Schwabe
Christine Christ-von Wedel Thomas K. Kuhn (eds.)
Basel Mission People, History, Perspectives 1815–2015
Basel Mission 1815 – 2015
Twenty authors from Asia, Africa, Latin America and Europe describe the gripping and eventful history of the Basel Mission – a history characterised by impressive people and their often- astonishing biographies. The sons of simple farmers and craftsmen, for instance, turned into fearless evangelisers, or even influential linguists and geographers. If they initially believed in the superiority of European-Christian civilisation, they learned more and more to estimate the intrinsic value of social systems in the mission areas. For a long time the leadership at home consisted of a small circle of pietists from Basel, who led the Mission through ups and downs with devout energy and rigor. In time, independent churches were established in former mission areas and claimed successfully participation in decision-making in the Mission. In new forms of worship and devotion they found ways to convincingly combine Christianity and traditional spirituality. Their songs are now being sung in Europe and missionary work was decisively transformed: Today, exchange with different cultures and international solidarity have priority. This richly illustrated book provides a memorable introduction to the history of the Basel Mission and presents perspectives on current missionary theory and practice.
I S B N 978-3-7965-3404-1
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783796 534041
Schwabe
Christine Christ-von Wedel Thomas K. Kuhn (eds.)
Basel Mission People, History, Perspectives 1815–2015
Schwabe Verlag Basel
This publication was made possible by contributions from the Ernst Göhner Foundation, the Swisslos-Fund Basel-Stadt, and the Swisslos-Fund Basel-Landschaft. Published with support from the Berta Hess-Cohn Stiftung, Basel.
Cover: ‘Weltkarte der Mission’, drawn by Rudolf Gross, in Atlas der Evangelischen Missions-Gesellschaft zu Basel. Nach den Angaben der Missionare Locher, Plessing, Kies, Albrecht, Weigle, Dr. Gundert, Lechler & Winnes, unter Mitwirkung von Rudolf Gross, Ingenieur – Typograph. Bearbeitet von J. Josenhans, Inspector der Evangelischen Missionsanstalt (Basel: Verlag des Comptoirs der evangelischen Missions-Gesellschaft, [1857]), [map 1]
Copyright © 2015 Schwabe AG, Verlag, Basel This work is protected by copyright. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, or translated, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Translation (all but the contributions by Thomas, Omenyo, Tong, Sepúlveda G.): Cassandra Mark, Basel Editorial work: Marianne Wackernagel, Schwabe; Angela Roberts, Manchester Graphic design: claudiabasel Font: Arnhem, Akzidenz Grotesk Paper: Profibulk Production: Schwabe AG, Muttenz/Basel Printed in Switzerland ISBN 978-3-7965-3404-1 rights@schwabe.ch www.schwabeverlag.ch
Content
Preface Karl F. Appl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Foreword Christine Christ-von Wedel and Thomas K. Kuhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Introduction Christine Christ-von Wedel and Thomas K. Kuhn .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 I Identity The Origins of the “Mission Institute” in Basel Thomas K. Kuhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Challenges and Changes in the 20th Century Martin Sallmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Portrait Between Cultures – Francis Dankwa (1918–1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Critical Memory – The Anniversary Celebrations and Cultural Transfer Christine Christ-von Wedel . . . . . . . 31 The Basel Mission and the Birth of Postcolonial African Theology Andreas Heuser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Portrait Mediator Between the Religions – Channappa Uttangi (1881–1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 II People The Missionary Brand – Achievements and Critique Dieter Becker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Thematic Interlude The Textualisation of Indigenous Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Women in the Mission and Girls’ Schools Judith Becker .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 In the Service of the Lord – Swiss Missionary Families Overseas in the 19th Century Dagmar Konrad . . . . 61 “Should I become a Missionary?” – Comments Pertaining to the Motivation-Cosmos of Basel Missionaries Thorsten Altena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 III Institution The Leading Body – Internationality and Participation Christine Christ-von Wedel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Portrait Worked for the Mission in an Honorary Capacity for a Period of 37 Years. The President, Councilman Adolf Christ (1807–1877) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 David Asante – A Life for the Basel Mission Sonia Abun-Nasr .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Mission and Money – On the History of the Mission Trading Company Heinrich Christ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Thematic Interlude The Male and Female Donation Collectors for the Basel Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Reluctant Pioneers – Slave Emancipation within the Mission on the Gold Coast Peter Haenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Thematic Interlude The Colonial Question – Between Adaptation and Opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 IV Media Pictures of the Mission – A Mission of Pictures Anke Schürer-Ries and Barbara Frey Näf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 The Publications and Teaching Materials Julia Mack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Thematic Interlude The First World War – A Turning Point for the Basel Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Songs Benedict Schubert .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Faith, Space and Maps – Elements of Missionary Cartography Guy Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
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Stimuli and Impact The Impact of Basel Mission in Africa Cephas Omenyo .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Thematic Interlude Emancipation – Lydia Ndamboked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 The Basel Mission Founding a Vibrant Church in Hong Kong Wing Sze Tong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 The Basel Mission’s Place in the Latin American History of Missions Juan Sepúlveda G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 The Impacts of Mission on Europe Christine Lienemann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
VI Events and Persons Historical Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Chronology of the Institutional Management of the Basel Mission, 1815–2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Alphabetical Register of the Institutional Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Index of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Picture Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 The Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
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Preface
Wilhelm Schlatter published the first three volumes in his multi-volume work Geschichte der Basler Mission (History of the Basel Mission) on the 100th anniversary of the Basel Mission in the midst of the First World War. This was followed by a fourth volume to the series and later a fifth, which would lead into the period before the Second World War. Although there was talk of a sixth, “detailing happenings from inside the Basel Mission up until the present day”, this was not meant to be; by the late 1980s and early 1990s the days of the celebratory institutional history were long gone and replaced by a growing number of questions on the subject of mission. Eine kurze Geschichte der Basler Mission (A short history of the Basel Mission) was published shortly before the 175th anniversary. It was written by the then archivist of the Basel Mission, Paul Jenkins, at the suggestion of the Presbyterian Church in Cameroon. On the actual anniversary a paperback book was published: kein Vogel fliegt mit einem Flügel. 12 Skizzen zu 175 Jahren Basler Mission (No bird flies with a single wing. 12 sketches on 175 years of Basel Mission, Basel 1990). In the introduction the author wrote: “In this book we put ourselves into question. […] It is not a book that glorifies the past. It brings it into the present.” This publication represented a widening of perspectives on the history of the Basel Mission, which had changed dramatically in the intervening years not least due to the growing democratisation of the institution in the context of the so-called Gwatt-Prozess, which envisioned a new type of equal partnership and collaboration between the missionary society and the churches of the global south. A writing of the history of the Basel Mission is no longer possible without their involvement, and this realisation demands a new and critical view of the past. This book, which was conceptualised by Dr. Christine Christ-von Wedel and Prof. Dr. Thomas K. Kuhn, provides such a view – they deserve our heartfelt thanks for their efforts. Thank you also to the Schwabe Press (Schwabe Verlag) for taking on this book project, which will be published in both German and English.
If the commemorative publication on the 175-yearanniversary was written mainly by Basel Mission insiders, the present work comprises a critically benevolent outsider’s view on its work and history. A book has emerged whose depictions are characterised by historical depth and geographic breadth, directing our attention to 200 years of history and stories about the Basel Mission. Authors from Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin America have come together to make contributions to this volume, highlighting interesting and surprising events and introducing key personalities. No matter how briefly they present a topic, its insights are illuminating and always stimulate deeper inquiry. How, for instance, did the Basel Mission position itself vis-à-vis the end of slavery? Although it was determined from the very start that the “misery of slavery” had to be eradicated, opinions varied about how to achieve this goal; especially since doing so would endanger the relationship with local communities and colonial powers. Many other important questions are addressed in this book: What was the role of men, women, and their families in the Basel Mission? What moved male and female youths to become missionaries? How did the mission deal with money? How did it bring in donations? What was the purpose of its publication, photographs and maps? What was sung in the Basel Mission house, during the mission festivals, during Church services and in Europe and Africa? How did the Basel Mission Trading Company and the Halbbatzen-collection function? What was the Basel Mission’s understanding of self, and what is this concept today within Mission 21 and the Evangelical Mission in Solidarity? How do male and female authors from former mission fields in Africa, Asia, and Latin America assess the work of the Basel Mission? And what was and is the continuing impact of mission in Europe? Spreading the Gospel was always the Basel Mission’s prime motivation and likewise for all of the individuals who worked for and supported the Mission. We are truly convinced that this sense of purpose has not lost any of its relevance – particularly in times of
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change and upheaval. The Christian faith, which has roots in Palestine and which the disciples brought to Europe through missionary journeys, was subject to constant change even as it travelled around the globe. Today it is facing new challenges: A few years ago it was said that Christianity was becoming poorer, older, and more southern. Now there is indication that it could become Asian. Who could have imagined that a mere 60 years after the expulsion of Christian missionaries from China, the churches there would grow faster and larger than in any other location. With the founding of Mission 21 in 2001, the Basel Mission gave up its operative business. Yet, it still endeavours to pass on and honour its heritage and to call for a reshaping of the world according to Christian belief. May the book at hand also aid in these efforts.
Karl F. Appl, President of the Basel Mission Basel, June 2015
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Foreword
The Basel Mission initiated its work 200 years ago. In the ground-breaking five-volume work Geschichte der Basler Mission (History of the Basel Mission) – the first three volumes of which were published in 1916 – Wilhelm Schlatter and Hermann Witschi recorded the history of this important institution up to 1940. On this the 200-year anniversary of the Basel Mission, we present the book Basel Mission: People, History, Perspectives 1815–2015. The title of the published German version is Basler Mission. Menschen, Geschichte, Perspektiven 1815–2015. The five chapters of the book – “Identity”, “People”, “Institution”, “Media”, and “Stimuli and Impact” – are made up of 20 richly illustrated contributions that reflect a variety of interdisciplinary perspectives on diverse topics in the history of the Basel Mission. The authors – from Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin America – represent a number of different academic disciplines. Thus, in this book the history of the Basel Mission is not told solely from the point of view of the European “centre” in a globally active missionary society, rather, the perspectives of those from the affected missionary fields are also taken into account. This book would not have been possible without a great deal of diverse support. The editors would first like to extend their heartfelt thanks
to the authors, both for their willingness to engage with this project and for their contributions. Moreover, we would like to thank the staff of the Basel Mission Archives and the numerous other experts who promoted and assisted the book through their actions and advice. In particular we would like to mention Bernhard Dinkelaker, Lutz Drescher, Peter Gessler, Hanns Walter Huppenbauer and Claudia Wirthlin. We are deeply grateful to the Schwabe Press (Schwabe Verlag), especially the co-publishing manager (lic. phil.) Marianne Wackernagel, who from the very beginning nurtured this book with benevolence, competence and dedication. Thanks must also be extended to the translator, the copy-editor and all others, who collaborated in the production of this edition. Finally, the publication of this book in two languages would not have been possible without extensive financial support from the Ernst Göhner Foundation and the Swisslos-Fund of the Cantons of Basel City and Region. We would also like to thank the Berta Hess-Cohn Foundation for a generous grant awarded to defray printing costs. The Editors Basel, April 2015
Christine Christ-von Wedel and Thomas K. Kuhn
Introduction
The 19th century is regarded as the century of clubs and associations. Numerous men and women in several countries and cities voluntarily joined large and small initiatives in order to promote reform and improvement measures in various aspects of life, for example, in the fields of politics, upbringing, education, culture, social welfare and church life. These clubs and societies, which built on the societies of the Enlightenment, also emerged both abundantly and diversely in the context of evangelical revival movements. Beyond the offerings of their respective regional and cantonal churches, women and men campaigned for an active Christianity with great dedication and within extensive networks. These “awakened” religious action groups are characteristic of the history of religion during the modern period. Through their religiously motivated commitment, its members were responding to Christianity’s loss of significance in society – commonly referred to as secularisation or de-Christianisation in historical research – which was interpreted as being extremely threatening and often as directly signifying an apocalyptic end of time. However, the research also indicates that there was a religious counter-development, which was not recognised in historical literature for a long time. What does this mean? The developments that promoted the differentiation, as well as the pluralism, of Christianity are seen as characteristic in the history of religion in the modern period. Not only was individual piety spread through a variety of new religious opportunities, internal mission and diaconia, countless Christian groups and associations, so too was the impact of Christianity on society. In addition, the “awakened” set their sights beyond their own national boundaries. They looked to distant and still largely unknown continents to proclaim the Gospel and to bring what was viewed as a superior European culture to its inhabitants. The beginnings of the Basel Mission was clearly also informed by the historical context of emerging religiously motivated interest groups. It represented the desire, which had become enthusiastic
in many places, to convert “heathens”. From biblical verses (like Romans 11:25 and Matthew 24:14) the “awakened” derived a specific and effective notion of the end of time: it was only after the conversion of “heathens” – the necessary number was unclear – that the conversion of the Jews would occur. The latter was seen as an indispensable event for the “second coming of Christ”. Thus, in order to hasten the coming of God’s Kingdom and the second coming of Christ, a broad missionary commitment appeared to be a central and urgent task. Nevertheless, Europeans – including those in the mission fields overseas – did not always make a good impression everywhere. A remark from 1821, which appears in the Neuere Geschichte der Evangelischen Missions-Anstalten zu Bekehrung der Heiden in Ostindien (Recent history of the evangelical mission-societies to convert the heathens in East India), edited by Georg Christian Knapp, refers to this issue and to a positive development in the perception of European manners abroad: “In general, the Christian name has now become more venerable here than before, and the so injurious impression that some Europeans made on the heathens with their bad manners, which led them to the delusion that Christianity itself would be as corrupt as the behaviour of those individuals, has noticeably disappeared” (7. Stück, Halle, 1821, p. 974). As in many other places, the desire to bring Christianity to the wider world also grew in Basel during the early 19th century. The venerable city on the Rhine – which was home to the central management of the Deutsche Christentumsgesellschaft (German Christian Fellowship) and to other works for the Kingdom of God, the Traktat- und Bibelgesellschaft (Tract and Bible Society), for example – was seen by outsiders as having a special religious quality. This was reflected in their mention of “pious Basel” or in their descriptions of Basel as a “favourite of God”. To situate themselves within the widening current of missionary activities, a few men from the Deutsche Christentums gesellschaft initiated a missionary institution in Basel.
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They were, on the one hand, driven by the certainty that the final coming of God’s Kingdom was imminent and that God, in his plan of salvation, wanted to have the Gospel proclaimed to all nations. On the other hand, they viewed the atrocities committed by Europeans in the colonies with shame and sought therefore, against all odds, to develop a seminary for the training of missionaries (see contribution by Thomas K. Kuhn). And who were the candidates who wished to be trained into missionaries? They were the sons of simple farmers and craftsmen from rural and pietistic backgrounds, who – driven by the wish to serve their Saviour – signed up for instruction at the seminary. This training undoubtedly offered wider educational options, as well as opportunities for social advancement (see contribution by Thorsten Altena). The focus of the initially four (later six) years of teaching was Bible studies. In addition, the students learned basic medical, geographical, linguistic and architectural skills. The students went on not only to become intrepid preachers of Christianity, but also important linguists, geographers, architects and journalists in both text and photography (see contribution by Dieter Becker). The Basel Mission’s unique photo collection reflects the missionaries’ pronounced enthusiasm for photography and today provides an important historical source for both the history of the Basel Mission and of the mission areas. Modern-day image analysis has recently revealed important insights into the life and work of the photographers and the photographed. It has also revealed information about treatment of “the foreign”, as well as aspects of cultural trans ference (see contributions by Anke Schürer-Ries and Barbara Frey Näf). Many of the churches, schools and hospitals that were built by the missionaries together with experienced locals are currently still in use. Their translations of the Bible are also highly reputable in modernday Africa and Asia and are constantly being revised. The missionary maps, which were custom drawn in the 19th century, served the purposes of territorial development and surveying the Kingdom of God equally. They provided people at home with new perspectives on worlds that were unknown to them (see contribution by Guy Thomas). The most significant achievements of the women who were in the mission fields as early as the 19th century – in particular in pedagogical and school work –
have long gone unmentioned, despite the fact that missionary wives and other female missionaries far exceeded the already high expectations that were placed on them (see contribution by Judith Becker). That the socio-political and theological views of the missionaries sometimes changed during their service period amongst different cultures was not unheard of. Indeed, the copious journalistic and religious education materials published by the Basel Mission provide information on popular opinions within the mission in the 19th century as well as their transformation (see contribution by Julia Mack). If the missionaries’ point-of-view was initially based on the notion that European-Christian civilisation was superior, after a few years of missionary work they often came to recognise the intrinsic value of other cultures and societies. They even tried to convey these insights to the leadership in Basel, and often called for a more cautious treatment of traditional social relations. Thus, they pointed out that “slavery” in Africa was not to be confused with the inhumane chattel slavery practised in America (see contribution by Peter Haenger). However, their efforts to convince the leadership were only occasionally successful; its priorities were often different. Trapped in firmly established Eurocentric worldviews, the Committee, which was made up of a small circle of the “awakened” in Basel, ran the Mission with remarkable energy and rigor through many ups and downs, managing various conflicts and problems for which solutions had to be found. The business ethics of the Basel Missionary Trading Company, for instance, was the subject of much debate. Indeed, these ethical controversies could become quite heated. In 1883 Inspector Otto Schott withdrew from his position when he could not establish his view with the Committee (see contribution by Heinrich Christ). In addition to these questions surrounding business ethics, the issue of the “civilising mission”, or cultural transfer, remained a topic of constant critical discussion in Basel (see contribution by Christine Christ-von Wedel, Critical Memory). What has received far too little attention in research is how theology and piety changed within mission circles. At first glance, religious ideas and concepts seem to have barely changed: Employees and donors remained marked by a strong consciousness of sin and guilt, but also by a deep gratitude that their sin and guilt were forgiven by Christ’s death on the cross. They
felt – often after an experience of conversion – appointed to an unconditional discipleship and viewed themselves as being in constant battle against evil. However, a second and closer look at the sources will likely demonstrate that religious and theological developments and practices emerged during the course of the 19th century in the context of the mission. One example is the transformation of the notions about the end of time. In the middle of the 19th century, at the latest, the pressing, imminent eschatological expectation made way for a more restrained notion. Another important step on the path of missiological development is the academisation of missiology, as seen in the appointment of an (Honorary) professor in 1896 and, finally, in the first scientific tenured mission professorship in Halle in 1908. Until well into the 20th century, a devotional book by Johannes Evangelista Gossner shaped piety. The booklet Das Herz des Menschen ein Tempel Gottes oder eine Werkstätte des Satans (The heart of people, a temple of God or a workplace of Satan) was first published in 1812, based on a French original from 1732, and was meant to serve the purpose of “awakening and promoting a Christian worldview”, as indicated in the subtitle. Individuals in Basel interpreted it in various editions and languages in the period that followed. The title clearly indicates the dichotomous worldview of the awakened. Impressively, the book also presents the devil’s various attack strategies graphically, and instructs the reader on how to counter reprehensible, worldly temptations with prayer, unsparing self-examination and repentance. As much as such world-denying and embattled piety led to differently interpreted forms of personal commitment – for instance, in the lives of missionary families, which were rich in renunciation, (see contribution by Dagmar Konrad) – they were in danger of demanding austerity not only of themselves but also of others and of promoting intolerance. The Basel Mission was not always sparing in either excessive discipline or intolerant religious conviction. There were times when it demanded merciless moral discipline from its students in the seminary as well as from newly converted Christians, and it anxiously watched over their “pure” religious doctrines. Although the independence of the new churches in the mission fields was theoretically called for and theologically justified as early as the mid-19th century, religious rigor, arrogance and a lack of confidence prevented this from occurring for a long time, since both
missionaries and leadership doubted the strength of faith in the young congregations (see contribution by Wing Sze Tong). At first glance, it is astonishing that the Basel Mission pleaded for an inner-Protestant ecumenism from the outset. Yet, the relativity of dogmatic and confessional differences in favour of a practical religious orientation is a further characteristic of the early revival movement, as well as of the Enlightenment, and can be seen, for example, in the close cooperation between Lutheran Württemberg and Basel. That the Christentumsgesellschaft in Basel also thought transdenominationally in an even broader sense is evinced by the fact that the aforementioned John Evangelista Gossner, a Catholic priest, managed the secretariat of the fellowship for a brief period in 1811. On the other hand, confessional boundaries were more clearly delineated in the mission fields. An ecumenical collaboration with Catholic missions in the field only took place in the second half of the 20th century. After the First World War, and even more so after the Second World War and the subsequent collapse of colonial rule, the Basel Mission had to reorient itself. In addition to a comprehensive ecumenism, it also gradually opened itself up to new indigenous forms of beliefs; it worked more closely with the national churches in Europe; and it became increasingly involved with international mission organisations and with the World Council of Churches for the first time (see contribution by Martin Sallmann). However, the leadership in Basel was slow to transfer leadership responsibilities. Allowing the long-since independent former mission churches and partner organisations to participate in leadership tasks only came about through the missionary societies that had been co-founded and cosupported by the Basel Mission: the Evangelical Mission in Solidarity (EMS) and Mission 21. The EMS made its partner churches members, and in Mission 21 continental assemblies and support organisations with equal rights delegate their representatives to the Synod (see contribution by Christine Christ-von Wedel, The Leading Body). The individuals sent from Basel were only marginally involved in the development of today’s contextual theology – which is so typical for current mission churches and so formative for Christianity worldwide – or in the new forms of worship and piety of the young, newly independent mission churches that combine Christianity and traditional spirituality con-
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vincingly (see contribution by Andreas Heuser), and whose songs are now sung in Europe as well (see contribution by Benedict Schubert). But all the employees of the Basel Mission, whether at home or overseas, were leaders in broad journalistic coverage. Alongside Christians from Asia, Africa and Latin America, they incorporated their experiences into Europe and extended the debates about colonialism, the growing global trade and foreign cultures far beyond the city limits of Basel. From the very start, the Basel Mission sought out indigenous peoples in the field to assist in evangelism and trained gifted Africans and Asians in Basel. Yet, it struggled to employ these individuals as equals of European missionaries (see contribution by Sonia Abun Nasr). The seminaries offered a promising future to catechists overseas; indeed, many of these schools now have college or university status. The work of the Basel Mission has been an area of research in the large former mission churches for quite some time. Many researchers fondly recall the founding fathers who
laid the foundation for today’s lively and growing churches (see contribution by Wing Sze Tong), while others also see some aspects to criticise in the “civilising mission”, (see contribution by Cephas Omenyo). Finally, it is important to analyse the latest fruits of an “ecumenical learning community” (see contribution by Juan Sepúlveda G.). In such learning communities, European Christians, who have become a minority in worldwide Christianity and who no longer pursue a pioneering mission, not only have important things to learn but also have contributions to make (see contribution by Christine Lienemann). This book is not structured chronologically but according to thematic criteria. Thanks to the efforts of the archival staff at the Basel Mission, the last chapter involves a short chronological overview and a detailed chronology of events. Lists of the presidiums and the senior staff of the Committee serve to help in the identification of individuals. They supplement the Brüderverzeichnisse of the Basel Mission archive, which fully lists all male and female missionaries.
I Identity
Thomas K. Kuhn
The Origins of the “Mission Institute” in Basel
“Frommes Basel” (Pious Basel) or: To Build the Kingdom of God During the first decades of the 19th century, Basel gained a reputation for being a very devout city. As a result, people at home and abroad spoke of “Frommes Basel” (Pious Basel) in both a commendatory and a derogatory manner. One reason for this characterisation was that the headquarters of the Deutsche Christentumsgesellschaft, or German Christian Association, founded in 1780, was located in Basel. With its numer-
ous syndicates and clubs catering to the spread of the Gospel and tracts, its religious journalism, education, diaconia, as well internal and external missions, the Christian Association not only influenced religiosity in the city on the Rhine, it also brought together scattered Partikulargesellschaften, or branches, in Switzerland and especially in Germany. That the Deutsche Gesellschaft edler thätiger Beförderer reiner Lehre und wahrer Gottseligkeit – its original name – initially viewed itself as analogous to the learned societies or
“Frommes Basel” (Pious Basel). Landscape by Maximilian Neustück, 1822
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academies of the Enlightenment is of great importance for the history of Christianity in the 19th century. Taking after Swedish and British models, it followed pietistic traditions and proved to be highly supportive of religion, building a dense and well-functioning communications network. Starting in the late 1770s and following the plans of Augsburg’s pastor, Johann August Urlsperger (1728–1806), the Christian Association pursued two initial goals in the promotion of the coming of the Kingdom of God: Firstly, it aimed to activate and instil Christian faith at an individual level, and secondly, “pure”, Bible-based teaching was to be defended against Enlightenment literary neologism. Soon, however, all focus was placed on those activities that strictly served to promote religious practice. There were many important reasons why Basel was chosen as the site for the Christian Association’s headquarters: In addition to qualified and dedicated staff in business and theology, there was an availability of adequate financial resources and a spirit of tolerance and freedom in Basel that was perhaps only comparable to London, according to contemporary sources.1 This spirit allowed Basel to become an agile centre of the revival movements, which were credited with the revitalisation and renewal of – predominantly Protestant – Christianity in the early 19th century. While the “awakened” called Basel “God’s darling”, liberalminded church and theological circles found it appropriate to warn others about the prevailing spirit of religiosity in the city. A German newspaper, for example, stated: “I do not wish to call the piety of the Basel bigotry or hypocrisy. But I will call the dominant religious spirit gloomy, pessimistic and egotistical. And without a doubt, a good dose of spiritual pride is mixed into this expression of humility”.2 The strong relationship between pietistic devotion and political conservatism played an increasingly important role in the formation of the city’s self- consciousness, as did the staff constellations within the leadership ranks of the “awakened” in Basel. Without the enterprising and creative accountant Christian Heinrich Spittler (1782–1867), for example, the Christian Association would not have been able to promote so many religious initiatives. In addition to these favourable external conditions, the specific forms of “awakened” religion and theology also deserve a mention. They fed off of an intense and highly topical expectation of God’s reign.
The institutions of the Christian Association, which sought to achieve nothing less than the promotion and acceleration of the coming of the Kingdom of God, were also called Reich-Gottes-Werke. These eschatological expectations mainly fed off of the eschatological ideas of the New Testament Book of Revelation. Within the post-Reformation Protestant renewal movements, the diversely articulated expectations of the Kingdom of God during times of massive social and economic upheaval tended to stimulate widespread religious support, relief for the poor, educational, diaconal and missionary initiatives, and not just in Basel. Inner-worldly expectations of the Kingdom of God had been dominant since the late 18th century at least. They stood in direct opposition to the official Reformed teachings, which chiliasm sharply condemned because of its inner-worldly expectations. It also condemned and rejected this doctrine in Confessions. Nevertheless, in Basel this chiliastic-eschatological stance was widely circulated and formed a decisive factor in the expansive diaconal-missionary commitment. A press note makes it clear that this eschatological mood had taken on an almost public character. As the main organ of political Liberalism, Der aufrichtige und wohlerfahrene Schweizer-Bote (The honest and experienced Swiss messenger), explained at the beginning of 1830: “According to official record, many of the pious people of Basel are expecting the arrival of the Millennial Kingdom in 1830”.3 Beyond the city limits, Basel’s piety repeatedly elicited ridicule. The cartoonist Martin Disteli (1802– 1844), for instance, in observing the people of Basel, asked ironically in his Swiss pictures calendar, 20,000 copies of which circulated in Solothurn with the caption “not hiding the glowing benefits of this ChristianSwiss Babylon under a bushel”4: “Who has not had a chance to try the excellence of its industry in any one of its products, whether silk ribbon, missionaries, tracts or Leckerli?” “Silk ribbon, Missionaries, Tracts or Leckerli ?”: Or the beginning of the Mission Institute Next to silk ribbon, tracts and Leckerli (a typical Basel biscuit), Martin Disteli named “missionaries” as a major export item of Basel’s “industry”. This was a reference not only to the Pilgrim Mission, but also the Basel Mission, which was founded in 1815 and was decisive in shaping Basel’s reputation as a Christian city on a global scale. In response to Spittler’s invita-
tion, on 25 September 1815 seven Christian men met at the rectory of Nikolaus von Brunn (1766–1849), who held a very important position in society not only as the pastor of the St. Martin rectory but also as a theologian and author with apocalyptic inclinations. Spittler and von Brunn met with Professor Friedrich Lachenal (1772–1854), the pastors Simon Emanuel La Roche (1786–1861) and Lucas Wenk (1786–1859), as well as the merchants Samuel Merian-Kuder (1770– 1824) and Johann Georg Kellner (d. 1823), a former mail clerk from Brunswick and current colleague of Spittler who had fled Germany. They met under the presidency of Brunn as the Committee of the Basel Mission, whose aim was to establish a Mission Institute. Through regular classes in a training programme, this new institute would prepare for missionary service people who could then be sent to different areas of the “heathen” world as propagators of a charitable civilisation and as preachers of the Gospel of peace by the English and Dutch mission-
ary societies, which thus far had been successful in their work.5 The desire to open a missionary institute in Basel had existed in the circles of the “awakened” for some time and had been discussed continually. In mid-July 1815, Christian Friedrich Spittler, “secretary of the local ascetic institute”, finally sent a request to the relevant state authorities for permission to form a missionary institute:
Pastor Nikolaus von Brunn, first president of the Committee in Basel
Christian Friedrich Spittler
Several honourable friends of Christianity here and abroad have for some time been expressing the wish that a Missionary Institute be established in this city, as has already occurred in London, Rotterdam, Berlin and Halle with such charitable success; an institute wherein recognised, righteous and religious-thinking young men of every Confession and every class could receive appropriate instruction in foreign languages and pure Bible teaching, so that they could travel to the innumer-
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able multitude of heathens in foreign parts of the world as useful missionaries after a few years, to proclaim the beatific Gospel to them following the command of Christ Matth. 28, 19. Prompted by those friends, to dedicate myself to the application for such an institute, I hereby dare to request permission of a highly respectable teaching commission, whose liberal supervision existing academic and religious institutes have the luck of being under, for the establishment of such a missionary institute, to accept a number of students, and to be allowed to hire one or two required teachers [...].6 The levelling of denominational differences within Protestantism, which is recognisable in this letter, is characteristic of the early revival movements. In view of a Christianity that was focused on religious practicality, traditional confessional polemics no longer mattered. Therefore, in the Christian Association, as in the Basel Mission Institute, Reformed and Lutherans worked together. Lutheran Württemberg, for example, took an active part in the attempt to establish a missionary institute. Its future leader, Christian Gottlieb Blumhardt (1779–1838), commented on the forthcoming implementation in early September 1815: “I am so utterly happy to take part in this message because not only do I find Basel to be the most apt location for such an institute, but also I have always considered our society to be the most suitable caretaker of the same”.7 A few days after Blumhardt’s letter, a Historische Darstellung dessen, was zur Gründung einer Missions- Anstalt in Basel geschah (Historical account of what happened in the establishment of a mission institute in Basel) was created.8 This report provides descriptive insight into the background and motivations of the establishment of the Basel Mission, as well as the issues and controversies in the process leading up to it. Among the “awakened” there was unanimity in what was deemed the need for further missionary institutes for the propagation of the Gospel, especially since the future of the mission school in Berlin, under the leadership of Johannes Jänicke (1748–1827), hardly seemed promising. The desire to engage in missionary, however, was not just based on the message of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew, it was also informed by the “awakened” eschatological and apocalyptic interpretation of history and the present. The “awakened” interpreted the numerous political upheavals,
particularly warlike events – keywords include Napoleon, the French R evolution, the “Liberation Wars” or the Congress of Vienna, as well as the famines of the “year without a summer” (1816) – as a kind of divine court in the context of the Book of Revelation. These events were also viewed as an accumulation of crises that had “a healing impact on many minds” and prepared them to make “pious resolutions” before the coming of the Kingdom of God: “the suffering of the Spirit of God to revive the dry bones of His Church again, and a divine reminder that the path, which He had opened up for a new state of being for the people in order to reconstruct his temple, should not be left unused by His true believers”.9 For those citizens who saw themselves as true believers – an opinion that was confirmed in the preservation of the city from hostilities during the war of the summer of 1815, which was interpreted as divine action – there was no question that Basel was the right place for the missionary institute. After all – as the report stated immodestly – the city on the Rhine, is the place “where morality and discipline still count for something, where unchristian behaviours have not yet gained the upper hand, where the Gospel is still preached purely and sincerely in the churches, […] where a confluence of connections between believers of all Christian denominations come together in proximity and distance, where contributions for religious purposes, especially for mission purpose, come together from many areas, especially from Germany and Switzerland”. In short, “there was no better place in Switzerland for such an institute than Basel”.10 If the pious people of Basel by and large agreed with this view of their city, they had differing views on the establishment of the institutional constitution of the mission institute. Spittler und Kellner were in favour of close collaboration with the Christian Association; however, they were unable to assert themselves. The majority advocated for a private initiative and an independent institute after the Berlin model. Together with Kellner, Spittler took the matter into his own hands and founded a missionary school. Although Carl Friedrich Adolf Steinkopf (1773–1859) – the pastor who had been based in London since 1801 and who was secretary of the Christian Association – intervened to support the project, he rejected the institutional structures, and after some discussion there was finally an agreement to establish a Committee for the Mission and, hence, a formal mission institute.