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JOURNAL OF THE ITALIAN ARMY FOUNDED IN 1856

JULY AUGUST

1986 LIRE 4,000 $ 4

D.M. 7 £ 3

CIRO DI MARTINO Characters and Aspects of Publicity

BIAGIO AGNES The Image of the Armed Forces in Mass Communications

ROMANO PRODI Industrial Cooperation. Between the Countries of Western Europe r- . • -

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CONTENTS .~ European Military Press Agency

Number four 1986 July-August

The aim of Rivista Militare is to broaden and update the technical and vocational train ing of Army Officers and NCOs. To th i s end i t functions as a vehicle tor the dissemination of military thinking and as a foru m of study and debate. Riv1sta Mi litare is also intended to be a means of informing the general p ublic about the Army and military matters through the publication of articles of cu rrent technica l and scien tifi c interest

# IRIVlnA

ffllLITAAE

Politics, Economics and Strategy

BIMEST RAL E

2 Direttore responsabile Pier Giorgio Franzosi Direzione e Redazione Via d i s. Ma rco, 8 001 86 Roma Tel. 47357373

Characters and Aspects of Publicity. (Giro Di Martino)

The Image of the Armed Forces in Mass Communications. (Biagio Agnes)

Redattore Capo Giovanni Cerbo Tel. 47353078.

Pubbliclta A cura de I la seg reteria

Industrial Cooperation. Between the Countries of Western Europe. (Romano Prodi)

de ll"Ufficio Rivista M ilitare Tel. 6794200. Sta mpa Tipogra fia Regionale - Roma

Science, Technology and Training

Spedizlone in abbonamento posta le Gruppo IV - 70%.

Condizioni di cessione per ii 1986 Un fascico lo: Lit. 4.000 $ 4 DM 7 £ 3 Un fascicolo arretra to: Li t. 8.000 $ 8 DM 14 £ 6 Abbonamen to Ita lia: Lit. 22.000 estero Lit. 30.000. L"importo deve essere versa to su c/ c pasta le n. 2252 1009 intestato a SME Ufficio Rivista Militare Sezione di am ministrazione . Via XX Settembre 123/A - Roma. I residenti all'estero possono versar~ l'importo trami te asseg no bancaroo o vaglia internaz ionale . Autorizzaz,o ne del Tri bunale di Roma al n. 944 del Reg istro con decreto 7-6 -1949.

The Rapid Intervention Force. ( Angelo Sion)

Antiterrorism. The Management of Negotiations. (Franco Monticone)

The "Cuneense" Italian Contingent of the Mobile Force of Allied Command Europe. (Ferruccio Boriero)

The National Guard of the United States. (Giovanni Di Simone)

Member of USPI Un,one S1ampa Pe riodica ltaliana

Technical Data.

Book Reviews.

Rules for contributors. Anyone can cont r ibute

In the interest of lhe maximum ob jectivity of information. Ri vi s ta Militare allows cont r ibuto rs considerable freedom. although it does not necessarily sub· scribe to thei r opinions. The ar ticles are publi shed unedited and free of any editorial constraints and are therefore lhe sole responsil)ility o f t he Author and re flect his personal ideas exclusively. The topic must be treated in an original way and the articles themselves should not exceed 10 typewri1ten pages in lengtti. The Author, got his reward, makes over his exclusive article rig ht to Rivista Militare Rivista M ilitare can make over Author's exclusive article r ight to other publications and to th e period icals o f EMPA (Eu ropean Military Press Agency) . The articles should be accompanied by any necessary photographs. dr awings and explanatory tables. Each author is req ues ted to send a photograph of himself, together with his "cur ri cu lum vilae" and a 10-line s um mary of the article to be published. Rivista M1li tare re se rves the r ight to alter the ar ti cle's title and 10 choose the typeface in which it is set.

~- CHARACTERS AND ASPECTS OF

PUBLICITY ( 2

--Publicity, lexically defined as "any form of activity aimed at guiding the public's preference towards a given product or service", is, first of all, an economic factor. â€˘ A hinge between proÂˇduction and consumption, publicity carries the message of industry and commerce to the public and is, without doubt, a typical expression of our industrialized society. A society that. in order to expand production, must create new, more or less real needs and new types of consumption, often connected with the "status" and aspirations of the individua l. The original task bf publicity was only that of informing: that is, making the existence of a new product known. Examples of this existed also in ancient times, in the written "advertisements" discovered in Pompei and Ostia, or with the town criers and heralds of the Middle Ages, whose tradition in Southern and insular Italy has not completely died. Nevertheless, the greatest development of publicity occurred with the appearance of printing . Starting from the first printed announcement, displayed in Great Britain in 1480 to promote a book, through the first newspaper advertisement appeared in Germany in 1525, fo the first paid personal advertisement published in 1651 by a doctor on the 6th issue of the "Gazette" - later "Gazette de France" - the way was long but progressive, and in 1830 led to the first wall posters and placards. The initial black and white poster was printed in two colours (red and blue) in 1836 and became subsequently polychrome and ever livelier, thanks to two concurrent factors. On the one side, the advent and improvement of chromolithography; on the other, the interest of famous artists who, like Henri Toulouse-Lautrec, in the second half of the 19th century

Facing page. From 1915 to 1918 the war loans followed one another, and their promotion, tor lack of means such as television, was entrusted to newspapers and, most of a7/, to posters. One of the most striking for its realism and dramatic impact is undoubtedly this one drawn by Mauzan, which appeared around the period of Caporetto: in the portrait of the fiery-eyed infantryman, with his finger pointing almost threateningly towards the public, one can almost perceive the symbol of the resistance on the Piave.

Below.

While the 19th century was a period of great inventions and scientific discoveries, the following one appears from the beginning as the century of technique: almost immediately, the automobile becomes one of its symbols. This poster of the new born FIAT (whose vaguely Latin trademark is really made up by the initials of Fabbrica ftafiana Automobili Torino) shows one of the first models. The external frame is that of a horse coach; the steering wheel has not yet appeared.

Right.

The 1910 Mifan Air Rally was a European event; 45 pilots from all over the world accepted to participate; five of them declared to be ready to engage in the "almost impossible" flight across the Alps, planned to take place before the rally. Actually, onfy Chavez made the attempt, and died after his victory. The rally took place all the same, and the public was certainly not less enthusiastic than the spectators imagined by Jean Beraud, author of this poster extolling the "new sport" of the beginning of the century: aviation.

Below. From the appearance of the first "coaches without horses" of Daimler and Benz, th e automobife has progressed enormously and is considered by many the "transportation means of the future". The car industry is developing very rapidly, as proved by the Milan exhibition, which opened just before the Paris-Peking raid. Th e winged genius on the poster gives almost the impression of a last, melancholic tribute to the world of the 19th century.

overcame their initia l adversion for this new activity and created posters that were successful as original artistic expressions. Colour printing, photography, newspaper and magazine advertisements, ever brighter and more attractive, luminous signs. radio, cinema and television led with time to an extremely rapid "explosion" of the publicity message. The salient aspects of the peculiar mass civ il ization, which had fostered this "explosion" were caught in 1930, with fine perception, by the Spanish philosopher Ortega y Gasset in his book "The Revolt of the Masses". The phenomenon was then actually only moving its first steps and the author had been able to perceive its mechanisms because it was still in its initial, simpler and therefore more evident phase . He could consequently affirm, with modern and up-to-date expressions: "He who wants to meditate, to collect his thoughts, must learn to do it submerged by the public din, like a diver in the ocean of collective noise. It is practically impossible for man to be alone . Willing or unwilling. he must stay with others. The 4

Below. During the years of the Triple Alliance, the official Italian policy seems to be that of forgetting the past conflicts with Austria. Everything "German" if fashionable, including beer which, nevertheless, is still foreign to the Italian taste and must therefore be vigorously advertised, although - as a tribute to the particular climate - it is named "Italia". The poster reflects at the same time the spirit of a period when Europe, essentially peaceful, could afford to fight "small wars overseas".

big avenue and the square throw their anonymous hubbub through the domestic walls. All that was meant as a protection against boundless publicity vanishes day by day . . That was 1930, but we were at the heart of the problem and faced situations similar to the present ones which, after the respite of the second world conflict and the hard, immediate

post-war years, record the rampant success of a more and more sophisticated publicity. Publicity is sometimes not fully known as an economic activity because next to the major full time advertising agencies, sometimes quoted on the Stock Exchange, there are "miniagencies", that base their production main ly on their "gray matter". As a matter of fact, there are many small organizations that do their work in a precarious setting: two sma ll rented rooms, a telephone, two or t hree people, a few ietterheads and a lot of will and initiative. This is t he embryo of the advertising agency, whose survival and development will depend on the talent and ability of the founders. The large industrial and commercial enterprises mostly

fulfill their publicity needs autonomously. There are in fact publicity services within the companies, with tens or hundreds of employees, capable of conceiving, carrying out and developing any type of campaign. The availability of these "home" services does not exclude the possibil ity that the companies entrust the launch ing of some of their products to well-established advertising agencies. Moreover, , in this multiform and variable way, next to the two main groups of independent and integrated agencies already considered, there is the category of t he consultant offices that cooperate with the heads of the major firms and, as experts in an activity in which innovation has the highest priority, supp ly appropriate ideas, suggestions, criticism. As a profession often envied, sometimes defamed, doubtlessly necessary, publicity, often considered a witchcraft endowed with powers that it certainly does not possess, suffers - in case of crisis - the repercussions of the unfavourable conjuncture moreÂˇ rapidly than other activities. In the business field it is not unusual to hear the statement that a good part of the publicity expenses is wasted money. The difficulty is to find out the useless part, for the returns of the "campaig ns" cannot be quantified with scientific exactitude. Despite polls, investigations, inq uires of every kind and size, the returns of the publicity expenses in terms of business remain hard to determine, despite the "specia lists"' affirmation that their activity is the motive power of economy and expansion. Actually, mass production and consumption cannot do without this product of our times. As an integrant part of the producing companies' strategy, publicity takes part in the various phases of marketing. From the conceivement of the product to its presentation, its marketing, its pricing, publicity 5

Tricolor flag, pfumed Bersaglieri hat, laurel foliage: today, these elements would be used with caution even for an Armed Forces propaganda poster. Between 1910 and 1918, instead, they were considered suitable ingredients for the publicity campaign of a newspaper - one of the most renowned and important. Prices are also remarkable: a yearly subscription brought the price to 5 centesimi per copy. It is interesting to note that 5 centesimi was the equivalent of 150 fire of today.

accompanies the article and almost prepares it with a sort of "pre-sale" that results in making it c_o nsidered as indispensable. Just as one proceeds when the promotion regards the name of a "pop" singer or the image of a person to be imposed on public opinion. On the other hand, the advertisers' situation is not always as brilliant as it might appear. Apparently omnipotent in the eye of the people at large, who sometimes resignedly endure a real persuasive hammering, often considered as the ultimate expression of luxury and modernity, the advertising agents in reality must sell their ideas and skills to businessmen who want and demand an actual increase in their sales and who, if difficulties arise, are ready to reduce, as a first measure, the expenses of this specific sector. Designated by some as the spearhead of contemporary life, often considered an affirmation of optimism and enjoyment, publicity really does entertain the eye and the spirit, and deserves to be regarded as an outstandi ng feature of our civilization, on an equal footing with the car, the "exotic" holidays, the conquest of space. It is a "feature" which is continuously reevaluated. As one can read in an essay by Gian Paolo Ceserani "The unarmed persuaders", a Gallup poll conducted in the United States in 1940 showed that only 40% of the people interviewed expressed criticism about publicity, which was deemed 6

!TALIA : Anno Lire 16 · Semestre Lire 8.50 - Trimestre Lire 4.50 - Mese Lire I. 75 ESTERO: • Fr. 34 , _F_r._1_8_ :-_ · __._ Fr. 10 - - . Fr. 4 -

DONO A TUTTI INDISTINTAMENTE: Splendida RIVISTA ILLUSTRATA, di ollre 100 pag.ine, IL SE COLO XX pnbblicata dallo stabilimento Fratelli Treves, Milano, e che separatamente cost;,, L~e 6.

useful, honest and sincere by 51 % of the interviewed. In more recent times - on the contrary - an inquiry held by the "Harward Business Review" ascertained that 85% of the interviewed criticized publicity, perhaps because they considered it a factor of the excesses of consumption. A peculiar "fact" which, just a few years ago, was well liked by almost 7% of the Italian consumers, who considered it a proof of the social advancement of our society. A "fact", finally, with its restraints and limitations, for in the reality of our days the mass of consumers has ceased to be a submissive, easily conquerable terrain, that affects instead in its turn, as a kind of social echo, both production and publicity.

In its continual eagerness to sell more and in better way, publicity seeks and employs all possible means to reach its potential customers. "Props" of all sorts are multiplied toward this end: all that can be used to draw the attention of the particular category of people considered the "objective" of the "campaign". Press, radio, television. cinema, walls of the underground and railway stations, buses, taxis, etc. are suitable for this goal. In a powerful "crescendo", the written or spoken texts employ sounds, images, music. The operators' imag ination explodes, searching for . increas ingly effective ideas, up to the point of manifestations which having reached the pern issible limits, border

In 1918, the participation of the United States in the war is not yet very weighty on the military plane, but is already decisive from the economic viewpoint. The American foodstuff invades Europe well before the U.S. soldiers reach it. The spectre of hunger, that in 1917 had begun to haunt the countries of the Entente, is exorcised. This poster of the U.S. Food Administration shows an often neglected aspect of war: unlike the soldiers at Caporetto, those on the Piave had behind them a country where there was no danger of revolts caused by the lack of bread.

sometimes on abuse. Surreptitious advertising, pressures on the press and false publ icity are the most common expressions of these abuses. The fact that a publicity "flash" turns out to be more effective if concea led and not shown as such, is the main reason for the so-called surreptitious advertising. Press. cinema and television can take part in the game, unbeknownst to the reader or the audience. There are obviously norms and prohibitions in this regard. but they can be - and often a~e - more or less openly circumvented. Pressures on the press are another form of abuse. The relations between the organs of the press and the advertising organizations have never been

simple . Newspapers cannot live without publicity, which - in the form of insertions or editorial pages - make up the most substantial part (up to 80%) of the revenues. There is therefore no reason to be surprised if, with some frequency, certain advertising organizations or other enterprises - in a complicated interplay of public relations - try to obtain the publication of articles of indirect support - or at least not adverse ones threatening, in case of refusal. to cancel or reduce the publicity contracts. The effectiveness of these undue pressures diminishes when the press takes its precautions. both through wider all-round publicity concessions to different sectors, and through

the professional rigour of the editors. There are. moreover, forms or attempts of actual false publicity which are sometimes the result of a behav iour which, being naturally inclined to hyperbole and emphasis, often results in actual falsehoods. The ideal would be that the spontaneous and general observance of a deontological code could lead to a kind of self-discipline. But this, desirable and enticing as it may be, will never be able to work without the cogent power of laws and rules. The Italian criminal code, in Articles 662. 663 and 664, considers a group of crimes (unlawful printing activity; unlawful sale, distribution or posting of inscriptions or drawings; destruction or defacement of posters and placards), which lists the transgressions concerning the surveillance over the advertising means. One can note, in this regard. that the norm of Art. 663 on the unlawful distribution of printed publications has been deemed constitutionally illegitimate, together with the corresponding norm of Art. 113 of the Police Law. It must also be remembered that, as from 1954, all forms of advertising have been subjected to new tax regu lations. These days, finally, advertising has definitively rejected the idea of the simple, rather unrefined "reclame" of its beginnings, and has also 7

A 1934 poster. The author is Dudovich, easily recognizable for his style and composition . As for the "Bali/la", it is not exactly "for ail", considered that its price is the equivalent of an average worker's two-year wage. Still, it is a new and important tact in the history of the automobile in Italy: "Bali/la", for the first time, offers "four weels" to a public which is no more formed only by rich people. With "Bali/la", in fact, the number of cars in Italy increases rapidly, from about 60,000 to more than 300,000.

overcome the successive moments of confusion between "inf ormation" and incitement to p urchase. With the advent of mass society, a consuming society, gone and far away are the t imes cited by Maria Corti in her work "The Sectorial Languages in Italy", when advertising was called "reclame" and was considered "the very sou l of trade", when it was "homemade" and pathetic, a bit bizarre, deliciously naive. Today the modern techniques make possible to know the consumers' tastes and preferences: advertising, availing itself of psycholog ical and psychoanalytical knowledge, exploits the consumers' unconscious motivations in order to present itself increasingly in t he form of amiable and objective information. 8

In this light, publicity avails itself of fashions, trends, models that in other fields have shown their vita lity and which, through the advertising message, become officially acknowledged. The admen - called by Vance Packard w ith a f itting expression "The Occu lt Persuaders" in his work by the same title - see their position in today's society shade off into one in w hich, in the words of the al ready mentioned Ceseran i, he assumes the role of a qualified and diligent "occult observer". An observer who must strive to perceive in advance the fads, needs, impu lses and lang uages that seem to breed and develop spontaneously in society and which represent society's emotional profile and vulnerable points. Among the more or less subtle distinctions that can be

For the British propaganda, calling the Germans "Huns" (and also "dogs"), is a habit going back to WW/. We see it again in this poster of 1942, urging the soldiers on the North African front not to underestimate the importance of camouflage nets. And tor good reasons: the excellent concealment of the artillery positions was in fact very useful for the British forces during the Battle of Alamein.

made in the extensive field of publicity, some are particularly interesting . It goes without saying, in fact, that the advertising techniques, widespread today in all directions, from their primary economic purposes can be projected on other courses. If subjected to an ideology, in particular, they become propaganda techniques. This British poster refers to the Mediterranean landings during WWII. But the picture is perfectly fitting also for Normandy: the sea teeming with craft of all kinds, tanks advancing directly from the beach, the soldier on the foreground, equipped with the most modern weapons - all details contribute in composing a picture very similar to that of the "great invasion". The common element of the Allied landings is in fact the great abundance of arms, materials and equipment: in this respect, the operations in Normandy are not very different from those carried out in Italy.

From the ethical point of view, as concerns the public, the dangers of this manipulative techniques are of much greater significance, because it is not a matter of improving the sales of a car or a television set, but an attempt at influencing the individual's mind and the citizen's behaviour. According to a creditable assertion by Kenneth Bouldin of the University of Michigan, one can envisage a world dominated by a sort of invisible dictatorship, where, nevertheless, all the outward forms of democratic freedom are preserved. In the face of this danger, the indiv idual's right to autonomous judgement demands that all be ready to discern and reject the more or less concealed attempts at persuasion. Luckily, as observed by Clyde Miller in his book 9

Today American women are even at West Point, and a poster like this would be unthinkable. But in distant 1942 it had a remarkable psychological impact. The exhortation "be a man" (with the implicit addition "don't let a woman be 'more of a man' than you") was typical of the pioneer mentality, which was stiff alive ·in those years. The United States. which at that time was fighting mainly in the Pacific, needed mostly sailors .

"The Persuasion Process". the persuaders' devices sooner or later are revealed and fol lowed by the development of an instinctive mechanism protecting the freedom of will and choice. Also the Government authority, working on the same line, can try to employ advertising methods to effectively spread ideas and norms. The postal code, used for speeding the ma il service, was divulged employing all means, and in a relatively short time has come to be a general ly accepted rule, thanks to an expert and insistent propaganda. What are the possibilities and limits of advertising as regards the Armed Forces.? The problem can perhaps be observed from two angles . The first, more simply and immediately perceived, concerns weapon systems and all kinds of military materials . In this respect. the characters and techniq ues of advertising in general can be found in full also in the special branch which addresses itself to the Armed Forces. It is a branch that, for reasons of appropriateness, and sometimes of reserve, often avoids radio waves, cinema and television screen and centers essentially on the press, through specia lized reviews and magazines, newspaper articles, promotiona l pamph lets. It is also a branch that does not turn to the public at large but rather operates towards circles and groups of "initiates". The whole is done, perforce, with an exasperated and exasperating attention to public relations .

BE A MAN . AND DO IT

UNITED STATES NAVY RECRUITING STATION A number of exhibitions, of the "fair" type, are also addressed to the abovementioned circles and groups of specialists; some are yearly, such as: • the electro-optics exh ibition at Brighton (GB); • the military electronics exhibition at Wiesbaden (FRG); some are biennial, such as: • Farnborough (GB), in even years , and Le Bourget (F) in odd years, displaying means and weapon systems in the field of w inged and rotor craft and antiaircraft weapons; • Aldershot (GB). in even years, and Satory (F) in odd years, regarding land vehicles, mater iel and weapon systems; • Athens (Gr). even years,

concerning technolog ically advanced equipment and materials of the three Services, produced by the most important European, American and Asian industries. These and other minor exhibitions, often presented under the banner of technological incent ive in the service of progress and security, are often crossroads of industrial and nationa l interests of great moment. Security, defence, international cooperation , offsets, industrial and economic returns, bilateral or multilateral associative proposa ls are the . expressions that dominate in the meetings and disputes of the specialists, in a "sui generis" world, striking for its vitality and

This is the time when, on the entertainment pages, newspapers present Holl,wood's war movies with teasing words such as: "Three-Americans-three against all-Japanese-all: incredible, the Americans win". Rock Hudson seems tailor-made to embody the "hero made in USA": strong, brave, invincible and, at the same time, human, unconventional, apparently shunning all forms of rethoric.

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impressing - in all positive and negative senses - for its . achievements. The other aspect of our problem is a wider and more composite one. For the defence of security in peace, there are the recurrent and rightly dominant concepts of dissuasion and deterrence, as premise and foundation of detente. The common denominator of these values is universally recognized in the "credibility" of the military instruments. But how can this credibility be pursued and attained? 9ertainly not through publicity tout court", but also with the help of advertising techniques, always strictly within the bonds of "fair" information. An

information th.at can avail itself of some of the tools of publicity, but must reject its philosophy. An information which should reject with the same rigour, as counterproductive, any form of propaganda. Finally, an information which must absolutely not be tainted by commercial interests. It must be, in short, an activity, whose ultimate purpose is to give updated information to the citizen. An activity that does not take advantage of the people's credulity, but stimulates their interest. The goal of this type of information is after all the country's security, in freedom and peace. There is therefore an urgent need to make public opinion

aware of the problems and difficulties of national defence. For such an opinion campaign all media must be urged to make an information effort that will become an effective credibility only if the appropriate informative activity is supported by the irreplaceable persuasive power of concrete facts. Defence, strategy, security, peace are undoubtedly issues that the public is ready and willing to leave to the experts, or to those that like to think of themselves as such. But these are also issues with which the public opinion must be confronted. It is in th is context that France - within an attractive formula of civic education - has recently produced a new kind of television programme, intended to warn against the dangers of war and entrusted to the professionalism and popularity of Yves Montand. As rightly maintained by Pierre Lellouche (author, among other works, of the recent "L'avenir de la guerre"), the West European man, accustomed to seeing on the screen somebody else's wars, has been led to take a closer interest in the threats and risks of war and has been able to reflect on the close ties between deterrence· and peace. Among the salient arguments of the cited telev ision programme, there is one that deserves to be mentioned: having enjoyed peace, day after day, for a long time, has made it hard for the European countries to realize how and to 11

what extent the very concept of war has been removed from their life and culture. To our contemporaries, the well-known diagnosis made by Raymond Aron, "impossible war, improbable peace" seems sufficient to continue the course of civi l progress and peace in security. By proceeding along this path one risks, regrettably, to ignore, when the time comes, the difference between t he benefits of the peace enjoyed and the elements that must rea listically be protected and deserved. The responsible evaluation of this difference can be helped with an information that employs the most convincing and valid tools of publ icity in its broader sense. Th is kind of information -Âˇ or civic education, if you prefer - is in any case also necessary in order to confront the subtle . Soviet weapon that could be called "psychostrategy", largely employed in a sort of nerve- racking war of disinformation. The Soviet Union has already ach ieved some noticeable success through the employment of psychological means (one example: the U.S. has given up the neutron bomb project) . With its psychostrategy, the Soviet Un ion constantly tries to transform the justifiable abhorrence for war into resistance against the programmes of Western defence. Through alternatively threatening and conci liating attitudes, the USSR real ly aims at maintaining unchanged the advantages obtained in the military sphere. The campaign against the Euromissi les has, in this sense, stirred up discussions, protests, uncertainties and delays. Efforts are made to interpose simi lar elements of confusion, doubt and mistrust between Europe and the United States as regards the SDI project, instrumentally label led "Star Wars". Making a lot of noise about the U.S. project of 12

strategic defence, the Soviets manage to distract the attention of the world from the fact that they have been for years pursuing a simi lar project of interception and active defence aga inst missiles.

These are the most evident aspects of a threat that hovers in permanence over the Western world and which, far from being limited to the military components, seeks to undermine the balance of the wi lls. Victory without war is one of the goals of Soviet policy,

since it has become clear that a nuclear conflict would not bring about the victory of Communism, but would rather mean mutual destruction. It might be wise to return to Lenin's doctrine, wh ich

foresaw - if necessary - to alternate phases of violent and direct revolution with an indirect strategy which enabled to disrupt and wear out the adversary, mainta ining the advantages obtained and preparing other advantages for the future.

Left.

In this poster, published in the first months of 1942, there are all the ingredients of the American propaganda against Japan. A young sailor, stabbed by a samurai sword lies Of) the Stars and Stripes: it is a reminder of the Pearl Harbour "treacherous" artack and, at the. same time, the exhortation unspoken but no less eloquent - to avenge the victims and save the honour of the nation. There are neither inscriptions nor slogans: this makes the image even more impressive. Right.

This poster, published in 1943. is kept at the "Musee des deux Guerres Mondia/es" in Paris.

Considering these realities, the French television experiment must be appreciated and understood as an example of how to inform and make public opinion conscious of the problems of defence, which are also - and above all - problems of survival. if - as was rightly maintained in the broadcast - a country or a continent. which is no more in a position to guarantee its defence, is destined - sooner or later - to forfeit its independence. These are, again, realities that the European citizens - willing or not - will have to take into account in the near future, realities which give new dignity to the advertising techniques, if these, correctly employed and coordinated, succeed in making the common man more aware of the problems of defence, and make more credible before the country the aspirations of the military instrument and its effort for an improved efficiency. This is perhaps the only way to contribute to the transformation of the mentioned diagnosis by Raymond Aron into a milder formula, in the sense of making war "even more" impossible and peace a little "less" improbable. Ciro Di Martino

will alVLCJ.Y1 fight for liberty CHARACTERS AND ASPECTS OF

PU LICITY 13

THE IMAGE OF THE ARMED FORCES IN MASS C MMU ;CATIONS

This is a topical, complex and extremely important issue. 1 shall try to tackle it as a journalist and manager, in the firm belief that I can make a contribution, however smal l, to a current debate in Italy Âˇwhich concerns all of us, and that we all hope will be constructive. First of all, I must point out that "the world is turning into information" is not such a new idea, but it has by now become a fact that none can doubt. Under the powerful influence of the mass-media, there is a risk that reality and representation can become superimposed; the necessary distinction between appearances and what is really happening is becoming increasingly difficult to make, and calls for greater care being taken by the information providers and a higher level of maturity from information consumers. "If a tree falls down in the forest and the telecamera is not there, the tree has not fallen". To this "paradox" of Tannenbaum's we may add: but if a TV director has it fall in his programme, the tree also falls in the minds of a million viewers. This is the central issue in our image-based civilisation. It is an issue that brings into the arena the great responsibility of all those involved in piecing messages together and circulating them. This responsibility weighs heavily or. journalists in particular, but also on TV directors, programme planners and the administration.

Left.

A "bersagliere" manning the gun on an armoured troop carrier.

Above. A parachutist using a CMP .55 parachute about to touch the ground.

In a recent "Premio Italia" speech I stressed the importance of a type of information that was not merely superficial, that did not patronise the powerful, that did not yield to arrogance or interference, but that presented the many aspects of the facts, always comparing the various approaches to them. Indeed, the influence of the media is not new. but goes far back in time; it is, so to speak, one of the earliest problems of mankind.

There is some food for thought in the fact that many historians today distinguish the various epochs in terms of the means of communication, because these means are considered to have caused, or at least encouraged, the most significant changes mankind has had to face. One example of this is the link between the rise of nationalism and new developments in printing techniques. Nor would it be possible to fully account for the 15

Napoleonic adventure without considering the bureaucratic machinery that used to complement the many rapid conquests with documents, laws and procedures, all dependent on the "might" of the printed word. Even after the collapse of certain regimes (e.g. Austria-Hungary in Lombardy and Veneto and the Bourbons in the Two Sicilies). the effects of the "communications systems" they established between state and citizen lingered on, and are still reflected in the differences and even conflicts between North and South Italy. Communications media, therefore, represent an extremely important factor in social organisation. The daily newspaper. "La Repubblica", recently announced that: "In the age of symbols created by television and the war of images, the age of instant opinions to be consumed like fast food, Gorbachev's face is worth more to the Russians than victory in a battle and much, much more than a hundred S820 missi les". And, according to the experts, the meeting of the Russian leader with Reagan was managed as much at the level of images as at that of actual agreements. I have no intention of going into international politics. bound up as they are with military-strategic matters, but cannot help feeling that, even though there is no point in pretending that images can eliminate arms, there is no doubt that responsible use of mass-media could gradually replace the balance of terror with the balance of persuasion. This convinction of mine finds support in Umberto Cappuzzo's introduction to a feature in "Rivista Militare" dedicated to "star wars". In connexion with the risk of nuclea r war. Cappuzzo had this to say: "Once again a problem is back in the political arena, namely the search for ways and means to bring about a steady 16

reduction of the super- powers' immense arsenals. A process of this sort depends on the creation of mutual confidence, and so information takes on as much importance as dissuasion, and both come to represent the necessary conditions for detente itself". There is a gap for the mass-media to fill between the decisions taken by the technical experts and public opinion, which is becoming increasingly responsive thanks to

the media. The question arising at th is point is: what do we . read in the papers? what do we hear on the radio? what do we see on television? Let us begin with the printed word. In 1983 the then editor of "II Giorno", Guglielmo Zucconi. wrote: "The citizen has no real information, and this is also due to the fact that problems of defence filter through to him from

direction as a result of the mutual attention army and press have paid to each other. On the one hand, the various organs of information are gearing up to deal with these matters, through the increasing special isation of journalists and the col laboration of experts, while, on the other hand, the military forces are playing their part. too . Organs of information are being produced, public re lations chan nels are being opened up, and all this is helping to create what a milita ry publication describes as: "an education in security, which is not only the he ri tage of the armed forces, but of all citizens" . And now we come to broadcasting by RAI. In addition to reference to mi litary problems contained in pol itical and parliamentary reports, news about the armed forces represents a fair sl ice of current affa irs broadcasts. As it was such an exceptiona l event, I shall not dwel l on the many fu ll reports on the Italian peace contingent in Beirut. I prefer to take a "norma l" period and note some of the various subjects recently dea lt with : conscription; conscientious objection; opinion pol ls on the efficiency of the Army, Navy and Air Force; the fight against the mafia; t he defence budget. The treatment g iven to these and other subjects was marked by respect in two ways: on t he one hand , for the dign ity of the mi litary

disagreements among the parties". The editor of "La Stampa" is more optim istic. "There has been an undoubted improvement in the last few years", wrote Giorgio Fattori, "d ue to the fact that Italian newspapers have begun to specialise in defence problems, as had the ma jor newspapers in other countries long time ago". There are good reasons for focussing this sort of attention on the sub ject, considering that,

as Eugenio Sca lfari wrot e "wh ile It alian industry is passi ng through a crit ical period, the armed forces are beginning to represent virtua lly a post-i ndust rial force, in the sense that t hey are able to handle the adva nced technology of computer science, t elematics and wargames". If, then, the amount of information on defence problems g iven by the It al ian press is still insu fficient, a step has, however, been taken in the right

Italian soldiers engaged in mock combat on marshy ground. Today information on defence problems can still be considered inadequate, even though some progress has been made after the general appreciation of the fact that security education is not only necessary for the armed forces, but for every citizen.

institutions and, on the other hand, the sort of respect that the professional journalist must show in presenting facts as completely and concisely as possible, avoiding lack of clarity, which amounts to a subtle form of censorship. Endeavouring to respect these principles, RAI has been present on every significant occasion: when the army has been called in to deal with natural disasters, for example, or reappraising important historical events, such as the war of liberation, the two world wars, or the campaign in Ethiopia. Sporting fixtures in which army teams compete are reported. as well as the displays of the "Frecce Tricolori", the aerial acrobatics team whose professiona l and technical prowess and sheer courage are the envy of Air Forces the world over. The sort of message conveyed by radio and, above all, by television has seen a period of profound change, and it seems increasi ngly clear t hat when specia l political, civil and military commitment is called for, journalistic reporting is no longer enough. This is why military institutions and staff have had a role to play in entertainment programmes, which perhaps have the greatest influence on public opinion owing to the examples of attitudes and behaviour they provide. I am th inking of programmes like "Pronto emergenza", "Caccia al ladro d'autore", "Italia in guerra", the ed ition of "Fantastico", "La piovra 2", "II cugino americano", "A visa scoperto", " II piccolo alpine". I consider it important to list these titles because the world of entertainment - the cinema, for example - has tended to neglect the important role played by the armed forces, while in other countries it is an essentia l part of the adventure film. as well as films with a historica l background. Finally, we must mention the weather forecasts for which not only RAI, but all the mass media must thank the Air Force

for their daily, and even hourly service. Considering the great importance of meteorology for the economy, and in defending the country against natural disasters. the message transmitted to the man in the street must be clear. RAl's high-tech presentation would be useless if Air Force data processing was not rigourous enough. So far I have mentioned the press, quoting three authoritative representatives, and I have dea lt with Italian radio and te levision programmes . At

this point it would be useful to take a brief look at what is happening abroad; in Great Britain, for example, the Soviet Union and the United States. â€˘ Great . Britain. All levels of military organisation show a particular interest in the press, radio and television. This is in part to be put down to the fact that, as military service is voluntary in th is country, recruitments g ive a measure .of the general respect and consensus enjoyed by the armed forces. The project entitled "An army performing before the

comparison with that of other countries, we can ask: can we be satisfied w ith the way the armed forces appear in our mass media? Although much has been ach ieved, quite a lot still remains to be done. In a recent survey conducted by the second channel news service, a young officer said: "We endeavour to show our fellow citizens that we are normal people, with our own personal responsibilities. What distinguishes us is, perhaps, the fact that we all wear a un iform , but the individual ins ide the un iform has the same feelings as everyone else. Our relationships are necessarily subject to a hierarchy, but these fee lings are there, and even lie at the base of our mi litary service. I wish that "civvies" could understand these things" . This young officer's words bring us face to face with the problems, warm ing us against rash judgements or rhetorical attitudes, and suggesting that we should aim at a deeper understanding. Both the mass media and the armed forces must offer an image that is not on ly the resu lt of routine reporting, but that shows the significance of the various choices, and what their possible consequences may be. This would enable people to identify with the issue of defence and, in pa rticu lar, with those who represent it. Soldiers , sa ilors and airmen are people eyes of the mass media" includes the setting up of an ad hoe studio, where officers can get used to microphones and telecameras, and are thus equipped to give the most satisfactory answers when interviewed by journalists, especially on the delicate issue of Northern Ireland. â€˘ The, Soviet Union. Radio and television are employed on a massive scale to give information about the armed forces together with large doses of ideology, and for civi l defence training for the masses,

particularly geared to the eventuality of a nuclear war. â€˘ The United States. Specialised offices in every sector of the Defence Department provide the armed forces with access both to the major national and international agencies and to local newspapers and broadcasting stations. Th is grass- roots approach means that all levels of the popu lation are alerted to the importance of security matters. Having presented a panorama of the Italian situation and a brief but significant

Facing page. A gunner photographed in an M109G self- propelled howitzer. Above.

A gunner using an optical sighting system. RA/ has been present on numerous occasions in the field of defence reporting, with broadcasts ranging from historical issues to the most topical events.

like us, and public opinion readily responds to this fact; they represent a heritage in terms of humanity, training and competence, and the press, radio and television should be able to make th is clear to us. Why, then, is not more information given on what the Army, Navy and Air Force are doing today in terms of education and specialised training? Why do we not give more thought to the fact that the armed forces are, training young people for the professions of today and tomorrow? Why not, for example, see this as part of a potential "turn-over", which could also be advantageous for industry and research? Why not consider the young people in the armed forces a useful, reliable reserve for the demands of civilian society, now that theÂˇ use of advanced technology has been introduced into many activities of the armed forces? Not only can these questions can help to stimulate the debate that is going on in Italy, but they also need to be answered. I have just mentioned the technologica l innovations that. in my opinion, bring the military organisation closer to a non- mil itary organisation like RAI, both sharing the same sense of responsibility. And I do not think I shall be digressing if I now go into the question of telecommunications, considered by RAI of strategic importance not only for its own future, but for that of the armed forces and the country as a whole. Five levels of activity have been identified by the experts and managers. The first level is involved with the evolution of systems and changing patterns in domestic use. The television set in the home is rapid ly turning into what the experts call the "periphera l mu ltifunction term inal". Used with videotapes, 20

videodisks, personal computers and various other devices, television can offer the citizen an increasing variety of services through a number of channels. These services can be reorganised by the individual to su it his needs. Televideo is a good example; with its 700 pages of continually up-dated electronic information, it could also give some space to the armed forces. The second level is that of the cable TV networks, the sca le and features of which vary according to the particular requ irements. Alongside the traditional networks, which have the simple function of distributing programmes, others are coming into existence that wi ll exploit the technica l applications of optica l fibres to provide a far greater range of services at extremely competitive costs. The other three levels form the most fascinating chapter of our times: satellites, divided by experts into several generations. TheÂˇ first generation satellites have already celebrated the ir twentieth birthday; we are indebted to them for the first world-wide communications, sporadic though they may have been. The second generation satellites supply cab le networks with programmes transm itted over long distances. The third generation will be formed by direct-broadcasting satellites, originally designed to serve a single country, but that users over practically a whole continent will be able to pick up. In conjunction with these, new systems will be employed, such as improved qual ity, high resolut ion television, both used with multi lingual audio. RAI is very much involved in this field . Between the end of '87 and the beginning of '88 the "Olympus" satellite will be launched into geostationary orbit This satell ite is being deve loped by the ESA syndicate, . in wh ich Italian participation,

both financial and technical, is quite high (32%) . RAI will use both channels; one exclus ively, the other through the European Broadcasting Un ion. . Programme plans follow two main guidelines: to use the satel lite not on ly for extremely spectacular programmes with

international appeal, but to broadcast them with standards of high definition. This has been the subject of fruitful experimentation in which Italy has played a leadi ng role. To consolidate the results of"Olympus", immediate approval must be accorded to the

subsequent project, which is to be entirely Italian. Any slackness or delay in this truly strategic field implies Âˇ the risk of a proliferation of initiatives that - in a very delicate international context - will lack t he fundamental requisite of reciprocity.

"Lagunari" of the "Serenissima" battalion on drill.

Unlike the cable system, which enables the circuits to be limited and rigourously controlled, the satellite system by its very nature ignores national frontiers. It would be most hazardous to let the system develop in an uncontrolled fashion. This is why an organic initiative based on mutual exchanges must immediately be planned at an internationa l level, based on mutual . exchanges, and not left to chance initiatives taken by some interested party. Telematics, advanced technology, computer science. teletext, satellites : all show that the year 2000 is just round the corner. In fourteen years we shall be into the twenty-first century: we are in a phase of transition, on the brink of the "information society", a society open to radically different developments that can change the customary balance, the ways of working and producing, and the organ isation of society itself. Many expect telecommunications to occupy a central position in these changes: all the threads of history and communications technology, which today appear to be inextricably interwoven, will slowly become disentangled and be given well- defined ro les within a system. Given th is extraordinary prospect, I can confidently assert that the interests of the young are quite clear, as is the imperative not to fail in the enterprise. Th is holds good, I am convinced, both for the you ng people who are attending university today and for those studying in mi litary accademies. We must go towards the year 2000 fully prepared , and not isolated! This is why, in my capacity of General Director of RAI. I find it quite natural to recommend a united approach to proceed in full respect of the particular aims and methods of a mil itary organisation on the one hand, and of a civilian organisation on the other. With regard to the short term, I should like to make three points.

I f

;

The first concerns technological innovation. I am sure that the flexibility of structures and the multiplicity of services involved in the new media will provide opportun ities for exchanges of information and initiatives leading to fruitful collaboration. The second is related to training. The armed forces' schools are high ly trained in the theoretical and practical preparation of young peop le who must face the future not only as members of the armed forces, but also as citizens equipped with high professional standards in the leading sectors. RAI takes particular interest in the matter, and, as we consider staff training to be of fundamental importance, we have developed a project for a School for re-qua lification and refresher courses, employing the most modern methods. Comparison with military schools would be extremely

useful for us, and we look forward to receiving the contribution of the instructors. The third point arises from a proposal I made on the occasion of "Premio Italia": yearly campaigns, the organization of which should be adapted from year to year in the most suitable way to achieve the particular aim, and the whole programme being based on the principles of cooperation, sense of direction and commitment to social standards. Looking back over some of the fields I mentioned on that occasion - the struggle against drugs and alcoholism, ecological education, prevention of juven ile delinquency and re-habilitation of the young delinquent, encouraging responsible behaviour in the stadiums - it becomes immediately clear that in all cases the armed forces have a potential role. We could certainly achieve better results

....

if we combined our efforts, and I have no doubt that we shall meet with a serious, apt and concrete response. CONCLUSION

When I was offered the privilege of dealing with this theme, my mind ran back twenty years into the past: to November 4th 1966, to be precise. I was then in charge of the television news service, and just before the evening edition went on the air I was viewing on the scenes of two higly topical events: the flood in Florence and the war in Vietnam. Both "fronts" offered a terrible spectacle, and on both "fron ts" the armed forces were in action . Presenting these two events, geographically so farÂˇ apart the on e from the other, but brought so close by television, made me think how much could have been done if all the might

of the milita ry ma chinery in Vietnam could have been "magically" transformed into aid do the soldiers at work in Floren ce. Obviously it w as just a thoug ht, a "dream" if you like, because the organisation of the armed forces could never be entirely turned to the pursuit of civil ob jectives, just as we can not ig nore the fact that defence is among the most essential objectives t hat any country has to attend to. But I cannot get away from the idea that television, radio and the mass media in general can help us to pick out t hose common aims for us to cha nnel all our resources towards, in the name of peace and progress. With such an attitude, it is not at all di fficult to offer the citizen the real image of his fellow soldier-citizen.

Facing page. An " alpino" of the "Cuneense" Tacticaf Group befonging to the AMF, the NATO mobile land forces.

Above. A 105114 airborne artillery piece ready tor action against armoured vehicles.

...

Biagio Agnes

between the countries of western europ Âˇ

DEVELOPMENT POSSIBILITIES THE EIGHTIES

The world economy in the Eighties is going through a period of far- reaching structural change, broug ht about main ly by technology. The source of this change is the market of the industrial countries, where most of the high technology products are prod uced and consumed. It is estimated that in the OECD area (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development). the industries whi ch generate the most innovation {electronics, information t echnology, telecommun ications, fine chemi ca ls and pha rmaceut ica ls} - which accou nt for between 6% and 7% of the GN P on average - have contributed at least 15%- 18% of ove ra ll development d uring the past decade. However, let me say at once that the spinoffs of the rapid and in tense technologica l progress current ly taking place cut across all industries, including the traditional, or mature industries, particularly in terms of process innovation . Innovation also seems likely to have worldwide ramifications, fostering the introduction of new production techniques even in the developing world, creati ng a new intern ationa l division of labour, the extent of which is as yet impossible to predict.

Left.

The Selenia- Spazio Integration Centre. Right.

Launching of the "Ariane" rocket. Aerospace, nuclear energy, robotics, telecommunications and biotechnology are areas of innovation in which the European countries must work together on a Community basis if they are to keep their economies on a par with the United States and Japan.

TECHNOLOGI CAL DEVELOPMENT AND INDUSTRIAL AGREEMENTS

In the industrialized cou ntries, the quickeni ng pace of techn ological change is proving extremely costly in R&D terms and for investment. It requires considerable financial resources tc be invested under cond itions of great uncertainty (agai nst the general economic background ot lower growth). and the payback period is becoming increasing ly shorter beca use of the very speed of the in novation process. Hence the advisability for com panies to enter into techn ology agreements, because where this solution is not the only one available, it is always preferable t o the alternative of acquiring knowhow by going it al one. In addit ion to this is t he need to be able to operate on sufficiently large markets an d to enter into trading agreements that will ensure a full retu rn on the short-term investment that is essential in a time of rapid obsolescence, and to reduce resea rch expenses as a proportion of turnover. This makes it Âˇnecessary to enter into financial agreements, wh ich partly accounts for the larger number of company acquisitions and takeovers, amalgamations and mergers. It was aft er the second energy crisis that t he phenomenon of mergers and takeovers began to appea r in the Un ited States, fostered in many industries by deregulation policies and low share prices. After that, it spread to the other Western countries, main ly as a means of procuri ng the kn owhow and ma rket share of the company with which the financial transaction w as made .

INTERNATIONALIZATION AND THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT

All this gave companies a great boost to internationalize their operations, creating closer economic interpenetration between countries in technological, commercial and fi nancial terms. It was mainly the large corporations and national Governments which gave this process its impetus, in view of the role that the country, as a system, plays in fostering innovation and accumulation through government procurement and the provision of soft loans and other incentives. In an internationalization system increasingly based on capital movements and company acquisitions (in which commodity export flows play an important, although secondary, role), government development strategies are designed far more to boost the worldwide ongoing accumulation and innovation process than to defend domestic markets. At all events. the implementation of these policies does not always reach the minimum dimensions needed to achieve what they set out to do. And this applies not only to small and poor countries. but also to the countries of Western Europe.

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE THREE MAIN AREAS (United States, Japan, Europe).

The tendencies that I have just referred to are radically changing the industrial power relations between the three main economic areas - the United States. Japan and Europe. The main strengths of the U.S. and Japan. where industry is largely made up of multinational, large companies and corporate groups, are the large domestic market, a large government procurement demand (which plays a locom otive role in the advanceÂˇd sectors), aggressive industrial policies (in Japan. mainly), and large and efficient unitary

-precisely when it was going all-out to protect existing jobs, come what may.

capital markets. All these are conditions that are giving both countries competitive advantages and a technological lead in many industries.

THE RECOVERY OF EUROPE THROUGH COOPERATION

EUROPE

Europe's potential is no smaller than t he other two areas, all in all, particularly as far as the size of the internal market is concerned. It is the world's largest market in terms of the economy, financial resources, and development potential of the new technologies. But the internal market is not a unitary market, not even within the EEC itself, because while there are some industries (such as steel, or motor cars, etc.) in which a common market has been set up, this is not the case with a great many others, which are often the most innovative. such as telecommunications, in which public procurement plays a dominant role, or in which technical standards or regulations are imposed, creating non-tariff barriers to protect national industries. Neither is the capital market integrated. In many countries, capital movements are subject to restrictions and controls. There is also a lack of agreement between countries on questions of general economic policy, and particularly on industrial policy. Each country does its own thing in the industrial field, defensively looking after its own national interests, both when supporting mature industries that are in trouble because of productive over-capacity or inadequate productivity, and when setting about developing an autonomous national technological capacity in advanced sectors.

Upper left.

The CERN bubble chamber, Geneva. lower left. Oil-tanker under construction in a Japanese shipyard.

THE SHORTCOMINGS IN EUROPE'S INDUSTRIAL POLICY

The result is that even t hough the European countries spend almost as much on research and innovation as the US, and no less than Japan, Europe has failed to develop new sectors with the same speed and the same degree of success as the other two areas, with comparable spinoffs on the rest of the industrial production system. Being unable to establish their hold individually on the internationa l market, and burdened down by sociological difficulties and the low profitability of large corporations. European countries have bled themselves dry implementing their policy to hold on to crisis-ridden sectors in order to try to obviate. or reduce, the social cost of recovery by passing it on to . others. By so doing , they have squandered the resources that should have been spent on developing advanced technologies. Take Europea n steel as an example: in a single decade, over 50,000 bi ll ion lire have been spent on subsidies. writing off corporate losses and indirect charges. But the damage done by this policy has not been financial alone. The United States and Japan have been pushing through a tough industrial renewal policy and, above all, they have introduced innovation in advanced ind ustries in which they have created 15 million and 3.3 million new jobs, respectively, in ten years. While all this was going on. Europe's unemployment was growing,

In view of these eloquent results, European countries now have to find new ways of cooperating in order to reverse the present trend. It is the fragmentation of decisionmaking that constitutes t he main cause of the present disarray. The fact is that Europe is the only market run by ten different governments. A strategy to revive the European economy must therefore be based on trying to find a more incisive role for the Community authorities, and on a policy for industrial cooperation between countries. Such a common European strategy must contain measures to rationalize branches of industry that are still afflicted by surplus production capacity, or which are no longer able to compete on the international markets; to foster innovation in industries in which Europe can sustain a high international competitive edge; to implement largesca le innovative projects in research-intensive sectors; and to unify the internal market, particularly for technologyintensive products which depend very heavily on government procurement. THE "MATURE INDUSTruES"

As far as the first set of problems are concerned, (rationalizing the mature industries) one only has to think of textiles, or shipbuilding where the Community has imposed rules to restrict the rights of member States to take unilateral measures. But it is particularly the steel industry which stands out. with the delays and the rel uctance to introduce the measures needed to revive the industry which eventually had to be imposed by the EEC Commission to cut back

production capacity, sharing out the necessary sacrifices among a ll the member countries. Plant sh utdowns, market regulation measures, corporate support schemes and oth er measures adopted so fa r have helped to weaken the dogged resistance of ind ividual countries wishing to shore up their nationa l steel industries willy-nilly, and the Community steel market is now better balanced than before. Yet these measures cannot be considered adequate in themselves, and the Commission is likely t o demand further cutbacks in production capaci ty, mostly from com panies that have not yet been streamlined, at a time when the largest Commun ity corporations seem incapable of making manufacturing and trading agreements that wil l enable them to implement the measures needed to rationalize their plants. INNOVATIVE SECTORS IN WHICH EUROPE IS COMPETITIVE

In the technologically advanced sectors, Europe is certainly as strong as the other two areas . The nuclear energy, pharmaceuticals, robotics, aerospace, telecommunications and perhaps biotechnology industries need to be developed on a Community scale if Europe's international competitiveness is to be maintained, and if it is to keep up with the Un ited States and Japanese economies . Telecommunications, for example, are going through the delicate phase of the changeove r from electromechanical to electronic switching, and in the immediate future, the European market can offer the same opportunities as the Am erica n market. from which the large telecommunications multin ationals draw their strength. But this ca n only be don e provided that government procurement policies do not set

up protectionist barri ers around the national industries. They must enter into appropriate ag reements to meet their needs in terms of technologies, resea rch, size thresholds, marketi ng networks and controlled access (in the case of components manufactures, for exa mple}.

joint development of the next generation of te lephone exchanges scheduled for the end of the decade. These agreements are of major importance, beca use between them, the four companies account for about 70% of the Europea n market and 26 % of the world market.

AN EXAMPLE OF COMPANYLEVEL EUROPEAN COOPERATION

EUROPE'S ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY GAP

A first step in this direction was taken with the ag reement between the Ital ian IRI- STET Group (through its telecommunications equipment compan ies) and the French CIT Alcatel company, which have since been joined by the German Siemens A.G. company and the British Plessey. Under this ag reement, these com pa nies wi ll set up identical " user links" in their electron ic exchanges. The next stage in the cooperation plan could be the

It is in the in formation technology sector that Europe is still lagg ing f ar behi nd, in the fields of advan ced microelectronics and computer hardware. This gap is very dangerous, because the competitiven ess of other sectors could be jeopardized due to the interindustrial spread of innovation. It is estimated that electronics has a decisive relevance to 80% of the output from the Western industrialized countries.

German governments will make a financial contribution toÂˇ the joint scheme to produce a new generation of memories - which is without any doubt the area that is currently spearheading the microelectronics industry today - with investments of around 2,000 bi llion lire. COMMUNITY COOPERATION: THE ESPRIT PROJECT

In the particu lar case of semiconductors, which are vitally important electronic components for a wide range of apparatus and systems, Europe's share of world consumption fel l from 27% to 17% between 1976 and 1984. The drop in Europe's share of sa les was even steeper: from 20% to 10% . If we then look at even more advanced technologies, such as MOS integrated circuits and high density memories, Eu rope's share is total ly insignificant: less than 5% for MOS integrated circuits, and virtual ly negligible for high density memories. EUROPEAN CORPORATE COOPERATION IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES

In the short- med ium term, it will not be possible to narrow the gap described above. However, it is now dawning on companies, governments and

Community institutions that industria l cooperation is necessary. It is true that many European companies have a wide range of agreements with Japanese and American compan ies, beca use they are considerably ahead of Europe in terms of innovation. But while these agreements are a step in the right direction, they do not go far enough, because the technologies procured under them are mature technologies which can narrow the gap, but not bridge it completely. To do this, European companies need to invest heavily. Hence the importance of agreements of the kind made between Nixdorf (West Germany) and Ferranti (UK). or between SGS (IRI-STET Group, Italy) and Ericsson (Sweden). and above all, between Philips (Netherlands) - Europe's largest manufacturer - and Siemens (West Germany). Under the last- mentioned agreement, the Dutch and

One of the outstand ing examples of European cooperation for the promotion of major innovative projects was the decis ion taken by the Community in February 1984 to launch the Esprit project, wh ich is des igned to enab le Europe to narrow the technology gap with the United States and Japan. Member States' compan ies will conduct research projects in various areas of relevance to electronics, such as advanced microe lectronics (LSI circuitry). software technologies, office automation, plant automation, artificial intelligence, and systems arch itecture . The project is sched uled to cover ten years, in two five- year stages, with Community financing for the first 5- year period worth 750 million ECU . Since the Commun ity is financing 50% of the research costs, that means that the aggregate expend iture will be 1,500 million ECU. Less than two years after its launch ing, there are about 180 contracts covering the various R&D sectors and themes of the Esprit programme, involv ing 1,300 research workers. COMMUNITY PROJECTS UNDER STUDY

As env isaged in the memorandum adopted last June by the European Counci l in Facing page.

Robots welding car bodies on an assembly line. Above. Molten steel being drawn off at a blast furnace.

Milan entitled "Towards a Technological Community", the Commission is studying a number of important issues to make a major step forward in the scientific and technolog ical fields, which will form the basis of specific proposals during 1986 and early 1987. They include: • information technologies (microelectronics, large capacity computers, artificial intelligence and applications such as automated integrated manufacturing and office systems); • communications technologies in the fields of both telecommunications and advanced transportation systems; • the use of space (telecommunications, remote sensing and industrial applications); • industrial technologies (such as lasers. new materials, CAD/CAM, etc.) .

THE EUREKA PROJECT When speaking about European intergovernmental industrial cooperation, one immediately thinks of the Eureka project which was put forward by France and launched last July, with the · participation of other European countries and the EEC Commiss ion. Eureka is a non-mi litary research programme, although there will probably be mi litary sp inoffs. It covers a wide range of advanced technolog ies: EDP, telecommunications, robotics, new materials and biotechnologies. The programme is still being defined, to identify the projects and the compan ies which are interested in taking part, and to decide on the ways of financing and managing it. However, it is hoped that the countries which are . interested in it will not waste this chance to stimu late the international ization of technological research on a

European scale, fostering schemes that could promote alliances between the various companies involved. Eureka could provide a chance to implemen( specific major long- term projects, which will have an impact on a number of different sectors. military, telecommunications, integrated transportation, energy, the exploitation of the sea all sectors in which government agencies are the customers and the ones who decide on the market size and the pace of innovation. FINAL REMARKS

Europe certainly has a major trump card on its side: the Community market taken as a whole. With the relaxing of customs barriers, this market has be_ en attacked, unifying the demand side, and the main beneficiaries have been firms supplying commodities in general demand , such as consumer durables, semi-finished products, and capital goods for Âˇ small and medium firms. But for the industries that rely on government contracts (defence, transport infrastructure, energy, health Âˇ care) the unification of the market is taking an extremely long time. For this reason the min imum thresholds were not reached, precisely in those industries in which the thresholds were hig her and had to be reached all the more quickly, namely, in the market for products incorporating advanced technologies of strategical importance in some sectors which would benefit the whole of the economic Upper left.

Detail of a rolling mill. Lower left.

Forging press. Above. A Personal Computer used by ENEA to. design energy-saving schemes for prtvate homes.

system in the long run . Efforts to take concerted action, ma inly in the form of government tenders have been tried out by the only country France - which deliberately pursued a policy of technological excellence, backed by huge public funding. But the objectives of the other countries, each looking after their own interests, did not lead to any agreement. save in a few specific sectors, such as aerospace. Neither was there a tradition of mu ltinationa l corporations in Europe that could unify these efforts. Paradoxically, the only corporations that were potentially able to link up were the national subsidiaries of American multinationals (IBM and ITT, to quote two of the best known cases). But even though they did link up, they were guided by strategies designed abroad to use, rather than to create European markets. This war of nationalisms has had repercussions mainly

on standards, precisely because the attempts made by each national manufacturer to lay down his own standards and impose them on the rest (or to reject American standards, under the misconception that this wo.uld help protect the nationa l market) create further barriers, in addition to the nationalisms of publ ic demand. In the final analysis, the unification of the market from the demand side has proven a failure for the advanced technologies . But there are signs ahead not many, but they are growing, and that in itself is significant - that the market can be unified on the supply side. Paradoxically, these signs relate more to evolved techno logy sectors, and not mature technology sectors. These signs are the production of common parts, the defin ition of alternative standards (how much more has been achieved by American deregulation and the emergence 31

Left.

Precision control with automated systems using laser, video and computer technologies.

Below. An image obtained using the Czcs (Coastal zone colour scanner) to study the marine environment.

of AT&T compared with what the Europeans have been able to agree upon!), and joint product development agreements (and not just research agreements carried through in a pool under the aegis of the Community). There is still a long way to go, and there are so many hurdles, of which the most important is the rising rate of unemployment, particularly among young people. Because of these difficulties, individual Governments are not focussing their resources on reaching critical levels in the advanced sectors, but allocating them to prop up the domestic demand in mature sectors. The only way out. then, is for companies to unify the supply. It is a path to be pursed with great determ in ation, and the Community authorities could do much to encourage progress along it. But it is a path that companies have to take, armed with joint production agreements and all iances, without cou nting on public procurement from individual governments. This will follow on ly if the products come into being, and if they are European technology products, manufactured in d ifferent countries by national companies, as the result of a joint effort. in the design, research and development phases. Romano Prodi

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Spedizione in abbonamento postale gr. IV-70%

il~1r~IBW~~1PDÂŽ~ ~ IBCC;~ AFTER FoPI..... FIR FOPI and FIR are purposely placed side by side, since th is allows to make clear from the beginning that. although the same terminology is used for both, the two forces are completely different and set up for absolutely diverse purposes.

The Ready Intervent ion Force (FOPI), in fact, was established in 1983 essentially for social requirements (5th joint mission), in order to give more incisiveness to the Armed Forces' participation in rescue operations in the event of disasters (an article by Brig. Gen. Lusa on FOPI has been published on the 2/86 issue of Rivista Militare, English Edition). The Rapid Intervention Force (FIR) is, on the contrary, a newly-born creature, whose existence is justified by the need to give credibility to the defence of our peninsular and insular territory. It tends, therefore, to meet an operational requirement, and its location is mainly within the 4th joint mission, which is actually charged with the Defence of the Territory. In fact, the inadequate availability of units to be destined to this specific task makes it necessary to keep at hand a complex force able to rush to any area of the national territory and to integrate with the local defence in order to contrast any outside attack. The necessity is all the more felt if one considers that the event could take place at a moment when it is impossible to divert forces from the Northeastern Theatre and when the mobilized forces are not yet available.

RAPID INTERVENTION FORCE

5th JOINT MISSION

4th JOINT MISSION

5th JOINT MISSION

FIR /

INTERPOSITION TRUCE FORCE

SECURITY OF NATIONAL COMMUNITIES ABROAD

The essential charact eristic of FIR is therefore its high mob ili ty - both tactica l and strategic - which permits the timely conveyance of the Force's components to the threatened areas. It is easy to understand that, once such an instrument is established for "internal use",

any other international commitment (within the framework, for example, of peacekeeping operations) can be met with greater ease, counting on pre-organized and on especially trained units. We can say, then, that FIR meets two types of operationa l requirements: the first, of the

highest priority, is distinctly nationa l (4th joint mission); the second is essentially outwardbound (5th joint mission). albeit in a subordinate pos ition . In more explicit terms, . FIR's operationa l options of employment are: â€˘ intervention on the whole national territory - as a

complement to the territorial defence forces - for a timely containment of the enemy action and to create the conditions for an eventual retrieval of occupied territories. !he intervention (especially in the small islands) can take place - in situations of tension or crisis - also for deterrence

purposes; â€˘ the creation of a security and/or interposition truce force, based on bi/multi lateral agreements; â€˘ the provision, with the agreement of t he nation concerned, of a security framework during the evacuation of Italian communities

threatened by conflictual situations escaping the local Government's control.

High mobility, both tactical and strategic, is a typical characteristic of FIR, enabling the force to carry out timely all-around interventions. The photo shows a G-222 tactical transport aircraft.

COMPOSITION OF FIR "COMMAND" MODULE • Commander (Army General) • Joint Staff

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A detailed analysis of these options of employment shows the convenience of possessing a modular instrumen t, which should permit to create - through the appropriate combination of the individual components - the most suitable structure for accomplishing the assigned task. In practice, FIR includes: • a joint "Command" module (the only ex-novo component, albeit of a reduced size), with the task of planning and coordinating the training activities of the earmarked units. In operations, the FIR Command avails itself of a Signal Corps support from the 11th "Leonessa" Signal Battalion. Contingent reasons, mostly based on the locations of most units, have advised to base the FIR Command in Florence, within the Tuscany Emilia Regional Military Command, which gives log istic and administrative support to the Force;

"'"'----- - - - -- - - - - - - -- ----------" "AIR TRANSPORT" MODULE • Transport airplanes

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The employment of highly specialized units tends to give FIR a high level of operational efficiency, proportionate to its tasks. In the picture, elements of the " San Marco" Battalion disembarking from an LVTP-7 tracked amphibious vehicle.

Defence Chief of Staff, who holds the "operational :::::. ·:::..."•.. -··~· ~ ~· -· ........ command" and delegates the "operational control" to the Commander of the Military IL BATTESJMO UFFICIALE DELLA «FDIR» Region concerned in case of a national necessity, or to the FIR Commander himself for extranational tasks. During its first year, the FIR's activity will mainly be aimed at setting up valid plans for all the identified options of employment, and developing a ROMA-«Laforza di interspecific training focused on the vento rapido (FoirJ e un comForce's foreseeable tasks. plesso di uomini inte°rforze dotati di elevata mobilita tattica In this perspective, it is e strategica in grado di intermost important to perfect the venire tempestivamente in capability to operate with a qualsiasi zona d'Italia, o anche .all'estero - soprattutto · joint spirit, in order to achieve nell'areci mediterranea - in a satisfactory degree of ausilio a forze t radizionali readiness and reactivity. At the operanti in· loco. Questd contributo dell'Italia al manteni same time - in the equipment mento della pace.viene attuasector - a large programme of to innarizitutto con la difesa modernization and del territorio nazionale»:- con queste parole ii capo dello strengthening of all FIR un its stato maq'giore dell'esercito .. must be studied and generale Luigi Poli. ha comimplemented, in order to grant mentato 'ieri mattina nel poligono di Monte · Romano,' in them a high degree of provincia di Viterbo, il batteefficiency, proportionate to the simo ufficiale della Foir nel importance and delicacy of corso df un'eser citazione de/la sua componente terrestre. their tasks. La forza di intervento rapiIn conclusion, FIR was born do, circa diecimila uomini, e without great efforts because i nfatti costituita, per l'eser ciII gen. Giorgio ~1alorgio. cui e affidato ii comando interfo,:ze preexisting structures have been t o, da sette battag!ioni con cteila nuova uni ta di intervento rapido (Foto Afg) relativi supporti t attici e logiused, with the exception of the stici (dalle brigate paracadunew Command. Nevertheless, ta. Il comczndo interforze e vento. Il successivo ruolo d , tisti • Folgor e» e motorizzata uffidato all'esercito lai gene- support o alle forze in i oco it has only walked a few steps «Friuli) e da due gruppi di rale Giorgio Maiorgio), men- colloc;a l a Foir nel complesso along a rather long and winding elicotteri da trasporto dal pri- tre il comando operativo e quadro della c!ifesa del terrimo raggruppamento «Antatorio in corso gia da due anni road. It has been "unofficially" riservato allo stato maggiore res» (dell'aviazione ieggeraJ. con la costitu.zione della Fopi, della difesa. presented on December 16, 1985, Da Viterbo alla Marina, c'e la F'orza di pr onto intervento, La Foir, aila quale sono affi· on the occasion of a specific una componen t e navale naia per affronta;e, con unita dati compiii puramenie opeanfibia (unita trasporto, sbatexercise in the Monteromano i nterj'orze, alluvioni. terremorativi, mfra a neutralizzare co e operativo) del battaglio- eventuali coipi di mano di ti, calamila naturali in generange. Actually it was not a ne San Marco) . r e. Anche per la F opi ·massitorze straniere sul terriiorio real FIR exercise, since there ma rapidita di iniervento Dall'aeronautica e assicunazionale, f acendo soprattutwere only Army forces, and legata ad aita specializza.ziorato il t rasporto aereo con ia to /.eva $uila tendenza legata ne operati va. quarantasfiesima aembrigaall'i mmediatezza deii'intertheir size was rather limited. The test - as it has more appropriately been called - was • a "land forces" module, and the multi-role and medium made with the "outward" centred on the combat transport helicopters of the Army purpose of drawing the general battalions and the combat and Aviation's 1st "Antares" Group. attention to the FIR problem, logistic support units of the For particular missions, FIR as well as with the "inner" aim "Friuli" motorized Brigade and of giving the "air baptism" to can obviously avail itself of naval the "Folgore" paratroop some units which up to then and air cooperation both for Brigade; had been kept earthbound. its protection during transfers There will be no lack of • a "naval/amphibious forces" and for fire support. module, consisting of the "San It can be noted that the FIR's opportunities to see - rather Marco" Battalion 's Operational composition is sufficiently wide soon - something more complex Group plus Navy transport and complete. and diversified, so as to allow ships and la nd ing-craft; the constitution of instruments geared to the particular tasks. • an " air transport" module, For its military employment, ""'.hich includes the transport Col. Angelo Sion aIrplanes of the 46th Air Brigade FIR is subordinate to the

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ANTITERRORISM E

A A E E T F NE OTIATI NS

Next to the traditiona l forms of violence, internationa l terrorism has lately been developing new techniques based on blackmail, following the capture and detention of hostages. With increased frequency, we witness terroristic actions, such as plane hijackings or seizure of buildings, which actually aim at holding, as hostages, people that happen to be there, in view of obtaining various results . When these events occur, one is bound led by an instinctive reaction

caused by the insistent action of the mass media - to immediately think of an intervention of special units. which would solve the situation. All the more that the terms "leather heads", "Delta Force" etc. have been - right or wrong - acquired by today's language. As a matter of fact. in an antiterrorism operation, the armed intervention is only one of the possible solutions, and the last among them. In fact a terroristic action of the type we are discussing (for brevity

we will refer to it as an "incident") must be managed through negotiations, in order to reach a negotiated so lution first of all, and help a possible action of force, in view of guaranteeing at any cost a maximum level of security and safety for the hostages. It can be indeed affirmed that an action of force cannot take place without previous negotiations Âˇ and preparations which, owing. to the connections entai led, are neither in the sphere nor among the possible duties of the operational units.

Jn the last years, international terrorism has developed new techniques based on blackmail, following the capture and detention of hostages. An example of this took place on April 30, 1980 in London , where six armed men broke into rhe Iranian Embassy, seizing twenty-six Âˇ hostages, two of whom were murdered by tl1e terrorists, who were all killed, on May 5, during the attack launched against the Embassy by the Special Air Service (SAS). The success of the operation was largely due to the close cooperation between the SAS operational unit and a "committee'' of experts, headed .by the British Home Secretary. The photo shows an hostage fleeing the Iranian Embassy. The picture below describes the phases of the assault: 1. A microphone is lowered through a chimney to control the Âˇ terrorists. 2. The SAS assault force coming down in pairs. 3. The first pair rushes through the back entrance, th rowing a deafening bomb, and moves to the main stairway through the hall, shooting a terrorist. 4. The second pair enters through the first- floor balcony, firing at a terrorist in the ambassador's office. 5. The SAS climb the stairs and shoot a terrorist. 6. The SAS throw a deafening bomb into the charge d'a ffaires' office. 7. A soporific- gas container is thrown into the room where the hostages are held. 8. The SAS men enter the teletype room , shoot two terrorists and free the hostages.

THE ATTACK AGAINST THE IRANIAN EMBASSY

Therefore the management requires the organization of specia lized personnel, who, like the operational units, should be in a condition to act with great timel iness and efficiency when a crisis occurs. As this organization demands of its members an outstanding technical qual ification and a continuous and limitless avai lability of time, it should not coincide with the State Leadership, but rather be a supporting connecting element for a specific need, together with the other State bodies involved. 41

In the following pages we shall describe a possible model of such organization. in order to verify in which context a possible intervention with force could be framed. With this intent, we shall be considering first the objectives and goals of the management of an "inc ident" and, subsequently, the model itself, in its components, with their respective functions. We shall close with the modalities and times of the most important operations within this action. MANAGEMENT OF THE INCIDENT

In the management of an incident, the greatest difficulty is represented by the need to safeguard the hostages, whose survival, on the other hand, can be threatened at any moment by their captors.

The dangerousness of the hostages' situation affects every rescue initiative and, in equal general conditions. it influences the terrorists' attitude. The risk grows when they perceive that a menace could neutralize - by freeing the hostages - the purposes of their action, and is mostly emphasized in case of an action of force, since this can succeed only if the terrorists are restrained from carrying out any kind of reaction. It follows that anyhow one must try to find a solution throug h negotiations, while prearranging a possible armed intervention, to be carried out if the counterpart adopts a haphazardly violent behaviour, which could justify the risks of the intervention itself, or if an exceptionally favourable occasion occurs . . Within this framework and ir: order to control the incident, one needs a body (which will

be called "committee") in a position to technically manage the crisis, with the task of planning and guiding the negotiations and coordinating the organizations concerned, thus enabling the Government Authorities to decide a viable course. In order to outline the composition of the committee we shall now examine its already mentioned functions. Negotia tions are the fundamental element of the management. It is in fact most important to get in touch, because, without dialogue, there is no alternative but the employment of force, and also because talks can be usefu l to understand the purpose of the action and to consequently plan an appropriate reaction. The main goal is doubtlessly that of convincing the terrorists to desist, "ba rgaining" and discussing their requests -

trying at least to reduce them to acceptable dimensions and granting the immediate ones, based on the terrorists' behaviour and the hostages' conditions. Meanwhire. by analyzing the conversations. it becomes possible to identify the group to which the terrorists belong and thence deduce their political or religious creed and consequently the degree of fanaticism or determination. as well as the methods employed in previous actions and the type of weapons and explosives at their disposal. Moreover, we can obtain information about the setup and condition of the group, especially on its psychophysical conditions. This information is needed in order to manage the negotiations, adjusting terms and tones to the situation, also by applyi ng political and diplomatic pressures on the group leaders. In short, negotiations permit to control the situation. avoiding its deterioration until an agreement - or a time favourable to an armed intervention - is reached. It is also evident that time is not on the terrorists' side. The committee's second function is the coordination of all the organs involved in the event, ot its constitutive elements and of all the actions undertaken during the management of the incident. This action concerns Agencies and staffs that are quite different from each other as regards background, activity and mode of operation, and it must be carried out without interruption as long as the crisis lasts. i.e. for a period that cannot be predetermined . In order to accomplish this task, the committee must operate in

Unsolved social, political and religious problems of minorities and discriminated-against groups are often fertile ground for terrorism. In the picture, a Belfast young man throws a stone at the police in Falls Road, a town area peopled prevailingly by Catholics.

close connection with the State Leadership and, at the same time, at the place of the incident. where only the presence of specialized elements. accustomed to work within the committee, can ensure the constant control of the situation. Therefore, a section must be mobile, a fact that presupposes the availability of reliable connections. autonomous and technically adeq uate to the foreseeable needs. The third remaining function to be considered is the advice and the technical support that the committee must give to t he Government, which is obviously the body which must decide the solution to be adopted. This function is the real purpose of the organ ization and is considered last because it is accomplished through the activities carried out in the context of the other functions. In this role, the committee can be compared to the General Staff of a Headquarters, which evaluates the terms of the operational problems, introduces the enemy's foreseeable actions and its own line of action. performs the ensuing organizational activities and issues the orders to the executive organs according to the Commander's decision: an organ of managerial and executive support, therefore, but devoid of decisional competence.

ORGANIZATION OF THE MANAGEMENT

From the picture outlined above it emerges that the management of an incident requires a throughout and specialized organization, which can neither be improvised on an emergency nor be predisposed and assembled only when the crisis occurs. In substance, not only must the members of the staff have an individual preparation, but they must also be accustomed to teamwork and must know their own

capabilities as well as the operative possibilities of the task un its. Going back again to the comparison made before, between the committee's functions and those pertaining to a General Staff, we can take the model of an operational Command as reference also as regards the structural organization, given the analogy of the operational needs. According to this reasoning. the composition of the committee ought to be limited to the indispensable elements, also in view of alternating the personnel, in order to guarantee a continuity of function and an immediate reaction in case of incident. Therefore we can foresee the participation of representatives of the Departments involved and technical experts in the various fields of the management; a part of these experts, comparable to an advanced tactical Command, should be prepared to be detached for operation on the site of the crisis. Among the first, there should be representatives from the Interior, Foreing Affairs, Transportation and Defence Ministries. each with organizational, executive and liaison functions, which we are going to describe: â€˘ "Official of the Minister of the Interior". charged with the tasks concerning public order and the lia ison between the Ministry itself and the local Authorities of the place where the incident occurred, if it is on the national territory. Moreover, he must coordinate the Police forces and activate, if necessary, other available State corps, keeping in touch with their respective Departments. Considering the complexity and importance of the information aspect in this activity, an element of the Intelligence department should work with the abovementioned official, both for managing his specific sector and for keeping the necessary contacts with the national and foreign 43

The Army intervening in a Belfast street during a riot. In the small photo, soldiers carrying out a perquisition after a terrorist attack.

intelligence departments; • "Foreign Affairs Official", for the aspects of the incident that concern other countries involved. It is a multifaceted f unction that includes various activities, such as requesting authorizations for sending forces to other countries (if the incident is aimed against a national carrier on foreign territory), requesting information and operational support or asking the authorities to veto the intervention of foreign forces. His activities include, moreover, the relations with the foreign security forces and finally the

possible direct or indirect contacts with the terrorist organization concerned; • "Transportation Official" - if the terrorist act concerns a carrier - charged with the task of providing the timely availability and adaptation of the structures that have been or could be - involved in the incident. as well as providing the vehicles needed for the operation; • "Defence Official" for lia ison with his Ministry and to keep it constantly informed about the situation, and be informed in his turn about the state of readiness and availability of the

operational unit. Moreover, until the un it is conveyed to the troubled area, he must provide information support for the planning of the intervention. The group of technical experts should include the elements listed below together with their respective tasks: • "Expert in potentially terroristic groups and movements", charged with the task of finding out, through the clues picked up from the terrorists' behaviour, the groups to which they belong, and check the accuracy of their possible claims. As we have already said, this is a most important function, for it can be of great help in discovering the terrorists' strong and weak points; in this capacity, the expert is the committee's intell igence element. His action will be all the more effective if he is able to avail himself of a computerized data bank about the terrorist movements; • "Psychology expert". for analyzing and evaluating the terrorists' behaviour, foreseeing their psychological endurance and reactions. In particular, from their attitude he must find out the themes th_ a t might be introduced, moment by moment in the negotiations, and give his advice on how to deal with the terrorists; • "Speaker", spokesman of the committee, capable of using the tone suitable to the circumstances and to the development of events: the convincing power of the arguments depends on how they are introduced. It could be the psychology expert himself; nevertheless another element would be desirable, possibly an interpreter of the languages currently used in internationa·1 relations; • "Expert in the employment of special units", charged with

--Launching teargas grenades to dispel a mob.

the task of contributing to the analysis of the situation, especially as regards the operational aspects, and evaluating the risks of an armed interven tion in the prevai ling situation. Moreover, he must suggest the information requirements to the Psychology expert and the Speake~ and turn into information the data acquired during the negotiations. This task is usually carried out by the Commander of the operational unit; failing this, it should be in any case a man from that force, familiar with the possibilities and needs of the unit. Lastly, we should consider the Head of the committee who, due to his preparation and specific experience, should have a charismatic role within the committee itself. Among the desired parameters, and prescinding from his Ministry of origin and his military or civilian status, priority should be given to experience and the possibility to retain the appointment over a long period, in order to ensure the continuity of the management. Moreover, the committee needs a structure of technical and operational support, if it wants to do its work properly. The technical support must include especially the organization of communications independent from the general networks, and capable of linking, without interruption, the committee with the area of the incident and with the operational unit. as well as guaranteeing the electronic coverage of the entire possible area of interest. The operational support will include, among others, the staff taking care of the relations with the mass media, and a team of interpreters, absolutely necessary given the heterogeneity of the th reat.

MODES OF OPERATION

We have already mentioned that, in order to fu lfil! its functions effectively, the committee must operate in the area of the incident. for the activities requiring a direct contact with the terrorists, and with the State Leadership for easier coordination and for understandable organizational needs. The group assigned to the area of the incident will act in connection with the local Authorities and with the operative unit, as an integrant part and direct support of the committee. With reference to the modes of management previously outlined and the tasks assigned to each member, the elements incl uded in this "techn ica l section" will be: the experts in psychology and in the employment of special units, the speaker with the interpreters and the supporting staff. If the incident occurs outside the national territory, i! would be advisable that representatives from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and

the Security Service be at hand. As regards the times of operation, the following sequence of events can be foreseen: • the committee goes into action with utmost timeliness as soon as the incident occurs; • the "tactical section" and the operative unit reach the area of the incident; • the "tactical section" conducts the negotiations, according to the committee's directions, until the conclusion of the incident or until a moment favourable to an armed intervention; • the special unit intervenes if the risks entailed by the action become justified by the terrorists' behaviour towards the hostages.

CONCLUSIONS

The liberation of hostages held by terrorists is an operation that cannot be improvised, owing to the high degree of risk for the hostages. Therefore the management of an in cident requires personnel trained in

The Army in a Belfast street, after the explosion of a car bomb.

the specific field, accustomed to teamwork and cooperation: it needs in substance an experienced and trained staff, reactive, similar in shape and tasks to a General Staff. It operates at two different levels: â€˘ a politico-diplomatic level. aimed at reaching a negotiated solution through negotiations. and creating the most acceptable conditions for a possib le armed intervention, gaining time till the less unfavourable moment; â€˘ an operational level. providing information support for the action of force which. although considered an extreme resource, must be kept in a

potential state and ready to be developed at any moment. The committee must be able to operate with efficiency, without warning and for undetermined lengths of time, keeping in mind that. when the incident occurs. negotiation is the activity that is unquestionably carried out. The A.uthorities, therefore, have at their disposal a proper operational tool, which has a readiness of employment. training and reaction at least eq ual to that of the special units. Moreover. considering that the committee and the units' activities will be integrated for employment. it becomes essential that they be trained

together. because only mutual knowledge encourages the cooperation that will be transformed in to an increment of operational efficiency. The conceptual dimension of the problem examined can be considered as defined. though in general and in its essential aspects. by the terms outlined above. As regards the composition of the committee and its modes of action, it has been our intention to give an example of possible solution. coherent with that dimension. being understood that the experience deriving from its practical employment will permit to formulate methods that will ensure the hig hest efficiency. On the other ha nd, the variety and number of the possible occurrences and consequent requ irements will demand adjustments on the spu r of the moment. which prescind from the accuracy of the conceptual formulation. In conclusion, the adoption of measures and provisions allowing to avoid an armed solution of a terroristic action, tends to keep the threshold of dangerousness of the operation at the lowest level and meets criteria of rationality which repudiate all emotiona l components. including that of sistematically opposing force to violence. Nevertheless. if this becomes necessary, we must be equally ready to use it without hesitation; the availability of an organization efficient in all. its components, as well as the clear willingness to employ it. must be a deterrent in itself. Col. Franco Monticone

ANT1TEARORJSM

THE «CUNEENSE» ITALIAN CONTINGENT

OF THE MOBILE FORCE OF ALLIED COMMAND EUROPE On December 7, 1985, the Italian Contingent of the Mobi le Force of Allied Command Europe, an organic component of the "Taurinense" Alpine Brigade, was given the official name of Contingente Italiano "Cuneense". The event was celebrated with a solemn ceremony in Cuneo, on January 11, 1986, at the presence of the Army Chief of Staff, the Commander of the 4th Army Corps and the Region's civilian and military Authorities. The occurrence was amply emphasized by the press and it deserves the same emphasis also on these pages, if only to revive the history of the glorious "Cuneense" Alpine Division and for making the functions of the Mob ile Force better known. THE "CUNEENSE" 4TH ALPINE DIVISION

The "Cuneense" was established in Cuneo on October 31, 1935, following the transformation of the "Cuneense" IV Alpine High Command. The "Taurinense" 1st Alpine Division, the "Tridentina" 2nd Alpine Division, the "Ju lia " 3rd Alpine Division - which, together with the Central Military School of Alpinism, constitute the framework of the Alpine Troops - were established together with the "Cuneense".

Alpine of the Italian Contingent of the AMF(L) in training.

On its foundation, the "Cuneense" Division included the 1st Alpini Regiment (with the "Ceva", "Pieve di Teco" and "Mondov1" Battalions). the 2nd Alpini Regiment (with the "Borgo San Dalmazzo", "Dronero" and "Saluzzo" Battalions) and the 4th Mountain Artillery Regiment (with the "Pinerolo" and "Mondovl" Battal ions). In November 1935 a composite company of Engineers was added to these units; a year later, it became the 1

"Cuneense" 4th Mixed Engineer Batta lion. All these units have had a glorious past, in war and an intens ive activity in peacetime, made even more significant by several rescue operations in favour of the mountain populations hit by natural disasters. The first significant operational employment of the "Cuneense" took place in the East African campaign, in 1935-1936. Some of its units (the "Pieve di Teco" and "Saluzzo"

Battalions, as well as the 11 th Battery of the "Mondovl" Batta lion) were incl uded in the newly constituted "Pusteria" 5th Alpine Division; with this Major Unit, they fought valiantly, in line with the best traditions of the Alpine troops. At the outbreak of the second world conflict the whole "Cuneense" took part in the campaign of 1940 on the Afpine western front, giving a valuable contribution to its victorious conclusion.

The AMF(L) units are characterized by high efficiency and operational readiness. The Mobile Force is air- transportable; this capability is assured, tor the various contingents, by the respective Nations.

In the second pa rt of December 1940, while the troops engaged on the Greek-Albanian front were retreating, the "Cuneense" was sent to Albany to give its support to the most threatened points of the front. The 1st Alpini Regt in the Tomoritza Valley staunchly opposed the enemy advance and counterattacked with unyielding courage, giving a decisive contribution to the positive conclusion of the battle of containment. In the Shushica Valley, the 2nd Alpini Regt

tenaciously blocked the way to during the entire retreat. The heroic behaviour of the the sea to the enemy "Cuneense" un its is witnessed emboldened by success, and by their decorations: a Gold counterattacked vigorously, blunting his offensive intentions. Medal for military valour to the 1st and 2nd Alpini Regiments Also the battalions of the 4th Mounta in Artil lery Regiment and 4th Mountain Artillery Regiment, a Si lver Medal for fought gallantly in the "Ju lia" mi litary va lour to the mixed Division's ranks. Subsequently, Eng ineer Batta lion. the "Cuneense" took part in After September 8, 1943, a the offensive in Yugoslav ia and great number of Alpin i of the advanced steadi ly as far as Dibra . For these operations the "Cuneense" fought gallantly with the partisan formations, 1st and 2nd Alpini Regiments adding glorious pages to those were awarded the Silver Medal for mi litary va lour, and of the units that had preceded them. the 4th Mountain Artil lery Regt Swept by the events of was awarded the Bronze Medal. that period - as it happened with In July 1942, the other Army units - the "Cuneense" became part of the "Cuneense" Alpine Division has Alpine Army Corps, together nevertheless handed down its with the "Tridentina" and "Julia" Divisions, and was sent glorious traditions through the flags of its Reg iments, now to the Russian front. After the entrusted to the "Mondovi" and va liant resistance on the Don "Sa luzzo" Alpine Batta lions and line. the "Cuneense" did not tc the "Pinerolo" Mounta in give up an inch of ground - it retreated from its positions, as Arti llery Battalion. All these units are now part of the a consequence of the "Tau rinense" Alp ine Brigade. unfavourable development of t he strategic operations. During twelve days of THE MOBILE FORCE exhausting retreat, the units, deprived of food and ammunition OF ALLIED COMMAND EUROPE supplies, in terrible weather The AMF (ACE - All ied conditions, fought their way towards Va lu jki which, instead of Command Europe - Mobi le Force) is a NATO rapid offering them the freedom so longed for, turned out to be intervention multinational task force, established with the aim a deadly trap . The th irty hours of proving, in case of of bloody fighting at Novo emergency, the sol idarity and Postojalowka drained the last forces of the already worn-out unity of intents of the Atlantic Al liance and its will to defend troops of the "Cuneense" itself. which, with its sacrifice, had The Mobi le Force consists the sad record of dead and missi ng soldiers among all the of two components: air AMF(A) and land AMF(L). Divisions of the Italian Army On ly the Command and the in Russia and al l Italian units Commander of AMF(L) are at during WW2 (87% of the effectives, for a total of 13,000 the orders of SACEUR (Supreme Al lied Commander Europe) in men). No less valiant was the peacetime, wh ile the operational "Pieve di Teco", 1st Alpini contingents of the two Regt, which operated with the components are transferred "Vicenza" Infantry Division

Soldiers of the "Cuneense" Contingent in training. Each contingent has a "key component" which must be deployed as planned within 48 hours; the rest of the units have six days at their disposal.

to NATO in emergencies or for exercises. The AMF(A) is formed by three-four squadrons supplied by Belg ium, Canada, Italy, Holland, United Kingdom, Federal Republic of Germany, United States. At present there is no AMF(A) Command; therefore the squadrons are assigned to an AT AF (Allied Tactical Air Force) or to an equivalent Air Command, according to the area concerned. The AMF(L) is comparable to an Infantry Lig ht Brigade and consists of three-four combat groups with the relevant tactical-logistic support, supplied by Belgium, Canada, Italy , Luxembou rg, United Kingdom, Federal Republic of Germany, United States, depend ing on the area of employment. The entire AMF(L) can be air-carried: the air transport facilities for the various contingents are provided by the respective Nations. As the employment of the AMF constitutes one of the possible options in the complex management of international high-level political crises, its deployment is disconnected from any particular national or NATO alert measure . The units at the AMF(L)'s disposal must have a high-level efficiency and operational readiness. Ea ch contingent has a "key component" - at company leve l - which must be deployed as planned within 48 hours after SACEUR's order; the rest of the unit have six days at their disposal. The AMF(L)'s most important mission is that of contributing to increase deterrence, through its deployment, in periods of tension, in one of the so-called "contingency areas" in Norway, Denmark, Italy, Greece and

Turkey, where it was surmised that the Warsaw Pact could initially wield its threat. The basic principle of the employment of the AMF(L) is that of making clear to the aggressor that any attack - even if waged against a single NATO country - will be considered as aimed at the entire Atlantic Alliance. To this end, the Force can take some dissuasive steps, such as, among others: "showing the flag", "strengthening the relations with the local communities" , "patrolling the boundary lines", "training with the national

Above and right. The basic principle of employment of the AMF(L) is that of making clear to ~he aggressor that any attack - even If waged against a single NATO country - will be considered as aimed against the entire Alliance. In this role, the AMF(L) can carry out some typical combat actions: defence of positions, protection of flanks, security/control ot the rear areas, etc.

General Franco Angioni, Commander of the AMF{LJ.

The plans for the employment of the land component of the Mobile Force ir the Italian Northeastern theatre, contemplate that both deterrence tasks and combat missions can 'be assigned to the Force, always under the command of the 5th Army Corps. Today the legend of the "Martyr Divis ion" is revived in the Italian Army t hrough the "Taurinense" units, which for more than twenty years have been representing Italy within the Atlantic Alliance's Mobile Force, and whose essential framework is the "Susa" Alpine Battalion, loyal custodian of the traditions of the 3rd Alpini Regiment. This further emphasizes the bond that has been uniting, within the "Taurinense" Brigade, the Piedmontese, Ligurian and Apuanian people, from the past to the present day. forces" and "informing the loca l communities". Should deterrence fail. the AMF(L) is ordered to take part in the fighting, under one of NATO Subordinate Commanders. In this role the AMF(L) can carry out typical combat actions. such as: defence of positions, protection of flanks, security/control of the rear areas. The land component remains under the tactical command of the AMF(L) Commander (a Major General designated, in turn among the nations concerned, for a three-year appointment). The Headquarters is at Heidelberg, in the Federal Republic of Germany. The task of representing the Italian Army within the AMF(L) is entrusted to the "Taurinense" Alpine Brigade, which accomplishes this important duty through three components: • Airborne Alpine Combat Group; 54

consisting of the "Susa" Alpine Battalion, the 40th Battery of the "Pinerolo" Mountain Artillery Battalion, some Brigade anti-tank, Engineer and Signal Corps units, plus a helicopter belonging to the Army Aviation's 4th "Altair'' Group; • Airborne Medical Unit, which ensures the medical support to the entire Mobile Force; • NSE unit. formed by elements from the log istic battalion, capable of giving the necessary support to the Contingent, in order to enable it to live, move and operate far away from its permanent quarters. While the latter operates in all contingency areas, the Airborne Alpine Combat Group is employed with a prima ry role in the northern contingency areas, with a secondary role in the other areas. The Airborne Medical Unit, together with the 40th Battery, operates exclusively in the Southern Region of ACE.

Ferruccio Boriero

Li eu tenant Co lonel Ferruccio Boriero has attended the 18th Course of the Mi litary Academy, the Infantry and Cava lry Service School, the Ita lia n War College, the Bundeswehr War College in Germany and the Jo in t Sta ff I nstitute. He has carried out h is command activities ,.,,ith the " Orobica" Alpine Brigade and "Taur inense" Alpine Brigade, where he has been Commander o f the "Susa" Alp ine Battalion. At the present time Lt.Col. Bor iero holds the posi tio n of Chief, 3rd Section, Operatio ns Branch, of the Army Genera I Staff.

OTO R2.5 'GORGONA' SPECIAL TASK VEHICLE Crew: Weight: On road speed: Range: Armament:

Armour protection :

1+ 3 2700 kg more than 120 km -hr 500 km

THE NATIONA It is common knowledge that in the United States of America conscription does not represent the rule but is actually the exception, albeit not an infrequent one, since it is determined by conflicts that may seriously involve the U.S. Armed Forces. This has repeatedly occurred in this century, as everybody knows, and Vietnam has been the last bloody experience . Nevertheless, conscription can be considered the last resource because, next to the regular Armed Forces, there are two large "reservoirs" formed by voluntary personnel of every order and rank. These are represented by two distinct categories: the «Reserve)> proper, and the «National Guard)> . The two main differences are that the first includes all tour Services (it should be remembered that the «Marines)> are a Service it itself) and is organized at «Federah> level; the second includes only Army and Air Force personnel and has an essentially territorial (individual State) configuration. What the two categories have in common is that the enrollment is made on request and entails the obligation to take part in periodical paid training, as well as the possibility to be recalled on very short notice and employed for emergencies. Of the two structures, the National Guard certainly presents decidedly more interesting aspects, at least in the eye of the Italian military: first, because it is a totally atypical organization; second, because some of its units are looming on our own operational horizon as "external reinforcements", as we shall see. With these notes, we intend to have a closer look at the structure and operation of this organization which, although little known to us, is a very important component of the U.S. Armed Forces.

GUARD

CITIZENS - SOLDIERS

HISTORICAL OUTLINE

The members of the National Gua rd are very proud of their long history and solid tradition s of patr iotism and va lour. They pride themselves on having counted in their ranks such men as George Wash in gton, Andrew Jackson , Abra ham Lincoln, Theodore Roosevelt, Charles Lindberg . The orig in of the National Guard can be traced back to December 13, 1636, when the governor of the British colony of Massachusetts set up a loca lly recruited militia, tor helping the regulars of His Ma jesty's Army to defend the territory from out side attacks. The members of the new Corps, organ ized in three regiments, mainta in ed t heir civilia n status, in the sense that, general ly, al l contin ued to carry out their normal activities, but at the same time they had to procure and look after thei r arms and equ ipment and were frequ ent ly ca lled for collective training. Soon the other twelve colonies fol lowed Massachusetts' example, est abl ishing t heir own local mi litia. These forces were widely employed duri ng the various campaigns waged by Great Britain agai nst the Indians (leg itimate in hab itants of the American continent) and aga inst the French (who compet ed with the Eng lish for the possession of the New World). Bu t - irony of fate - it was precisely on that mil itia that the "revol utiona ry" General George Wash ington could largely coun t to coagulate the Colon ies arisen against the motherland. The War of Independence, started on April 19, 1775, with the "sk irmishes" of Lexington and Concord, soon flared up on the entire colonized territory and involved up to 164,000 mil itiamen who fough t side by side with the

"continental" army and wrote glorious pages, fighting with extraordinary determination until the Eng lish troops were utterly defeated. Lord Cornwallis, the English commander, who surrendered at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, openly acknowledged that the English defeat was large ly due to the militia. At the end of the war, the militia obtained a more regular status, through a special "Act" of 1792; each State was compelled to enter in the conscription lists all able men aged between 18 and 45, and organize them in companies, regiments and brigades . Similarly, each state appointed an Adjutant General, who was - and still is - the interpreter of the Governor's di rections. The service was, or was not, compulsory according to the various events and actual needs of employment. The Corps was, in any case, always based on more or less substantial groups of volunteers. The term "National Guard" was used for the first time in August 1824, when the Marquis de Lafayette, a famous veteran of the American revolution - in which he had taken an active part. showing undisputed qua!ities as a leader - return ed for a triumphal visit to New York. The military honours were rendered by the 2nd Battalion of the 11th Artillery Reg imen t. which for the occasion was renamed "Battalion of the Natio,1al Guard", in homage to the French hero, who had become Commander of Paris' Garde Nationale. This name was more and more widely adopted, ti ll it received official consecration with an Act of Congress, on June 3, 1916. Among the many conflicts arisen on the American soil, there is not a single one for which the Guard was not called by the various Presidents, to give its contribution to the Federal cause. It started in 1812 with a new war against the English for the possession of the Canadian territories (which 58

remained Engl ish): there were 116,000 militiamen on the front. The Mexican war, a consequence of the annexation o~ Texas in 1845, raged for two years and another 73,000 guardsmen took part in it. The long and bloody Civil War in which, from 1861 to 1866, the States of the Un ion and the Confederate States were opposed, called on both sides an undetermined number of guardsmen, certainly hundreds of thousands.

In the 20th century, besides the final sanction of the National Guard's denomination as we have already seen there was also a new legislative revision, by which the Federal Government took full authority over the National Guard in case of war. At the same time, the experience, training, and tactical and organizational configuration of the Guard units were constantly improving. In 191 1 there was, among other things, the first

appearance of the air force component. The outbreak of WWI was the macroscopic occasion for the Guard's employment outside the national borders: 40% of the American Expeditionary Force sent to Europe in 1917 was formed by Guard personnel. We wish to mention that. significantly, the German High Command, already defeated on the Argonne thanks to the decisive intervention of the National Guard Major Units, in drafting a classification of merits of the enemy Divisions, listed among the first eight as many as six Divisions of the Guard. The second World War witnessed again the participation of approximately twenty Guard Divisions, in 34 different campaigns, in the European and Pacific operational theatres; about 5,000 men complemented the Army Air Force. Nearly 200,000 dead or wounded, and approximately 700 war decorations, are the figures of a titanic enterprise. The rest is recent history: the Korean war, the Berlin crisis, the Vietnam war, all are scenarios in which the Air Force and Army components of the National Guard were deployed in support of the U.S. regular forces, and where they distinguished themselves for cohesion, fighting capabilities and valour.

interventions in large-scale armed conflicts in any part of the world; • as a force mainly originated in the individua l States, it is under the orders of the respective Governors, who avail themselves of a military structure headed by an Adjutant General (Major General); with this status it is called to intervene in case of natural calamities or pu blic disorders. The relations between the Federa l Government and the Governments of the individual States are regulated by a detailed leg islation - on which we shall not dwell - concerning recruitment, train ing , armament

Facing page. The integration between Italian and U.S. soldiers during their training at the Cellina-Meduna range is well represented in this picture. Below. Soldiers of the «Ariete» Armoured Division and of the 30th U.S. Brigade, after ;oint training at the Ge/Jina-Meduna range.

STATUS, TASKS AND STRUCTURE

The National Guard's and equipment. infrastructure present status, as well as its and training areas, logistics organization, with the exception . and budget (in particular as of some minor amendments, regards person nel wages). in substance date back In very simple words, one can to 1946. It has a twofold state that recruitment and dependance and consequently training are essentially under a twofold task: the various States' • as an integrative component of responsibility, while the Federal Administration provides for the the regular Armed Forces, it rema ining items. As regards is subordinate to the Federal Government; as such it can be mobil ization, this is obviously regulated by the requesting entirely or partially mobilized Authority. Finally, it must be to cope with national emphasized that national needs emergencies; that is, for

always have first priority. We shall make later a concise survey of the various sectors. The Guard's distinctive feature is that almost all of its members hold normal jobs in the working world, but, as we shall see, must carry out a minimum of training activity each year. Approximately 10% are in active permanent duty: these are the operational and technical Cadres, charged with securing the operational continuity of the units.

Infantrymen of the U.S. 30th Brigade engaged in Exercise "Display Determination".

We have already seen that the National Guard consists of Army and Air Force units. According to figures dating back to the beginning of 1984, the Army component included approximately 420,000 men, organized in 9 Divisions (consisting of three Brigades each), 22 autonomous Brigades, 4 cavalry regiments, besides various units of tactical and logistic support. At the previously mentioned date, the Air Force component consisted of 24 wings, 67 groups and 91 squadrons (plus supports). with over 100,000 men and as many as 1,600 airplanes. The Guard is deployed in about 3000 bases, in the 50 States and in the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. 60

In short, the National Guard contributes in forming the U.S. Armed Forces global organization, with about 40% of the Army and almost 20% of the Air Force units. RECRUITMENT AND PROMOTIONS

Recruitment pertains entirely to the various States and aims at filling the existing o:Âˇ foreseeable vacancies. All U.S. citizens, male and female, between 17 and 35, can apply for admission to the Adjutant General's Office of the ir State, undertaking to be active members for at least 8 years (6 for women) as well as to attend an initial training course of four to five months (which includes a basic phase and a specialization phase) at Federal Schools. The applicants are enlisted as privates; there are

possibilities of reenlistment at the end of the initial period; promotions proceed with a mixed system of seniority and selection (in this regardÂˇ it must be remembered that in the U.S. there is no categorical difference between privates and non-commissioned officers: they all are "other ranks"). Accord ing to his/her school degree, the candidate can ask to be enrolled as an Officer: in this case, the training lasts longer and takes place at a State Academy or Federal Institute, together with the officers of the Regular Armed Forces and Reserve. The promotion mechanism is similar to that of the "other ranks", Major Genera l being the highest rank attainable.

Right.

Soldiers of the U.S. 30th Brigade in formation, at the conclusion of "Display Determination".

.......

~ .

TRAINING

The periodical training obligations require tha t the National Guard members be present at their resÂˇpect!ve un its for at least 48 days In a year (normally during weekends) and two or three consecutive weeks (in the summer). The weekend activity is essentially carried out at the lower organizational levels and on a rotation basis. During the summer period, on the contrary, efforts are made to simultaneously assemble a high percentage of the Major Units' strength, with . wider-range train ing objectives. In this regard, it must be emphasized that the training (especially the longer one, during the summer) is essent ially carried out in view of federal operational tasks, which, like those assigned to the regular Armed Forces, incl ude employment options in various areas of the world. In this context. an ambitious programme has been started,

which envisages both the "affiliation" of Guard units (generally at battalion level) with the regular Major Units, and the autonomous conduct. with large parts of the Divisions and Brigades, of overseas redep loyment exercises. Greatly emphasized is the application of manual or computerized operational simu lations (the well-known war games) which permit an excellent and inexpensive training of the Cadres. The training for tasks at State level finds its space in the conduct of exercises conceived for confronting hypothetical natural disasters, as well as in the accomplishment of public utility duties, especially by the logistic units. As concerns individ ual training, it is important to underl in e that during their career most personnel attend courses of various types at the regular Armed Forces Schools. From the "motivation" point of view, it is important to remark tha t during their

training activity, the participants are regularly paid (with double pay on holidays) according to their rank. Moreover, employers are compelled by law to grant leave to their employees upon request, as well as to keep their jobs for them, continuing to pay their normal wages also during their absence. ARMAMENT AND EQUIPMENT

The '70s were decisive years in the modernization of the National Guard, so much so that, today, the standard of its un its is qualitatively not very dissimilar from that of the regular Forces. As regards the Army, suffice it to say that several units have acquired the most recent "gems" in the tracked vehicles line: the "Abrams" M-1 tank and the "Bradley" M-Âˇ3 combat vehicle, which have firing and movement capabilities superior to any other precedent similar system. In the antitank sector the "Cobra" and "Apache" attack hel icopters, and the "TOW" and "Dragon" missiles are already operational. while in the antiaircraft sector the "Improved Hawk", "Chaparral" and "Roland" missiles are being delivered. As far as the Air Force is concerned, we just mention that it has the "F15", "F16" and "A10" combat aircraft. as well as the "C130-H" and "KC135-E" lined up in its hangars. The sophisticated C3 systems include the latest radio and data transmission devices, effective objective acquisition means, powerful computers for tactical and logistic employment. 61

MOBILIZATION

Thanks to the high degree of operational readiness and the possibility of recalling the personnel (who lives in the vicinity of the respective bases) with extreme rapidity, all f\la tiona l Guard units are considered "M" (Mobilization)Day forces. The order for total or partial mob ilization can be sent out at any time (with very short notice). either by the Authorities of the various States or by the Federal Authorities, for emergencies that pertain to their respective domains. "Ad hoeÂˇ: exercises are planned within the States, in order to check the suitability of the procedures of notification, as well as that of the loading and movement plans. THE NATIONAL GUARD THAT MOST INTERESTS US

INFRASTRUCTURE AND TRAINING AREAS

LOGISTICS

We cannot certainly dwell too much on infrastructure and training areas, even though they are the cornerstone of the National Guard's whole organization. We shall only cite the already mentioned approximately 3000 bases, spread throughout the entire national territory, many of which have been built in recent years, with criteria of high efficiency. They are owned partly by the Federal Government and partly by the States and private citizens. As concerns training areas, there are no problems, owing to the US' huge extension. Most of the areas enable units, at Brigade or higher level, to carry out exercises, also with live ammunition. Vast amounts of money have been appropriated for the improvements that are now being made in this sector.

The field logistic organization does not greatly differ from that of the Major Units and the Air Force units of the regu lar Armed Forces, meaning that this envisages normal supports assigned t o the various "classes", which moreover ensure a remarkable autonomy. On the other hand, as these supports consist of Cadre Units (just like the tactical ones), in the daily routine it becomes necessary to completely rely on a fixed , territorial organization, which is nevertheless an integrant part of the Guard. This organization is formed by permanent technicians, who are charged mainly with the constant operational upkeep of the combat eq uipment. The muster rolls of this personnel list 45,000 men, almost equally divided between Army and Air Force.

Up to now we have intended to draw a concise but fa irly complete picture of the U.S. National Guard as a whole. But the Italian reader, lay or military, will probab ly be more interested in kn owing the involvement of this singular American Corps - at theÂˇ present time, or as a future possibility - in the Italian operational scenario. As we are reporting widely known information, we are disclosing no classified matter in saying that units of two States - North Carolina and Vermont have been assigned, among their federal duties, also a NATO mission in the Italian northeastern operational theatre, as "external reinforcements" . More precisely, they are the 30th Independent Mechanized Infantry Brigade, from North Carolina and a Mountain Infantry Battalion from Vermont. The 30th Brigade is the direct heir of the glorious 30th "Old Hickory" Infantry Division, which distinguished itself on the European battlefields, in both world conflicts. It includes

two mechanized battalions, two tank battalions, a self-propelled artillery batta lion , one scouting company and several tactical and logistic support units, for a -total of approximately 5,000 n:en·. It can operate in any operat.1onal, geographical or climatic environmen t and can be structured according to the assigned task; moreover, it can easi ly absorb various reinforcements, as in the case of Vermont's mountain infan try battalion , that could be attached to the Brigade, in order to enable it to carry out mountain operations. Due to its organic dimension; high mobility, outstanding fire capabilities (especial ly antitank fire) and large logistic autonomy, the Brigade ca n be considered rather a "mini-Division", so much so that, in the normal tactical organization, it is directly subordinate to an Army Corps. In the framework of the task described above, the 30th Brigade has participated on several occasions in Command Post and Field Tra in ing Exercises in Northeastern Italy. The most significant moments have been the yearly exercises of the "Display Determination" series, in which the Brigade has taken part, from 1983 on, with considerable contingents. It is well known that these exercises are carried out mainly with the purpose of showing to the world the solidarity of the Atlantic Alliance, but, at the same time, they are the ideal ambience for attaining interoperability between the Armed Forces of different nations. The participation of the· 30th Brigade has been an historical event, for it was the first time after WWII that a National Guard un it operated again on Italian territory. The Major Unit has been entirely up to the new operational situation , showing high professionalism, cohesion and outstanding spirit of cooperation, integrating perfectly within the Italian Corps.

In "Display Determination 1986", the 30th Brigade will be aga in at Comlandsouth's orders, with an even greater contingent. about one third of its entire strength.

Above. Gen. Rogers, Supreme Allied Commander Europe, Gen. Donati, Comm ander Allied Land Forces Southern Europe and Gen. Newbold, Commander 30th U.S. Brigade, together during "Display Determination" .

CONCLUSION

Facing page. U.S. infantrymen during the ioint training of the National Guard 30th Brigade and the Italian 5th Corps.

We believe to have sufficiently expla ined why not only the members of the National Guard, but Americans as a whole are proud of this very efficient instrument. ready to ensure, day after day, the citizens' safety on the entire territory and to protect American interests in every corner of the world . We do not intend to point out the National Guard as a model for a possible similar organization in Italy: this seems out of the question because the U.S. Corps is established in a well-defined historical. pol itical and administrative background and, above al l, in a country where the re is no conscription. Nevertheless there are some points that could be a matter for reflection for us, especially as regards mobi Iization. We close with a quotation from Harry Truman, who, during WWI, while serving with the National Guard as a young captain in command of a field artillery battery, said: "I am exactly where I wish to be: I prefer this to any other job, even to that of President of the United States!". c·o1. ·Giovanni Di Simone

Co l. Giovann i Di Simone has attended the Mili ta ry Ac,,derny, Service Br<lnCh School, War Co llege, NA· TO Defence Co llege and numerous other courses, both in Italy and abroad. /\ n art illery officer, Col. D i Simone has always served in antiaircra fl units and has been th e commander of a "Hawk" missi le batta lion. As a Sta ff oilicer, he has been assigned lo severa I Com · rniinds and since 1977 has been ,n LAN0SO UT H in Verona, wher_e he h_as held , amo ng others. the positio n. of. Ch ,el, _Training Branch . At present. Co l. D, Simon e ,s Assistant to the Deputy Ch ief of Stalt for Support.

THE

NATIONAL GUARD

OFTHE UNITED STATES 63

TECHNICAL

DATA

.I'//,/ A NEW AND UNIQUE DESIGN CONCEPT IN NIGHT VISION TECHNOLOGY From Norway comes a new generation of night sights with a new and unique desig n concept. The sights are designed for use both with second and th ird generation image intensifier tubes. No modifications to the sig hts are required when replacing a second generation tube with a third generation one. The weight of the new sights is extreme ly low. It takes only a couple of seconds to connect the new night sight on to the existing weapon sight and start firing with maximum precision. Boresighting is not necessary. Two different models of the new sight concept (patent pending) are now available: The KN250 night sight with

75 mm 0 entrance aperture weig hs only 700 grams including bracket and batt ery. It can be mou nted as an "add on" unit on top of ordinary day sig hts for various weapons as for example anti-tank guns, sniper rifles, etc. The KN250 fits perfectly on to the new LP100 laser ra ngefinder from Simrad Optronics which mean s that a laser rangefinder with full night vision capability is now available. The KN250 night sight has recently been tested in the UK. The resu lts proved to be extremely good. Despite of extensive firing tests no kinds of sighting errors w ere recorded. Th e KN250 was mounted on top of a new army day sight enabling the gunner to aim through the ordinary day sight eyepi ece even during night time, an advantage very rare ly achieved with the trad itional types of night sights. The unique construction of the new night

sight made it possible to look through the day and night sights simultaneously enabling continuous operation irrespectively of light conditions. Sudden illu mination of the scene did not have any effect on the sighting capabil ities. The larger model KN200, wh ich is based on the same design concept, but with a 100 mm 0 entrance apertu re has a surprisingly very good range performance. It is, like the KN250, mou nted as an "add on" unit on top of the existing day sights. Very good results are achieved with the KN200 mounted on to the well known LP7 laser rangefinder from Simrad Optronics. This configu ration proves to be very efficient and practical : The display in one eyepiece can be The SIMRAD KN200 Night Sight mounted on SIMRAD LP7 Laser Rangefinder.

TECHNICAL

read simultaneously as the night scene is viewed through the other eyepiece. No unnecessary head movements are required. The configuration also ensures the use of the same operator procedures both during day and night conditions. KN200 NIGHT SIGHT

The KN200 is a X1 mignifying image intensified night sight designed for combination with standard telescopic aiming sights, thus providing both day and night sighting capabilities for: • Infantry fire arms, • Anti-tank weapons, • Laser rangefinders, • TV-cameras. Compared with traditional night sights the KN200 offers several advantages due to its The SIMRAD KN250 Night Sight mounted on a Smith & Ben_der Sight (The Norwegian-produced sniper rifle VS 84S from Vapensmia).

DATA

unique (patent pendtng) design: • Uses the existing day sight which ensures that the position of the eye remains unchanged, • Extremely easy and quick mounting, • No boresighting adjustment required when mounting the sight, • Continuous operation independent of light conditions. The KN200 can be combined with the LP3 and LP7 laser rangefinders, thus providing full night vision capabilities for these instruments . The use of a 100 mm 0 entrance aperture yields a very good range performance. With the KN200 the soldier will be able to detect and engage targets within the practical range of the weapon during night time operations . The KN200 includes a catadioptric, high performance objective, a second generation

image intensifier tube and a collimating lens. The second generation tube is directly replaceable by a third generation tube. The sight is powered from a single built-in lithium battery or two standard AA alkaline batteries. Accessories include a protective cap for the optics and a canvas carrying bag. TECHNICAL DATA Magnification: x1. Field of view: 100. Max. detection range (target 2.3x2.3 m, contrast 30%, reflectivity 50%, illuminance, level 3X10- 3 lux): > 7-00 m (2nd. gen tube). · Focusing range: Fixed (option: 20 m to Infinity) . Resolution (target contrast 30%, illuminance level 10- 1 lux): 0.5 mrad/lp. Objective lens: Catadioptric; EFL/100 mm, F no/1.0, T no/1.3. Image intensifier tube: Second or third generation, 18 mm wafer tube. Operating voltage: 2.8 V DC nomlnal. Battery life > 50 h at+25°C. Operating temperature range: - 30°C to+50°C. Weight: 1600 g incl. battery.

TECHNICAL

KN250 NIGHT SIGHT

The KN250 is a X1 magnifying image intensified night sight designed for combination with standard telescopic aiming sights, thus providi ng bo\h day and night sighting capabilities for: • Sn iper rifles, • Infantry fire arms, • Anti-tank weapons, • Laser rangefinders, • TV- cameras. Compared with traditional night sights the KN250 offers several advantages due to its un ique (patent pending) design: • Uses the existing day sight which ensures that the position of the eye remains unchanged, • Continuous operation, independant of light conditions,

BOFORS' 155 MM ARTILLERY SYSTEM FH 77 BOLSTERS INDIA'S DEFENCES The Indian Ministry of Defence has awarded AB Bofors of Sweden a contract for deliveries and licence production of the complete field howitzer 77 artillery system. The order for FH 77 artillery follows successful tactical and technical trials. Deliveries will start at the end of 1986 and are estimated to be completed within 4 years. A gradual transfer of technology and producton to India is planned during the contract period. These are the most significant characteristics of th is howitzer: • High-tech, high-performance, coupled with ease of operation and maintenance .(orig inally developed for the requ irements of a conscript army).

DATA

• Extremely easy and qui ck mounting, • No boresighting adjustment required when adding the night sight, • Low weight. The KN250 can be combined with the LP100 laser · rangefinder, thus providing full night vision capability fo this instrument. With the KN250 the soldier will be able to detect and engage targets within the practical range of the weapon during night time operations. The KN250 includes a catadioptric, high performance objective, a second · generation image intensifier tube and a coll imating lens. T he second generation tube is directly replaceable by a third generation tube.

The sight is powered from a single built-in lithium battery or two standard AA alkaline batteries. Accessories include a protective cap for the optics and a canvas carrying bag. TECHNICAL DATA Magnification: x1. Field of view: 12°. Max. detection range (target 2.3 x 2.3 m, contrast 30%, reflectivity 50%, illuminance level 3 x 10- 3 lux): > 500 m (2nd. gen. tube ). Focusing range: Fixed. Resolution (target contrast 30%, illumlnance level 10- 1 lux): 0.6 mrad/lp. Oblectlve lens: Catadloptric, EFL/ 80 mm, F no/ 1.1, T no./1.6. Image Intensifier tube: Second or third generation, 18 mm wafer tube. Operating voltage: 2.8V DC nominal. Battery life: > 50 h at+ 25oC. Operating temperature range: - 30oC to+so0 c. Weight 750 g incl. battery.

TECHNICAL

DATA

r.1.1.1 â€˘ His instantaneous rate of fire and high mobility - both strategic and tactical - givesÂˇ survivability in the battlefield of coming decades. It can fire all NATO bag-charged ammunitions, achieving an high rate of fire at .all angles of elevation. The Swedish Army, which operates in .the severe arctic climate as routine, is fully equipped with the FH 77 system; coastal defence units are also .equipped with a gun that may be called a variant of.this system, though this version differs even as to calibre. On the other extreme of climates, the FH 77 system is in operation with the Nigerian army.

tilos an integrated logistic system designed and manufactured by Tangram to suit all your needs when operating in tactical area. tilosa really mobile system made up by an intelligent, multipurpose wide body (4x4) towing vehicle and a towed unit convertible to all logistic function you may

need. Both elements are completely armored and cross country. tilos a new concept in military logistics; when auxiliary functions are required, the towing unit acts as a shuttle or as a complementary mobile shelter. to integrate the main function making the system self sufficient.

~ TANGI\AM S.p.A.-16128 Genoa-Italy-Via Corsica, 19- Phone 10/531101-Teiex 571250 TANGRM I

TECHNICAL

NEW AMMUNITION FOR THE 40 L/60 AA GUN The new L/60 PFHE ammunition is a proximity-fuzed prefragmented round that draws heavily on experience from the successful Bofors L/70 PFHE round. The fuze is a doppler radar fuze with an automatic sensivity control, which means that is inhibited from initiation from surface objects when fired at low elevation angles. In favourable cases it gives a burst on passing within 5.5 m of the target, whilst at low altitudes this initiation distance is reduced.

DATA

The shell contains 100 grams of octol explosive, giving it a very high blast effect. In the event of a proximity burst the shell generates a great number of shell-body fragments but, more important, spreads some 600 heavy metal pellets of high inertia over the target area. Thanks to their spherical shape, high specific weight and very high initial velocity these pellets do critical damage to vital components of the target even after travelling several meters. The propellant gives a muzzle velocity of 860 m/s and, together with a heavier shell, this gives the same ballistics as the

previous L/60 ammunition, which means that modern L/60 practice ammunition can be used in training instead of the more expensive proximity-fuzed ammunition. TECHNICAL DATA • Muzzle velocity: 860 m/sec; • Operating temperature: 30<> to+60°; • Triggering distance: - aircraft: 5.5 m; - missiles: 1-2 m; • Shell weight: 980 g; • Explosive weight: 90 g; • Explosive type: octol; • Fragments: tungsten pelle ts: 600; • Round length: 447 mm; • Maximum diameter: 62 mm: , Round weigh t: 2150 g.

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DErjr;orroCEJ\rro NEIJ4'0PERADI QUINTO CENNI

Quinto Ccnni's watercolours revive the conscripts of the just unified Italy, the officers and non-commissioned officers, veterans of the battles of the Risorgirnento, fought also on the side of the losers, but always with sense of duty and spirit of sacrifice. \,Vith skillful strokes, the painter brings back to light the everyday life of an army which had been entrusted with the difficult task of combining very different cultures and distant traditions, held together by a single unifying cement: the tongue of Dante and .Mazzini. Quinto Cenni, who was born in Romagna but lived in Milan, a "bourgeois" artist who was never a soldier, spent all his life depicting the military customs. From this point of view, he is the best witness of the affection for the Armed Forces felt from at least a part of the 'Third Italy".

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Others could have doubts or show hostility: Cenni always saw, crystal-clear and unequivocal, the continuity between the armies of the Risorgimento and the Italian Army, custod ian of the unity and freedom conquered on the battlefield. The initiative to recall the history of the Italian Army, through the work of this artisan of the image, was not taken at random bv, "Rivista Militare" and the Director of the Museum of Castel S. Angelo. "Rivista Militare", of which, in my capacity of Minister of Defence, I am - let us say the publisher, has had , from the beginning, the purpose to keep alive the relations between military and civilian society; the Castel Sant'Angelo Museum from the time of its first director, General Borgatti, has been the scene of an active cooperation between military and civilians aimed at the enhancement of a common heritage of history and traditions.

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I am happy to sponsor this project and I hope above all

he new genentions will an essent1· al factor of a moral that • t ' rediscover, through it, an conscience on the making. important - · and up to now J_ f Sen. Giovanni Spadolini neg1ected - aspec t o· our Ministro della Difesa 11_. history: the contribut~on to the .. moral and civil growth of our ~~- .. ;LJ~ ) country given by rhe,. A.rmed /N~ Forces. Our Armed Forces as ~ : -~ - , _ .•

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~----------------------------------~~~~-~~~----X Dear Reader, we plan to publish in the very near future the vol ume "II soldato ita liano dell'Ottocento" (The Ita lian Sold ier in the 19th Cen t ury) il lustrated by Qu into Cenni's watercolours, with captions in Italian and English and high qua lity bindi ng . By returning this form , the subscribers of "Rivista Militare" will obta in a discount of 20% on the book 's cover price of Li t. 100,000. Non-subscribers will be able to purchase the book either at full price, or with a 20% discount if they send this form together with a request for subscription to "Rivista Militare" and a remit ta nce of Lit. 24,000 (or U.S. $ 12 - D.M. 36 - F. F. 100), by cheque or international money o rder. addressed to: Stato Maggiore Esercito - Rivista Militare • Sezione di Amm inistrazione - Via XX Settembre 123/4 - 00187 Roma (Italy) .

For subscribers. I wish to reserve the volume " II solda to italiano dell'Ottocento" at the price of Lit. 80,000 {20% d iscount on the cover price) - Mai ling expenses: Lit. 20,000. Name Street City ....... . . .

Postal Code Coun try

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For non-subscribers. I have subscribed to "Rivista Militare" o n ............ ....... .............. ......... by cheque or international money order n" ....................... ............... and rese rve the volume· of Cenni's watercolours at the price of Lit. 80,000 (20% discount on the cover price ) - Mailing expenses: Lit. 20,000. Name Street

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Each issue of Rivista Militare ,Europea consists of: • a booklet with drawings portraying the uniforms of one of the EMPA (European Military Press Association) countries; • two loose pages with 9 figures each, enclosed in the booklet, printed on adhesive paper for collection in a specia) album. The booklets can be bound into an elegant volume titled "II soldato europeo dell' Ottocento" (The European soldier of the 19th century); binders of the volume will be on sale shortly. The figures cao be collected in the "Album delle Uniformi", titled "Gli eserciti tedeschi dal 1838 al 1843" (The German armies from 1838 to 1843) which is on sale at the price of Lit. 5,000. Purpose of the 1'Rivista Militare Europea" ls to make the European Armed Forces and their traditions better known. The first three issues , on Austrian, Belgian and Fren,.c h uniforms, published in 1 985, have been very successful among collectors and experts, especially abroad. The coming issues will be on the uniforms of Oe'rmany, Great Britain, I t aly, The Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland.

Residents abroad can send their payment by check or international money order to:

RIVISTA MIUTAK.t: · Vic\ di S J~arco, 8 · 00186 Roma (IJa(y)

...

PRICES FOR 1986 Subscriptions: Italy: Lit. 28,000 Other countries: Lit. 36,000 One copy: Lit:. 5,000 Back issues: Lit. I 0 , 000 (if available) Album delle uniformi: Lit. 5,000 Uniforms of the Royal Italian Army from 1898 to 1902: Lit. 30.000

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BOOK

..JULIANUDER

J. Lider: "Military Theory, Concept, Structure, Problems", Gower Publications, Aldershot (UK), 476 pp., £ 21,95. The term "military theory" refers to a very large and comp lex rea lity: one which touches upon every area of military st udies. It is a discipline that deals not only with th e criteria to be used in com mi tt ing armed fo rces to the fi eld of battle, but also with the military's role in international relations, its interrelationship with society and its internal structures. As regards the nature o f military theory and its. relat ionship to the social sciences, a number of different opin ions are current in the West. Indeed, there is much debate as to whether military theory constitutes a pure science, an applied science, an art, or simply a series of ideas and concepts re lating to military activities. In contras t. Marx istLeninist thinke rs claim to have developed a military science which complements their vision of history as well as their pro jections for the fut ure evolu tion of the world and society. In the past. military theory was essen tially concerned with two problems: wha t exactly was a war and how d id o ne go about w inning it. The firs t of these questions fe ll under the subject of the philosophy of war; the second was a matter of strategy. Armed forces were seen as noth ing more than simple instrumen ts to be used fo r the waging of war. Fo r the most par t, their other capabi lities were ignored. A number of facto rs have combined to change this si tuation. For one, th e creation of national, popular armies has lent added importance to the relationship which exists between a military force and the society which pro vides its soldiers. In the process, t he social ro le o f the military itself has been expanded. What is more. technological progress has added to the destruct ive

REVIEWS

power of military instruments. leading to a gradual decline in their role and their effectiveness in the field of international relations. Total war has been rep laced by limited, indirect war, and the armed forces have been charged w ith the task of avoiding a nuclear war. As a resu lt. the scope o f military th eory has been considerably broadened. Whereas it was once focused on the military's international ro le and the wag ing of conflicts, that is to say, wars. battles and military instruments, it now includes other factors : factors which ran ge from the prevention of war to the po tential use of military force. The consensus opinion supports the validity of the "global strategy" concept, a concept in which the military component is seen as simply another element in the overall national security policy and power of a g iven nation. Increasingly, military theory is becoming a part of the larger fi eld of political science. There is a difference between the Soviet approach to military t heory, which has remained "war- centered " th rough the present day, and the western conception. For Soviet scholars, military theory involves the study of how to prepare for a war and how to win it. Further considerations, in particular those of a social nature, are dealt w ith outside the rea lm of military theory, being: treated as mere military appendices to other sciences. The author holds that the western approach, wh ich has broadened the scope o f military theory to include its various related discip lines. would appear best sui ted to gaining an understanding of the nature of military activit ies, military institutions. war and deterrence. Questions concerning the necessary preparations for war and the possibility of its preven tion have taken on a fu ndamental importance, placing th em right alongside the traditional issues o f the nature of war and the techniques for w inning wars. The study of the prepar ations for w ar includes everything from the development of strategic doctrines to the interrelationsh ip between strategy and politics, not to mention the ready ing of a nati on for war. The question of preventing wars is tied to the peacetime use of a nation's armed fo rces in carrying out a policy based on coercion. It is also related to the policy of deterrence and a limitation of the escalation of violence in t he eventuality of a conflict. Essentially, the author takes a thorough look at t he factors which have led to a situat ion where military theory must move beyond its traditional focus on armed forces and war to become a multi-disciplinary t heory which studies not only the techniques tor w inning wars, but also the methods fo r preventing or limiting them.

An effort is made to provide an epistemological f ramework for the socalled global strategy. The drawback to this course. as we have pointed ou t in previous writings, is the de- militarizing effect it has on strategic thought as a whole and on the military p ro fession itself. By focuss ing on peace rather than war, one tends to lessen the ability of the armed forces to contribute to the keeping of the peace by f ulfilling that function which lies closest to the heart of their institutional ob jectives: preparing for war and aiming for victory. The rejection of a theory of victory in military circles runs parallel to the abandonment of th e traditional t heory of dominance in the fields of politics and ideology, a phenomenon which involves forsaking the theory that has led not only to the construction of Western European civilization, but also to its might and expansion.

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L'EU RO PE O CCIDENTALE VU E DE MOSCOU

Fondation pour les etudes de Defense· Nationale: "L'Europe Occidentale vue de Moscue·" (National Foundation for Defense Studies: "Western Europe as seen from Moscow)", Strategique Publications, Paris, 1984, 107 pp., 60 F. Since 1978, a group of specialists working under the auspices of the Nati onal Foundation for Defense Studies has been carrying out research on aspects of Soviet Strategy. To date, the group has published two books: the first dealt wi th the doctrinal foundations to Soviet military thought; the second examined the strategies pursued by the Soviet Union in the Third World. The group bases its f indings exclusively on orig inal Soviet sources. avoiding ·secondary materials so as to eliminate any risk of d istorted interpretat ions.

BOOK

The volume deals with the full range of problems associated with relations between the USSR and Western Europe. In other words, consideration is given not only to questions of a strictly military-strategic nature, but also to the overall state of political, economic and cultural relations between the USSR and Europe. What is more, the analysis makes particular reference to the institutional structures and the special interests of the Soviet ruling class, not to mention the effect exercised by the traditional historic perceptions of Russia on issues involving defense. The beginning of the 1980's has seen a change in the objectives of the USSR's policy towards Europe, with this transformation being particularly evident Âˇin the fie ld of political strategy. Until Andropov came to power, the fundamental goal of the Soviet Union was to weaken the unity of the Atlantic Alliance by encouraging tensions and differences of opinion between Europe and the United States. During this period. Soviet propaganda stressed the fact that America had made a less than total commitment to the defense of Europe, thus exposing the Europeans to the threat of a limited nuclear war which would only further the national interests of the United States. For the Soviets, the deployment of the euromissiles clearly indicated the strength and purpose of the western alliance, demonstrating the foo lishness of any attempt to separate Europe from the United States. This development had a decisive effect on the aforementioned evolutionary change in Soviet policy. Faced with the prospect of a more solid integration, if not an actual fusion, of European defense efforts, the USSR seems to have opted for a policy aimed at encouraging disputes among th e various European nations while weakening their internal structures. This last tactic is to be directed in particular measure at the more vulnerable of the European nations. In Europe as a whole, this strategy has involved pressuring the individual nations with the threat of unfavorable changes in economic and commercial relations. Most important ly, an effort has been made to impress the non-nuclear European nations with the danger represented by the French and British nuclear deterrents. Within the individual European states, on the other hand, there has been a resurgence of efforts aimed at de-legitimizing political and mihtary leaders, efforts which are accompanied by support fo r pacifist, terrorist and anti-nuclear movemen ts. This support has always been an intrinsic part of Soviet strategy. It is rooted in that doctrine's ideological foundation, a body of thought in which the concept of class struggle has been transposed to the realm of international relations. Nonetheless, the support has always been offered within a precise set of limits. These are implicitly determined by the

REVIEW$

so-called "global strategy" lies outside the rea lm of strategic speculation. The post-World War II "dilution" of strategy, a phenomenon which foll owed the spread of strategic considerations into the field of politics, producing, the new "global strategy", has, on the one hand, unduly militarized the language of politics, while, on the other hand, and to an even greater extent, politicizing the language of strategy. This trend must be met with strong opposition if strategic studies are to rega in their specific ident ity and their practical function. The tie between strategic theory and practice must be re-established. What is needed is a precise definition of the role of those persons who have been instituANTONIO t ionally charged with managing the state's wartime violence: the military. I\OSSI Strategy and strategic-operational decis.ions must be considered apart f rom defense policy and global strategy, two areas of thought wh ich both tend to underestimate the importance of force and the specific role of war, overestimatda. a.rte clel1C1 guer r<1 ing instead considerations of another type, in particular those associated with the so-called "peace research". This school of thought belongs to sphere which, though it is definitely related to a. scienzo. the area where strategic decisions are clell<1 pc,ce ? made, lies outside the milita ry sphere all the same. Strategy can not be subordinated to this extra- military sphere. The one thing a soldier can do to help avoid war is to prepare himself to fight and win wars. If the political leaders. then choose not to send him to war, so much the better! A soldier who A. Rossi: "La Strategia: da arte concentrates on peace instead of war, della guerra a scienza della however, is clearly jeopardizing his pace" ("Strategy: from art of pro fess ional integ_rity. war to science of peace?"), The volume under review examines the feelings of unease and the desire Tipovelox Publications, Torino, for change currently being expressed in 1984, 142 pp,, L. 1,500. many western nations as a resu lt of the steady decline in the credibility and This small, lively volume is meant validity of both the nuclear deterrent to provide the general public with an and the American guarantee of Eurooverview of current developments in pean security. The possibility of an strategic thinking. The starting point for armed confrontation is no longer an the author's presen tation is the follow improbable absurdity, having once again ing assumption: at any given stage of become a concrete reality. Obviously, history, military fo rce has a specific such a confrontation would present itfunction, importance and eventual use. self under new forms: forms which A very close interrelationship ties pomight have nothing in common with litical t hought to strategic thought. This those of previous conflicts. There exists bond is influenced by th e particular soan apparent need for a strategic re cial, economic and technological charvision which emphasizes the interests acteristics of the individual nations, the of the individual nations while adding lone arbiters o f stra tegic decisions. substance to strategic thought. The all Politics and stra tegy exist in a or nothing approach, a product of nucontinuum. No clear distinction can be clear deterrence, has proven to be an made between the two. Any attempt to abstract concept, far removed from the do so produces nothing but an artificial, rea lity of the current situation. Further circumstantial division which is strictly thought must be given to the underlying determined by the nature of the rel ationp rincip les of strategy. Only through an sh ip tying the civil ian sphere to the understanding of these principles can military sector. In order to have an we find the strength we need to carry identity of its own (and in order to serve out practical activities while making a practical purpose of its own) stra tegy strategic decisions effective enough to must be based on the preparation, poguarantee the security of the West. This tenti al use and actual deployment of is what the author has set out to do. military forces . For the most part. the

potential repercuss ions which a wave of neutralism in Western, Europe might have upon the satellite countries of the USSR. The consequences of such a development are not easily predictable, but. to a large extent, they would probably escape the control of the Soviet Union. Indeed, it is not as paradoxical as it might seem to venture that the American presence in Europe is making a vital contribution to the unity of the Soviet "empire", conferring an aura of legitimacy to the USSR's domination of Central and Eastern Europe.

LA STRATEGIA.

BOOK

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SECURITE ET DEFENSE DE L'EUROPE LE DOSSIER ALLEMAND

A. Brigot, Y. Boyer, J. Klein, R. Fritsch-Bournazel: "Securite et defense de l'Europe - Le dossier Allemand" ("The Security and Defense of Europe the German Dossier"), Fondation pour les Etudes de Defense Nationale, Paris, 1985, 232 pp., 65 F. For the last thirty years, the German Federal Republic , which occupies a crucial geo-strategic position in Europe, has firmly positioned itself on th e si de of the A tlantic forces, acting as the fo undation to th eir alliance. Until the 1970's, the streng th of West Germany's ties to the West had never been a source of either controversy o r speculation. The birth of pacifist and an tinuclear movements of considerable strength, whose inspirat ion can often be traced back to nationalistic ideolo gies, along wi th the realiza tion tha t West Germany wo uld fi nd itself on the fron tline of an eventual war, plus the perception of the intrinsic limits of "Os tpo litik", have all led to a more fluid. ambiguous situation. The resulting trans formation has parti ally eroded the consensus which once s upported both a military poli cy tied to, th e Atlantic Alliance and a defense stra tegy wh ich had been virtual ly dictated by tha t policy. Th e so-called alternative strategies, which threaten to produce a stra tegi c "decoupling" between Europe and the USA, originated in West Germany, and the country's Social Democratic Party, whose leader, Schmidt, actually requested the deployment of euromissiles in 1977, now favors the denuclea ri za tio n of West Germany. The vo lume under rev iew examines the p rin c ipal dilemmas con nected with th e evoluti on of the curren t situation in West Germany.

REVIEWS

A. Brigot examines the defense policy of the German Federa l Republic. Despite the internal political chan ges, defense po licy is cha racterized by a signi fi cant degree of continuity. Membership in the western alliance and the existence of a strong system of defense and deterrence re present essential components of that policy, as does the lessening of tensions with the eastern bloc. Noneth eless, West German public opInIon, increasingly aware of the cou ntry's vulnerabil ity, has become extremely unsettled. This represents a potentially destabilizing element for th e management of the dual policy of deterrence- detente. Y. Boyer takes an in-depth look at West Germany's defense forces and their position within the NATO ranks. The power of their ·military instrument allows West German commanders to mount forcefu l argumen ts for their national points of view and interests within NATO circles. To a certain extent, this makes West Germany's defense policy less stru ct urally dependent on the dec ision-making problems wh ich exist within the Atlantic Alliance. German infl uence, though quite strong in the area of conventional weapons, is felt o nly incidentally on matters con cerning nuclear weapons. J. Klein examines the debate taking place with in the Social Democr atic Party over the "new strategies" . In essence, the arg ument cen ters around attempts to diminish, if no t actually abolish, the dependent rela tionship wh ich exis ts between Wes t German national security and nuclear weapons. These efforts are geared towards protecting Germany from utter destruction at the outbreak of an eventual conflict. So far they have p ro duced, theories calling fo r a conven tionalized defense and the pri nciple of minimal deterre nce. R. Fritsch-Bournazel deals w ith the issue of German national iden tity. The problem of the two Germanys has re turned to the fore with the debate over the euromissiles. The Wes t Germans have been afforded a c lear view of both the military consequences of the partition and German vu lnerability, as we ll as the negative effect o f a decline in strategic responsibility among the o ther Europeans. Obvio us ly, if the Germans are to co mmit th emselves to a strong, lasting alliance with th e West, they must not be made to feel that their own nati onal inte rests are being subordinated to th ose of their allies. Following the above lines of thought, A. Brigot attemp ts to fo recas t the evoluti onary course of fu ture events, paying par ticular atten tion to Wes t Germany's ties with France. All the theories cu rren tly under cons iderati on agree on one point: that only th rough Franco- German coopera tion ca n the questions and doubts referred to in the preced ing paragraphs be satis fac torily resolved. This

is the course which must be taken. Once it has become a reality, t he rest of Europe will have no choice but to fa ll in line. In large part. this work supports many of the theses currently in favor in France, all of which back a more active role in the defense of Central Europe: and this despite the objective limitation represen ted by France's wish to maintain co mplete national au ton omy. In the face of th is restri ction the complete alliance wh ich is indispensable to d iminishing Europe's dependence on the USA becomes obj ectively impossible.

M . Hobkirk : "The Politics of Defence Budgeting", MacMillan, London, 1984, 117 pp., £ 22.50. The planning. financial o rganization and development of a budget are determined by politica l-strategic decisions. These decisions must address all aspec ts of th e bud getary process in order, on the one hand, to maximize th e contribution made by each branch of th e armed forces towards the attainment of various defense objectives, while, on the other hand. fixing the level of fin anc ial resources to be committed to overall detense spending so at to balance this level with the sums allocated to other socio -economic areas. Before such an all-encompassing policy ca n be implemented, an appropriately structured decision-making process must exist. complete with an inner mechan is m of administrative bodies. Another factor governing the implementa tion of any such p lan is the relative

BOOK

weight brought to bear by the executive branch and the defense administration upon the definition of tt'ie financial parameter mentioned above as · compared to the influence of th e legislative branch on this same issue. This book analyzes the current situation in both Great Britain and the U.S.A.. The United States Congress and Senate have much more of a say in the writing of their national defen se budget than is the case w ith the British Parliament. and so the two examples differ quite a bit. Nevertheless, the key element in a unified development of economic policy and a national defense budget, the process which represents the focus of political and strategic decision-making in peacetime, is the same in both cases: the organization of the military hierarchy. The problem lies in finding procedures by which the strategies, planning and budgets of the three branches of the armed forces can be brought together in a harmonious mix. In both Great Britain and the U.S.A., this issue is currently receiving a great deal of attention. It has given rise to much debate and does not lend itself to an easy solution: especia lly considering the hysteresis of the current system, one organized to favor the independent operation of the individual armed forces rather than the interforce approach. Clearly, the most obvious solution is to centralize decision-making power at the interforce level, producing a single, unified direction for strategic

REVIEWS

choices, operational priorities, supplies, the structural equalizatio11 of the different forces and the subsequent planning and policy for the defense budget. The current situation in both the UK and the USA discourages this type of approach. The interforce bodies have been assigned a coordinating role, but they have no real power. For the most part, the decisions made on plann ing and budgetary priorities and their development are the product of proposals made by the individual armed forces. There is really no room fo r harmonious consensus or integration. either at the interforce, or the governmental, or the parliamentary level. Th e reality of such a situation, however, is not a source of inconvenience in every sense. Indeed. it favors an increased vertical coordination w ithin the individual armed forces, though at the expense, it must be said, of the horizontal coordination between the different forces . Due to the structural solidification which is the rule within each of the armed forces, any overall transformation would be problematic. And the ouestion arises as to whether such a change would even produce the advantages it is theoreti cally meant to provide. In actual fac t, a certain amount of competition between the different armed fo rces has a positive effect on both their iniernal unity and their continuing development. Though, of course. this competition should not exceed certain limits, lest it produce an excessively d istorted

situation. The author sets out to formulate a balanced solution. Though he calls for fundamental decisions to be made on the interforce level, he leaves the general staffs of the individual armed forces with enough power to participate in the decision-making process and to implement its resu lts within their own commands. In other words, he seeks to formulate a perfect balance between degrees of centralization and degrees of decentralization within the decisionmaking process, between the interforce level and that of the individual armed forces. The proposals set forth are more readily applicable to the British model than to that of the United States. For the most part, the British military and political leadership do not make joint decisions on defense policy, whereas the United States Congress actually plays a critical role in such decisions. In many countries, this question is very much a subject of debate. It can also be a very delicate issue, depending on the complexity and esprit de corps of the individual military units. Without a firm, decisive interforce policy, one runs the risk of both heightening the current level of "intraforce" conflict and eliminating the advantages of the present system. Naturally, one would also fai l to reap the benefits which, in theory, a fully unified decisionmaking p rocess should offer. Carlo Bess

The most extensive range of

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G. Bonacina, R. Bonetti: "I giorni dell'Apocalisse" ("The Days of the Apocalypse")Âˇ, Mursia Publications, Milan, 1985, L. 16,000. Mindful of its apocalypt ic subject, one wou ld expect this book to present a seri es of moral and politica l condemnations aimed at the author of history's very first nuc lear exploit: the United States. The vo lume at hand, however. does nothing of the sort. Indeed, wri tten in a language whose tone is ca lm and measured, i t limits itself to describing the s low. arduous periods of study, planning and experimentation wh ic h led to the creation of the urani um bomb by the most impressive team of scientific thinkers ever assembled. Providing a wealth of detail, the book narrates t he operational s ide of the missions over Hiroshima and Nagasaki, tak ing due note of the situation of lasting tension produced by th ese m issions: a situation wh ich has led to the growing escalation of the arms race between th e two super powers. If the goal of the authors was to avoid maki ng va lue judgements by faith fully describing the facts. th us leaving the reader free to draw his or her own conclusions concerning the scientific, political and military actions of those responsible for d rop ping the nuclear bom bs on the two Japanese cities, then their book is a complete success. Their wide-rang ing, we ll organized reconstruction of the various phases of the operation is accompanied by a subtle psychological analysis wh ich af fords, an in-depth look at the drama, the uncertain ty, the anguish and the moral reservations of the episode's chief p rotagonists. The reader is encouraged, indeed, he or she is almost obligated, to re flect at length upon the different

events and people of the book, formulating val id responses to all sorts of q uestions and unresolved issues. Forty years have passed s ince those tragic days in 1945 when the tech nological and s trategic evolution of the world entered a period of awesome acceleration. Today mankind lives in uncertainty and fear. balanced precariously on the s trategic equilibrium p roduced by the cha in reaction set off in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. What is the world's destiny? Once again, the authors dec line to act as judges or prophets of history . Instead, th ey choose to respond as agnostics, citing an aphorism taken from the German historian Mommsen : "Though men may beli eve they are making history, history makes itself" . Fully complemen ting the neutral tone wi th wh ich the book examines facts and events, th is agnostic approach lends literary merit and value to a work p roduced by a pair of writers who have approached their task with an exemplary intellectual honesty and a finely-honed narrative prose style. Nei ther an apologia nor a co ndem nation, this volume presents a scrupulously accurate, documented record of an event for which we must still await the ethical judgement that only history can provide. Giovanni Cerbo

R. Puletti: "Genova Cavalleria", De Stefano Publications, Padova, 440 pp. plus 10 tables, L. 80,000. The book under rev iew presents the 300-year history of one of the oldest, most glo rious units in the Italian A rmy. Written by the 74th and last commander of the "Genova Cavalry", the vo lume is not merely a straightforward record of the "events". Indeed,

the author has succeeded in placing t he "facts" with in their historical and social framework , add ing dep th, vigor and immediacy to his narrative. What is more, his wo rk never loses sight o f the evolutionary trends in the o rg anization and doctrine of the cavalry as a whole. The act creating the Reg iment is dated January 23, 1683. Christened as the "Dragoons of his Royal Highness" , the unit, better known as " Dragons Bleu", first saw action at Staffarda and Av igliana during the War of the League of Augsb urg (1690-1696) . They next mounted a series of raids which took them into the Dauphinate and Provence (1692). In 1693, they fought in the Battle of Marsaglia. In 1706, during the siege of Turin, Vittorio Amedeo II personally led the "Dragons Bleu" charging into th e ba tt le of the "Madonna della Campagna", crying out, "A moi mes Dragons", a phrase wh ich was to serve as the Reg iment's motto for a good many years. During th is same period, the unit also fough t in St. Jean Maur ienne and Cesana (1708) , Mouthiers (1709), Conflans and Demonte (1711 ). As a result of the Peace of Utrecht. the Duchy of Savoy became a kingdom and the Regiment was given the titl e "His Ma jesty's Dragoons". The unit took part in the Battle of Guastal la (1734) and th e Battle of Tidone (1746) . During this last engagement. two battleflags were captured f rom the enemy. In 1796, Napoleon descended upon Italy. The Battle of Mondovl found "His Ma jesty's Dragoons" engaged in th e skirmish at the "Bricchetto". Two squadrons, the 1st and the 2nd, mounted repeated attacks against an enemy cava lry division, even tually routing it. Thanks to this action, t he Piedmontese troops were able to retreat in good o rd er. So s ignificant was th is event, that Vittorio Amedeo II chose to recognize the courage and the va lor of his dragoons by decor ating their battleflag with not one, but two gold medals. Following the abdication of th e King of Sardinia, the Regiment was placed under the service of the state agencies, which, despite an appear ance of independence, were in rea lity beholden to the French. On whatever battlefield they fought, the fortunes of the Dragoons were now tied to those of the Napoleonic eagles. In 1814, wi th t he restoration having already taken place, the Reg iment was given the title of "The King's Dragoons". It was to participate in the 1821 uprising. On account of this "revolutiona ry" choice, the unit was disbanded. In its place, Carlo Felice created the " Dragoons of Genova', drawing on the men who had remained loyal to him. Jhe colors of t he new corps were yellow, and its battleflag became the re,-,ository of the t wo gold medals won at the

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"Bricchetto". In 1832, the unit was re named "Genova Cavalry". It participated 1 in all the wars ot inaependence. A number of its members were sen t to I serve in the training units which took part in the Eritrean and Libyan cam1 paigns. The "Genova" began the First world War as a cavalry unit in the Julian Alps, taking part in the initial fighting along the border with Aus tria. Jn 1916, having been transformed into an infantry unit. it won a silver medal for capturing Hill 144, the key to control of the Doberdo Valley. By 1917, the Regiment was once again a cavalry unit. Following Caporetto, it fought a holding action to help cover the retreat of the 3rd Army, assisting other units capable of executing rap id manoeuvres in establishing defensive positions along the only obstacles available: towns and waterways. The unit next saw action in the fighting in and around Pozzuolo del Friuli, an engagemen t for which it received both a second silver medal and a citation in the War Anna ls of the Supreme Command. In 1918, a second citation in the War Annals was awarded for the pursui ng action carried out against the enemy in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. The Regiment sent two machinegun squadrons to figth in the war in East Africa. In 1939, it took part in the conquest of Albania. During the Second World War, the " Genova", still a mounted unit. fought in Jugoslavia. It was represented in t he North African campaign by a machinegun group. Later, the Regiment was sent to Croatia to take part in antiguerilla operations. Its men also served as occupation troops in France. Eight squadrons drawn from the ranks of the "Genova" were assigned to defend the nation's interior and its coasts. A number of these units distinguished themselves by resisting the Germans during the tragic events wh ich fo llowed the signing of the Arm istice. In 1946, the Regi ment was reorganized in Albenga as the 4th Armored Cavalry Regiment. "The Genova Cavalry". In the wake of the 1975 restructu ri ng program, it was reduced to the status of a mechanized battalion. At the same time, the 28th Armored Battalion, "Treviso Light Cavalry", was formed from w ithin its ranks. This volume is illustrated with sketches, reproductions and graphic represen tations of the most important battles. A rich appendix further adds to a work which p roves interest ing both as a source of documentary evidence and as a contribution to historical writing. The book can only be obtained by writing to De Stefano Publications, via lvrea, 1/5, Padova.

REVIEWS

Claudio Magris

COSTITUZIONE DI UNA AVIAZIONE NAVALE IL PERCHE DI UN DISSENSO

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"Costituzione di una aviazione navale. II perche di un dissenso" ("The Creation of a Naval Aviation. The Reasons behind a Dissenting Opinion"), Air Force information bulletin no. 1/85, a supplement to "Aeronautica", the monthly magazine of the Italian, Air Force, no. 1, May 1985, 60 pp., no price indicated. The pamphlet under review is the first "Air Force information bulletin" in a series designed to be issued as a supplement to "Aeronautica", the monthly magazine published by the Center for Military Aeronautical Studies. a d ivision of the A ir Force Association. a group whose headquarters are located in the "Palazzina Douhet" on via Marcantonio Colonna 23/ 25, Rome, w here it operates under the direction of Lt. Gen. Catullo Nardi. The pamphlet, which includes 16 photog raphs of the most advanced ves sels and aircraft currently in possession of the Navy and the A ir Force, along w ith two maps depicting the st rategic position of the Italian peninsula (defin ed as a huge aircra ft carrier). opens with a presentation of the goals and organizational structure of the Center for Military Aeronautica l Studies. The function of the Center is to "support and carry out studies and research efforts" , aimed at "maintaining t he professiona l read iness of both auxiliary and reserve personnel" and providing both the general public and the nation's key policy-making centers with useful informat ion on the sub ject of aviation so as to contribute to the creation of an adequate body of know ledge in the field of aeronautics". The nineteen members of the Center include Generals

Emanuele Annoni, Mario Bacich (former chairman of the Cmas), Manlio Biccolini, Francesco Cavalera (former chief of the Defense General Staff). Franco Ferri, Paolo Moci, Luigi Pirozzi and Fulvio Ristori, plus such renowned scholars and publicists as Generals Antonio Pelliccia and Sebastiano Licheri. The pamphlet argues against the legislative proposal calling for the creation and organization of a naval aviation, a measure presented to the Senate on December 20, 1984, (chief spon sor, Senator Severino Fallucchi). The legislative proposal is reproduced in its entirety on pages 7- 11 of the pamphlet. Three essays follow. Their titles are, respectively: "Naval Aviation, Analysis and Observations", "The Issue of Naval Av iation" and "Defending the Fleet. Onboard Av iation?". These essays examine the "historical precedents" for the issue of an Italian Navy Aviation, beginning in 1923, the year in which the Air Force was first established as a separate branch of the armed forces. The analysis also includes the decision made by the Admiralty in the 1920's (a decision which was reaffirmed in the 1930's) vetoing the construction of airc raft carriers. At that time, the Naval commanders fe lt that. given the relatively small size of the Mediterranean Sea, air- cover should, and could, be provided by land-based planes. A good deal of attention is given to an analysis of the military and technical " lessons" of t he conflict in t he Falkland/Malvine Islands, supporters of an onboard naval aviation often make reference to these events. It is noted that the Royal Navy's use of 42 vertical take- off Sea Harrier planes was responsible for the loss of 20 Argent ine planes from a total of 72 shot down. At the same time, however, 10 Harriers were lost. Further mention is made of the fact that the lone Argentine aircraft carrier, the "25 de Mayo" , was unable to leave its base due to the presence of two or three British nuclear submarines. In the event. the responsibil ity for A rgentina's air operat ions fell almost exclusively to units of landbased planes: this, despite the fact that the d istance separating these units from the theater of operations was significantly g reater than even the maximum hypothetical distance in a potential Mediterranean conflict. In conclusion, the pamph let makes referrence to the d istinctly political -strategic side of the issue, asking if Italy happens to possess, "tiny pieces of empire scattered throughout the world", as is the case with Great Britain. On the sub ject of the Italian intervention in Lebanon, the pamphlet points out that while it was impossible to provide air cover for the Italian contingent using planes based on Italian soil, t his problem was overcome through the simple forward deployment

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of Italian Air Force units on the Island of Cyprus. There, the Italian planes were able to operate from the available allied airstrips. The pamphlet goes on to criticize the "controversies" being stirred up in "navy" circles on account of the supposed "monopoly" of air units enjoyed by the Air Force (a charge directly contradicted by the existence of the Army's Light Aviation Units and the Navy's Helicopter Centers} as well as the "policy of the fait accompli" which was introduced with the passage of the Naval Law through "preferential channels". The authors of the pamphlet feel that the presentation of a legislative proposal formu lated outside both the government's legislative program and the approval process of the Chiefs of Staff Committee should be criticized on political and procedural grounds, given that such a course treats a very delicate, very relevant problem - that of providing air cover for ground units - as if it were an internal concern of a single branch of the Armed Forces, and not, as is actually the case, an issue which must be dealt with in an interforce forum. The problem at hand can not be properly resolved with the simple purchase of a dozen Sea Harrier planes:

REVIEWS

the essence of the proposed program for creating a Naval Air Force. Apart from their low level of technical reliability and their vulnerability in general, the cost of the Sea Harriers is excessive, running into the billions of dollars. For the same expenditure, according to the authors of the pamphlet. one could purchase another 25 Tornadoes, or 30 EFA, or 65-75 AMX. Among other advantages, these landbased planes, operating out of heavily protected, armored installations, would be invulnerable to surprise attacks from the air or th e sea. Rather than resorting to a "scattering of resources", or a policy of "parallel wars", or other products of a certain "megalomania", the problem of providing proper air cover should be resolved through a program of interforce cooperation. This concisely written text provides a very clear picture of the criticisms raised within those areas of the Air Force which are most adamantly opposed to the fleet's proposed creation of an onboard air element. The same point of view has been expressed in a number of articles, in particular those written by Generals Ferri and Pelliccia. The most complete expression of the opposing Navy point of view has been produc-

ed by Admirals Angelozzi and Bernini ("Italy's Air-Navy Problem", Belforte, Livorno, 1981). Those able to approach this longrunning feud between Air Force and Navy personnel in a spirit of tranquillity, a spirit free of any preconceptions, can not fail to notice how the arguments used during the debates of the 1920's mirror those in circulation today (the role of an air threat in relatively restricted seas, the vulnerability and/or advantages of aircraft carriers, the principle of command unity in terms of a naval airforce, the principle of economy, as opposed to dispersion, of available forces) . An overview o f this debate can be found in the writings of Lieutenant Colonel Ferruccio Botti: Botti and llari: Italian Military Thought from the First to the Second Post-war Period", Historical Bureau of the Army General Staff, Rome, 1985. Other sources include the 1927 essays of Amedeo Mecozzi and Francesco Maugeri, reissued at the same time as a pair of contributions from General Ferri and Admiral Bernini, all of which appear on pages 117-198 of "Global Strategy'', no. 1/1985 (with an extensive bibliography}. VirgiliG llari

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E. Jacchia, F. Amadei: "La guerra chimica. lncubo sull'Europa" ("Chemical Warfare. Nightmare over Europe" ), Sugarco Publishers, 116 pp., L. 12,000. This interesting study, whose alarming title is now appearing in bookstores.

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is the fruit of a collaboration between Professor Enrico Jacchia; an authority on political and military problems and a teacher of strategic studies, and Major General Franco Amadei. General Amadei. former director of the Army's Technical Cen ter tor Chemistry, Physics and Biology, has participated in international work groups addressing problems of chemical defense measures. He has also taken part in meetings of expert panels held at the Geneva Disarmament Conference. The two authors have produced a concise, but complete, t reatmen t (lying it to the issue of weapons designed tor the purpose of mass destruction, a dilemma which, tor far too long, has led to nothing but useless debate at the Geneva Disarmament Con feren ce) of this controversial topic, providing a frightenly realistic picture of the tremendous risks connected with the pro duction, storage and use (as a terrifying alternative to nuclear war) of the most recently developed chemical weapons, which, on a number of counts, are sti ll shrouded in mystery. The study under review also provides a new and thorough examination of the evolution of chemical weapons, along with a consideration o f the equally

dangerous side-effects produced by the peacetime use of cer tain chemi cals (hazardous to vegetation. animals and man). The work incl udes a series of appendices containing data which should be of considerable significance not only to military personnel, technicians and a wide range o f other experts (in the fields of chemistry, industry, healthcare, agriculture, zoology, botany, ecology etc.) but to alla managers at every level, whether they be employed in the public or the priva te sector. Written in a subdued style, the authors' presentation is both smooth and convincing. The resu lts of Jacchia and Amadei's praiseworthy effort deserve to be int roduced into the curricul ums of the Universities' various science and political science departments, as well as all the nation's high schools. Similar programs have been established for quite some time now in other NATO countries and among the mem ber nations of t he Warsaw Pact.

Giuseppe Consoli

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VERBAL! DELLE R!UN!ON! TENUTE DAL CAPO DI SM GENERALE

in the various theaters of the war, crippling the armed forces, whose stra tegic and tactical mobility - and, as a resu lt, overall operational capacity - depended on this support. Besides reflecting the events of a year which proved to be both crucial and irreversible fo r th e Ax is powers, the minutes f rom 1942 offer scholars a tool which can be used to penetrate the psychology, the climate and the spirit of the men who, at that time, carried the weight of wart ime command upon their shoulders. Mario lannaci

Verbali delle Riunioni tenute dal Capo di SM Generale, vol. Ill 1' gennaio - 31 dicembre 1942 (Minutes of the meetings held by the Chief of the Military High Command, vol. Ill - January 1 to December 31, 1942), Historical Bureau of the, Army High Command, Rome, 1985, 936 pp., 20,000 lira. This is the third in a projected series of four volumes, the last of wh ich is curren tly nearing completion. In charge of the pro ject are Professor Antonello Biagini, Lieutenant Colonel Fernando Frattolillo and Major Silvio Saccarelli. The three hundred sets of minutes presented in this book were reco rded in 1942, a year in w hich wartime events centered around the renewed offensives launched by the Italian and German forces in both North Africa and Russia and the setbacks wh ich soon followed. Unlike the first two volumes - which were very thin - the third is quite imp ress ive in terms of size: th is may be due to the fact that Marshall Cavallero, having returned from Albania, was able to shake up the High Command, at the same t ime creating a marked ly more cooperative relationship between t he three branches of the armed forces; the heft of the volume may also be attributable to the problems experienced with transport, a situation which only deteriorated with the passing of time, especially in North Africa, thanks in part to a growing shortage of raw materials, a fa ctor which adversely affected industrial production and led to a lack of logistical support

A. Pecchioli: "Le armi bianche" ("Steel Weapons")', Editalia, 300 pp., no price indicated. Al l g reat poems begin by celebra ting the deeds and weapons of men who knew how to acquit themselves well in the course of grand adventures. In every epic, feats of heroism are accompanied by tremendous d uels in which the finely-honed, sharply pointed weapon takes on an almost mystical value, both on account of its use and its celebration. Achil les' weaponry, the two-edged sword of the Roman Legions, the Durendal, the magic sword of Arthur: these were the steel weapons a man used when he met his adversary in face-to- face combat, staking both his life and his honor on the outcome: throughout history, these weapons have had a sacred value. Using an extraordinarily rich supply of images, Arrigo Pecchioli's work

manages to provide a precise overview of the art of forging iron and steel, a craft which harkens back to the armorer's role as artist and artisan, as it developed over time. Directed at the connoisseur, the book is written with all the scientific and critical t horoughtness its sub ject demands, and yet it is not meant solely fo r specialists, be they experts or collectors. Having set out to reach th e general public, the author establishes t re appropriate references to the h istory of human civilization, paying particular attention to the Humanist and Renaissance periods, where a study of the visual arts reveals the importance of the ro le played by the s teel weapon in the iconography of the epic figures depicted by such artists as Donatello, Paolo Uccello and Piero della Francesca. The author writes: "In the works of these artists the warrior appears in all the splendor of his armor, complete w ith his swords, his helmet, his armored ho rse: the arms and armor all bu t hide the man, leaving only his face to be seen; they envelope him and transform him; th ey protec t him, all the while providing that ' fe rocious' air which was undoubtedly necessary to the making of history". In t racing the history of these weapons, which, despite their inevitable ferocity, always complemented the figu re of man, never becom ing larger than life, we are led to a t ime when combat, though no less bloody than it is today, would certainly appear to have been a more honest, more gentlemanly pursuit: one in which the chief virtue of the warrior was his courage. The author further observes: " Indeed, the man .of the steel weapons was a born professional, or, at the very least, a trained p ractitioner of the art of war: he fought face-to-face: he killed and he could be killed, b ut he d id not murder his adversary". But steel weapons, as is shown by this handsome book, were also an outward sign of elegance and sophistication, expressing to an extraordinary extent the intelligence and taste of entire peoples. This book, w ith its beautiful series of photographs in both colo r and black and wh ite, most of which areÂˇ taken from famous works of art, is furt her enriched by a glossary of arms and armor plus an unusual document dating from 1642: "The Blacksmith's Art" by Anton io Petrini, a se venteenth-century armorer under the Medicis. T he author's narrative style is fluid and easy to fo llow, and the present work is just one of a series design ed to illustrate and document specific aspects of art. On the whole, the effort represents an appropriate cultural tool for anyone who wishes to understand certain details of human history: details which are not necessarily of seconaary importance. Carlo Felici

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