves interoception, the capacity to sense internal bodily states. Tibetan traditions emphasize interoceptive refinement as foundational for stable awareness. Lazar et al. noted increased cortical thickness in the anterior insula (deeper cortical structure that integrates interoceptive signals with conscious awareness) among experienced meditators, while De Filippi et al. demonstrated strengthened structural connectivity across attentional, sensory, and somatomotor (transmitting signals from brain to muscle) networks, especially in the left hemisphere (Lazar et al.; De Filippi et al. 1). In practical terms, this integration allows attention to remain grounded in felt bodily cues, such as the rhythm of breathing, heartbeat or the sensation of emotional arousal, while maintaining emotional balance and mental clarity. Such strengthening parallels the contemplative view that awareness of the body stabilizes the mind and prepares it for deeper meditative states.

A further structural insight emerges from research on the brain–heart connection. Jiang and colleagues found distinct neural responses to heartbeats within the default mode network (DMN), along with large-scale coordination of theta and gamma oscillations that became more refined with increased

meditative experience. Theta oscillations are slower brain rhythms associated with internal attention and emotional regulation, while gamma oscillations are fast, highly synchronized rhythms that support integrative processing and largescale neural coherence. As the authors observe, “distinct transient modulations of the neural response to heartbeats in the default mode network (DMN), along with large-scale network reconfigurations […] induced by meditation” (Jiang et al. 439). Together, these findings demonstrate that meditation reshapes how the brain synchronizes with bodily rhythms, supporting Tibetan descriptions of mind–body integration in advanced meditation. The resulting stability creates conditions in which non-dual awareness can arise.

Taken together, structural studies reveal a coherent pattern: long-term meditation increases cortical thickness, strengthens interoceptive networks, preserves age-related neural integrity, and deepens brain–heart integration. These changes mirror the Buddhist assertion that awakening develops through cumulative refinement of the mind’s capacities. Structural neuroplasticity provides a measurable foundation for the equanimity, clarity, and stability long attributed to advanced contemplative practice.

While structural changes involve alterations in neural tissue, functional changes concern how the brain coordinates activity. Long-term meditation produces distinctive patterns of neural synchrony associated with heightened clarity, emotional balance, and integrative awareness. One of the most striking findings comes from Lutz et al.’s electroencephalographic (EEG) research. They report that, “long-term Buddhist practitioners self-induce sustained electroencephalographic high-amplitude gamma-band oscillations and phasesynchrony during meditation” (Lutz et al. 16369). Gamma oscillations are among the brain’s fastest frequencies, associated with integrative processing and moments of insight. Their heightened presence indicates exceptional neural coherence. Goleman and Davidson underscore this magnitude, noting that, “the contrast between the yogis and controls in the intensity of gamma was immense: on average the yogis had twenty-five times greater amplitude gamma oscillations during baseline” (233). The fact that these elevations appear even outside formal meditation suggests not merely transient states, but enduring functional reorganization that supports stable clarity, emotional integration, and non-reactive awareness in daily life.

A second dimension of functional transformation appears in emotional circuitry. Klimecki and colleagues found that compassion training significantly increased activation in regions associated with positive emotion and affective regulation, including the anterior insula and medial orbitofrontal cortex. They observed that increased activations were observed in the anterior insula and the medial orbitofrontal cortex during compassion (4). Klimecki et al. demonstrated that short-term compassion training shifts emotional responses

to suffering from distress and aversion toward positive affect, indicating a trainable transformation in how individuals relate emotionally to others’ pain. Likewise, research summarized by Biello highlights that compassion meditation can be cultivated as an expertise; neuroscientist Antoine Lutz explains, “There is such a thing as expertise when it comes to complex emotions or emotional skills […] that raises the possibility that you can train someone to cultivate this positive emotion.” These findings support the Buddhist claim that compassion is not merely a feeling but a trainable skill rooted in discernment, emotional openness, and insight into interdependence.

Functional changes extend beyond formal meditation into daily life. Goleman and Davidson describe how practices such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) reduce amygdala reactivity and strengthen circuits associated with emotional stability. The amygdala, a limbic structure involved in threat detection and emotional reactivity, plays a central role in stress and fear responses. These adaptations correspond to the contemplative description of equanimity: the capacity to remain open and steady amid changing experience as it unfolds in daily life. Functional neuroplasticity shows how the mind becomes less reactive, more spacious, and increasingly capable of compassionate responsiveness beyond formal meditation practice.

Tibetan Buddhism frames awakening as a gradual refinement of awareness, emotion, and perception. Like the Buddha’s awakening under the Bodhi Tree after years of practice, this process also represents a profound epistemic breakthrough - a shift in seeing. The neuroscientific findings reviewed in earlier sections, spanning structural neuroplasticity, functional synchronization, and physiological regulation, closely parallel this traditional developmental model. Rather than contradicting Buddhist accounts, contemporary research suggests that the qualities associated with awakening emerge through systematic training that reshapes how the brain and body process experience. This convergence becomes especially clear in Tibetan descriptions of bodhichitta and non-dual awareness. As ZaChoeje Rinpoche notes, enlightenment is, “a mind that actually reaches its fullest potential,” characterized by stability, openness, and an expanded capacity for compassion. Neuroscientific evidence shows that longterm meditation strengthens attentional stability, reduces emotional reactivity, and enhances integrative neural coordination, capacities that align with this contemplative description of maturation rather than sudden transformation.

The Dalai Lama has repeatedly emphasized this trainability of the mind, arguing that meditation reveals progressively subtler and more refined modes of consciousness through disciplined practice. His longstanding dialogue with neuroscientists reflects a shared commitment to investigating the mind through observation rather than dogma. One emerging area of investigation that further underscores this convergence is thukdam, a post-mortem meditative state

described in Tibetan Buddhism in which advanced practitioners remain in deep meditation after clinical death, maintaining bodily warmth and showing delayed physical signs of decay. Although still under active scientific study, thukdam is understood within Tibetan tradition as evidence of exceptionally refined mental stability and control. Ongoing neuroscientific interest in this phenomenon reflects a growing willingness to explore the far edges of mind–body interaction without prematurely reducing contemplative claims or dismissing them outright. Taken together, Buddhist theory and neuroscientific evidence suggest that awakening is best understood not as a mystical anomaly but as a developmental horizon of human potential. Equanimity, compassion, perceptual clarity, and reduced self-referential processing emerge through long-term cultivation that reshapes the brain and body over time. In this view, enlightenment occupies the far end of a continuum of mental training, accessible not through divine intervention, but through sustained practice and the inherent plasticity of the human mind.

The convergence of Tibetan Buddhist traditions and contemporary neuroscience reveals a strikingly unified picture of human potential. Both perspectives, though expressed in different languages, describe awakening not as a miraculous event but as a gradual transformation shaped through disciplined training of attention, emotion, and perception. Scientific studies of long-term meditators demonstrate measurable changes in brain structure, network function, and physiological integration that mirror the qualities long attributed to advanced contemplative practice: stability of mind, emotional balance, compassion, and the perceptual openness associated with non-dual awareness. These findings challenge the common Western assumption that enlightenment is an otherworldly or purely spiritual phenomenon. Instead, they suggest that the capacities described in Buddhist traditions arise through identifiable, trainable processes grounded in the body and brain. Viewed together, the contemplative and scientific perspectives illuminate a continuum of human development rather than a divide between the spiritual and the biological. Awakening becomes understandable as the far end of a spectrum of mental cultivation, accessible not through divine intervention but through sustained practice and the plasticity of the human mind. Recognizing this convergence expands our understanding of consciousness itself and underscores a deeper possibility: the transformative capacities associated with enlightenment are not reserved for a select few, but emerge from potentials inherent in all human beings.

WORKS CITED

Biello, David. “Meditate on This: You Can Learn to Be More Compassionate.”Scientific American. March 26, 2008. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/meditate-on-this-you-can-learn-tobe-more-compassionate

De Filippi, E., et al. “Meditation-Induced Effects on Whole-Brain Structural and Functional Connectivity.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 16. 2022. pp. 1–15. PubMed Central. https:// pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9232427/

Goleman, Daniel, and Davidson, Richard J. “Altered Traits: Science Reveals How Meditation Changes Your Mind, Brain, and Body.” Avery. 2017. p 233. p. 250.

Jiang, Haiteng, et al. “Brain–Heart Interactions Underlying Traditional Tibetan Buddhist Meditation.” Cerebral Cortex. 30. 2. February 2020. pp. 439–450.

Klimecki, Olga, et al. “Functional Neural Plasticity and Associated Changes in Positive Affect After Compassion Training.” Cerebral Cortex, 2014. pp 1-10. https: greatergood.berkeley.edu/images/ uploads/Klimecki-PositiveAffectCompassionTraining.pdf

Lazar, Sara W., et al. “Meditation Experience Is Associated with Increased Cortical Thickness.” NeuroReport, 16, 17, 2005, pp. 1893–97. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1361002/ pdf/nihms-6696.pdf

Lutz, Antoine, et al. “Long-Term Meditators Self-Induce High-Amplitude Gamma Synchrony During Meditation Practice.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 46, 8 Nov. 2004, pp. 16369–16373. www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073nas.0407401101

ZaChoeje, Rinpoche. Live interview. Emaho Foundation. December 3, 2025, Phoenix, AZ.

“A Scientific Investigation of Meditation by Russian Neuroscientists.” The Dalai Lama. May 5, 2021. https://www.dalailama.com/news/2021/a-scientific-investigation-of-meditation-by-russianneuroscientists?

Rethinking Rage Rooms

RETHINKING RAGE ROOMS

REmily Bernett

age rooms are commercial spaces where participants pay to destroy objects such as glassware, electronics, and furniture in order to relieve stress or anger. These rooms are designed as controlled environments that allow people to engage in physical destruction safely, without harming themselves or others. Once a niche concept, rage rooms have grown in popularity across the United States and internationally, appearing in urban studios, pop-up events, and corporate team-building programs. They are marketed as both entertaining and therapeutic, offering a structured outlet for frustration and emotional release. Yet, while rage rooms may offer immediate satisfaction and a sense of control, research suggests that destructive venting rarely resolves underlying emotional issues. For individuals already experiencing stress or anxiety, aggressive forms of venting may instead reinforce unhealthy coping patterns rather than provide lasting emotional relief. This essay argues that rage rooms, despite their popularity and surface appeal, are not a reliable long-term solution for stress or anger management; instead, constructive coping strategies such as therapy, emotional reflection, and mindfulness provide more sustainable emotional benefits.

Stress is a persistent feature of contemporary life, arising from academic pressures, work responsibilities, financial insecurity, and interpersonal conflicts. For many, the promise of a rage room is compelling: a controlled, physical space to release tension through active, concrete action. Media coverage often describes rage-room sessions as a form of modern catharsis, a safe environment where participants can “blow off steam” without harming themselves or others (Scott, 2025; Rhodes, 2016). This framing taps into a longstanding belief that expressing anger outwardly prevents it from accumulating internally, echoing centuries of folklore and cultural advice that encourage venting as a method of emotional regulation. From this perspective, releasing anger through physical destruction seems both intuitive and psychologically beneficial, offering an immediate sense of relief and empowerment (Davis, 2025).

Rage rooms first appeared in the early 2000s as small, urban experiments in experiential stress relief. Initially viewed as a novelty, they provided an unconventional alternative to traditional coping strategies such as counseling or meditation. Over time, their popularity grew, expanding into pop-up events, urban studios, and corporate programs aimed at team-building and stress management. Today, rage rooms exist internationally, reflecting a global trend toward recreational spaces that blend entertainment with psychological appeal. Their rise coincides with increased public attention to mental health and an

ongoing cultural fascination with experiential forms of emotional release. Rage rooms also appeal on a sensory level. The sounds of smashing glass, the physical exertion of swinging a bat, and the visual spectacle of broken objects provide a tangible outlet for frustration. According to the Sun-Times (2018), many participants describe feelings of exhilaration and release during sessions, comparing the experience to vigorous exercise or cathartic play. Promotional content for rage rooms often emphasizes the entertainment factor as well as the emotional benefits, describing sessions as “stress relief adventures” or “safe zones for frustration.” These marketing strategies frame rage rooms as not just recreational spaces but practical tools for managing daily stress. This combination of sensory engagement, novelty, and cultural messaging explains the growing popularity of rage rooms, particularly among young adults seeking immediate emotional release in a society increasingly aware of mental health challenges.

The psychological rationale behind rage rooms is rooted in catharsis theory, which proposes that aggressive expression can purge anger and reduce future aggression (Geen, 1977). According to this theory, smashing objects or venting physically should decrease internal tension. At first glance, this explanation seems plausible. Traditional coping strategies, such as therapy, meditation, or reflective journaling, may feel abstract or time-consuming, whereas the act of destroying objects is concrete, immediate, and visually satisfying (Davis, 2025). For individuals under constant stress, the structured, time-limited activity of a rage room may appear more accessible than long-term emotional work. The appeal, therefore, lies not only in the emotional promise of relief but also in the apparent psychological logic of catharsis.

The psychological appeal of rage rooms extends beyond catharsis. Physical exertion in these environments triggers the release of endorphins and reduces cortisol levels, producing temporary feelings of euphoria and stress relief (Heal Treatment Centers). Additionally, social and cultural factors enhance their attraction. Media portrayals and social media trends frame rage rooms as exciting, novel experiences, reinforcing the notion that destruction can provide immediate solutions to emotional tension. The combination of physiological stimulation, novelty, and cultural endorsement makes rage rooms particularly compelling to individuals seeking fast, tangible methods to manage stress in high-pressure lifestyles.

However, empirical research complicates this seemingly intuitive solution. One of the most cited studies in this area was conducted by Brad Bushman, who examined the effects of venting anger on subsequent aggression. Participants were deliberately angered and then randomly assigned to one of three groups: one group hit a punching bag while thinking about the person who provoked them (“venting + rumination”), another group hit the bag while

focusing on fitness goals (distracting themselves), and a control group sat quietly. Afterward, all participants had the opportunity to administer loud blasts of noise to the provocateur. Contrary to the assumptions of catharsis theory, the venting + rumination group reported higher levels of anger and behaved more aggressively than both the distraction and control groups. The control group, which did nothing, exhibited the lowest aggression. These findings indicate that focusing on anger while engaging in destructive activity does not dissipate hostility; it intensifies it. Rage-room sessions, which encourage participants to dwell on frustration while smashing objects, may therefore reinforce rather than reduce aggressive tendencies.

Repeated engagement in destructive venting may have subtle but significant long-term consequences. Psychological research indicates that habitual patterns of stress response become ingrained over time, shaping not only emotional reactions but also interpersonal behavior (Nay, 2012). Individuals who consistently rely on physical aggression as an outlet may inadvertently reinforce neural pathways associated with hostile responses, making it more difficult to employ constructive coping strategies in daily life. Over time, this conditioning may contribute to heightened irritability, impulsive reactions, and diminished problem-solving skills, counteracting the initial stress relief provided by rageroom experiences.

Additional research supports these conclusions. Geen (1977) argued that aggressive behavior does not diminish anger but instead reinforces aggressive tendencies by normalizing hostility as a coping mechanism. In other words, repeated engagement in destructive venting conditions individuals to respond to stress with aggression. This conditioning is particularly concerning for individuals who already experience chronic stress, anxiety, or unresolved emotional conflicts. Anger often functions as a surface emotion, masking deeper issues such as insecurity, fear, or emotional pain (Manfredi & Taglietti, 2022). While a rage-room session may temporarily alleviate surface-level anger, it does nothing to address the underlying emotional issues. Without reflective practice or therapeutic guidance, participants may leave feeling slightly relieved but ultimately unchanged in their ability to cope with stress effectively.

While some participants report immediate mood improvements or increased feelings of empowerment after a session, these effects are largely temporary (Sun-Times, 2018; Heal Treatment Centers). The benefits appear most pronounced for individuals experiencing mild stress or seeking a novel form of social interaction. However, for those with chronic anxiety, depression, or unresolved trauma, the experience does little to address root causes, potentially masking deeper emotional needs. By critically examining the contexts in which rage rooms may be effective, it becomes clear that these spaces are better suited as recreational outlets rather than substitutes for sustained

therapeutic intervention.

Some proponents argue that rage rooms offer tangible therapeutic benefits. According to Heal Treatment Centers (n.d.), rage rooms provide a physical outlet for bottled-up emotions, can improve mood and mental clarity by stimulating endorphin release, and may even foster community bonding and emotional resilience if paired with reflection afterward. Similarly, the Sun-Times (2018) highlights participants’ accounts of short-term relief and exhilaration, suggesting that occasional sessions may improve immediate mood and provide a novel way to release tension. These perspectives highlight the nuance in evaluating rage rooms: while they may provide momentary enjoyment, this does not automatically translate into long-term emotional health.

The rise of rage rooms also reflects broader societal pressures. Contemporary life is characterized by constant stimuli, high-performance expectations, and limited time for introspection. In this context, immediate, tangible stress relief becomes highly appealing. Traditional methods of emotional regulation, such as therapy, meditation, or journaling, require sustained effort, patience, and reflection, which can feel inaccessible to those overwhelmed by daily demands. Rage rooms, by contrast, provide an efficient, highly visible, and culturally reinforced outlet, offering participants the illusion of progress and mastery over their emotions.

Critically examining these claims, however, shows that short-term benefits may mask long-term risks. Habitual patterns of aggressive coping, even intermittent, can influence future behavior. Nay (2012) emphasizes that repeated responses to stress become ingrained over time, shaping emotional habits and default reactions. If smashing objects becomes a normalized strategy, individuals may struggle to adopt healthier coping mechanisms such as emotional reflection, communication, or mindfulness. Even when intended as a brief recreational activity, rage rooms may subtly reinforce the association between stress and aggression, making participants more likely to turn to destructive behavior in future high-pressure situations.

Constructive alternatives to destructive venting offer evidence-based strategies for sustainable emotional regulation. Therapeutic approaches, including cognitive-behavioral therapy, help individuals identify triggers, reframe negative thought patterns, and develop adaptive coping mechanisms (Nay, 2012). Mindfulness practices train participants to observe emotions without judgment, reducing reactivity and enhancing self-awareness. Emotional reflection, journaling, or guided discussion fosters understanding of the underlying sources of stress and anger. Each of these strategies encourages engagement with emotions rather than temporary suppression or displacement. While these approaches require effort and practice, they build resilience and long-term coping skills that rage rooms cannot replicate.

Communication skills also play a critical role in effective emotional management. Expressing frustration in constructive ways, through assertive dialogue, negotiation, or conflict resolution, allows individuals to address the sources of stress rather than merely displacing it. Social support networks amplify these benefits, offering perspective, empathy, and guidance that reinforce healthy emotional regulation. In contrast, rage rooms isolate the participant in a physical act of destruction, providing immediate but ultimately shallow relief.

Moreover, the cultural framing of rage rooms contributes to misconceptions about their efficacy. Marketing emphasizes novelty, excitement, and immediate payoff, framing destruction as a solution to emotional distress rather than as a recreational indulgence (Rhodes, 2016). This framing can mislead consumers into overestimating the therapeutic value of rage rooms, creating a disconnect between expectation and actual psychological outcomes. Research-backed interventions, by contrast, focus on emotional skill-building, require longerterm commitment, and yield measurable improvements in stress management, mood, and resilience.

The limitations of rage rooms highlight the need to understand human desires for quick emotional fixes. Participants’ attraction to these spaces reflects a broader societal challenge: balancing immediate gratification with long-term mental health. Rage rooms illustrate the appeal of tangible, sensory solutions to complex emotional experiences, providing insight into human psychology and social behavior. By acknowledging this appeal, mental health professionals and policymakers can develop interventions that are engaging, culturally resonant, and effective, combining short-term relief with long-term skill-building.

In conclusion, rage rooms, while increasingly popular and marketed as modern solutions to stress and anger, are not reliable tools for long-term emotional health. Destructive venting may provide fleeting satisfaction and sensory stimulation, but research consistently shows that it reinforces aggression and fails to address deeper emotional issues (Bushman, 2002; Geen, 1977; Manfredi & Taglietti, 2022). While some proponents emphasize immediate mood improvements, these benefits are temporary and do not substitute for reflective and skill-building practices. Evidence-based strategies such as therapy, mindfulness, communication skills, and emotional reflection offer sustainable, effective means for managing stress and anger. Rage rooms may entertain and momentarily relieve frustration, but they do not heal emotional wounds; they merely postpone the work required for lasting well-being. Understanding this distinction is essential for individuals seeking meaningful, sustainable strategies for emotional health in a complex, high-pressure world.

WORKS CITED

Bushman, B. J. (2002). Does venting anger feed or extinguish the flame? Catharsis, rumination, distraction, anger, and aggressive responding. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(6), 724–731.

Davis, N. (2025, November 29). Rage rooms: Can smashing stuff up really help relieve anger and stress? The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2025/nov/29/rage-rooms-cansmashing-stuff-up-help-relieve-anger-stress

Geen, R. G. (1977). The catharsis of aggression: An evaluation of a hypothesis. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 1–37.

Manfredi, P., & Taglietti, C. (2022). A psychodynamic contribution to the understanding of anger. Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process and Outcome, 25(2), 189–202.

Nay, W. R. (2012). Taking charge of anger: Six steps to asserting yourself without losing control (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

GMO Labeling: Scam or

Savior?

GMO LABELING: SCAM OR SAVIOR?

Elyse Miller

Incorrectly labeling genetically modified (GM) food has cost many firms millions of dollars in dramatic lawsuits. For instance, this January, potato chip company Old Lyme Gourmet, better known as Deep River Snacks, lost a 4-million-dollar lawsuit for self-proclaiming several flavors of chips as “nonGMO” without third-party verification. Because a firm must obtain a certificate from a technical administrator to label a product free from genetically modified organisms (GMOs), the lawsuit claimed Deep River Snacks misled and fooled consumers. The merit of the $4 million lawsuit depended not on the integrity of the product but on improper labeling.

With agriculture scientists constantly inventing new ways to strengthen and enrich crops, GMOs remain a relevant and controversial topic. Specifically, the cross-section between government regulation of product labeling and a firm’s processing transparency to consumers. Since the early 2000s, individuals have argued that the clarity of GMO labeling is insufficient. Health specialist Jane Brody writes in a New York Times article, “Are G.M.O. Foods Safe?” that “while I endorse the public’s right to know and honest labeling of all products, in an important way it is very misleading.” Brody argues that since bioengineered crops have existed for decades and are continually tested, buyers need not fear GMOs but should inform themselves. Because of the unclear and changing labeling laws, there have been dozens of firm lawsuits over the past years; additionally, shoppers are increasingly confused. The Chicago Tribune describes the 2022 National Bioengineered Food Disclosure Standard (NBFDS) in an article as “a complicated decision tree that only a bureaucrat could love” (“We…”). The article truthfully claims the mandate is purposely unclear, which creates obvious loopholes, and is harmful to consumers unfamiliar with the new term “bioengineered.” According to a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) article in 2022, a bioengineered food is officially defined as “those that contain detectable genetic material that has been modified through certain lab techniques and cannot be created through conventional breeding or found in nature” (“Feed Your Mind” 3). Since this similar terminology can be confusing, from hereafter, “genetically modified foods,” “bioengineered foods,” and “food containing GMOs” are used interchangeably.

Labeling food packages as “contains GMOs” or “non-GMO” misleads and pressures consumers into certain buying habits, since labeling has no nuance for those who are conscious of GMOs. Additionally, manufacturers obscure labels because the average person knows little about GMOs and the current labeling law issues. As shoppers continue to question GMO safety and the NBFDS allows deceptive loopholes, plus changing terminology, consumers

are confused and uninformed. However, through activism and education, vast improvements can be made. Current GMO labeling laws must change to become more transparent and understandable for consumers.

One cannot discuss GMO labeling without first investigating GMO safety. Researchers Camille D Ryan et al., referencing a Pew Research Institute survey from 2015, assert that “while 88% of scientists surveyed believe that genetically modified foods are safe to eat, only 37% of the general public stated that they are safe to eat” (52). Despite the public’s fear, research continually demonstrates that GMOs are safe. Ryan et al. proclaim that over three thousand research studies on GMOs have concluded that GE crops are safe for consumption (52). Further, Brody writes “[i]n the decades since the first genetically modified foods reached the market, no adverse health effects among consumers have been found.” While biotechnologies are new to the last few decades, compared to traditional means of crossbreeding, these technologies are scrutinized extensively before being allowed for the general market. Ryan et al. also present that the “American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the Royal Society of Science, and the World Health Organization,” in addition to the FDA, USDA, and EPA, “recognize the safety and benefits of GM crops” (52). All over the world, scientists find GMOs not only safe but also profitable and sustainable for agriculture. Despite the research, consumers still fear GMOs. Ryan et al. suggest that these anxieties are “largely created through organized mis- and disinformation campaigns” (63). However, even those informed about GMO safety, like Brody, still advocate for improved labeling laws that average shoppers easily understand.

There are two leading causes of confusion for consumers: language and loopholes. Beginning with the former, as previously stated, labeling terminology has shifted from using “GMOs” to “bioengineered.” After years of using “GMOs,” this change creates unfamiliarity for consumers. As the Chicago Tribune describes, “[f]or the everyday grocery shopper, seeing ‘bioengineered’ on a label will elicit, at best, a ‘huh?’ At worst, the unfamiliar term could lead people away from a perfectly good product” (“We…”). “Bioengineered” is an umbrella term encompassing all types of biotechnologies used and genetically modified ingredients within a product. Individuals may informally trust GMOs as safe, but with packaging now labeled as bioengineered, GMO knowledge appears irrelevant without understanding the updated language. Only those acquainted with the biotechnologies discourse easily understand current labels.

The biggest concern with the NBFDS is the allowable loopholes in labeling. Most ultra-processed products are exempt from disclosing GE ingredients if the GMOs are not detectable during “common” testing or, as the Chicago Tribune states, in the case of a “refined product like oil…if the bioengineered material is removed in processing” (“We…”). This standard is especially concerning because

refined products from GE corn, canola, sugar beets, or soy are in nearly all processed foods. The unlabeled contamination or origin in processed foods means that to understand if a processed food contains GMOs or is from GE crops, the average shopper must know about this loophole and manually check the listed ingredients, which defeats the point of the NBFDS.

A second loophole with the NBFDS that confuses consumers is that products with the main ingredients of meat, poultry, or eggs are entirely exempt from the bioengineered label. According to Melissa Waddle, editor for the Non-GMO Project, “[a] multi-ingredient product may (or may not) require BE disclosure based on how the ingredients are listed on the label rather than the presence of bioengineered ingredients.” If a product’s first or second ingredient (after water or broth) is meat like beef or pork, even if the product contains GE corn, the product does not require BE labeling. Waddle comments, “[t]hat complexity undermines the purpose of the original GMO labeling initiatives: To let US shoppers know whether or not a product contained GMOs.” With the number of canned soups and frozen meals on the market where meat, poultry, or eggs are the main ingredients, consumers must again use previously attained discretion to check the following ingredients. This loophole allows hundreds of products to be exempt from transparent labels.

While some argue that GMO labeling is unnecessary for safety reasons, other consumers advocate GMO labeling as an overall step for processing transparency or personal convictions. For example, Arty Mangan, a writer with Bioneers, interviewed Megan Westgate, Executive Director and Co-Founder of the Non-GMO Project, about her motivation for launching the organization. Westgate responds:

In the early 2000s, I had a handful of experiences that exposed me to the topic of biotechnology and GMOS at a time when it was not a very public conversation. Some of those touchpoints came through work I was doing as a student activist….As soon as I heard about this idea of manipulating the genes of our food in a laboratory…I became very concerned…I had seen firsthand in our food co-op that people were coming into the store looking for foods that were non-GMO, and there wasn’t a clear way to tell. (Mangan)

Consumers repeatedly request clear labeling, whether to avoid GMOs for personal, health or moral reasons or simply to make informed purchases. Several states, such as Connecticut, Vermont, and Maine, previously enacted labeling laws, but they were superseded by the NBFDS (Mangan). Because it overrules state mandates, the NBFDS deprives shoppers of simple, familiar labels.

Although there are several causes of confusion and problematic loopholes in current GMO labeling laws, it is not a lost battle. Many organizations and individuals are working towards solutions and pushing for change. This paper

highlights a few solutions by reputable organizations.

One model non-profit organization is the Non-GMO Project. Formally established in 2007, Ryan et al. attribute that the Non-GMO Project “advanced the ‘right to know’ grassroots endeavor” (58). Waddle lists several of the nonprofit’s achievements: “Through advocacy and education, the Non-GMO Project and partner organizations have raised public awareness about GMOs in the food supply.” A vital principle for policy change requires informed people to advocate consistently. Since most shoppers are confused by current labeling laws, it is natural that informed individuals collaborate to spread awareness. Organizations like the Non-GMO Project seek collaborations to gain positive political influence.

The Non-GMO Project informs the public and provides their own labeling for GMO-free products. Waddle elaborates that foods that are part of the Non-GMO Project Product Verification Program receive the trademark butterfly symbol, which “remains the most rigorous, transparent and trustworthy label for GMO avoidance.” The butterfly symbol is critical for consumers to quickly identify products that are not bioengineered. An easily recognizable symbol exemplifies how GMO labeling ought to function. Waddle concludes the article by saying, “[l]abeling should be meaningful, consistent, and transparent, effectively supporting everyone’s right to know what goes into their food.” Firms ought to show transparency in how food is processed, and the Non-GMO Project’s attitude of honesty sets a precedent for labeling laws.

Improved product testing for GE food, as the Non-GMO Project conducts, further clarifies labeling by reducing loopholes. Westgate indicates that, unlike current laws, “to meet the Non-GMO Project standard, we require that testing be done at a point in the supply chain where there is still testable DNA intact.” There is little logical reason for the previously discussed labeling loopholes to continue when improved GMO testing returns more accurate results. Standardized, timely, and detailed testing creates opportunities for unseen consistency in labeling. Westgate continues by saying, “[w]e set standards, we oversee the implementation of the standards; but there are outside certification experts who do product reviews and assess whether or not they meet our standards.” Outsourcing testing to third parties improves the trustworthiness of products and reinforces the atmosphere of candidness in an organization. Firms should aim for such credibility for their products.

Similarly, updated GMO detection tests ensure that food modified with new biotechnologies is not exempt. When Mangan asked Westgate about the organization’s ability to detect new biotechnologies, such as CRISPR technologies, Westgate replied:

There are scientists working on developing tests for them, and there are early results showing that gene-edited products can be detected with a

fair amount of confidence…As far as I know, we’re the only organization in the world maintaining this database of all of the developers and all of the products, so that we know where to look and where to ask questions. (Mangan)

With many new biotechnologies on the rise quickly, some products are exempt from testing because they are not conducive to “common” testing. However, the Non-GMO Project product testing uses common methods and constantly improves testing to detect new biotech technologies (Mangan). If adopted by the FDA, this testing can distinguish new products as BE so that the shoppers remain unfooled. With so many current exemptions, updated testing prevents deceptive firms.

Adopting structures from other countries that mandate GMO labeling laws provides a model of transparency and accuracy. Westgate explains: “In the EU, GMOs have to be labeled. In many countries around the world, governments ensure that citizens can easily see which products have been produced using biotechnology” (Mangan). In EU countries, shoppers can quickly distinguish a product’s label and trust its accuracy. Using other countries’ laws as a blueprint, American consumers can likewise recognize products that contain GMOs. The EU requires products with over 0.9% genetically modified material to be labeled (Mangan). Adapting stricter standards as used by other countries mitigates loopholes and exemptions. EU countries and several Central Asian countries require intense labeling so consumers can smartly choose the products they want and trust the labeling to be accurate. American consumers would benefit from this adaptation.

However, the simplest solution is educating individual consumers. Brody wisely suggests that consumers “take some time to learn about how genetic engineering works and the benefits it can offer now and in the future.” Additionally, Westgate confirms that “[t]he only reason we have any sort of federal GMO labeling in the United States, after many years of there being no movement on it, is because grassroots campaigns built up momentum at a state level for GMO labeling laws” (Mangan). All positive shifts toward GMO labeling have stemmed from individuals pushing for change and getting together with other activists. As seen from the statistics of people who think GMOs are safe, there is much misinformation on the market. It is the power of the informed individual that ends misinformation. The best way for an individual to utilize that power is first to understand that the issue of improper GMO labeling concerns individuals’ abilities to make informed choices. However, advancing all Americans’ educated purchasing starts with individuals spreading awareness and accurate information about GMO labeling problems. Educating others about what GMOs are, the scientific support of bioengineering food and crops, and the current poor labeling laws is the fastest way to forward consumer

freedom and firm transparency into reality.

With the complexity of agricultural science and the allowances within the NBFDS, it is easy to feel overwhelmed by labeling problems. However, focusing on key areas one at a time alleviates some stress and incrementally promotes improvement. For instance, the various loopholes within current labeling laws are deeply concerning. Between ultra-processed foods containing refined oils and sugars and products where meat, poultry, and eggs are the main ingredients, many products are entirely exempt from GMO labeling. It is a wonder how any products represent BE foods when labeling laws allow firms huge labeling flexibility gaps at the consumer’s expense. To combat labeling loophole lunacy, individuals must frequently educate themselves on and discuss current issues with others. Additionally, individuals supporting organizations like the Non-GMO Project encourage a future of specific, strict, and updated testing, resulting in accurate, dependable, and understandable labeling.

While I am not threatened by eating GE products, I support clear labeling of products. There is a larger issue of deceptive processing and packaging among agribusinesses and food processors. GMO labeling regulation is the first step toward complete transparency between firms and shoppers. Firms will continue to manipulate labeling laws until the public demands accountability. I encourage readers new to the BE labeling discourse to further learn about GMOs, genetically engineered food and crop testing, and new biotechnologies introduced into agriculture, and to support organizations advancing Americans’ access to honest and reliable product packaging.

WORKS CITED

Brody, Jane E. “Are G.M.O. Foods Safe?” The New York Times, 23 Apr. 2018. ProQuest, www.proquest.com/usmajordailies/ docview/2028834990/6D97321BEC9042A7PQ/1?accountid=227&sourcetype=Blogs,%20 Podcasts,%20&%20Websites.

“Feed Your Mind: How GMOs Are Regulated in the United States.” U.S. Food and Drug Administration, July 2022, pp. 1-4, www.fda.gov/media/135278/download?attachment.

Mangan, Arty. “Your Right to Know: An Interview with Megan Westgate of the Non-GMO Project.” Bioneers, 12 Sept. 2023, bioneers.org/your-right-to-know-an-interview-with-megan-westgate-ofthe-non-gmo-project/.

Ryan, Camille D., et al. “Exploring the GMO Narrative through Labeling: Strategies, Products, and Politics.” GM Crops and Food, vol. 15, no. 1, 25 Feb. 2024, pp. 51-66, www.tandfonline.com/doi/ epdf/10.1080/21645698.2024.2318027?needAccess=true.

Waddle, Melissa. “What Is Bioengineered Food?” Non-GMO Project, 29 Jan. 2025, www. nongmoproject.org/blog/what-is-bioengineered-food/.

“We Need the Truth About What’s in Our Food. New Labeling Is Not Going to Help.” Chicago Tribune. 10 Jan. 2022. ProQuest, www.proquest.com/chicagotribune/ docview/2618170790/5CEE7536DBED49AFPQ/2?accountid=227&sourcetype=Newspapers.

Genetic Editing: Exploring the Consequences and Ethical Quandaries

GENETIC EDITING: EXPLORING THE CONSEQUENCES AND ETHICAL QUANDARIES

Megan Hutchinson

In 1998, thirty-five scientists, philosophers, lawyers, and environmental activists sought an agreement on the use of precautionary principles. The agreement concluded with the idea, “When an activity raises threats of harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if some cause-and-effect relationships are not fully established scientifically” (Hayes 2005). Since 1998, the precautionary principle has been applied to genetically editing the human genome. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the American Society of Human Genetics (ASHG) lead the conversation on regulations and standards for the use of genetic editing. The conversation surrounding the use of genetic editing focuses on the unethical or possible beneficial implications behind its use. Dr. David Nelson, the ASHG President, discusses the importance of scientific, ethical, and political discussions that are happening inside and outside the ASHG. While the organization supports in vitro studies, they do not believe it is appropriate to conduct human germline genome editing that results in human pregnancy because of the undeveloped research and potential risks. On the other hand, Dr. Tedros Ghebreyesus, the WHO Director-General, explores the idea of human genome editing being used to treat and cure diseases. However, he recognizes that editing technology cannot reach its full potential until it is available to all people. Ever since CRISPR-Cas9 technology, the most recent editing technology to be recognized, was introduced in 2012 by Jennifer Doudna. The medical and scientific communities have heavily criticized the use of genetic editing technology to change the human genome. Opposers of genetic editing have determined that the medical and societal risks of enhancements are far too high. The prominent issues include off-target mutations, unknown harmful effects, implications for individuals and future generations, and the cultural divide that can be created. Due to these reasons, it is unethical and reckless to use genetic editing to alter the human genome.

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF GENETIC EDITING

Since the late 1970s, a variety of genetic editing methods have been devised, evaluated, and refined. The technology allows for precise alterations to DNA sequences, acting like molecular scissors using nucleases that can cut DNA to add, replace, or delete targeted sequences at a specific location. Genetic editing has been used to modify traits like mitigating autoimmune harm and preventing hereditary diseases. One of the first technologies created was Homologous Recombination, which allows for the exchange of genetic information between

two similar strands of DNA. According to the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), “To perform homologous recombination in the laboratory, one must generate and isolate DNA fragments bearing genome sequences similar to the portion of the genome that is to be edited” (NHGRI, 2024). Once inside the cell, the DNA fragments can be combined with the targeted portion of the genome. However, the technology is limited because of its ineffectiveness with many cell types, stemming from its inability to undergo meiosis post-editing. Up until the late 1990s, few other editing technologies were created, including Zinc- Finger Nucleases and Transcription Activator-like Effector Nucleases. In the mid-2000s, the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) was implemented for use in genetic editing. CRISPR was discovered in the late 1990s but not used until the mid-2000s when laboratories were able to understand and recognize sequences to be cut using Cas-9. The segments in CRISPR are transcribed into RNA, and the RNA includes a guided sequence to match the individual’s DNA. Alongside CRISPR, the Cas-9 enzyme works to find the desired DNA to edit, attach to the DNA, and make changes. Gene editing technology is delivered using two main types of gene therapy, including somatic and germline. Somatic cells are described as “...diploid, meaning they contain two sets of chromosomes, one set being inherited from each parent” (NHGRI, 2024). Therefore, somatic gene therapy changes the DNA cells of an adult or child in the somatic cells, causing permanent alteration of only that individual. For example, in one clinical trial, scientists had taken blood stem cells from a patient, used CRISPR, and infused the edited cells back into the patient. This changed the patient’s blood cells temporarily but ultimately did not work (The Harvard Gazette, 2019). By editing her somatic cells and reinfusing them, scientists hoped the edited cells would mutate and fully populate, eradicating her condition. On the other hand, germline gene therapy edits the reproductive cells, i.e., eggs, sperm, and early embryonic cells. Germline therapy aims to “… change the eventual child’s genetic inheritance. This could be done to avoid a genetic disease or to introduce an ‘enhancing’ genetic variation” (Greely, 2001). Because all inherited diseases are passed on through the germline cells, the genetic variant changes and removes the possibility of hereditary disorders. When the germline cells are altered, those changes are continuously passed throughout future generations. For example, if an individual who would be born with beta-thalassemia had undergone germline editing in the embryonic stage, their lineage would no longer carry the biological capability of having beta-thalassemia. However, “researchers were able to insert a gene with only a success rate ranging from 5 to 60 percent” (Trafton, 2022). The evidence displays a variety of outcomes, with little consistency and a disproportionate margin for error. With the progression of genetic editing technology, primarily CRISPR, the potential for unintended consequences and unethical experimentation rises.

BIOETHICS OF GENETIC EDITING

The bioethics in the medical community explores the moral and ethical questions coming from experimental research. Bioethicists have delved into the scientific and medical dangers of manipulating the human genome. Recent clinical research by bioethicists has emphasized the importance of respecting human rights and considering the safety consequences for future generations (McConnell, 2019). Because human germline genetic editing affects the lineage of the edited individual, researchers and ethical board members must weigh the benefits and drawbacks before the technology can be publicized. Similarly, there are numerous ethical dilemmas, including undesirable changes to the genome. For example, a major obstacle to genetic editing is mosaicism and off- target mutagenesis; these results stem from inadequate editing technology (Mehravar, 2019). Mosaicism and off- target mutagenesis are severe cell and genetic deformities that can result from the use of genetic editing. Preventing these results has proven to be difficult using the CRISPR/Cass-9 technology, and it can be difficult to control the outcome.

Mosaicism occurs when a single fertilized egg results in an individual having two or more genetically different genotypes. This can occur because of a genetic mutation like CRISPR and can lead to a mix of both non-edited and edited cells within the body. When the abnormal cells begin to outnumber the unedited cells, diseases on a cellular level can affect the tissues, skin, brain, and other organs. As explained by Nature Reviews Neuroscience, genetic mosaicism can be associated with certain cancers and somatic mosaic variants; those variants are known to occur in neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders (Bizzotto, 2022). Because of the mosaic effect occurring in cells, a variety of disorders can arise. Therefore, the editing technology that causes mosaicism can lead to further genetic damage, causing cancer variants and neurological disorders. Moreover, diseases still cultivate in genetically edited individuals as a result of mosaicism. A statement on mosaicism made by Robin Lovell-Badge, a British biologist, discussed his opinion on genetic editing, “This would need to be solved before the methods could be used clinically to correct a disease” (Stein, 2023). Before the technology could be available for public use, it would need to be researched further to resolve those issues to prevent further and future damage. In the case of Lulu and Nana, it was determined that Lulu experienced mosaicism. However, because their identities are anonymous, future implications and risks associated with their mosaicism will remain unknown. In the process of genetic editing, off-target mutagenesis is the induction of DNA modifications that occur to unintended sites. This unintentional modification can occur through point mutation, deletion, insertion, or inversion. Research conducted by Frontier Bioengineering and Biotechnology concluded that “off-target effects occur when Cas-9 acts on untargeted genomic sites and

creates cleavage that may lead to adverse outcomes” (Congting, 2023). The cleavages created by the untargeted mutations allow for adverse reactions. This could be through the addition, deletion, inversion, or an incomplete mutation that could cause the gene to mutate in an injudicious manner. Furthermore, gene editing utilizes DNA repair mechanics and nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ) to prevent off-target mutations. However, an experiment designed to stay on-target with CRISPR concluded, “…when NHEJ is the repair mode, unwanted sequence changes can occur at both on- and off-target sites…offtarget breaks can be toxic to cells, and they lead to structural rearrangements of the genome…” (Marx, 2014). In 2003, a young boy going through gene therapy trials in France developed leukemia because of off-target mutagenesis. The repair gene researchers attempted to place the corrected gene, but landed on the wrong gene and activated a cancer-causing gene instead. Because of the reckless and undeveloped technology used, a young boy had developed an unmerited cancer.

MODERN-DAY EUGENICS

The concept of eugenics was first introduced in the late 19th century in England and was notably demonized because of Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany. Previously, in the late 1920s, claims that “eugenics would abolish cancer in two generations” were widespread (Lombardo, 2018). Today, we recognize these claims as outlandish, hateful, and untrue because cancer remains rampant throughout society. The hateful attitudes towards the impoverished, different races, sexualities, and the disabled were openly embraced and punished even decades after Hitler’s control had ceased. Between 1943-1959, 23,000 plus forced sterilizations were performed, with documented surgeries up until the late 1970s. Additionally, “the legal vestiges of eugenics remained in place in the U.S. until the 21st century; the final law allowing involuntary surgeries as a state eugenic intervention was not repealed until 2013” (Lombardo, 2018). The blatant discrimination and prejudice towards minorities have been a worldwide ideology for decades, and in many places, it is still a reality. Modern-day eugenics refers to intentionally changing the genes of children and their descendants to change or remove genes to prevent diseases, cure diseases, and improve the body in a significant way. The new eugenic ideology supports the genetic modification of individuals that are designed to improve human welfare without considering the possible effects on human evolution. Since the beginning of time, homo troglodytes (cave dwellers) became homo sapiens through the process of evolution. Evolution has progressed and continues to because of random mutations in the genome that occur because of external and internal factors. For example, there are genetic variants that are straddled over the genome to contribute to autism and psychiatric risk. These

genetic variants include the “SHANK3, DIXDC1, DISC1, and C4, some of our most promising candidate genes for autism or schizophrenia…” (Kozubek, 2017). As these genetic variants mutate, off-target mutation of the gene can cause even further distortion of the gene. The theory Charles Darwin introduced, “the survival of the fittest,” enabled believers of eugenics to rationalize their beliefs of genetic modification. Realistically, Darwin demonstrated how evolution is not a linear progression, but rather a constant adaptation to one’s environment (Kozubek, 2017). Scientists tend to rationalize humans as machines, dividing their genes into parts and a variety of problems to be solved. This idea assumes there is a right way for genes to be. However, nowhere in nature are genetic functions outlined. Therefore, targeted genetic editing could impact the genetic makeup of populations over time.

CONCLUSION

The utilization of genetic editing to modify the human genome is deemed unethical and perilous because of its unorthodox nature. The conversation and application of the precautionary principle have been used since the 1990s in discussions of genetic editing. From early editing techniques, including Homologous Recombination, to the recently developed CRISPR/Cas-9 technology, genetic editing has provided opportunities for somatic and germline therapy. However, the concept is deeply challenged by ethical and practical obstacles. In the case of Lulu and Nana, the issues surrounding misinformed consent, mosaicism, and off-target mutagenesis undermine the scientific process and the need for further research to address the associated risks. Moreover, the history of eugenics highlights the dangers of pursuing genome modification without consideration of the larger societal and evolutionary implications. As the science community continues to navigate the ethical complexities, it is necessary to prioritize the health and safety of individuals, uphold ethical standards, and ensure the benefits of genetic editing outweigh its risks to public health.

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Bergman, M. (2022, November 8). Harvard researchers share views on future ethics of gene editing. Retrieved from https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2019/01/perspectives-on-gene-editing/. Cleveland Clinic. (2023, April 25). CRISPR gene editing 101. Retrieved from Congting, G. (2023, March 9). Off-target effects in CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing. Retrieved from https:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10034092/#:~:text=The%20off-target%20effects%20 occur%20when%20Cas9%20acts%20on,Hsu%20et%20al.%2C%202013%3B%20Wang%20et%20 al.%2C%202016a%29. .

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Personal Storytelling and Mental Health Recovery

PERSONAL STORYTELLING AND MENTAL

HEALTH RECOVERY

TChristopher Hooper

he first time many people talk to me about storytelling, they are not standing under a spotlight; they are across a table or a Zoom screen, saying things like, “I would like to tell a story, but I do not think I have one,” or “I am afraid I will mess it up.” They fidget with their hands, apologize for not being “interesting enough,” and stumble through a rough first draft of a memory they are not sure is worth sharing. Over the subsequent few coaching sessions, we work on that memory together, finding the beginning, discovering the emotional turning point, and shaping an ending that feels honest. By the time they finally step up to the microphone, they are usually still nervous, but after they tell the story and hear the audience respond, they often walk away feeling more grounded and open, sometimes even saying the story feels different now that it has been told.

Because storytelling typically begins as a private, self-directed process, an important question emerges: what changes when narrative work is guided intentionally through a therapeutic framework? Although narrative therapy demonstrates clear benefits in clinical contexts, the discussion extends beyond therapy to consider whether similar narrative effects can occur through structured community storytelling settings.

These kinds of shifts from uncertainty and self-doubt to clarity and connection are part of why personal storytelling is increasingly used in spaces related to mental health. At the same time, formal mental health systems are stretched thin, and many people cannot access long-term therapy or specialized treatment. Low-cost practices like expressive writing groups, narrative therapy approaches, and community storytelling programs are already being used in clinics, schools, and community centers, often with the hope that sharing your story will help people heal. As someone who has watched people craft and perform their stories, I have seen participants leave the process looking calmer, more connected, and more confident than when they began. However, personal experience and inspiring moments in workshops and shows are not enough on their own. Current research shows how personal storytelling affects mental health and where its limits might be. The benefit is tied to meaning-making and the organization of experience, the exact mechanism storytelling relies on in both therapeutic and community settings.

Personal storytelling supports mental health recovery not simply because stories are powerful, but because structured personal narratives help people turn chaotic experiences into coherent identities, regulate difficult emotions, and build genuine connections with others, especially when writing, therapy, and

community storytelling programs work together rather than in isolation.

At the most basic level, the stories people tell about themselves strongly shape how they cope with pain. Psychologists describe identity as an internalized life story, and research summarized by Susan F. Dingfelder (2011) shows that people naturally organize their lives into narratives with beginnings, turning points, and ongoing themes rather than as a random collection of events. In this work, individuals who interpret difficult experiences as moments of growth or learning, sometimes called “redemption sequences”, tend to report better psychological adjustment than those who describe only loss, damage, or being permanently stuck (Dingfelder, 2011). In other words, the way people tell their stories is closely tied to their sense of who they are and how resilient they feel. This suggests that any practice that helps people move from a chaotic, fragmented story toward a more coherent, growth-oriented narrative is not just changing how they talk; it changes how they understand themselves. For mental health recovery, that shift in self-story can be crucial, because people who see themselves as capable of change and skilled at meaning-making may be more able to engage with treatment, relationships, and daily challenges than those who feel defined only by trauma or illness.

Research on expressive writing shows how structured personal narratives can help people regulate difficult emotions and reduce distress, but it also makes clear that this kind of storytelling is not automatically helpful for everyone in every situation. Psychologist James Pennebaker and his colleague Joshua Smyth have spent decades studying what happens when people write about their deepest thoughts and feelings for short, structured sessions over several days. In their work, participants who wrote about stressful or traumatic experiences often showed reductions in emotional distress, visited doctors less frequently, and reported better overall functioning compared to people who wrote about neutral topics (Pennebaker & Smyth, 2016). However, research on expressive writing also notes that expressive writing can temporarily increase distress, especially if someone is in the middle of a crisis or has no emotional support, and that not every study finds substantial benefits. Taken together, these findings suggest that expressive writing can be a simple, structured way to help people shape chaotic experiences into a more organized story and reduce some emotional pressure, but only when it is used thoughtfully and at the right time. For mental health recovery, that means writing should not be treated as a magic fix but as one narrative tool that can help people turn overwhelming experiences into something they can look at, reflect on, and eventually share with others.

Narrative therapy takes these storytelling processes into a clinical frame, using guided conversations to help clients externalize problems, revise problemsaturated stories, and regulate their emotional responses to depression and

distress. In a recent meta-analysis of narrative therapy for adults with somatic disorders, researchers found that people who received narrative-based treatment showed meaningful reductions in depressive symptoms compared to those in control groups, even though the overall number of high-quality studies is still relatively small (Hu et al., 2024). Another study by Vromans and Schweitzer (2011) followed adults with major depressive disorder through an eightsession narrative therapy program where clients told, examined, and retold key life stories with a therapist. Participants not only showed large, clinically significant reductions in depression by the end of treatment, but many also maintained those gains at follow-up and reported improvements in how they related to other people. Beyond these individual trials, a collection of outcome reports and program evaluations gathered by the Dulwich Centre documents the use of narrative therapy with a wide range of populations and problems, with many services reporting reductions in distress and improvements in functioning (Dulwich Centre, n.d.). Together, this body of work suggests that when therapists invite clients to externalize problems, question old self-stories, and build alternative narratives of competence and connection, they are not just having deep conversations; they are using structured storytelling as an active intervention. For mental health recovery, this means narrative therapy offers a more formal, supported way for people to re-author their lives, especially when their personal stories have been dominated by illness, failure, or hopelessness. Taken together, this research supports the thesis that structured storytelling can function as a mechanism of recovery by changing how people interpret their experiences.

While narrative therapy demonstrates what guided re-authoring can accomplish in clinical contexts, it also raises a practical question: can similar narrative benefits appear outside therapy in structured community storytelling places?

Outside of formal therapy and private writing, community-based storytelling programs and workshops show how personal narratives can support mental health by offering low-cost opportunities for people to build genuine connections with others in more everyday spaces. Research on communitybased mental health interventions suggests that these group storytelling settings can promote connection, meaning-making, and engagement even outside clinical care. In the storytelling shows and workshops I help coach and produce, many participants start the process feeling hesitant and emotionally uncertain about the more vulnerable, unprocessed parts of their stories. They often say things like, “I do not know if this is worth telling”, or “I am scared to talk about this in front of people”. Over several sessions, they shape those experiences into a clear story arc and practice telling their personal stories aloud to active, open, and attentive listeners. By the time they share the story

in front of a group or audience, they often describe feeling more confident and capable of handling that part of their life, and many walk away saying the story feels different now that it has been told.

When I think back on the people I have coached through personal stories, what stands out is not just the performance itself, but the way their relationship to the story shifts over time. A memory that once felt chaotic, embarrassing, or too heavy to talk about slowly becomes something they can describe in order, name the feelings around, and even weave into a larger picture of who they are now. The research on identity, expressive writing, narrative therapy, and community storytelling suggests that this shift is not just in their imagination. Personal storytelling really can help people turn overwhelming experiences into coherent narratives, regulate difficult emotions, and feel more connected to others, especially when it is supported in thoughtful, structured ways.

In my own coaching experience, I have seen how the shift from simply recounting an event to reflecting on it can change the meaning a person takes from the experience. One storyteller I worked with initially approached her piece as a straightforward retelling of what I described to her as an anecdote. However, when I asked her to pause within the story and name what she felt in the moment (and what she felt about it now), she told me that was the turning point. She said she suddenly understood the experience differently and even found humor in it. That shift matters because it shows the difference between disclosure as repetition and storytelling as meaning-making. The story stops being only “what happened” and becomes a more organized interpretation that can reduce emotional stuckness and open space for new understanding.

That same process also carried forward through the typical structure of my coaching: it began one-on-one, moved into group feedback, and then ended with a live performance. After she told the story on stage, she described it as a release, especially when audience members came up afterward and told her they related to her experience and shared parts of their own stories. In practical terms, that moment of recognition matters because it connects personal narrative to social support: the storyteller is not only reframing the experience internally, but also experiencing it as understandable and shared, which can reduce isolation and strengthen a sense of belonging.

Research on community psychiatry programs that incorporate storytelling shows similar patterns; for example, Komóczi and Kósa (2025) found that a narrative-based group intervention in a community mental health setting helped participants feel more hopeful, more connected to others, and more engaged in their own recovery. These kinds of programs do not replace clinical treatment. However, they do offer accessible spaces where people can organize difficult experiences, be witnessed by others, and experience the emotional relief and connection that come from having their stories heard. For many people who

may never see a therapist or who need support between appointments, that kind of community storytelling can be an important part of the larger recovery picture. In other words, the argument is not that storytelling replaces therapy, but that it can extend evidence-based narrative processes into social settings where connection and identity re-framing can also occur.

While these benefits are real, a responsible argument must also acknowledge that storytelling is not automatically therapeutic. For some people, revisiting a painful experience, especially without structure or support, can turn into rumination, emotional flooding, or a reinforced “stuck” identity rather than growth. Research on expressive disclosure also shows that the outcome is not uniform: factors such as emotional expressivity and coping style can shape whether writing or narrative processing helps or backfires. In other words, the method matters, the timing matters, and the person’s baseline coping style matters, which means storytelling has real limits if it is treated like a universal cure-all (Harvard Health Publishing, 2011; Niles et al., 2014). Recognizing these limits is essential to arguing for storytelling as a guided, intentional practice rather than an inherently therapeutic act.

Those limits do not cancel the value of narrative work; they clarify the conditions under which it is most responsible and effective. When storytelling is guided by clear boundaries, choice, pacing, consent, and an option to stop, and it includes meaning-making rather than raw re-exposure, it becomes more than “reliving.” It becomes an organized reflection: the storyteller gains language for the experience, repositions the self as an agent rather than a victim, and externalizes the problem instead of merging with it. That is also where narrative therapy is distinct from unstructured storytelling: it is not simply telling stories, but actively re-authoring identity in ways that reduce symptoms and strengthen functioning (Pennebaker & Smyth, 2016; Vromans & Schweitzer, 2011). In structured community storytelling contexts, this same re-authoring process can occur when stories are guided with intention, boundaries, and meaning-making. Personal storytelling supports mental health recovery not simply because stories are powerful, but because it engages specific psychological and social processes. Identity research shows that the stories people tell about themselves shape how they cope with pain and how resilient they feel. Studies on expressive writing and narrative therapy demonstrate that guiding people to organize and reinterpret difficult experiences can reduce distress and improve functioning, even if these techniques need to be timed and supported carefully. Community storytelling programs and coached workshops extend this work into everyday spaces, offering chances for people to be witnessed and to walk away with a healthier perspective on the vulnerable parts of their lives. At the same time, the evidence also warns against treating storytelling as a miracle solution. Not everyone benefits from expressive writing; narrative therapy is not right for

every client, and some people may need medical treatment, trauma-focused therapy, or other forms of support before or alongside story work. A responsible approach would see personal storytelling as one important tool in a larger recovery toolkit, not as a replacement for professional care. For therapists, that might mean intentionally integrating narrative practices where appropriate and being aware of community storytelling programs that can complement clinical work. For community organizers and storytellers, it means designing trauma-aware workshops, setting clear boundaries, and knowing when to encourage someone to seek clinical help. For people struggling with their own mental health, it means recognizing that shaping and sharing their story can be powerful, but that it is okay to ask for more help when a story feels too heavy to carry alone. If personal narratives are to play a larger role in mental health recovery, they need to be used not only to inspire but also to be evidenceinformed and grounded in care.

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