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---·· .... JOURNAL OF THE ITALIAN ARMY FOUNDED IN 1856

MARCH APRIL 1985 LIRE 3,000 $ 2,00 D.M. 6 £ 2

TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS IN THE MILITARY COMPONENT

RANDOM THOUGHTS ON THE MILITARY ART IN MODERN WARFARE

PARATROOPS AND COUNTERINTERDICTION

The most extensive range of

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CONTENTS

Number two 1985 March- April

The aim of the Rivista Mi litarc is to broaden a nd upda,e the techn ical and vccatio M I tra ining of Army Officers and ·NCOs. To this end it fyflctions as a vehicle fo r the disseminat ion of military thi nki ng nnd <>s a forum of study and debate . The Riv,sta Milit are is also intended to be a m eilnS oi in forming the genera l public about th e Army and military matters th rough the publication ot articles of cu rrent techn ical and scientific int erest.

European Military Press Association

RIVISTA

Reforger 84.

MILITARE Editor: Col. Pier Giorgio Franzosi. Deputy Editor: . Maj. Giovanni Cerbo. Telephone 47353078.

(Pie r Gior gio Franzosi)

Technological Progress in the Military Component: b~tween Humanistic Culture and Electronics . /Um bert o Capp uzzo)

Graphic: , Lt. Rino Fusi. Editorial Offi ce: Via d i S. Marco, 8 00186 Rome -Tel. 679420047353372 - 47355192.

The "Catrin" System.

Advertisements: by Secretary of Rivista Militare Telephone 6794200.

(Antonio Viesti)

Printed by: Tipografia Regionale - Rome. Illustrations by: Rivista Militare. Registered fo r transmission by post. Subscriptions for 1985 . Subscriptions run from January 1st (Back issues will be supplied until exhausted). Single issues: L. 3.000 - $ 2 D.M. 6 - £ 2. Back Number, if available: L. 6.000 - $4 - D.M. 12 - £4. Year's subscription Italy L. 16.000. Other countries L. 24.000. Payments may be made by cheque (residents abroad) or through Post Ottice Current Account n. 22521009 payable to SME Ufficio Rivista Militare Sezione di Amministrazione - Via XX Settembre 123/A - Rome. Registered at the Rome Law Courts. Decree n. 944 ol 7-6- 1949.

Random Thoughts on th e Military Art in Modern Warfare. (Giro Di Martino)

Paratroops and Counterinterdiction. (Giovanni Giostra)

11 The Parameters of the Choice of Armaments. ( Luig i Salatiello)

International Seminars on Nuclear Warfare. (Antonina Zic hichiJ

Technical Data.

Book Reviews.

This issue went to press on February 20th, 1985.

Member of USPI U nion c Stampa , Periodica lta liana

Rules for contributors. Anyone c an contritute . In the interest of the maximum objec t1vi1y o r information. the Rivista M ilita re allows contri butors considerable freedom. although i t docs not necessarily su bscribe lo their o pini ons. The arti c les are publisl1ed uncci1,cd ~nd f,ee of any editor ial constraints and are therefore the sole respo nsi bility of the Author und reflect t1is personal ideas C,tc lus1vel y. The topic must be treated in an o rig m(l l wa y and th e arti cles themselves shou ld not exceed 10 typewri tten pages ,n leng t., Tnis limit may be exceeded on ly in the case of articfes o n particularly complex sub1ec ts . The <1rl 1c les stwuld be accompa nied by a ny necessa ry photographs. drow1ngs ;;nd explanatory t ables . Eac h a utho r ,s requested to send ;; pho tc~ raph o f hi mselt. together wi th his .. cu rriculum vitae .. a nd a 10-lm e summary oi the artic le to be pub,ished. ·1he Riv ista Mil,t;,re reserves the right to a lter the a rtic1e·s lit le and to choose the typeface in v: hic h it is set.

TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS IN THE MILITARY COMPONENT. BETWEEN HUMANISTIC CULTURE AND ELECTRONICS Great strides ahead have been made since the Crimean war (1853-1856) in which electronics was used for the first time in the military sphere. Morse telegraphy played a major role in the conduct of the operations. massively increasing the armiesÂˇ possibilities of acting and reacting by enabling them to communicate data and information promptly, and issue instructions and orders in all directions with great dispatch. Since that time, an innovation process has been set in rapid motion, opening up ever vaster horizons in areas of fundamental importance to the command function. The intimate linkage between the capacity to receive data and information through multiple sensors, to transmit whatever one wishes in real time, to store the intelligence received and process it accordinq to predetermined programmes, and to communicate impulses for interventions in a wide variety of sectors - all this has given electronics, in the broadest sense of the term, a front-line role in determining the success of the military instrument. As far as force-use in concerned, electronics rightly belongs with fire, movement and attack as an indispensable parameter in any modern approach to theÂˇ classica l principles of the art of warfare, particularly manoeuvre. As far as personnel training, manpower and physical resource planning, and the study of the most efficiency-enhancing measures are concerned, electronics is not only a new methodology with enormous and unprecedented potential, but it is turning the classical approach on its head, imposing a "new philosophy", based on the rationale of the constant monitoring of effort versus performance, risk versus results. cost versus Âˇbenefits. Electronics is the absolute conditioning factor of technological evolution. and is opening up extremely exciting prospects, and challenges. that cannot be ignored. The fact is that we are in the thick of a process of change that is perhaps without parallel in the history of mankind, and which is leading to the optimization of man's capabilities in the areas of design, conduct and management, information, education, as well as both command and control techniques.

It is a process that has military ram ifications, extending to every area (strategic, operational, tactical, logistic, ordnance, training). each with its own partkular features; but it is a process with economic, political and social ramifications as well, and it therefore affects the major choices that have to be made in these areas too, in the quest for security. Electronics-based technolog ical development is a fully fledged "revolution", whose consequences have perhaps not yet been fully appraised . Without looking any further than Information Technology for the moment, the fields of

application in the Army alone already comprise: • the whole machinery of command, control and coordination ; • personnel. materials and financial management; • training specialists and experts by resorting increasingly to simulation techniques, in a wide range of areas from individual or group trainers, to war games; • analyzing the underlying trends of all our activity in order to be able to act promptly, to take corrective action, to modify or to clear the way ahead.

It is beyond the scope of this paper to enter the realms of "telematics" or remote processing, robotics, and the vast area of the socalled "emergent technologies". But the faci lities that are already available worldwide today are a clea r indication of where this is leading, and the way the future is shaping up. We can get an inkling of this by looking at a few of the most outstanding achievements to date: • all-weather sensors, already in their 3rd and 4th generations; • broad-band modulation techniques, which are

highly resistant to enemy countermeasures; • faci lities for processing, correlating and displaying data used for decision-making by the Commander; • facilities for the rapid dispatch of orders in "rea l time"; • faci lities for comparing situational data (one's own, and the enemy's, situation); • facilities for taking diversionary actions, capable of spoofing highly soph isticated systems, and hence confuse the enemy; • so-ca lled "smart" devices, able to seek, iden tify,

calculate and automatically take elementary decisions, although only to the extent that man has programmed them to do so. All this exists already. Looking further ahead, and in greater depth, we can already identify new needs and increased possibilities. The "technological revolution", as I hinted at earlier, is bringing about a "military revolution" in the full sense of the term. Everything is happening in a cyclical fashion, in which armies are becoming established as the expression of the society they represent, and at the same time, as the locomotive force behind that society's progress, as has always been the case throughout history. With its vast array of applications. electronics has unleashed man's capacity to collect and collate data, to meet virtually all the needs of decision-makers in so many different areas of the military sphere. In strategic terms, the way that different sensors incorporated into a system are erasing the time and space barriers is decidedly slimming down the classical concept of surprise, while at the same time making the use of highly selective weapons employing sophisticated guidance systems extremely profitable. and giving a new

significance to the classical concepts of concentration of effort and manoeuvre. There are two facts that we have to face up to, when considering war - which we have the constitutional duty not to ignore, even though our aim is to ensure peace - both of which are the product of our times: â€˘ the first is the way in which the application of force has extended so widely that we can now speak of "total war", signifying the involvement of all the economic. physical. human and spiritual resources of a nation. Today, it is not only strictly military targets that would be under threat in thâ‚Ź event of war, but the whole production system. the civilian population and the country's nerve centres (the "industrial age effect"); â€˘ the second is the abnormal increase in the incidence of force use as the result of the advent of nuclear weapons. with all the moral heartsearching and practical difficulties that any military intervention would entail (the "advanced industrial age effect"). Now that we have nuclear weapons and all the previously accepted rules of warfare have been conceptually overridden. strategy is being seriously strained - as I have had occasion to

point out before: its deter rent function still holds good (but for how much longer?). as does its negative aspect of "not acting" and "preventing others from acting", and in creating fear, rather than actually resolving anything . Moral constraints and paralysis are the factors which are hastening a process th at is designed to find other outlets, and science and technology are offering useful indications as to the objectives that are appropriate to pursue. The old concept of power is coupled with and compounded by the revised concept of ca pability, which electronics has materialized today. This will be the "post-industrial ag e effect". I am still fascinated by a classical approach that has perhaps not yet had its day, and I sometimes wonder whether, in the not too distant future, we may witness a return to the past in a very particular way, with a physica l conflict that will not be total war at al l, but highly selective as a result of the emergi ng technologies - the latest product of a technological escalation that does not look remotely as if it is ever going to stop, making the present out of date very quickly. And this occurs very rapidly in many w ays, even materially speaking. Ageing is no longer just a question of time, and "obsolescence" sets

in when scientific and tech nologica l factors have had their day. I am referring here to a conflict of a highly peculiar type of potential factors, which could be fitted into the framework of the "challenges" of old. We are not far off from a development of this kind, according to the statements of leading spokesmen from the advanced industrial world, and particularly in the light of what President Reagan has been saying about the new frontiers of space, and the space umbrella to provide a shield against any enemy attack. The con flict has been shifted into another dimension, with extra-terrestrial protagonists - namely, satellites launched by man - armed with laser beams and controlled by highly sophisticated computers. These computers could well be the Horatii and Curiatii of a not too-dista nt future. Science fiction? Far from it! The enormous technical and scientific progress that is being made in the field of electronics, telematics, information technology, computer science and robotics is hastening the day in which any future conflict will be able to be fought vicariously by smart devices and systems.

The triumph of reason? Perhaps . But there are limits. However noble the attempt to seek out methods and tools for preventing disaster - which is looming large with the advent of nuclear weapons - the technologi cal solution appears to be highly problematical. Not because of any lack of confidence in the soundness of the systems themselves, but because of the fear of the effect they might have on man's capacity to participate and mediate. As ever, we come back again to man, not out of a dutiful tribute to rhetoric but precisely because the cornerstone of the historical development of out planet and the progress of our societies in attaining their ends on this planet. is and always has been, man himself. The technological challenge is a fact, and cannot be ignored. I would go even further than that: it must not be ignored, unless we are to take our leave of a world that is moving ahead, a world that matters. And the Armed Forces are playing their part, with conviction and authority, establishing themselves as key elements at the national level, and convinced advocates of playing a distinguished role in the broadest context of international cooperation, particularly in the Alliance. One of the Army's most advanced programmes that deserves particular mention here is the "CATRIN" programme - an emblemc1lic expression of a 360Â° research project using the very latest electronics technology to build an integrated control and command system, comprising battlefield surveilance, data processing for decision-making purposes, and the allied multiple communications network. This programme is designed for defensive purpose, and one can easily see the beneficial fallout it will have on the whole community. The technology challenge has to be taken up, then, if we are to keep pace with the times and make our military instrument more efficient and more credible, while bearing in mind that this challenge directly affects man, above and beyond any operational or productive considerations. It is a crucial problem for the Armed Forces which have always appealed to man's highest moral values, and which therefore attribute to the human element a wholly particular function and role. As I was saying, the technology challenge directly affects man : it affects his very being, and bears on his education, his moral fibre, and the very essence of command . This is occurring at a very delicate time, when principles and values are being relentlessly revised and decanted, dangerously increasing the vulnerability of contemporary man who is being increasingly beset by doubts and uncertainties.

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In the event of some future conflict - which certainly we do not want. but which w e have the instit utional duty to prepare for - let us never forget that the technologies that are being incorporated into the military instrument are increasing ly distancing man - their user - from his enemy, who has to feel the full effect of the weapon. This could lead to aberrations: either the lack of human contact wil l dehu manize the conflict to the point that it will become extremely easy to press the famous button, or, by limiti ng the scope of the struggle to a purely mechanical level, it w ill deprive man of that drive inspired by his idea ls and moral tension that make him able to react positively to all situations, however arduous. The two extremes, then, are deliberate folly or indifferen ce; falling prey to a game that is bigger than us, or becoming totally apathetic about a trial of strength Âˇthat does not concern us. Looking at this issue in even broader terms ranging far beyond th e actual confrontation with an adversary, the advent of the technologies that hinge around the "computer philosophy" gives substance to the risk that res ponsibil ities might be increasingly left to t he few who desig n the programmes rather than to the many who have to carry them through.

There is t he danger t hat the latter may cease to be agents, and become mere tools, deprived of t he possibility of making an intellectual contribution to events, and releg ated to the level of merely knob-turners or button-pushers. The consequences are obvious. One wonders whether the outcome of this process might not be a new kind of dictatorship, since all those who are ca pable of acting on the software play a preeminent role over the huge num bers of users, and could event ually ma nipulate the ir wills if the system were to go haywire. Wi thout wishing to dwell on this pa rticular aspect of the question, which I am only mentioning for the sake of completion, I should like to address the new responsibilities that are arising in t he field of command techniques. In a structure based on the principle of "conscious participation" to complement the hierarchial relationship, how can this participatio n continue to be genuine when any action performed is merely mechanical, without req uiri ng any conscious choice? What kind of discipline is therefore required now that the command function is being performed by apparently disconnected units, composed of individuals performing different duties, whose dialogue is purely and simply with the machine which

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they are required to use? As you can see, it is the end of an era. And we are on the threshold of a new age. It is imperative for those with command or leadership responsibil ities to anticipate events. This is even more true in the case of the military. The "technology revolution" has already broken out. and its effects are being felt. It has to be directed, or it will direct us. Thanks to electronics, in an extremely short space of time we can now gather a mass of data and intelligence that would previously have taken us more than a single lifeti me to collect. Data and information that can be used with any formula that human intelligence is capable of designing. It may be the triumph of reason, and in the military's case, it may be the triumph of rationalizing the strategic relationship, eliminating calculating errors and surprises. If this is the case - and I hope it is - then the triumph of technology will have beneficial spinoffs in the quest for progress and peace. It is a demonstration of wisdom when one manages successfully to merge the great achievements of a humanistic culture, which has still a great future ahead, with the no less great ach ie-

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vements of a scientific culture, which has been, and still is , one of the motive forces behind today's material progress. Philosophy and law are no longer sufficient - in themselves - except to establish principles. ideas and values and, in a more, practical way, they underpin a whole set of disciplines relating to the vast area of science and technology by defining organizational and production structures. And electronics has its part to play in this ambit. Its part has to be appraised in terms that do not preclude the original contributions that individuals can make or offer. Basically, and without in the least wishing to denigrate a development process whose rationale is the search for enhanced efficiency, productivity and prosperity, I would like to express the hope that the storage capacity of these collective memories managed outside of ourselves, which take away the pleasure of subjective selection, will not eventually lead to restricting our freedom. Apart from the rigorous "mechanics" of strictly operational or productive actions, and speaking purely in terms of human sentiment... I th ink that, basically, it is a fine thing ... sometimes ... not to know, and it is perhaps even better to be able to forget. Umberto Cappuzzo

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INTEGRATION WITH VARIOUS AIR DEFENCE WEAPON SYSTEMS AND POSSIBLE INSTALLATION ON DIFFERENT TRACKED/WHEELED VEHICLES

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--RANDOM THOUGHTS ON THE MILITARY ART IN MODERN WARFARE To apply the classical concepts of the military art to the contemporary context, one has to approach the question strictly in terms of the far-reaching technological, social and economic changes that have modified, and sometimes overwhelmed, the "states" and "situations" that have been established across the centuries, and which are no longer acceptable in the light of a process that is continually gathering momentum, with as yet unforeseeable consequences.

The traditional conceptual parameters that have been codi fied and consolidated, at least in part, by practical experience, are being "naturally" eroded by events, and are losing their efficacy when measured up against the newly emerging problems created by the prospect of warfare in a highly technologically-conditioned environment. This is one of the features of the forms that warfare takes in any age, and which are continually overtaken by technological progress. Advances in technology make it necessary to search tirelessly for criteria and methods to meet contemporary needs,

and this will apply even more so in the future. The leaders of the main industrial and military powers are well aware of this, and one of them recently said that: "technological espionage is one of the most effective and productive operations in our history". Consequently, there is a continual clash between physical force and intellectual resources, in wh ich the former constitutes the frontl ine of a national developmental process, while the latter are seen as immutable terms in a code that is tenaciously anchored to concepts deemed to be fundamental,

Cuba and the 1962 blockade between 24 October and 20 November A American bases 8 US aircraft carriers C Soviet missile bases

The Soviet arsenal in Cuba 3 IRBM ramps 6-10 MRMB ramps

Âˇ 24 SAM ramps 40 lllyushin IL-28 bombers 42 MiG-21 figh ters 20,000 Soviets

THE 1962 CUBA BLOCKADE This is a good example of the application of the will/initiative principle, demonstrating the capability of controlling events. During the Cuban crisis, the United States' will, translated into initiative, was the decisive factor to the

success of the operation. Without hesitating, the strategic forces were placed on alert and preparations tor the attack were made. It was decided to set up a "quarantine zone" around the whole is land, patrolled by the United States fleet, making it clear that any Soviet ships carrying offensive war material would be sunk

if they failed to withdraw when ordered to do so. The critical moment occurred on 24 October 1962 when a group of Soviet ships carrying missiles to be installed in Cuba made contact with the American fleet. The Soviet leadership decided to re-route the convoy and turn back.

because they stand above and beyond any changes. however incisive, made to the "instruments" . Military doctrine .• which has to take account of the prqgress made in scientific research. must necessarily go along the paths indicated by the continually changing times, but it cannot ignore the fundamental principles that give form and substance to individual hypotheses, verifying their va lidity. These principles are solid pillars, givi ng form to the theories and criteria, which in turn guarantee their efficacy and confirm their viability. Abstract forecasts are all the more likely to come true when they are backed by the fact that they are in tune with these cardinal principles, which do not preclude innovation and insight, but rather show :he need for them . It is therefore useful to carefully defi ne the basic components of the doctrine, which may be summed up as: • principles: the immutable elemento on which every operational theory must necessarily draw; • concepts: the particular ways of programming and organ izing operations ; • criteria: the genera l ways of implementing the pri nciples; • procedures: coordinating the implementa tion phases according to the predetermined courses of action. Scholars have sometimes tried to identify new pri ncip les, on the assumpti on that in addition to the elements that are common to all forms of operations and which are untouchable, there may be new ones that have developed with time. According to this assumption, only four "benchmarks" seem to meet this requirement. Nevertheless, the work being done by scholars in this field is still valuable, nsofar as it is the expression of theoretical doctrina l resea rch that can open up new frontiers in a diffic ult subject area which is often hard to assess and certainly in need of further research.

Guerrilla warfare tactics devised by Mao and successfully used between 1920

and 1940

Operational duties A B C D

Isolating the enemy in th e towns Reaping the harvest Reconnaissance Leading the regula r units E Causing contusion F Attacking the enemy from the rear

INOOCHINA 1946-1954 Mao was Ho Chi Min's and Vo Nguyen Giap's mentor on the theory of revolutionary war, and to understand the reasons for the success of the Vietminh in Indochina against the superior French fire power, one has to understand Mao's theories. His main tenet was that the revolutionary must mobilize the people's political will, pursuing the struggle through initiatives illustrated in the 3 phases shown below. The French did not grasp the importance of the

will/initiative principle followed by the Vi etminh, and believed that military superiority was sufficient to deal with the guerri lla ottensive. The main reason for the French defeat was that they had to deal with a new type of unconventional warfare for which the French units were not trained. They believed that holding t he territory and s uperior fire power were adequate for success, and were unable to apply the principle of will/ initiative as effectively as the enemy.

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Phase 2: guerrllla action against enemy communications, gathering strength in tho coun try side

Giap's three· phases of war

Phase 3: open warfare with regular convention al forces

The four perennia l parameters to which one must necessary refer are: will/ initiative, concentration of effort, freedom of action , and economy of force. These can be found especially in the French tradition, but they have now gained currency in the most common ly accepted warfare "phi losophies" today, because of the breadth of their appl ication and the flexibi lity they possess, so that they can be adapted to various national and infranationa l theories .

WILL/INITIATIVE "Will/initiative" consists in the capacity to resist any tendency to al low oneself to be overtaken by events, and is therefore decisive to the possibility of implementing the other principles. This therefore precludes any conditioning factors that may be very strong ly felt in modern warfare, as a result of the situa tions relating both to materia l supplies and to sudden , unpredictable changes in the operational environment.

The possibilities and probabilities of success are largely correlated to the capacity to keep the morale and intel lectual tension high, for these determine the wil l and the initiative, as aspects of the decision-making dynamism and the rea l control over any situation. In modern warfare, this "faculty" must necessarily exist at every hierarchica l level. in view of the way in which commanders' autonomy is being extended, as distances shrink and action/

THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM Lutzingen

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THE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF WARFARE TO THE BATTLES OF THE 17th AND 18th CENTURIES Failure to apply the principle of freedom of action in the wars of the 17th and 18th centuries led to the mortifying execution of "movements and counter-movements, marches and counter-marches, feints and counterfeints, which were costly, unproductive and slow". Typical examples of this mentality were the battles of Blenheim and Oudenaarde.

THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM The Battle of Blenheim took place during the War of the Spanish Succession in 1704 on the left bank of the Danube, near the Bavarian village of Blenheim (now Blindheim). The FrancoBavarian troops under Marshals Tallard and Marsin, and the Elector of Bavaria, Maximilian, faced the Allied armies (Austrian, German, English, Dutch and Danish) under the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy. Marlborough and Eugene attacked at first light on 13 August. The FrancoBavarian troops, which outnumbered the Allies, had formidable artillery power and their defensive action was helped by the marshland around the Nebelbach. Eugene commanded the right flank, and Marlborough the left flank and centre.

The attack on the village of Blenheim was repulsed, and for several hours the outcome was uncertain. But at about halt past five in the afternoon, Marlborough manoeuvred his forces and crossed the Nebelbach, smashing through Tallard's centre which had been weakened to reinforce flanks, with 80 cavalry squads supported by infantry and artillery. The enemy light cavalry was split apart, and the Allies were able to defeat the infantry and outflank the bulk of the French troops, who had massed in the village of Blenheim. At sunset, the remnants of the FrancoBavarian Army fled into the Black Forest, retreating towards the Upper Rhine. One third of the two armies lost their lives in the battle, and the Allies took 13,000 prisoners.

reaction times become shorter. Planning and :)rogramming must make reasonable allowances for this, but must not a priori exclude the ran,fom events that lie on the borderlines -of the hypothes is. This means reappraising the value of man as the kingpin of events, with supremacy that is quite rightly bestowed on him through will translated into initiative, which does not contradict the preestabl ished principles, but helps to attain their objectives.

resources along a preestablished axis. Today, we prefer to consider this concept as the convergence of fire and resources on the target by forces which are initially dispersed and required to take up their initial position as soon as possible. This development has been brought about by necessity, but it does not alter the validity of the "general" theory, which is immutable, and has been codified and consolidated by centuries

CONCENTRATION OF EFFORT "Concentration of effort" is conditioned, but also enhanced, by this, beca use it expresses the degree to which man exercises his capacity to dominate a given situation, and the farsightedness of the decision-makers. However, in the contemporary situation, the notion of "effort" has quite a different mean ing from its classical sense of combining instruments and

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THE BATTLE OF OUDENAARDE troops THE BATTLE OF OUDENAARDE

The Battle of Oudenaarde took place during the War of the Spanish Succession in 1708, on the left bank of the Scheidt River near the fortified Belgian town of Oudenaarde. The French army, led by the Duke of Burgundy and the Duke of Vendome faced the joint Anglo-Dutch-Austrian forces under the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy. At dawn on 11 August, the 80,000 man French army crossed the Scheidt and moved on the town of Oudenaarde which Vendome intended to take by siege. The Allied forces, numbering about the same as the French, arrived

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after forced marches and began crossing the river. After occupying the heights north of the town with the vanguard troops, they attacked the troops covering the enemy flanks. While the Allies were crossing the river, the French troops turned round to face them. Marlborough placed the right wing under Eugene and personally commanded the centre which was at a great disadvantage, while the rest of the army deployed in depth to the left; as the left flank spread out, the battle flared up along the front. The Anglo-Dutch-Austrian operation of crossing the river in stages, against an equal number of enemy forces was considered to be hazardous by the military of the time. The rhythm of the battle and the changes imposed by the Allied tactics

prevented the French from being properly deployed, and many of the soldiers were unable to get into action because they were deployed too deeply. When darkness fell, and the last of the Allied forces under the veteran commander, Overkirk, crossed the river by the Oudenaarde bridges and turned north, Prince Eugene pressed the right flank to the west: both of the Allied flanks approached until they almost met. The French Army was split in two; over 40,000 men were virtually surrounded, while the remaining 40,000 stood impotently by on the hill overlooking the battlefield. Late that night, Vendome realized that all was lost, and ordered the retreat, leaving about 7,000 prisoners behind, including a great many senior officers.

of experience. Emphasis is placed on the momentum of manoeuvre to increase surprise and security, obtained by the speed of intervention and the speed with which new positions are conquered. Speed of implementation underlies the operational act, requiring the coordination of actions over a large radius and a global view of the situation, which were unknown to tactics and strategy even in comparatively recent times. Objectives are no longer viewed as static targets but as simple benchmarks, constituent elements of a single dynamic plan, even though they still keep their importance in the more complex battlefield situation.

of the material takes primacy, mortifying intuition and inventiveness, which are and remai n the decisive elements of strategical/ tactical supremacy. In the final analysis, this is a mortifying and anachronistic return to the wars of the 17th and 18th centuries - the so-called "conventional" wars, so dear to the hearts of Turenne, Marlborough, Eugene of Savoy, Villars, William of Orange, etc., characterized by a prevalence of movements and counter-movements, advances and retreats, feints and counter-feints, which were costly, unprodu ctive and slow. Typical examples of this mentality are the battles of Blenheim and Oudenaarde, illustrated above.

FREEDOM OF ACTION

ECONOMY OF FORCE

The plan to which these belong cannot and must not restrict "freedom of action", which is the third fundamental parameter of the military art. Indeed, lhe succession of

goals enhances the possibility of applying this parameter because, if they are interpreted in their modern sense, they do not condition the pursuit of the operations, being "evolutionary moments" in the battle in view of their physiognomy. This ensures that the original plans can be altered and adapted to meet contingent situations and unforeseen and unpredictable needs as they arise from time to time. The decision-making phase therefore becomes completely autonomous, unconstrained by rigid schemata which cannot be allowed to dominate the course of behaviour but merely serve as useful instruments. If the contrary were to be the case, the manoeuvre would be hard to predict and would lose its effectiveness because it would give the enemy time and opportunity to take viable countermeasures . The battle is a series of actions and reactions with predictable results. so that the might

Success therefore depends on philosophy and doctrine expressed further in the "economy of force" principle, as a reasoned and constant quest for the maximum result with the minimum use of energy. History and experience have shown the validity of this principle throughout the ages, and it seems to be as valid as ever today with our modern approach to warfare in which the traditional operational spaces are shrinking in size, objectives are increasing in number, and it is becoming necessary to reiterate forces in narrow time-limits. Today, force "dispersal" has become an "active" instrument of war and the "s~curity" of men and machines, but it has also created difficult problems of gearing forces to individual needs. This need has been met by increasing the speed of movement. so that measures can be taken sufficiently rapidly to attain preestablished goals without using excessive energy. By doing this, one preserves the possibility of taking further action and constantly having available enough men and materials to concentrate forces on the desired points.

In modern warfare, the concept, which is valid in both tactical and strategic terms, has to be translated into a capacity to act over a large radius with the same effectiveness in every direction, if it is to be rationally applied. This greatly enhances the chances of success, compared with the chances that used to exist, when the "natural" slowness of the manoeuvre often made it necessary to apply the principle of economy of force in a piecemeal manner, reducing the validity of the action in certain "critical" sectors. If this criterion is accurately implemented, vulnerability is reduced, provided that one's appraisal of the enemy force size is reliable. It is particularly difficult to obtain sufficiently reliable intelligence on this today, despite the high degree of sophistication of the faci lities at our disposal and our more accurate knowledge of potential enem ies obtained in peace time. The reason for this lies in that feature that is shared by all modern armies: the heightened speed which makes it possible to concentrate forces rapidly and disperse them equally rapidly. In this context, the whole concept of "economy" - which is pure military technique - cannot be separated from the concept of "intuiti on", which is a gift of the commander, and almost an "art". While, in previous wars, the former was able to play a preponderant role, in modern warfare both components have the same value because technique and intuition are closely integrated into anÂˇ extremely mutable envi ronment, which is subordinate to increasingly unpredictable constraints. The simt.:ltaneous, appropriate application of "concentration of force" is more vital today than ever before, because it is the only principle that can harmonize the rational "economy of force" and the need not to irremediably jeopard ize "freedom of action", under the common

auspices of "will/initiative". These four principles require special forms of implementation in the contemporary war context. in the light of th e constant threat of nuc lear weapons . One may realistically posit that nuclear weapons only serve as a deterre nt. because apart from any moral, social or political considerations, their use would not bring any immediate benefits to the warring party who uses it. because of the obvious inability to exploit his success and a great many other negative considerations which are too well -known to need recal ling here. If, God forbid, the present equilibria were to be broken, the whole doctrina l panorama would break up, but this would not invalidate the four pa ramet ers mentioned above. In this case, they would certainly be applied in different ways beca use of their intrinsic flexibi lity, and their enormous capacity to adapt to the most varied situations. But apart from the frightening hypotheses that we must reasonably rel egate to the far reaches of science fiction, we must examine the conditions which - in the presence of nuclear weapons for purely deterrent purposes - arise as the doctrine develops. Fi rst of all, we have to consider tha t th e atomic threa t - even tho ugh one hopes that it will ever merely remain a t hreat - makes it necessary to t ake adeq uate precautions, and necessari ly influences the whole context of war . First, the enormously enhanced possibilities of destruction have al rea dy cha nged the generic concept of "security" into the specific concept of "survival " Th is is a factor which has a farreachi ng effect on the use of men , wea pons and materials, on the way actions are im plemented, and on procedurea, opening up new avenues and creating huge problems. Second, because of the direct and indirect effects of weapons whose destructive capacity cannot always be ca lculated and

whose effects cannot be accurately predicted, nuclear weapons can no longer be viewed as a support to manoeuvre, like artillery or air support. They are of th e essence, the focal poi nt. and everything else in the conflict hinges around them. The conceptual and implementationa l phases take second place in planning, but this does not mean that they are heavily constra ined. Indeed, the inevitable "rig idity" of the action is partial ly offset by the manoeu vrability and mobility of the weaponry, leaving almost total free-

dom to choose the method and the procedures. But there are constraints whic h have to be considered in the org anization and prepara tion of war, and these mai nly have to do with space, time, vehicles and material. I have already hinted at the consid erab le shrinkage of space, which makes it necessary to give a greater dimension to the individual traditional "zones" in the framework of battle. We should now make it clear that the essential parameters of this innovation can be identified in a

The Kadesh operation The Israeli invasion of Sinai

EGYPT

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Suez

SINAI PENINSULA

In 1965, Israel launched a lightning attack against Egypt, converging all its armoured columns on the Suez Canal. This attack confirmed the decisive importance of tanks on the battlefield. The Israeli Army was compo sed of reservists, with a small number of

recruits undergoing train ing, and had been org anized for rapid mobilization. The tota l application of the principle of will/initiative underlay the Israeli success with an extremely flexible operational plan based on surprise and initiative.

different concept of "terrain" and in a greater "dispersal". The first centres around the way in which the "canon" of holding fast to positions, come what may, is being transformed into the idea of using positions dynamically and temporarily even though they may be intrinsically strong. The second makes manoeuvre effective because of the increased breadth of points of intervention, which enhances the security of the personnel and increases their chances of survival. But as the spaces increase, the operational speed in general terms must be appropriately stepped up, which means increasing the possibilities of movement by having appropriate vehicles and implementing tactical solutions based on ra pid intervention and flexible weaponry. One effective example of the kind of support needed here is combining a mechanized and an airborne unit in which the helicopter's role is increasingly important in operational terms, without prejudice to its logistical use. Once again the vexata quaestio arises about whether or not to emphasize the speed of the tank at the expense of its armour and survival capability. It is a dilemma that has split the experts, but recent experiences and foreseeable needs will certainly help to solve it. Also loomi ng on the horizon is the enormous problem of communications, which is making increasing use of data processing and telematics as the main . source of int elligence on the situation, and of ensuring con. stant control over the battlefield conditions. The instruments and functions of telecommunications are undergoing a far-reaching process of renewal in view - inter a/ia - of their fundamental duty to support the artillery which can only fully exploit their greater firing distance and their missiles if they work very closely with it.

"Time" is a parameter that takes on particular relevance here, both as a result of the enlargement of the operational space and the speed of movement, and because of the need for rapid and functional communications. Increased speed of action and movement makes it necessary to reconsider the evaluation of implementation times that are tending to shrink, but which require far greater organization and preparation, and make the availability of highly sophisticated material preeminent. "Promptness" of intervention can only be ensured using highly reliable, high performance land vehicles and aircraft. "Speed" of intervention cannot be considered without speed of communications, particularly of intelligence. Even a slight delay in supplying intelligence can jeopardize success, however objectively favourable the conditions might be. Past experience has shown this to be true , and today it has taken on vital relevance with the general recourse to electronics that is giving the armies of countries which are not highly technologica lly developed the appearance of being extremely modern, and endowing them with a considerably high operational potential. Material therefore no longer has a purely "passive" function, but is tending to become an active element in combat. particularly when one considers the way that instruments reminiscent of science fiction have acquired the capacity to react automatica lly, so that on the battlefield they can operate much faster than human reflexes and with an "intelligence" that often leaves one amazed. The real problem is therefore how to dominate these

marvels of human genius to prevent human intelligence from becoming totally subservient to the greater or lesser efficiency of machines. Modern warfare runs the risk of being at the mercy of the automatic capacities of robots whose features lie on the boun..ds of human imagination . Yet they should only be viewed as manifestations of the supremacy of the human mind, and as such, be used to ensure the increasingly incisive application of the classical principles of the military art which the technological civilization canno~ contaminate because they are the authentic pillars of the "philosophy" of warfare, valid in every age and in every latitude. A final word, en passant, on the principles that I have been dealing with and on the possibility of identifying the true Commander with the true manager. Much - often too much, unfortunately - is being written about this today. Will/initiative, concentration of effort, freedom of action, and economy of force dominate the conceptual and organizational scenario with which the Commander has to deal. I have mentioned some of the whys and wherefores above. But are not these same principles - being perennial and immutably valid - the very same principles that underpin any kind of managerial activity in any other field? If so, why go on debating the need for a "managerial" training for Commanders, instead of acknowledging that a Commander worthy of his function already possesses the qualities and the physiognomy of the true Manager, precisely thanks to his specific qualities and continuing training? â€˘ Gen. Ciro Di Martino

RANDOM THOUGHTS ON THE MILITARY ART IN

MODERN WARfARE

INTERNATIONAL SEMINARS ON NUCLEAR WARFARE

ANTONINO ZICHICHI

A new un it of measure was coined at Erice the "T-dol lar". The "T" stands for Trillion, or -one thousand bi lion. The "T-dollar" therefore amounts t o one thousand billion dollars. One, two or three "T-dollars" is the sum that must be spent by the year 2000 on the study, research and construction of the new antinuclear shields better known as "Sta r Wars" weapons. The supporters of this new planetary strategy in the confrontation between the two superpowers claim that it is incorrect to speak of "weapons" without making it clear that they are used solely for defensive purposes. not to destroy. However powerful it may be, a leser beam can only put a rn .ssi le out of action, not a whole city. For this reason a group of US scientists led by Teller (the father of the American H Bomb) insists upon ca lling them the "new defence systems" so as to avoid confusing public opinion with false propaganda. According to reller the latter term is the correct one. and more accurately defines this new aspect of the arms race. The phi losophy underlying the East-West debate which has so far gu ided the relationship of force between the two superpowers is known as MAD (which stands for Mutual Assured Destruction}. If we were sure of being able to destroy each other, we would not be so mad as to light the fuse lead ing to war. say the MAD supporters. However, there are three critical aspects to this ph ilosophy. Technical error, which cannot be reduced to zero. The human factor. No one can rule out the possibility of some madman or other com ing to power in the next ten, twenty or one hundred years. This new Hitler would have enough power i:1 his hands to destroy all the world's life centres not once but several times over. All that would be left would be a few lonely sailors, the Lapps in the polar regions, the desert Bedouins and some other survivors. One thousand million persons would be killed outright. Stocks of med icines and food supplies would be destroyed, and the distribution and communication systems disrupted. It is estimated that this would ca use a further thousand million deaths. Then there is the economic factor. What price have the superpowers paid for MAD strategy over the past few years? The answer is: about 30 "T-doliars". Continuing with this phi losophy, between them the United States and the

Flying school.

Paintings by Sergio Amadio 19

Soviet Union would spend a further 30 "T-dollars" between now and the year 2000. This immense w ea lth would be wasted on the con struction of death weapons, while a thou sand million fellow human beings are suffering poverty and te ns of millions die of hunger every year. How can this pattern of criminal folly be broken? Many proposals have been put forward . The best course would be disarmament, provided that it was mutual and controlled , as President

The splendours of the past.

Pertini again stressed in his message to the scientists attending the Erice meeting . The 1982 Erice report was an invitation to world scientists involved in the arms race to reflect upon the possible disastrous consequences of their work. The problem was clearly stated by the scientists. However, the solution to the problem is not scient ifi c in nature but must be sought at the cu ltura l and political level s. If the world could ensure the triumph of a Cult ure preaching a brotherhood of nations, the respect of human 20

dignity and forgiveness instead of revenge, it would be possible to make a start on dismantling the stockpiles of arms. Present stockpiles amount to the equivalent of fifteen billion tons of readyto-use TNT. This mea ns t hree thousand kilos of explos ive for every inhabitant on the Earth. We thus have three thousand kilos of destructive . power, whi le three hundred kilos per capita of food would be enough to cancel out the terrible tragedy to which we have become in ured, namely death from hu nger. The solution to these problems is political in nature. Science has clearly shown that enough food is available to feed all four billion of the world's inhabitants. Hunger in the world is a problem insofar as the soca lled modern Culture is based not on love of one's fellow man but on contempt for human dignity. This is clearly shown by the large area of the planet in whi ch the despotic violence of dictatorship, not freedom, is the rule. The MAD philosophy is the result of this Culture, in which the enemy Âˇs viewed as a man to be destroyed ruthlessly. However, this has brought mankind to the brink of nuclear disaster and this disaster could actu ally eventuate as a result of madness or even fear. This is one of the new factors to emerge from the Erice "Seminars " thanks to the studies carried out by an eminent Swiss psychiatrist, Professor Edmond Gilleron. His analysis has shown that fear is a factor that must be taken in to account. If the MAD philosophy is applied, t echnical errors. madness and fear could conceivably lead to two billion of the world's inhabitan ts being wiped out. And what is more, a nuclear conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union would alter a number of the vital characteristics of our planet. And our planet is not the exclusive property of the two superpowers but belongs to its four bi llion inhabitants, who all have equal rights to live on it in peace. The MAD su pporters say they have given the world 40 years of peace. But they forget that this peace has already cost at least 30 "T-dollars" (thirty thousand billion dollars) and has brought mankind to the brink of self-destruction. On e cannot lightheartedly leave the equivalent of fifteen billion tons of TNT to posterity. Sooner or later, within ten, twenty, a hundred or a thousand years, error, madness or fea r wi ll light the fuse of this huge powder-keg which has been built up in the hope of maintain ing the balance of terror at its peak (MAD). We must find a way out. Noth ing has been achieved so far either by disarming or by freezing military spend ing. And scientists the world over have been actively engaged on these two fronts. Let us try a new approach. Let us all, i.e. Un it ed States, Soviet Un ion, Europe and Ch in a, . make a concerted effort to study the new defensive systems. This would cost ten times less than

the amount required to continue with the balance of terror. The new philosophy would become MAS (Mutual Assured Survival). To destroy a missile is an act of civ ii izat>ion. To destroy a city is a crime. This is the reason why we must sit down and study "Star Wars" shields together. However, the MAD philosophers rejoin that the MAS philosophy is destabilizing in that it can guarantee sure survival to only one side in the nuclear conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union.

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The results reported at Erice by phys icists from the Livermore Laboratory (R. Budwine and L. Wood) show that the project to build a system with the capability of destroying 999 missiles out of a thousand has already overcome three critical obstacles. All this has been achieved within one year from the previous Erice "Seminar". Overcoming difficulties in these studies can open up new horizons in one of the fastest developing high-tech areas. The allocation to a group of brilliant men

Memory of Brussels.

of the sum of two thousand million billion lire for a period of ten years would mean opening up ari unprecedented new phase in high-tech research. Only one year ago the very idea of such research would have been considered pure science fiction. However, the foreseeable future seems to indicate that my evaluation is correct. When a pro ject does not break any of the fundamental laws of nature it will sooner or later become reality. Suffice it to give one example . When the cream of western science gathered together in America to produce the first nuclear fission bomb, there was little optimism among the scientists involved. Many of them considered it solely as a duty: seeing that Hitler had decided to exploit nuclear fission for military purposes it was advisable not to neglect the subject. However, two top scientists refused to join the group. Their reason for not doing so was that manÂˇ would never succeed in exploiting a nuclear process on a large scale. The diameter of a nucleus is measured in tens of thousandths of billionths of a centimeter. The diameter of a bomb is measured in metres. To construct a nuclear device by exploiting nuclear fission was thus considered to be science fiction. Also Teller's H Bomb project was considered 21

An ancient legend relates that the Trojan Horse rebelled against the misdeeds committed by the Greeks and destroyed itself.

The 4th Erice Seminar on Nuclear War has provided a significant forum for presentation of research findings, new concepts, debate on issues of disagreement, and a basis for future endeavours of cooperation. . New findings suggest limitations of analysis as well as opportunities for peaceful collaboration.

MEMORANDUM OF AGREEMENT between the Scientific Delegations of EUROPE, USA, USSR, at the 4th International Seminar on Nuclear War held in Erice (19-24) August, 1984 Climatic Effects of Nuclear War: It Is recommended that cooperative research on improved models and simulations of the climatic effects of nuclear war be continued and expanded. This recommendation is made on the basis of the questions rai sed at this Seminar as to the validity of the hypotheses underlying the climatic studies made thus far. Natural Geophysical Events: The history of the earth suggests that many massive natural events have occurred, and that a study of these could provide significant understanding of the effect on climate of large scale perturbations. The geological record contains a plenum of fossil evidence and current models could be judged by their ability to describe the climatic consequences of past natural events. These natural events include asteroid encounters and major volcanism. This Seminar supports planetary cooperation in the development of the means to detect, to access, and to intervene in such events, selecting for example Apollo asteroids as technologically the most feasible for early coOpt,ration. The revolt of the Trojan Horse.

science fiction, not to mention the present-day Star Wars projects . Th is new research will obv iously have a destabilizing effect on the world if carried out in secret. And we still do not know whether it will be possible to break through the barrier of suspic ion and mutual distrust which could lead to the destruction of our entire planet. However, one t hing is certain. These studies will lead to extraord inary technological applications in all fields. If the barrier is not broken down, these applications will remain the exclusive and secret property of the two Superpowers. Even if men have sufficient good will to avert the nuclea r winter it will probably not be enough to save Europe and the rest of the world from the winter of underdevelopment. What has been said above is the background to the Erice document signed by scientists from the two Superpowers . These scientists clearly state that they wish to involve the best th inking minds in the world in this new research, q uite indepen dently of al l ideologica l, political and racial barriers. This is the only way in which Peace and Prog ress ca n be constructed. By means of facts, not words. Antonino Zichichl

Nuclear War's Biological Effects and their Influence on Spiritual Life of Humanity: A comprehensive study is proposed of possible biological consequences of nuclear war, such as the molecular genetic and Âˇpsychological aspects of man, and the development of mathematical models for various such impacts on human populations. The attention of scientists and politicians must be focused on the problem of changing spiritual values, as a result either of total war, or at this stage, of waiting for the potential holocaust. Defensive Systems: The discussions on the feasibility of strategic defensive systems and their possible contributions to the maintenance of peace in the decade ahead have brought into focus major difference of opinion. It is essential that the technical issues be resolved, and that accurate evaluations of the potential capabilities of Defensive Systems .be established. We therefore strongly encourage scientists of all nations to undertake a long-term research program aimed at eliminating the threat posed by strategic nuclear missiles. We also encourage International cooperation and collaboration in this area. We further propose that subsequent Erice Conferences review and disseminate the results of the international endeavours on Defensive Systems, in the spirit of decreasing secrecy. SIGNED BY USA Robert Budwine Joseph B. Knox John H. Nuckolls Lowell Wood

USSR Vladimir V. Aleksandrov Nikita N, Moiseev Mark A. Mokulskli Aleksel A. Vasiliev EUROPE Antonino Zichichi

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Defence problems were very much on the general public's mind in the United States during the public debates cond ucted during the r ardfought 1984 electoral cam paign. A growing number of citizens were concerned with security issues and wished to make their opinions known and influence the decisions taken at political level as much as they could. There have been lengthy discussions about the presence of US forces in Europe, on the acquisition of new w ea pon systems such as the MX missile, the costly conventional rearmament of the navy an d the Star Wars projects. Of course these new trends in US defence policy have been followed with interest also in Europe, although the general pu blic is little concerned with military matters. Eu ropean observers have been ma in ly struck by t he fact that most of the defence spending seems to have been on strategic nuclear weapons and on boosting the '-Javy, to the detriment of the conventional ground forces and tactical air force. Much anxiety w as aroused by the recent 376 page report by the Appropriations Su bcommittee of th e House chaired by the Democratic Senator Joseph Ad-

dabbo. According to the latter the combat readiness of the United States has actually declined over the past four years despite the heavy increases. in military spending. The report lays charges that the army "cannot be maintained in the field for a long period of combat", that the 101st Airborne Division based at Fort Campbell "has an astonishing personnel turnover of 16.6% per month" and that the "increases accorded have not improved the state of readiness of the existing forces". These are serious charges, which have been categorically denied by General John Vessey, the Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee. He claims that United States can now rapidly airlift 25% more supplies to the troops in Europe than four years ago and that the new ground support F-16s have much more accurate weaponry than the F-4s they have replaced. Since words must be accompanied by facts, an opportunity for testing the operational readiness of the United States pre-

In the photos: the units at Fort Polk during preparations for their departure for Europe. Below: baggage inspection using antidrug dogs.

sented itself in the form of the vast array of NATO exercises planned for the "Autumn Forge 1984" series, and particularly the "Reforger 84" exerciยงe. We followed the troops tak ing part in the exercise, observing operations both in the United States and during the subsequent airlift to Germany of the 5th Infantry Division (Mechanized) based at Fort Polk in Louis iana . Reforger, which stands for REturn of FORces to GERmany, is an annual combined forces exercise in strategic mobility carried out by the US Army, Navy and Air Force. It involves transporting a Division to the heart of Europe to demonstrate the United States' capacity for reinforcing the NATO forces. The 5th Infantry Division (Mechanized) chosen for the exercise has a brilliant tradition behind it. It fought in World War I in Germany and its members have been known as the "red devils" ever since. It performed well during World War II and during tough training cycles in the postwar period, acquiring the capability of readiness to go into action anywhere in the world at very short notice . Transportation was both by sea, on two ships sailing from Beaumont in Texas to Antwerp in Belgium, and by Boeing 747 civil air liners departing from England air base in Louisiana and landing in Brussels and Frankfurt.

The liaison unit responsible for setting up the ,niti al command and control system made arran gements for materials to be stockpiled in Europe -ready for use. These were known ,as POMCUS = POsitioned Material Configured Unit Sets, and consisted of ta nks. reconnaissance vehicles. tracked vehicles. motor trucks and various other material, the stockpil ing of whi ch in Eu rope allowed the US troops arriving from across the sea to be deployed rapid ly. In add ition to the troops, the ships also carried materials from the US that were not avai lable at the pre-pos itioned POMCUS sites in Europe. The un its taking part in the exercise gave proof of a high degree of efficiency, the result of the intelligent and systematic training they had received and of their modern and rational equipment and the unlimited ava ilabil ity of exercise structures situated in well-organized trainingÂˇ areas provided with abu ndant vehicles, ammunition and equipment. Young blacks and white, men and women, mixed together in the sa me units, t ravelled on comfortable air-conditioned coaches to the awaiting Jumbos. They boarded the aircraft with their personal weapons and were served by pretty stewardesses during the flight.

Post Fie ld Hou se CLOSE D UhTIL SEP T IO

BAR FROST Annual national Norweg ian exercise involving permanen t local forces and refresher training units (Northern Brigade). The purpose of t he exercise is to carry out tactical operations in cooperation with allied sea and air fo rces. The exercise takes p lace in northern Norway.

BLIND FAGOT Exercise carri ed out in Denmark to control the t rans fer of Danish anti-aircraft uni!s across Jutland and Zeeland using amphibious units made available by West Germany. The exercise takes place in the Ka ttegat and the Danish Strait.

BOLD GANNET Exercise held in the Zeeland islands in Denmark in order to try out procedures fo r the deploymen t of a British mobile force and combined UK-Netherlands landing forces Those participating include units of the German army, US air force and Dan ish fo rces for a total of 15,000 troops.

BRISK FRAY

FLOTEX

Exercise organized by West Germany at divi sional level in the Schleswing Holstein area together with DÂˇanish and British forces . The purpose is to carry out training in interopera bility hP.twP.en field forces. territorial army and allied forces. Participants: 12,000 troops.

Sea exercise run by Norway in its northern territorial waters for the purpose of trying out new national operational tactics.

BROWN FALCON Exercise for Danish and German air forces in the Denmark and SchleswigHolstein areas.

WIPE An nual Norwegian exercise at brigade level in order to :rain national army units. Also participating are a British battalion and units of t he US air force in Rogaland (S outhw est Norway).

AUTUMN MOMENT Divisional level training exercise organized by the Netherl ands for the purpose of carrying out offensive and defensive opera tions. One Danish brigade and one US battalion participate, for a total of 9,000 troops.

CERTAIN FURY Exercise carried out in Germany by the 7th US Army Corps. Also participating are units of the army corps. elements of the German territorial army, the US National Guard and active units stationed in the United States and transported to Europe. Key objectives o f the exercise are training in defensive operations and the perfecting o f t he comm and. control and communications systems. About 40,000 troops participa te.

COLD FIRE

EXERCISES AUTUMN FORGE 84 30

Ai r exercise involving the Central Region and carried ou t by the 2nd and 4th ATAF air units in support o f land operations. The aim is for tactical air fo rce units and army unit to exercise together in the Central Region at Army Corps level.

FLINKER IGEL

LIONHEART

Exercise at Army Corps level fo r the purpose of training territorial and allied fo rces in combined operations and to activate cooperation between ground and air fo rces. About 55,000 German. US and Canadian troops part icipate in t his exercise. which takes place in the area northwest of Mu"lich.

Air Force exercise, carried out in the United Kingdom and the continent. Th e aim is to test th e UK contribution to NATO's Central Region. The exercise begins in th e UK with the mobilization of regu lar and reserve fo rces. totalling 131,000 military par ti cipating.

FULL FLOW Logistic al support exercise conducted by the Briti sh 1st Armv Corps on German territo ry for the purpose o f establishing lines of communication on the continen t and of deploying reinforcements from th e UK. It also includes th e retu rn of the British reinforcements to the UK from the various exercise areas. The exercise is carried out in conjun ction with the Belgian. Danish and Germ an territorial commands. A number of US units also participate. Th e exercise area takes in the port of Ostend. Zeebrugge, Antwerp, Leuch and th e Rhine district.

REFORGER 84 Exercise organized to demonstra te th e US determination and capacity to meet its engagement with NATO, by prepa ring exercis es of rapid s tra tegic reinfo rce ments in Europe. The exercise is carried out every ye ar and hinges on US support ac tivities. The particip ating nations are the United States, Belgium, Luxenbourg and the Federal Republic of Germany. The Am erican units remain in a strategic position during their journey through Europe and are prepared to face up to "enemy" interdiction operations during their movement to the combat zones. Participants: 15,000 troops.

DETERRENT FORCE This a NATO naval exercise carried out in th e Mediterranean. It begins with th e

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Exercise at Army Corps level held in West Germany with the participation of a Belgian paratroop reg iment, a US brigade and a German helicopter battalion. The main objectives are t raining in defensive operations and in enhancing interoperabi lity with allied units. About 21,000 troops take par t in th e exerci se, which occupies an area situated between Paderborne Kassel and the Weser to th e east and a line running from Lennestadt to Amberg to the wes t.

Exercise o f the British 1st Army Corps. It involves the deployment of the 3rd and German 4th Mechanized Divisions and the British 2nd Infantry Division. Also Danish. German and US units participate. The new Challenger tank, the Saxon troop carrie r, the MCV-80 and the Torn ado aircraft are to be used in the exerci~P.. SPEARPOINT is c arried out in lower Saxony, between Bielefeld to the wes t and a line running eastward through Goslar and Osterode to the east, about 10 Km wes t of th e German border.

i·

ROARING LION

Exerci se of the group of Canadian Mechanized Brigades aimed at preparing the units to participate in the German FLINKEL IGEL exercise by training them to carry out defensive and offensive operations. Also a number of German units pa rt icipate. About 5,000 t roops are involved in an area situated sou th west of Nuremberg .

activation of a rapid-dep loyment naval task force composed of frigates, destroyers and support vessels from Greece, Italy, Turkey, Great Britain and the United States. ·-"\,

....... \,

DISPLAY DET ERMINATION Land, sea and air exercise held in th e Northern Region and involvi ng Italian and Turkish forces, US t heatre units, French, Portuguese and British troops. as well as UK, US and NAEW NATO aircraft. Th e exercise area takes in t he c entral and eastern Mediterranean. the Black Sea, northeastern Italy and Turki sh Th racla.

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. 31

I I

I Units of the 5th Division training at Fort Polk.

I I

On their arrival in Be lgium and Germany the units were simultaneously reformed. Their equipment was made up from previously prepared material and they launched into the exercise which. among other things, called for an armed :rossing of the Danube in the presence of the. "enemy". Both the "blue" and the "orange" forces were present on the ground, with umpires to evaluate the outcome of the clashes and count the respective losses. The 5th Mechanized Infantry Division and the air and naval forces engaged in the exercise proved themselves to be high ly effi cient and to have attained a high degree of operational readiness. The exercise dissipated any doubts th at might have existed concern ing a decline in the capacity of the US forces to intervene overseas. Neverthel ess, some doubts still rema in over the ba sic US military policy decisions concerning the priority given to boosting the strategic forces and the navy. Many EuruÂľec:1 n~ are convinced that it wou ld have been more effective to reinforce the NA armies and the tactical air force, instead of givin9 priority to world sea strategy. The latter will enta il the US building up fifteen large aircraft carrier formations, includ ing t hree new units costing eighteen million dollars each. Also the strengthening of the fleets of the European countries has been cha llenged for t he same reason. The most substantial threat to be faced today seems to be the one on the NATO land front, since the nuclear power of the United States is no longer capable of deterring all the kinds of aggression to which Europe could fall prey. The weak link in the flexible response strategy is represented precise ly by the conventional forces. Furthermore, there is little likelihood of the situation being improved by bocsting the tactical nuclear forces or, to an even lesser extent, the navy, since the greatest threat comes from t he armoured d visions deployed on the Europea n front.

Gen. Vesser, commanding officer of the 5th Division.

Without adequate conventional forces, flexible response could become a dangerous strategy since the nuclear power of the United States can -deter the enemy from using similar nuclear arms but not from using conventiona I forces. No one knows What intentions the Russian have, nor can they reasonably be expected to attack the NATO coun tries. Nevertheless, evaluations must not be based on the enemy's "intentions" but on the "possible action" that could derive from the forces available to him. From this standpoint a reason for Soviet intervention, perhaps by means of a simp le show of force, could be the attempts to reunite the two Germanies, the combined economic and industrial might of which would represent an intolerable concentration of power tor the Soviet Union. Some claim that the present imbalance of conventional forces in Europe could be corrected by using the neutror bomb. It is believed capable of boosting the defensive capacity of the ground forces to the extent that the bomb could actually be considered a conventional weapon . But we have no way of knowing whether the enemy would agree to consider the neutron bomb as a conventiona l weapon. Indeed, there is every indication that the use of this device would trigger the employment of the nuclear deterrent and make its subsequent use more probable. Nowadays it is apparent that peace is increasingly less safeguarded by nuclear weapons and could be more satisfactorily ensured by boosting conventional armaments until a reasonable degree of force ba lance was reached. It is thus quite un justified to think that conventional forces have no longer any value

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5TH INF DIV (M) 2ND BDE

DIV ARTY

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Establishment of the 5th Infantry Division (Mechanized).

Movement of the 5th Division from Louisiana to Europe by air and sea routes.

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in the nuclear age. They represent an essential factor in the defence and from this point of view the "Autumn Forge" exercises provide a very in teresting testing ground. "Reforger 84" in particular is of great importance as far as

Europe's defences are concerned, since the timely and largescale intervention of forces from overseas could avoid having to use nuclear weapons on European soil. Pier Giorgio Franzosi

REFORGER84 33

THE ÂŤCATRINÂť SYSTEM The CATRIN system (a field communications and intelligence system) must be seen within the broader frame of the so called C31 system. i.e. the complex activity of command, control, communication and intelligence, fundamental for the management of a great undertaking like the Army. To consider CATRIN in this way appears justified, on one side, by the requirement of a necessary harmonization of different activities in a global frame and to underline. on the other,

that the system itself, although a complex one. is nevertheless only a part of a much broader mosaic. It must be remembered, however, that the activities of command. control, communica tion and intelligence (C31). together with the entire more recent concept of warfare, feel today more and more the effects of the rapid evolution undergone by the most modern technologies natura lly pressing in a frantic effort to overcome each other.

The means and equipments adopted by the Armies tend to augment their sophistication and to ensure very high performances, while the strategic and tactical scenarios change rapidly their operational aspects and cover more ample portions of the territory. In this istance, the volume and the frequency of decisions expected for the next . future from a commander to exerce command and control will be much higher than today and will require the availabi lity of a large

Fig. 1

TECHNOLOGICAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS

COMMAND AND CONTROL

INTELLI GENCE

COMMUNICATIONS

Fig. 2

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

TO ACQUIRE - ELABORATE • CORRE LATE AND PRESENT INTELLIGENCE DATA

INTELLIGENCE

TO EVALUATE SITUATIONS AND TO TAKE DECISIONS

COMMAND

TO SUPERVISE EXECUTION AND CONTROL THE OUTCOMES

CONTROL

TO TRANSMIT AND/ OR RECEIVE ORDERS · SITU ATION S - INTELLIGENCE

COMMUNICATIONS

Fig. 3

REQUIREMENTS

SUPPORT EO UIPMEN FOR AUTOM/\TIC COMMAND AND CONTROL

UPDATED INTELLIGENCE SUPPORT

HI GHLY RELIABLE COMMUN I CAT ION S SUPPORT

flow of intelligence in narrow limits of time and the dissemination of orders and intelligence in real time (Fig. 1). The functions permitting all this are precisely included with in C31 {Fig. 2). In fact: • to acquire. elaborate, correlate and visualize intelligence data, means intelligence; • to eval uate situation data and to take decisions. means command; • to supervise the execution and to control the outcomes, in a fluid situation as the battle field one, in presence of adverse factors like the enemy offensive and the electronic wa rfa re, the combat strain. the terrain and the weather cond itions, means control; • to dissemina te or receive orders, situations. data of various nature, mean s communications. Up to now. the Italian Army has performed such functions only in a traditiona l way, although availing itself of qualified staff personnel. Not only; as we shall see more in detai l later on, the Army still suffers of remarkable deficiencies also in its capacity to acqu ire and elaborate data , once these reach the Command Posts. Taking into account this situation of sens ible delay in comparison to the possibilities offered by modern t echniques and technologies. the Army General Staff has given way, a few years ago, to a series of initiatives within C31. In this context lays the communications and intelligence field system cal led CATRIN. We shal l deal with it more in detai l further ahead discussing its component su b-systems. In short. the Army has felt the need to avail itself of au tomatic command and control equipment (C2). of an updated intelligence support and of a highly reliable communications system (Fig. 3) . We shall discuss now. for each sector (com mand an d control, intelligence and communications) the present situation and the programs set up by the Army.

COMMAND AND CONTROL

Fig. 4

Present situation Up to now, the procedures and the command organization within t he Command Posts, still of a traditiona l type, clearly show their limits. This appears especial ly during critical phases because of the difficulty to manual ly process the great amount of data available, to keep situations updated, to carry out in real time the necessary evaluations and to disseminate the related orders and information. Trends Hence, the Army tends (common as well to the Armies of other countries. allied or not) to set up, at Brigade, Divisional and higher levels. an operational command structure formed by a complex of automatic devices, mutually integrated and capable not only of processi ng and visualize in real time for the commander's decisions the flow of data. but also of transferring, still in real time, orders and intel ligence from one unit to the other through the use of "intel ligent" terminals. All this to enhance, on one side, the operational effectiveness of staffs and units and to grant, on the other. more flexibility to the command structure, trusting on highly reliable communications for the transfer of orders and data (Fig . 4). INTELLIGENCE Present situation On the actua l battle field, although gathered through numerous and various means, the intelligence data are seldom complete and do not correspond to the modern operationa l requi rements. The more significant setbacks concern : • the battle field surveillance. due to the almost complete absence of specific sensors; • the target acquisition; • the short ra nge sig hting of low and very low level attacking armed aircraft and helicopters and the defense systems warning;

COMMAND AND CONTROL

PRESENT SITUAT ION

TRENDS /

FUNCTIONA L UN FITN ESS OF THE COMMAN D POSTS

N EW COMMAND STRUCTURE [_;.

FUNCTIONAL SUB-SYSTEMS: • INTEGRATED _:_INTEROPER~IONAL _ _

· SLOW PROCESSING OF IN FORMATION {MANUAL) DIFFICU LTIES TO: • UPDATE SITUATIONS • EVALUAT E IN REA L TIME

FLEXI BI LI TY

SLOW DISSEMINATION OF ORDERS ANO INTELLIGENCE

MORE RELIABLE COMMUNICAT ION

INTELLIGENT TERM INA LS 1_,.

SYSTEMS

1..;

Fig. 5 INTELLIGENCE

PRESENT SITUATION /

TRE'IDS /

DEFICI ENC i ES OF EQUIPM EN T FOR:

SORAO

• BATTLE FIELD SURVEILLANCE • TARGET ACQU ISITION

S0/\TCC

• AN TIAI RCRAFT SIGHTIN G AND WARNI NG AT LOW ANO VERY LOW LEVEL NBC DETECTION AND WARNING TO BE UPDATED DIFFICULT CORRELATION AND MEMORIZATION OF INFORMATION

N EW NBC NETWORK

ELECTRONIC WARFARE ESM - RICEL • SIGINT 1.1

• the detection and alarm, in peacetime and on emergency, against the NBC threat; • the availability of automatic devices to correlate and memorize the flow of intelligence data (Fig. 5). Trends The Army's policy in this field is to fill up these gaps through the procurement of all weather sensors which have been included, depending on their functions, into two CATRIN sub systems: the surveillance and target acquisition one, called SORAO and the antiaircraft tactica l detection sL.o-system call ed SOATCC. We shall discuss both of them later on.

1.1

Furthermore, an improvement has been forseen concern ing the NBC warn ing network through the integ ration of the peacetime organ ization with the emergency one. A specific care will be granted to the intelligence problems stemming from electronic warfare activities and from the electronic research , i.e. to the aspects of the so called "electronic support measures" (ESM ) and "electronic research" (R ICELSIGINT) (Fig. 5). COMMUNICATIONS

Present situation The existing communications system, based upon the use of traditional sets, shows numerous

limitations su ch as t he lack of mobility, the slow processing of traffic, the sensibi lity to electronic warfare measures. Al l this is due t o outdated coostructive and technological concept ~ as well as to the emp'oyment conditi ons mainly based upon structures of a hierachical type (Fig. 6) .

Fig. 6 COMMUNICATIONS

PRES ENT SITU ATION

TRENDS

[

POOR SYSTEM MO BI LITY

Trends

To fill the gaps and to f ace the conditions posed by the enemy forces and by the physical and electromag netic surroundings, the Army is now inclined to procure a communications system cha racterized by three specific features: • high capability to survive ensuring communications even in case of massive destructions (up to 50%); • remarkable mobility and capabi lity of rapid deployment and redeployment of the various networ ks, ability to process in real ti me a high number of different informat ion and to grant operational continuity even in most fluid situations; • high resistance Lu the enemy electronic warfare. All this means the setting up of networks simi lar to those of the CATRIN sub-system called SOTRIN (which w e shall discuss further ahead) and the decisive improvement of the combat radio network (CNR) for the Brigade and lower levels (Fig . 6). In sh ort, the C31 co mpon ents which have t o be developed as soon as possible to reduce and/ or eliminate the above mentioned deficiencies and to meet the Army's requirements in this specific field concern (Fig. 7): • the field communications and intel ligen ce system CATRIN with its three sub-systems: tor the surveil lance and target acquisition, SORAO; for the tactical antiaircraft det ection and the coordination of the Army Aviation, SOATCC; for integ rated comm unications, SOTRIN ; • the combat radio network (CNR) which needs to be modernized and to become more res ista nt against electronic warfare activities;

SLOW TRA FFIC

SENSIBILITY TO ELECTRONIC WARFARE COMPLICATED REGULATIONS

SOTR IN

MOOERNI ZA TION OF THE CO MBAT RADIO NETWORK

EMPLOYMENT

Fig. 7

PROGRAMS

CATRIN

SOIIAO

SOATCC

ELECTRONIC WARrARE ESM • RICEL

CNR

SOTIIIN

AUTOMATIC

NBC NETWORK

DATA

onoc ESStN(.;

Fig. 8

CATRIN

SOATCC L ___ ___

I L _ _ SOTRIN _ __ _ _ _

SORAO

LASER RANGE FINDER SOUND RANGE FIN DER INTEGRATED INFRARED SCREEN WITH LASER RANGE FINDER

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ANTI -MORTAR RADAR ANTI -BATTERY RA DAR RADAR ON FLYING PLATFORM MINI RPV SYSTEM r r0 DI' Ji'A r,ANGE ;f,C" svt , .J>'; LONG RANGE DRONE SYSTEM DATA PROCESSING CENTER

1 On procurement iP ase

SORAO

(BATTLE FIELD SURVEILLANCE AND TARGET ACQUISITION)

Fig. 9

75 KM

SOUND Rl',NGE FJ NDER 1

I i

• an integrated communications and non communications electronic warfare system; • a suitable field command and control system and a valid NBC warning network. As far as CATRIN is concerned, included on purpose - as mentioned before - in a broader frame of the Army's programming, its global and systematic aspect within the C3I problem is worth being stressed. In fact. CATRIN should not only permit to its subsystems and to their components to smoothly interoperate without complicated interface problems, but should also allow to easily face the C2 activities and the data collection concerning the electronic support measures (ESM), the electronic (RIGEL} and the NBC search. In a more remote prospect, also the CNR radio sets should have the capability of easy and natural access to CATRIN.

This is a outlook conceived since a few years. In fact. some specific equ ipments. in a phase of advanced study or recently adopted. are already compatible with CATRIN . Let's now discuss, for each CATRIN sub-system, the real situation in terms of necessary components and of their availability. SURVEILLANCE AND TARGET ACQUISITION SUB-SYSTEM (SORAO) Its component elements are (Fig . 8): • laser range finder; • sound range finder; • integrated infrared passive screen (IRT) with laser range finder; • battle field surveillance radar; • anti-mortar radar; • anti-battery radar; • radar on flying platform;

• • • •

mini-RPV system ; medium range drone system; long range drone system; data processing center. Except the medium range drone AN/USD-501 (already field compatible) and the battle field surveillance radar (actually on procurement phase) all the remaining equipment has yet to be developed. In an ideal outlook, SORAO may appear like on Figure 9. TACTICAL ANTIAIRCRAFT DETECTION SUB-SYSTEM (SOATCC) Its necessary elements are (Fig. 10): • detection centers with: . surveillance radars; . acquisition radars; • report centers with : automatic data processor; trace simulator; data presentation console;

. rece-transmitter sets (ADL and voice); • operational cell with : automatic data processor; . data presentation -console; . rece-transmitter sets; . • control centers with : automatic data processor; control and data presentation console; trace simulator; rece-transmitter sets; • air warning receivers. All this eq uipment is still to be developed. Also SOATCC may be expressed in an ideal outlook as in Figure 11.

Fig. 10

CATRIN

SORAO -

SOATCC

L -

SOTRIN - -

DETECTION CENT ERS: • SURVEILLANCE RADAR • ACQUISITION RADAR REPORT CENTERS: • AU TOM ATIC DATA PROCESSOR • TRACE SIMULATOR • DATA PRESENTATION CONSOLE RECE-TRANSMITTER SETS (ADL AND VOICE)

INTEGRATED COMMUNICATIONS SUB-SYSTEM (SOTRIN) It includes (Fig . 12): • al ready developed equ ipment (medium capacity radio relays - 15 channels - Multiplex Delta, intermediate concentrators); • equ ipment under development (bulk chipher devices, low capa city radi o relays, troposcatters); • equipment to be yet developed

OPERATIONAL CELL: • AUTOMATIC DATA PROCESSOR • DATA PRESENTATION CONSO LE • RECE-TRANSMITTER SETS CON TROL CENTERS: • AUTOMATIC DATA PROCESSOR • CONTROL AND DATA PRESENTATION CONSOLE • TRACE SIMULATOR RECE-TR ANSMITTER SETS AIR WARNING RECEIVERS

ALL TO BE DEVELO PED Fig. 11

SOATCC (TAC TICAL ANTIAIRCRAFT DETECTION SUB-SYSTEM)

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XXX

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(single channel radio accessSCRA. system control module, termina l and access centers, NATO interface, high capacity radio relays, telephone term inals, tac-simi le, user's chipher sets, multimode adaptors, field message d issemination posts). For their remarkable influence on operations, two particular aspects of the SOTRIN subsystem seem worthy of mention: the sub-system structure and an interesting component of it, the so call ed "single channel radio access-SCRA". The system structure is of an area type and permits to disengage the basic system elements - the trunk nodes from the Command Posts deployment, with consequent higher operational safety: should a trunk node be destroyed, the Command Post is not involved and can

Fig. 12

7 r SORAO L __ _ _j

EQ UI PMENT UNDE R DEVELOPM ENT MEDI UM CAPACI TY RADIO RELAYS

BULK CHI PHER DEVICES

MULTI PLEX DELTA

LOW CAPAC ITY RAD IO RELAYS

INTERMEDIATE CONCENTRATORS

TROPOSCATTER

TERMINA L CENTERS ACCESS CENTRES t~ATO IN TERFACE H IGH CAPACI TY RAD IO RELAYS TELEPHONE TERMINALS FAG-SIMILE US ER'S CHIPHER SETS MULTIMODE ADAPTOR FI ELD MESSAGE D ISSEMINATION POST

Fig. 13

"CATRIN" SYSTEM (FIELD COMMUNICATIONS AND INTELLIGENCE SYSTEM) '.

' '

reset its communications through another trunk node. The "single channel radio access-SCRA" ha~ been conceived to ensure corrmu"'1ications to the more mobi 1e users. (ad vanced Brigade HOs. with their tactica l grou ps) . Th e center is formed by a "SCRA-central com mutator" and by the necessary number of "user radio terminals" req uired by a Command Post of the Brigade level. In a broad outlook. CATRIN is symbollica lly shown on Figure 13. where SORAO is given in yellow. SOATCC in green and SOTRIN in red colour. I wish to add that the CATRIN system. as a whole. has been conceived to grant the " commu nication s" and " intel ligence" functions up to the Brigade level (i.e. that the last users are the Command Posts which depend on the Brigade).

Fig. 14

REPLACEMENT 50% O F THE SETS WITH WITH

~ MODULAR SET FAMILIES

• ·-7

ECCM

•

DATA PROCESSING

ADDITIONAL EQUIPMEN T

Fig. 15

ELECTR. WARFARE DEPLOYMENT WITHIN BATTLE AREA

··... wi'

ESM

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Below the Brigade level, the much simpler functions are granted by the already mentioned combat radio network, wh ich should remain as a "reserve" tor the higher levels .. Before concluding this presentation it seems worthy to shortly discuss the programs related to the other C3 1 elements, parallel to the CATRIN program and such to permit their integra tion in it: the combat radio network, the electronic warfare, the field command and control and the NBC network.

Fig. 16 COMMAND AND CONTROL

EQUIPMENT IN DEVELOPMENT

ECU IPMENT TO BE DEVELOPED /

INTELLIGENCE SYSTE\/1 BR IGAD E AND HIGHER LEVELS

AUTOMATION AT BRIGADE AND HIGHER LEVELS

COMMERCIAL TYPE AUTOMATI C PROCESSOR

FJELD :;OMPATIBLE SHE LTERS TRACKED VEH ICLES /

COMBAT RADIO NETWORK The modernization standard foresees the change of the 50% of all the eq uipment with modular set fami lies, protected aga inst electronic countermeasures, provided with chipher, capable of data transmission and with series of additional equipment for particular use (Fig. 14). ELECTRONIC WARFARE In this field, the principal Army programs within the communications sector are all in being; those tor the non communications sector have almost all still to start. In an integrated outlook, also t he electronic warfare equipment shou ld be compatible with CATRIN. eliminating any difficu lt interface problem (Fig. 15). COMMAND AND CONTROL The automation of management activities has been started even at the higher levels with the in troduction of commercialtype computers employed by the local Headquarters to support logistical activities (at logistical battalion level). personnel and administrative management. Militarized computers, employed in shelters and/or tracked vehicles, are about to be procured ; following the above mentioned concept of C31, ihey shou ld be associated and, therefore, comply with all the process ing elements of the CATRIN system (Fig . 16). Also compatible with CATRIN and with the NATO and FINABEL

COMPATI BLE WITH CATRIN SYSTEM

0 /

MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES EQUIPM ENT PERSONNEL ADM INISTRATION.

STAFF ACTIVITIES

RESPOl~DJNG TO: • STU DI ES . AND TESTS ALREADY PERFORMED • NATO REGULATIONS • FINABEL AGRE EMENTS

PERSONN EL OPERATIONS TRAIN ING LOG ISTIC

Fig. 17

L r _ii_·•_h_&O_R_G_A_N_IZ_A_T_IO_ N _A _L _

S_T_R_U_C_T_U_R_E_ __.,

TECHNICAL AND OPERAT IONAL AREA

MANAGING COMM ITTEE

ARMY GEN ERAL STAFF

TECHN ICAL AND ADM INISTRATIVE AREA GENERAL Dl.~ECTORATES ARMY EQUIPMENT A IR EOU I PM ENT

PROJECT WORK ING GROUP

DECISION MAKING ACTIVITY ---- TECHNICAL AND OPERATIONAL TECHNICAL AND ACM INISTRATI VE INFORMATION FLOW

regulations should be the C2 field system components, thus conclud ing some experiments already performed by the Army. NBC NETWORK For the sake of completeness and in the frame of C31 we shou ld mention the NBC network as well. This is, however, a complementary activity, even if not

less important, which tends to modernize the existing equipment and to integrate the peace activities with the emergency requ irements. CONCLUSIONS We have tried to completely outline all the activities already in being or about to start within the Army's C31 field mainly to

stress the unita rian concept on which they should be based to avoid any compatibility crisis from a technica l but, even more important for the Army General Staff. from an operational point of view. This means a very momentous and difficult effort of consistency on a conceptual and organizational plan . We want also to stress that the italian electronic and communications firms can have here an ample space of activity on the long run. The Army hopes that it will be possible for them to smoothly and properly operate in reasonabl e terms of time , even and above all in corr,pliance with the international performances. To guide the development activities of CATRIN the Ministry of Defense has set up a manag· ing committee composed by top representatives of the General Staff and of the Gen era l Directorates and a "project working group" with 3 sLb-groups, one for each CATRIN sub-system (Fig. 17). We firmly believe that unless the industries co the same, CATRIN will never start . For the sake of common interest the Army hopes, therefore, that the industries associate between them on the base of

their specific activities, forming operational groups, one for each sub-system (respectively SOTRIN, SORAO and SATCC) and that these groups, intended to lead them, form again c:111 integrated very light top level structure, ca pable of solvi ng all the interface problems and to discuss globally with the Army on a consistency and system-like way. In summary, three specific industrial groups, capable of working in parallel, but directed by a small equipe ruled by corn~ prehensive and system-wise concepts and led by a personality above the parts. We expect all this, and expect it soon, if we want to start on the right pace. Abroad our program receives particular consideration. In fact, within FINAGEL and NATO, the CATRIN system is no more a mystery: should Italy loose su ch an opportunity, in a time when the whole of Europe suffers from the attack of emerg ing t echnologies , it wou ld be extremely difficu lt to recover from it in the future. A few friendly countries have already requested - be it even in the corridors of international meetings - t o be authorized to cooperate with Italy on some

CATRIN's aspects. We are, therefore, convinced that the industries will catch the opportunity offered to them by the Army General Staff and by the Defcnsc M inistry. Antonio Viesti Divisional General An ton io v,esli has attended the Milita ry Accademy, the Instruction School. tho 86th Ge nera l Statf and Superior Course and the 12th Course of the Combined Staffs Institute. Ho has com manded the 10th bat talion o r· the 132nd Tank Regi ment and. later. the Regiment itself. He has been deputy commander of the 132nd Armoured Brigade "Manin" and com ma nder o f the Mechani zed Bri gade "G rana tieri di Sardegna", He has been on Staff act ivity with the HOS. of the Infantry Division "Cro, mona", the Defense General Statf and the 5th Corps HOs. At Army's General Stall level the has been: o fficer assign,.id to the office of the Deputy Chl of o r Sta tf; chief of the 1s t Section of the Programs and Budget Office; chief of the Staff Secretaria te of the Army's Deputy Chief of Staff: chief of the Procurement Pro grams Office and Deputy Chief of the 4th General Statf Branch· and Deputy Logistical Inspector. His actual duty Is that or Chie f of the 4lh Army's General Staff Branch and Logistica l I nspector.

This article is originated from a presentation of the, CATRIN system to the industries, carried out by General Antonio Viesti, chief of the 4th General Staff Branch, which took place on May, 19, 1984 at the presence of the Army's Chief of Staff, General Umberto Cappuzzo.

PARATROOPS AND

COUNTERINTERDICTION

THE SCENARIO Counterinterdiction is normally part of the measures taken to safely protect the communications zone from paratroops or other urits, with an aim to hamper command, fire and supply activities, using techniques substantially based on surprise and developing a protracted wear-out action. Whatever the operations in being, these areas are highly exposed to such sort of threat. Proceeding to the rear of the frontl ine, the prog ressive lesser density of friendly forces leaves more and more space to the intrusion, the manoeuver and the freedom of action of the enemy. At the sa me time, the initiative of enemy units of a very high operational effectiveness, as are those employed within our array, has to confront a less and less competitive reaction as more far from the contact line: this is a fact which derives from considering the quality, the mission, the armament, the means, the tra ining and the "forma menli:::;" itself of the elements dep loyed on rear lines. There is, however, a deepness limit behind which the employment of en emy forces of high qualitative level would not be any more rewarding. In effect. it would only ind irectly and not decisively contribute to the development of the princ ipal fight. Such a limit, although not exactly definable, might be found in t he theater rear areas. It seems reasonable to suppose that beyond the "reward ing limit", and only with some exceptions, the paramilitary guerrilla tends to replace the mi litary interdiction. Interdiction areas might be involved in guerrilla activities. lÂˇf so, although a force coordination could appear likely, the two forms would not integrate. Guerrilla units might rather be train ed, supplied or directed from outside by portions of special forces int entionally penetrated in the area, or the interdiction might exploit intel ligence and supply contributicns granted by local elements.

V " Counterinterdiction" is a term not yet officially adopted; it means a particular form of fighting aimed at the neutralization of enemy military forces engaged to interdict an area. An article on the same subiect, published by the " Rivista Milit'are" in its nr. 111983, mentioned already the area interdiction performed by paratroops. It maintained that the forces

organized for interdiction are also the more fitted to with stand it. We shall therefore briefly consider this sub;ect, which appears complementary to the preceding one, in terms of close comparison. Obviously, there is no reasonable preclusion to the employment of forces of a different kind, provided their suitable motivation and training. On the other hand, the employment criteria and the typical forms to fulfil! the mission are substantially valid both in case of situations where the enemy operates with military forces and following procedures similar or identical to those of the interdiction (and this shall be our case), as well as in the case of a confrontation with paramilitary forces acting on a guerrilla role even outside the combat zone.

The range of probable objectives of the enemy interdiction in the communications zone, from where the forward forces are supplied , is a large and various one. Beginning with control and intelligence activities, we find there severa l command posts, even of a very high level. Associated with them is the communications network with its primary and peripheral centers, instal lations and equ ipment in permanent or field deployment. Here is also deployed the air space control organization having numerous components, some of which, subjected to technica l limitations, given by the terrain, pose further safety problems. Other communications elements, such as knot centers, undergo similar limits. As far as fire means are concerned, this is the deployment area for the field artilleries of major range, both conventional and missiles, together with special battlefield survey units, not to say of the integrated antiaircraft defense. Withi n the supply activity, the most sensible targets are of tactical as wel l as of logistical nature. The tactical ones are substancially deployment areas for divisional or higher level reserves. The others are given by supply control units of the 2nd and 3rd echelon . A further sort of targets is f ormed by the hel icopters deployments of the various roles placed there because of their contribution to the mentioned control, fire and supply activities. Still more to the rear are even some aerial bases. The surface movements against wh ich the interdiction tends to concentrate should fin ally deserve particu lar attention. These movements derive from the normal control. ma noeuver and logistica l support requirements, from fluctuations of the contact line, from changes within the forces, from safety reasons, from not foreseeable situation developme nts and tl",e like. Almost all the elements al45

ready mentioned in their "static" vArsion might hA involvArl hy these redep.loyments which engage, in both senses, the most part of the road system, be it parallel or orthogonal to the front line, not excluding the railroads of the theater rear area. In a defensive situation and to elude the enemy's aerial superiority these movements tend to concentrate in night time, being therefore even more exposed to ambush actions. They might run into sensible critical or risky conditions whenever the logistica l and tactical deployment is subjected to important changes caused by an unfavou~ rable evolution of the situation and, in particular, during a retreat manoeuver. The interd iction of movements might be extended and integrated with a similar activity directed against units and means of the traffic organization or against the road system itself through demolitions, obstructions, mines and similar devices, even remotely controlled. Any interdiction action is particularly favoured by the mou-

vements as, for example: the possibility of an accurate preparation achieved in every detail, far from direct contact, with an aim of maximum offensive effectiveness and security; the choice of terrain; t he sudden, violent and extremely short actions, sometimes performed only through fire, which might paralyÂˇze or stop any reaction. On the other hand , the movement safety is reduced by the uncertainty about type, time and place of the attack; by the impossibility to listen and by the

difficulty to observe; by the extremely narrow range of passive measures which can be adopted; by the thin deployment of the units which appear highly vulnerable and scarcely fitted for effective and timely countermeasures or manoeuvers. We have dealt at lenght with the friendly situation within the communications zone to better motivate some basic considerations: the possible objectives of the enemy interdiction are almost endless; many of them are of primary importance and very

ext ended (such as supply cent ers, for example). This makes it impossible to grant any defense, althoug h limited, t o the more important and stresses the need of .a more rea listic "surveillance", only with very few exceptions. To divert from other missions considerable portions of the reserves or of other units would be al ready an importan t success for the enemy. And what wo uld result from it? Th e defense would permit. in any case, full freedom of actio n to t he interd iction forces, whereas the risk run by a few obj ectives would be raised without ass uring their immuni ty and lea ving undefended many others. The probabl e th reat appea rs, therefore, an extremely dangerous one. The enemy units are surely f itted to penetrate by any means; t hey are hig hly aggress ive and specially trai ned for short fights i n part icular conditions, for eva .sive att itude and for the capability to survive in enemy environment. Their l'ght and sophisticated armament might include antitank , antia ircraft and mortar components, which make them

able to operate even from considera ble distonces.

They disperse within ampl e "sanctuaries" escaping identification and avoid ing to form rewarding targets. They seek contact and com bat only in absol utely favourable condit ions through numerous and coordinated actions of small patrols, by ambush, sudden attack and sabotage t echniques. They perform , at the sam e time, an important intelli gence activity. They are mostly su pplied through local resources or by air . The interd iction mig ht find some lim itations ca used by the terrain and the population. What appea rs essential to pe rmit ref ug e duri ng the pauses between the actions, is the availability of inaccessible and covered areas or of evacuated built-up zones. To case the maintain of a clandesti ne attitude, support or ... absence of the population are eq ually necessary. Whenever th e enemy should utilize a built-up area as a sanct uary, particular techniques are requested.

The bivoua cs within woods are organized with an alarm system able to grant to the resting units a suitable warning time before their identi fica tion and to permit them a timely escape from any direct and dan gerous mop-up action, moving towards a su bsidi ary and preorganized different bivouac. In a built-up area such a procedure is not applicable because the retreating movement could not remain unobserved in daytime. The actions within built-up areas, on the other hand, require from interd icting units more time for research and offer better conditions to the local defense awaiting for night time sorties. In fa ct, in bui lt- up areas the counterinterdiction t ends to make use of armoured veh icles and of heavy weapons; it is oblig ed to proceed cautiously knowing that the enemy, when in difficu lty to escape from contact, might be pushed to react wi thout leaving his positions. One fact is certain: any defe nsi ve attitude represents, by itself, a defeat for those who adopt it and the simple arrest of th e interdicting units is considered a success of the opposing forces. THE LINE OF ACTION Why not prefer a strong offensive attit ude to neutralize the threat at its origins or, at least, to limit any enemy's initiat ive and operative freedom, instead of spending forces t o cover too many obj ectives with problematica l possibilities of s uccess and a broad manoeuver space left to the opponent? This is the why of counterinterdiction. In numerical terms, a complex to company size in in terdiction action is organized with an area comm and post and a maximum of six patrols: in total, only seven small ob jectives for the counterinterdiction . How many are, instea d, the objectives - mostly broad - to protect, considering tha t an inte rdicting com pany covers an area of 200 sq uare kil ometers and more, equivalent to about 50 % of the

rear area of a division in defensive attitude? Certain ly many, many more. It seems sim ple: but it wou ld be superficia l not to take into accou nt the enemy's degree of "unseizability". In other words, the few obj ectives to attack are not so well known as the many to defend. Wh ich, although conditioning the execution, does not invalidate the consideratio n put as an interrogative at the beg inni ng of this parag raph. There is no question, here, to neg let and underevaluate the norma l safety measures taken for the rear areas of the combat zone. On the contra ry, it seems convenient to coupl e th em, w hen needed, with a fighting

form req uin ng fewer forces but of high qual ity, completely independent from defensive missions and decisively projected against the interdiction array. Any d efensive, subjective or waiting attitude in front of the enemy w ould be losi ng from the beginning and must not be taken into consideration . THE FORCES The qua ntity of forces should be substantia lly even in compar-

ison with those who interd ict. This is a. fact of great importa nce with in the economy of the forces, far from the superiority ratio normally considered between attack and defense, on one side, or - which is our case between guerri lla and counterguerrilla, on the other. From a q'i.Jalitative point of view, the counterinterdiction must be performed by un its similar to those of the enemy. In this sense the paratroops are precisely a good term of reference; moreover, such sort of an engagement is already co nsidered normal for them. In general, beca use of the need to adapt the units to the enemy's organization, the latter

tends to be sim ilar in structu re, deployment and procedures. Being so, every interdiction area i-3 covered by a counteri nterdiction one, comm itted to a complex of compa ny size an d organized with a comma nd post and a variable number of patrols . At the begi nning , the undefined ene my situation and the need of sudden interventions f orce the company comma nder to avai l himself of a reserve, whose strength is estimated in one patrol .

During the action and in COFJformity with its developments, change concerning the distribution of forces and even the limits o f the responsability area are forseable, whereas each patrol ca n be cons icered as a reserve and, as such, diverted - if necessary - from its norma l missi0n to face contingent events. The com pany co mmand post, also lig h: in strength, must rapidly reach the employment area not forming, at the same time, a persistent target. The patrols are no rmally inferior in size to those of the interdiction : not more than a dozen men. It is necessary, in fact, to keep a maximum of agi lity. Differently from its oppos -

ing part, the cou nterinterdiction does not need antitan k and antiaircraft weapons, mortars or explosives , nor high logistic au- Âˇ tonomy. Part of it may be kept, if that be the case, in reserve and employed only dependi ng on ci rcumstances. The choice of the initial com mand post and patro l deployment areas is made likewise interdiction forces do; ideally, the opposing positions should coincide so as to reach the contact as soon as poss ibl e and

to impose, in any case, a certain ly not. .. welcomed proximity. The com pany deployment is completed by some mobile observation and listening posts. Each of them is formed by a coupl e of men, mostly located at th e outskirts of the interd iction sanctuary. They mai ntain under control points of fixed passage and the itineraries to the aforementioned zone and viceversa, keeping hidden and in direct link to the company command post. The tactical control of the cou nterinterdiction companies is maintained by their battalion command post deployed not far from the Rear Area Headquarters, ful ly responsible for security. When on ly one company is operating, its command post remains wit hin the action area, sending a liaison element to the Rear Area HeadqJarters. The battal ion and rear area command post leads. coordinates and supplies its de pend ing forces. A determining contribution might be offered by the Army aircrafts and, if availa bl e, by elements of the el ectronic and psychological warfare, by those speciali zed in P.O.W. interrogation or by units e11ployi ng dogs. The aircraft. normally control led by the batta lion or the rear area headquarters, perform local reconnaissance, tacti cal and logistica l transport and fire missions, in connection or not with the patrols. The other elements, controlled by the same headquarters, except the dog units, achieve interception or decoding, ja mming and localization of enemy communications and coll ec t updated intelligence data, readily usable. The dog units. mostly allotted to the patrols, are very useful for resea rch and have not negligible psycholog ical effects. INTELLIGENCE AND COMMUNICATIONS The problem number one, common to many forms of specia l warfare, is given by the difficulty to locale the targets so as to

establish and mainta in contact and then proceed with resolving actions; these conditions are not achieved when the contact is seeked , at its own benefit, by the enemy under its proper forms and timing, as already described. What is needed is to assume the initiative and not to be subjected to it. An aggressive attitude should mark the collection of intell igence. Its resea rch activity, in particular, should foresee a full and uninterrupted utilization of all sources and means , in a w ay to exert a real pressure on the enemy, to compel him to w orry for his security and, therefore, if not worse, to determine the decay of his initiative and

sures and activities contra ry t o his own choices. The gro und observation, covered, mostly performed in nightti me and more dangerous. cares to discover the enemy's mouvements such as his way to approach the objectives and to return to bivouac. his reconnaissance, his water, food or sim ilar supply, his aerial supply, if any. All th is aiming to impose delays, detours, lack of security and a feeling of subjection. not to say of even more important outcomes. The most detailed informa tion concerni ng th e terrain might be a twofold superiority fa ctor: it can ease or speed-up the friendly action, on one side, and foresee, prevent or hamper

of the rhythm of his action. We have here, in other words, an intelligence activity which exceeds the limits of tactics. A typical exam ple of this is given by the aerial and ground observation. Th e first one, openly performed during day ti me, is concentra ted towards the sanctuaries, trying to discover where the enemy bivouacs, keeping him in a consuming psychological cond ition, always in fear or doubt to be discovered and compell ing him to undergo mea-

the enemy's action, on the oth er. The possession of it requires the study of a broad documentation. preventive reconnaissan ce and the easy avail ability of loca l or. at least, experienced personnel. Among the intelligence sources, the civil population deserves some special consideration. due to the weig ht that her attitude may exert on the intel ligence activity, both offen sive and defensive, of the two contenders.

First of all we shal l say that the support given by the popu lation, at least for the counterintell igence, is essential to any interdiction activity . It can be kept, however, to a minimum of pass ive neutrality; it not so, any contact with the population must be avo ided. This is clearly impossible within areas of high demographic density, apart from an exodus. Depending on its attitude, the population may always be divided into three cathegories: those who are wil ling to cooperate with the nationa l forces, those who are neutral Bnd those in favour of the enemy. The changing of the si tuation may determine percentage variations of these three cathegories, whereas the said articulat ion remains unchanged. This is possible because of many reasons: from the mere eth ical ones, like the politica l-ideologica l motivations or the vitality deg ree of the national or al lied spirit, to others of less noble nature like fear, grudge or an even more trivia l and simple convenience. In any case, the situation must never be cons idered as static . Many examples, and some recent too, show that the popu lation, if properly stimulated, reacts very rapid ly in a positive way. Within this form of warfare, although poor the outcomes, noth ing shou ld be left as ide to turn at own advantage any consent and support from the enemy. Even a sma ll fact may be useful to break the circle of elus iveness around him and produce, as a consequence, devastating effects. The available means are mai nly the psychologica l activity and, even more, t he attitudes ma intained. The first one, formula t ed in its broad lines by the high level headquarters and carried out by special units, should be supported by local and well finalized init iatives in close connection to the specific sit uation. As far as attitudes are concerned, the demonstrations of effectiveness and professional capability, the f irm actions, coupled with gene rous and friendly relations, are

all elements which grant the popular favour. Which is lost, on the other hand, by violence, in general, by retaliation, by imposing useless, excessive or not well understod limitations or inconven iences . At the beginning of this paragraph, commun ications have been assoc iated with intelligence . The latter, in fact. because of its importance and its particu lar aspects, directs their organisation. Counterinterdiction requires very quick actions; on them lies every prospect of success . Under this aspect, intell igence is not an exception because its utilisation is strictly related to the entire development of any maneuver. In fact, gathering and circulation of intel ligence data requires a communications system based on following, sometimes contrasting, features: the pulverization and mobility of the research ing elements, all to be kept in contact without any intermediation; the necess ity to equip the dismounted units with very

light radio sets ensuring, at the same time, a full reliabil ity of the communications network; the convenience to prefer rapidity and clearness to secrecy, considering as not existing or at least problematic the possibil ity, for the enemy, to intercept, decode, locate or even uti lize â€˘ our messages . All this considered, the communications system shou ld principa lly be based on a wireless network, largelv uti lizing very light and small sets. The "electromagnetic visibi lity" between the posts, whatever their deployment. is essential to the effectiveness and continuity of the traffic. Moreover, it seems necessary to reduce any "sound effect" within the who le action area by a proper deployment of relay posts; these are elements easily and quickly provided and, whenever the need, restored . To make the system even more functional and to comply wi th the needs of all users it seems possible, for example, to shift temporari ly from one net to the other; to keep in uninter-

rupted activity some sets and use others irregularly; to employ messages of prepared and standard forma t. THE FIGHT The comparis::rn between interdiction and counterinterdiction shows peculiar aspects. Both forms of combat operate offensively trying to impose their own initiative without oecoming an objective for eacr other. In fact. whereas the counterinterdiction is directly and solely projected against the interdiction deployment, the latter tends, on its side, to elude any confrontation and to hit the ocjectives of the communications zone already described in our previous scenario. The enemy acts, therefore, during night time, far from the sanctuaries where he returns and hides by day to recover his operational capability. The units of the opposing side gravitate instead, within and around the sanctuaries: during day time, when the enemy bivouacs inside, to surprise him with dynamic

on the study of available docuactions led and supported by ments, on reconnaissance and on helicopters; by night, occupying other measures taken to prepare ambush positions to intercept the traffic from and to the sanc- the forces. All this considered, we shall tuaries with the support of the now briefly outline how the misobservation and listening netsion is fulfilled. In this context, work. The time of engagement of the counterinterdiction forces the operating forces find an ample space for conceiving cain one or more areas of action pability, determination, pertinacy, depends ou the available intelboldness and physical resistence. ligence. The possibility to preThe patrols are the basic cede infiltra tio n actions of the interdiction forces appears sim- element. Each of them acts in an area of own responsibility ply unthinkable: it would mean, which coinci des with the area for the enemy, the total fail ure presumably used by an enemy of any initial surprise and the loss of many possibilities of suc- patrol as its sanctuary. By day light they search, cess. Moreover, it must be coneliminate or capture all the possidered that the enemy is fresible elements of the opposer's quently able to modify, even at deployment: bivouacs, hidden the last minute, time and space storages, isolated men, weapons, parameters of his manoeuver, documents ,equipment; directed thus inva lidati ng the counterinterdiction's preventive deploy- by the company headquarters, they select secundary iti neraries ment. due to their good knowledge of In general, the first actions shall reveal the presence of the the terrain and of the enemy; they collect. propagate and utienemy and dictate the time of lize without interruption every any attack. Nevertheless, some indication or trace of the enemy's measures might be adopted previously; they are based on fore- presence or passage, avoiding casts of possible enemy actions, its decoy or diversive measures; they proceed rapidly, without stopping and reduce to a minimum their safety measures being confident that the enemy has the need to elude, in any case, a direct encounter which would originate serious consequences for him, such as the immediate engagement by helicopters and/ or by the reserves; they act with caution only when this gives them the possibility to attack by surprise an objective already located through raid techniques; once contact is established, they maintain it by all means, informing their headquarters and proceed to attack decisively at the right moment. up to the elimination or capture of personnel, documents, equipment; in close adherence to the developing situation, they keep ready to split their forces down to couples of men. During night time all this is different. Since the enemy is the one who moves, the patrols perform ma inly a static activity, concentrated on fixed points or stretches and based on obser51

I vation, listeni ng and ambushes. Mouvemen ts to start a raid cou ld take place onl y if based on clear i ntelligence about the resting enemy elements . For example, a decis ion to concentrate coun terinterd iction forces on ob jectives already att acked by interdiction patrols, to start the ir research, woul d be an unproductive waste of energies and time . Although rapid the action, the enemy wo ul d centai nly have time to escape . The range mopping-up, al ways conven ient after having been attacked, must be carried out by other forces . With an only exception, however, i.e. when the enemy is in trouble either to brake con tact or because of his lasts duri ng the action. In such a case, a rapid counterinterd iction action may resul t timely and reward ing . By ni ght the pa trols deploy at the outski rts of the enemy sanctuaries to keep under cont rol the most probable routes of escape and re-entry. Each patrol must be organ ized with c1 srric1ll al er l element in coordina tion t o the observation net work and with another, more strong, ready for rapid ambushes . The selection of the ambush positions is made t hroug h a good knowledge of the terra in, of the possible enemy actions and thro ugh constantly updated intel ligence from various sources . Besides being properly fed, the reserve must be imployed only for decis ive engagement itself must be ordered on ly after having establ ished a contact and if the same can be maintai ned for the necessary time. Sorties conducted in va in are too risky. A reserve, both of forces and of fire, is always avai lable for counteri nterdiction . The fire reserve, normally kept at ba ttalion level, is formed by attack hel icopters and is engaged to support other forces or in an independent mission . Reconna issa nce hel icopters are not pa rt of it; they cover a different role and are armed mainly for self-defence.

The reserve force, split into patrols, stays at compa ny level or higher; it is deployed in proximity of the comma nd post it depends from and is highly mobi le on wheels, track or helos. The nig htime environment or bad weather condi tions hamper seri ously the miss ions granted by the helicopters. The presence of woods or of rugged terrain might cause problems for their land ing and req uire t he descen t of personnel by ropes, ladders or by jump, keeping the he licopters "hovering". The reserve might be em ployed to reinforce the action of one patrol thus reach ing a loca l superi ority, to concur to the pursuit of the enemy block ing his escape routes to conduct indepe ndent actions against already located elements. In any case, the engagements take place under the co ntrol of the local comma nder. For what was said up to now it clea rly appears that exceptiona lly high qua litative performances are essential for al l the actors . A const ant engagement is req ui red , in particular, from the patrols which opera te mostly isolated, with difficult terrain conditions and on a very elevated risk threshold . They must not be diverted from thei r miss ion for less than two days; otherwise, al i the experience acqu ired little by little wou ld be lost. However, after this period of time , their psyco-physica l stress reaches such levels that a prog ressive rot at ion of the more tired men wi th elements from the reserve appears advis able thus preventing any interruption of the fig ht. In this contest. t he logistica l autonomy gra nted to the pat rols at the beginni ng of their enga gement should be of two days. Later or exceptiona l suppl ies, as wel l as the remova ls, are performed by land or air means . The intelligence acq uired al lows to clarify progressively the existing uncertainties concern ing the terrain, the limi ts of the area atta cked by the enemy, his objectives, the tech niques

used , the ou tlines of the sanctua ry and the composi tion and organ ization of his forces . This permits to stead ily ad just forces and proced ures to the situation. The enemy, from his side, does the same . What rea lly cou nts is to make maximum profit from every adva ntage acqu ired: the , higher mobi lity derivi ng from lighter air and land transport means; the air fire superiority; the larger possibi lities of tactica l and log istical supply; the lesser need of safety measures; a better command, intell;gence and com munications o;gan ization . The success is meas ured not only and so much in terms of losses imposed t o the enemy, as more by the type of initiat ive tha t he had to give up once paralized by our pressure. It might wei l be that in an operational cycle the counterinterdiction does not achieve contact with the opposed forces and that theese, however, are so closely followed up and worried fo r their su rviva l that they are not able to attack any ob jective and are compel led to sl ip out . CONCLUSIONS The co unteri nterdiction demands a qualitative solution of the securit y problem withi n the comm unications zone. The particu lar nature of the enemy to confront req ui res an engagement of f orces capable of adequate performances . Our paratroops respond perfectly to th is need : this is confirmed by tests, discuss ions, training experie;-ices and by the resu lts obtai ned. Their inclus ion with in our reserve forces at the highest level makes their enga gement even ecsier. But nothing is resolving and definitive in this matter: there is always space for new ideas and experiences. Col. Giovanni Giostra

PARATROOPS AND COUNTER DICTION

THE PARAMETERS OF THE CHOICE OF ARMAMENTS The parameters on the basis of which armaments are chosen are numerous and sometimes contrast ing. I would consider, first, the international scenario of wh ich, in a given historica l moment. a nation is part. Second , the threat, seen quantitatively and q ualitatively, which has to be faced . Then, the foreseeable characters of the war which, presumably, will have to be fought. The geographical environment also has its iriportance. Final ly, the scientific progress and the available financial resources have a determ inant weight. Let us consider these parameters one by one.

Close support aircraft "Fairchild A- 10 A".

The international scenario in our case identifies with our partnership in the Atlantic Al liance, and consequently, our being part of its military organ ization . The Atlantic Al liance was created, for defensive purposes, when the public opinion of the West - the same publ ic opinion which is r ightly allowed to discuss every problem, criticizing, sometimes harsh ly, the choices made by parliament and government - requested a prompt demobilization, while the Soviet Union was keeping a strong military apparatus. making no mystery of its intentions to spread its ideology to the West, in a direct or a mediate form. The defensive aims that the Al liance pursues are in line with our Constitution, wh ich at art. 11 "repud iates war as an instrument of offence to the freedom of other peoples and as a means for solving international controversies", whi le art. 52 sanctions that "the defence of the Fatherland is a sacred duty of all citizens" and that "m ilitary service is compulsory" . The defens ive character of the Alliance, as well as the words of the Constitution, have prompted someone to distinguish between offensive and defensive weapons, and to maintain that we should have onl y the latter. To refute this thesis, which in its apparent simplicity can have a hold over the less-informed strata of the publ ic opinion and is Âˇexploited, in good or bad faith, by the pacifists to demand a reduction of mi litary expenses - on the pretext that the defensive arms, considered less soph isticated and less expensive, are sufficient for a country which like ours, does not have expan-

sioni st goals - we observe, first of an, that it never existed, and does not exist today, either an exclusively offensive war or an exclusively defens ive one. In fact, those. who take the initiative of military operations, cannot . attack everywhere, however great their superiority, but choose one or more directions for their effort and on this - or these - concentrate the main part of their potential, whi le prudent ly waiting in the other sectors. Similarly, the defenders cannot avoid undertaking counteroffensive actions, either to cut the penetrations through the gaps of their defensive system and reestablish the integrity of their positions, or to resolve in th eir favour a conflict which would turn them into losers if they were to crystallize in a defensive attitude. Likewise, there are no weapons employed exclusively for atta ck and weapons good on ly for defence. All arms, whatever their nature, degree of sophistication, range and single hit effect, have the purpose to inflict losses to the enemy, in order to preclud e him from attain ing his goals, be they offensive or defensive. For this reason, the only distinction having a conceptual valid ity must be made between the arms, viewed as means capable of causing da mages, and the protective equipment. But this, widely employed in the epoch of sidearms, in the form of helmets, shields and armours of all kinds , with the appearance of the firea rms has lost all its importance, due to their inadequate resistance and to t he

hindrance to movement that their weight created . They survive in the modern armies either to reduce the vulnerabil ity of the most exposed parts, as is the case for helmets, or to counter certain types of offences (masks and special garments for NBC protection). On the other hand , it is true that a certain type of weapon, owing to its characteristics, can be more sui ted either to the attacker or to the defender. For th is reason, for example, the arms with a direct trajectory are more useful to a defender that to an attacker, for the latter must advance, and often without cover. On the contrary, the arms with a curved trajectory help more the attacker, for they allow him to "dig out" the defender, who keeps under cover as much as possible. Since, as we have observed, the atta cker cannot act contin uously and on all sides, and the defender cannot avoid offensive reactions - more or less numerous and substantial , according to the doctrine that guides him - the co nsequence is that all arm ies have both types of weapons at their disposal. â€˘ Similarly, the antitank arms . essential to the defender for opposing the armoured formations on w hich the attacker rel ies, are also useful to th e latter, both when there are pauses in the offensive and to activate the defensive flanks, which he will have to create within the framework of a correct manoeuvre, aimed at gravi tating

Medium range antitank weapon system "Folgore".

only on the axes of high tactical and strategic advantage. And even tanks, today's symbol of the power and offensive capabi lity of an army, must be present in adequate quantities also in the arsenals of those countries which condemn all wars of aggression, under penalty of creating an imbal ance between their forces and those of their presumable enemy, an imbalance that cou ld annul their still legitimate will not to give in to overbearingness. It is unnecessary to add that the most terrifying tool of destruction and psychologica l intimidation known to ma n, the nuclear weapon - against which, rightly, the pacifists' darts are aimed, and which no one more than the military who, hAttAr than anyone else, can evaluate its devastating effects, wou ld like to see banished which is present in very large quantities in the dreadful war arsenal of a country which , owing to its ideology and actual behaviour, makes no mystery of its intentions to impose its supremacy on the world, has allowed a purely defensive Alliance such as NATO, equipped with conventional forces barely sufficient to check an aggression, to live peacefully for 40 years, improving the welfare of its peoples. On the mere military plane, our belonging to the Atlantic All iance translates into a clear location of the frontiers more ex posed to a possible attack, as well as in the possibility to benefit by the participation of the other members of the Alliance and , above all, by the nuclear cover provided by the United States. lnfrared-guided "TOW" antitank missile system.

Soviet "Frog 7" tactical missile, capable of carrying nuclear, chemical or HE warheads.

.. ..~ -

~ I

. ., ,,-., ..

...'ÂˇÂˇ\ ... '

... ~-1 '

.. 1 Âˇ;

i :~

il l

The most exposed frontier is, as is wel l known, the northearstern one, where operations wou ld have an almost exclusively air-land character and the aggressor would aim at the heart of the Po Va lley, both in the intent of breaking the continuity of the Atlantic positions and to seize the breathing lung of the Italian economy and, in so doing, to compromise our capability to resist over a long period, improving at the same time his own war potential. The warning times of a possible offensive against our northeastern border can be expressed in terms of hours, up to a maximum of five days, for land operations and in terms of minutes for air attacks; consequently, our troops must have a very high degree of operational read iness.

Nevertheless, in these last years, some factors, such as the increased military capabi lities of countries bordering on the Mediterranea n, the rising - or worsening - of hotbeds of tension in t he same area, the build -up of the Soviet navy - espec ially of its amphibious component - and, conversely, the dimin ished air and naval presence of the United States, have altered the pict ure previous ly outlined, spreading the menace to ou~ coasts, and particularly to the isla nds, influencing the dimensions of our operational instruments and their characteristics , mobility first of all. The analysis of the threat is centered on the eva luation of the opposing forces, a ratio that shows a worrying Soviet superiority, much greater than the 2-2.5 to 1, which wou ld permit the defender to block an attack within a certain depth whi le waiting for the expected reinforcements . The figures of such superiority are well known and the differences that can be found in the soucces - more or less biased - from which the figures come, do not seem to disprove substantially the overall eval uation expressed above. I wil l just say that. concern ing the abovementioned northeastern border, we can expect to be stormed by about 20 divis ional formations, i.e. about 60 Brigades with more than 4,300 tanks, 2,700 guns, 2,300 aircraft and a very high number of combat helicopters. Still with re ference to the threat, I shall dwell on a concept that al lows us to understand the different points of view from which the threat is seen by the two opponents; this concept has been acutely analyzed in a writing by Gen. Bernard, one of the most bri lliant generals serving in our Army and former military attache in Moscow . After stati ng that a d istinction must be made between the war power of a country, or group of countries, consisting of its global resources (human, tactical-scientific, financia l, economic, etc.). incl uding both the peacetime Armed Forces and those that can be mobilized in an emergency and can, in any case, be exploited and employed for war purposes - and rapid employment forces - which are the land, naval and air forces that already exist or that can be read ied with in a few days - Genera l Bernard observes that, as the GNP figures show, the war potential of the Atlantic Alliance is clearly superior to that of the Warsaw Pact, while the balance of the rapid employment forces is about even, if the considered forces are those avai lable in all the territories of the two blocs, but it is decidedly in favour of the Eastern bloc if the eva luation is limited to the forces stationed in Europe; all the more so because the Soviets can very rapid ly dispatch to the frontiers with the West also the un its now stationed in a rear pos ition, which usual ly are not taken into account, wh ile the US troops need a much longer time to cross the Atlantic and the crossing is exposed to the dangers posed by the mighty Soviet submarine fleet.

It follows that. while for the West a balance of forces in Europe would be an ideal condition of security, the same is considered by the Krem lin a condition of insecurity, worsened by a psychological reason: the complex of being surrounded by the hostile peripheral i;;ountries, a feeling that the Soviet leaders have inherited from the czarist empire. Exactly for this reason, according to its strategic conception, the Soviet Un ion, to defend itself, but also in conform ity with the principle that the contraposition between the capita list and the communist world must end with the destruction of the former, wants to have at its disposal forces capable of conquering Europe in a very short time - about 30 days - before the US can tra nsfer its reserves to our continent and activate its mighty war potential. In so doing - according to Gen. Bernard - the Soviet Un ion, moreover, would seize al l kinds of resources in Western Europe and would put itself in a position to endure a long-lasting conflict aga inst the superpower of the capital ist world. Final ly, and to sum it up, the West seeks an equi librium reasoning in terms of a confrontation, on the continent. of ready-employment forces, while the Soviets reason in terms of globa l war potential, where they are ob jectively in a situation of inferiority. This is the theory expounded by Gen. Bernard: a theory difficult to confute, which I personally share without reserve . Now let us proceed to the foreseeable -characters of a future conflict, a parameter for which we refer to the laws of the evolution of war. It is common ly agreed that war follows certain laws, some of which - the law of offensive, the law of movement, the law of force, and so on - define its nature and teach us, if we follow them, to make war in the best possible way, while others, cal led precisely laws of evolution, give us a notion of the trends of the development of war, and therefore allow us to prepare ourselves to face it adequately, should it again - quod Deus avertat - bathe the world in blood. Among the laws of evolution, those of persistence, amplification and acceleration are particula rly important. The first. confirmed by historical surveys, tells us that, for all the technolog ical progress, the belligerents are influenced by the features of the preceding conflict, so that the first clashes have the aspect of a rectified, enla rged and even exaggerated copy of that conflict. The second law teaches us that war, meant as both preparation and development of a conflict. has, with the exception of rare periods, always followed the path of the material evolution wh ich marks the history of mankind . Therefore, as our century is characterized by the unremitting, dizzy advancement of technology and, under its spur, by the continuous increase of everything useful to man and society, so the war phenomenon trans-

_,,_ . ~ . Âˇ.

op1n1ons

~\\~ Soviet 240 mm. "BM-24" multiple rocket launcher.

fers to its ambit, uses for its own purposes this tendency to quantitative and qual itative increase and becomes, on its own, a factor promoting scientific progress. The law of acceleration proves that every country, in its anx iety to prevail over its possible adversary, has always tried to intensify the process of amplification, not only by trying to influence the scientific progress - as I have noted before - but. in certain cases, by reaching the point of determin ing it, and so placing itself in advance of its times. Clearly today one must distinguish between intellectual acceleration - open to all countries, large and small, rich and poor, equipped with shrewd, dynam ic mi lita ry staffs, ready to perceive the innovative instances of their times - and material acceleration, which, given the enormous cost of modern armaments, is almost exclusively possible for economically strong nations, willing to allocate large sums to the research and production of new means. Things being so, we must anticipate : military operations emphasizing the characters of mobi lity, firepower, exploitation of t he air space also for purposes of land manoeuvres, the contribution of electronics in all its forms, the rapid wear of the equipment. an imposing logistic support, the involvement of the c ivilian population; characters that have marked the second world conflict.

Soviet marines get ashore from "BTR-60 PB" personnel carriers.

The nuclear component, even though not employed - and I do not think it will be (1) - wi ll make its weight felt in th is scenario, for it wi ll force the units to deploy on spaces vaster than in the past. in order to dimin ish their vulnerability, not exc lud ing their subsequent concentration to achieve success by force, emphasizing therefore the need for mobi lity, command and control. Moreover it becomes necessary to give the equipment specia l characteristics to protect them from radioactivity, and to have special devices to revea l the presence of residua l radiations and decontaminate personnel and materials. I cannot conclude the survey of this parameter without mentioning two hypotheses, which have been advanced lately, for the defence of our territory from a poss ible attack . The first, known as "people's war", was confuted by me in an article - appeared in 1980 (2) in the Italian edition of this Review - which I bel ieve is still appropriate, and to wh ich I refer the readers who wish to examine the question more closely. Here I shall lim it myself to reminding that the armed resistance aimed at overthrow-

ing a despotic reg ime that lacks the people's con sent, or at driving out a foreign army wh ich has established itself "manu militar(' over the entire territory of a given nation - or part of it - is a form of war as old as mankind, but, with particular exceptions, it was never a first-step course if waged against forces coming from the outside, for the gap between a regular army and the guerrilla units - even if prepared in peacetime - wou ld be unbridgeable, and for this very reason the national territory, far from being defended, would be rapid ly occupied and turned into a battlefield . The second hypothesis, warmly supported in some parliamentary circles ancf cal led "territorial defence", presupposes - in short - a radica l transformation of the traditiona l organization of the Army, dividing it into two parts: one, more substantial, made of sub-conventioml units, with light armament and conscripts loca lly recru ited for a short term of service, and a smal ler, highly soph isticated part, relying on armoured and mechanized units, field missiles and antiaircraft units, manned by volunteers serving for longer terms. The first part should cling to those mountainous and hilly areas where the enemy's tanks and mechanized formations find obstacles to their advance, whi le the professional units, kept in reserve at first, shou ld support the light ones with dynamic reactions, developed over considerable depths. I sha ll carefu lly refrain from summari ly dismiss ing such a hypothes is, although it wou ld be possible. All ideas. if stated in good faith. deserve respect, but it is reasonable to assume that the light units wou ld be rap idly overcome by an aggressor determ ined to reach its ob jectives and to put in the attack al l the necessary weight; all the more that t he area of mounta inous and hil ly obstacles is of moderate depth. Once the more advanced deployment is broken, in the VenetoFriulian plain, ample spaces for manoeuvre are open to the aggressor; here he can apply his superiority against the highly so phisticated un its, which, without supporting points, would have very scarce possibilities to survive. As regards the geographic environment, it wi ll be sufficient to recal l that the mountain area of our territory - as is the case for the lagoon area, although to a lesser exte.1 t - requires the presence of special troops equipped with suitable materials. It must be pointed out that the presence of un iva lent - or on ly partia lly interchangeable pawns - does not help the flexibility, and consequently the manoeuverabi lity, of a battle corps; all the more so, when this, as is our case, is of modest dimensions and therefore unable to face, with the prior deployment of adequate forces, the man ifold threats to which it is exposed. It ensues (1) See my study "Euromissiles, Neutron Bomb, NATO Strategy, and the Situation of t he Italian Army" published in no. 2 (March -Ap ril 1982) of the Italian edition of this Review. (2) " Forward Defence": Rivista Militare, no. 2 (September-October 1980). page 20.

that one must not exaggerate the tendency to emphasize the structural differentiations and the diversification of materials. not even in view of interventions in cases of public disasters; these interventions , althougl:l rightfu l and provided for by the "Norms of Principle on Military Discipline", are not the main task of the Armed Forces. Let us examine the scientific progress. This is typica l of our times, and has heavy re flections on the materials because, independently of the new necessities that progressively arise (for example, in the sectors of command and control. saturation weapons, combat helicopters - especial ly with antitank functions - mountain cross-country vehicles, automated management of materials) every country, in the intent of gaining an advantage over a possible enemy (accord ing to the law of acceleration) or at least in the intent of keeping the same pace, is impelled to adopt a weapon system with more advanced performances - more sophisticated, as we say - and therefore more expensive, to repl ace a system which is obsolete, i.e. technical ly old. And this is particularly serious because the operational life of a weapon system is not longer than 20-25 years, and can reach 30 years on ly it won ders are worked with its maintenance and overhauling, and some modernizing is done. With refere1ce to the greater costs of the means of new conception of a given cathegory, let us just consider that a first generation tank, mean ing as such the first planned and bu ilt after the last wa r - for us the Leopard 1 of German o rigi n and coproduced in Italy - costs today 1 billion 300 million lire, updated price, but a 2nd generation tank, the Leopard 2, already in service with the Bundeswehr and which will soon equip the Dutch and Swiss armies, reaches almost 3 billion lire, and studies are already under way for its successor. The Soviet Union itself, with in 40 years. has gone from the T.34 - produced in thousands of units during World War II - to the T.44, T .54, T.55, T.62, an excellent tank from al l points of view, with a 115 mm gun, to the T.72, with a 125 mm gun, and to the last born . the T.80. The growing cost of modern materials. and particularly of their plan ning and development. hampers the econom ical ly w ea ker countries. which cannot allocate large sums to scientific research and which , having military instruments of limited dimensions, cannot distribute over a large massproduction the planning costs. the construction and testing of prototypes, and the setting up of a production line of a given system. In order not to prevent the Army from having access to means with advanced characteristics, despite the technological lag of the national industries, and to avoid or limit importation from abroad, in the post-war period we resorted to international cooperation , in two distinct forms. The first, called co-produ ction, means producing

at home - under licence and with previous ag reement with the government of the country which has planned and produced it - the whole weapon system , or part of it, and proceed ing to its final assembly. For instance, it is under this formula that in Italy we have made the tracked vehicle M. 113 of American origin, for the transport of mechanized infantry, the M. 60 tanks. also of American origin, and the Leopard 1, of German origin . Nevertheless it must be pointed out that some countries, own ers of the design of the wea pons requested for reproduction, gra nt the licence only

"Leopard 1" medium combat tank, seen during an exercise.

for the needs of the country that requests it, ba rring, therefore, all prospects of export and , as a conseq uence, the poss ibil ity to reduce costs through a more intensive use of the assemblylines. The second form, more adva ntageous than the first because it places all countries on an equal standi ng and opens the foreig n market to all of them, consists in a bilateral or multilateral agreement for the planning, construction of prototypes and mass production of a weapon system of mutual interest. It is the path we have fol lowed for the 155 mm. towed howitzer called FH-Âˇ70, and which we are following for its tracked version called SP-70 and for the combat aircraft MRCA. Other important materials could ensue, as we shall see later on. In this way we can hope to narrow the gap that separates us from the more developed countri es and to reach a greater or even complete industrial autonomy. As I poi nted out before, the fact remains that only the certainty - which nobody can have - of conquering a slice of the foreign market. where competition is keen. can make economica lly profitable the single-handed study and real ization of a given advanced system . Planning ahead , for the technological gap is far from bridged, the Armv General Staff is moving along this road. choosing for the 2nd

generation tank - which is needed in order to at least partl 9I1y modernize our tank line - the national soll,:Jtion, while it was common belief that the deci13ion would have been to co-produce the Leopar.d 2, a very high performance tank, considered by the experts the best in the world, already employed by the Bundeswehr, in productio.n for the Netherlands and co-produced by Switzerland, which - having discontinued in 1980 a well-advanced national programme - after a long and accurate technical and practical comparison, preferred it to the American M. 1 Abrams. It is a bold choice, reaching into the future; the industrial partnership created by FIAT and OTO-MELARA for the construction of the new tank must respond with an intelligent and effective effort. It must be an intelligent undertaking because the national solution must not be understood as an autarchic one, considering that the development of the Leopard 2 has taken 12 years of studies and tests, with the construction of no less than 21 prototypes and an expense of over 700 billion lire. If we were to rely on our strength alone, the Italian tank could hardly see the light, in its prototype form, before 1989-1990. It would have an enormous cost and would not be competitive on the international market, not only because it would be too expensive, but also, and mainly, because the foreign tanks of the 3rd generation would be looming on the horizon. Far from withdrawing into our shells, we shall have lo c:1ccepl l tie cooperc:1tion of highly 4ualiried foreign companies that have already offered it. The U.S. itself, whose technical capability and financial wealth nobody can doubt. has discontinued the development of a 120 mm. gun for the 2nd generation of its M. 1 Abrams tank and will build under licence the Rhein-metal gun in stalled on the Leopard 2. Spain, on its part, having decided - like us - to make a modern tank at home and to narrow its technological gap, has without hesitation sought the cooperation of Germany, motherhouse of the Leopard line, and an agreement for the construction of a 40-45 ton tank, comparable to the Leopard 2 and, under certain aspects, more advanced, is about to be signed. We have centred our speech on the battle tank as an example, but it can be extended to all the necessary weapon systems and high-technology systems, keeping well in mind the following assumptions: â€˘ Scientific research and technological innovation are, as Minister Granelli pointed out in a recent visit to the U.S., indispensable factors of international competition; â€˘ Research must be programmed, financed and controlled. While it is true that in 1983 about 7,000 billion lire, about 1.6% of our GNP, were assigned for this purpose, it is also true that this sum has been divided among 150 budget items: too many t o achieve good concrete results; 60

"Leopard 2" medium combat tank. Equipped with antinuclear, 120 mm. gun and 7.62 mm. machine guns.

â€˘ Programming should be directed towards carefully selected objectives according to their effectiveness, and this selection should go together with the coalition of Institutes and Industries interested in research in a determinate sector. From this point of view, credit must be given to the Army General Staff for having first perceived the usefulness of promoting the establishment of Consortiums entrusted with the development of a given weapon system or any other programme of considerable complexity. The abovementioned Consortium, created for the production of the 2nd generation tank, is a good example. The transition from the present system of many, more or less nearsighted, interlocutors, concerned mainly with

t' t

biological and chemical protection systems, it is armed with a

their own interests, to a two-partner dialogue - Defence and Consortium - though not exempt from snares - and we shall see later how these can be avoided - reduces sensibly the times of planning and development and is therefore a source of considerable savings; • Research must not be financed almost exclusively by the State, as is now the case, with the result of unburdening the public or private Companies of their responsibilities. They must not evade their share of risk, a risk that can be reduced to moderate dimensions through a cautious estimate of the future needs, concerted with the qualified military authorities.

We come at last to the financial resources, the parameter that since many, too many, years is a doleful note. From what we have just expounded it is clear that the quantity and quality of armaments of an Army, as well as a Navy's and an Air Force's, are connected in mere theoretical form to the similar elements of the forces against which they are expected to fight, to the geographic characteristics of the possible theatres and to the procedures that one has decided to follow. The military leaders are obviously bound to ask the· best as regards quality and to reckon, for quantity, something more, as a safeguard against contingencies that often occur in war, and always with a negative sign. Such theoretical concatenation is fully effective also in the practice of the totalitar ian states, rightist or leftist - where the power aims prevail over the social ones - which do not have to answer to public opinion about the employment of the national income and can rig as they please the figures of the budget. The situation is different in the democratic countries which pursue, first of all, the aims of economic development of the nation and social promotion of their citizens, and are obliged to show with extreme transparency where the public money goes. If one adds to that the inclination, rather widespread also in official circles, to regard mil itary expenses as improductive, and the consequent scarce liking for them, it becomes easy to understand not only the governments' habit of always keeping below the requests made by the military authorities, but also the cuts that in times of crisis are made ·to the Defence· budgets, giving rise to a frequent, often harsh but always fair, conflictuality between the political and military authorities. The latter, though conscious of the complexities and contradictions of the problems that the former must face, rightly demand the observance of the levels of force freely agreed upon as part of international agreements, and underline that by going below the safety limits one nullifies the operational plans and compromises the credibility of our defensive will. Moreover, in an emergency, the flowing of al lied reinforcements would become difficult for lack of a plausible moral motivation to help someone unwilling to help himself. This is how the financial resources, from 1974 on, just to limit ourselves to the nearest period, have undergone a progressive reduction, clearly not in their absolute value but in the percentage of the State's expenditures. which from the 9.86% of that year have gone down to 4.40% in 1983, an amount that sets us at one of the last places of the Alliance, behind countries less well-off than ours, and less exposed to a possible aggression (see chart). This year, things have not changed very much despite an increase of the appropriations for defence by 3% in real terms, of the budget of 1981, in line with the agreements made at the conference of the Heads of State and Govern61

men t of the Atlantic Alliance, wh ich took place in Washington in the Summer of 1978. The agree ments were confirmed by the Supreme Defence Council at the meeting of January 28, 1981 (and it seems an irony that th is measu re should have been taken by a social ist-led government). We have at our disposal 13,798 bil lion lire, of which 5,822 billion are taken up by tied-·up expend it ures (personnel, non -institutional, expenses deriving from international agreements, etc.). Of the remaining 7,976 bi llion. only 3,194 bi llion can be assigned to the updating and renewal of the ma teria ls of the three Armed Forces. since the rema ining 4,782 are earmarked for the operating expenses. In a situa tion of chronic insufficiency of resources, wh ich did not only prevent the rep lacement, but even the updating of the ex isting materials. in 1975 it was absolutely necessary - as is wel l kn own - to perform a rad ical reorganization, wh ich was practically a reduction of the Armed Forces in all of their components (operational units, logistic support. territorial and training organiza tions) . As regards the Army, a considerable number of battalions of the various Branches, including severa l glorious traditional Regimental Headquarters, were disbanded .

After the reorgan ization, the new establ ishment, based on the Brigade - wl1ich, better than the Division , was deemed capable, in the nuclear era, to assume the role of elementary Major Unit of a Battle Corps - was based on 24 Brigades of differen t types. 5 of which deployed to the south of the Apenni nes. The threat aga inst the northeastern border. the importance of wh ich we have seen before, should therefore be faced by 19 Brigades and their support, a bulk barely sufficient to prevent an early break in our defensive apparat us, which would be followed by a fast and deep penetration. The cuts were not made without tra uma. and the Army Ch ief of Staff of the time, who had the courage to take this initiative, risked unpopularity. But these cuts should have had as compensation an extraordinary allocatio:1 of funds for the purpose of modernizing the equipment and to improve considerably the qual ity of the Units kept in service. In fact, our Parliament, in 1977, with a sens itiveness that deserves praise, passed, as it had already done for the Navy and, immediately after. for the Air force, a promotiona l law wh ich assigned to the Army the amount of 1,115 billion lire. to be spent in yearly installments. Unfortunate ly, what was lost for the delay of the years of

EVOLUTION OF DEFENCE EXPENDITURES (1974 - 1984)

/ DEFENCE BUDGET

YEA.RS

STA.TE EXPENSES

DEF./STA.TE %

GNP

DEF./GNP

DEFENCE INCREA.SE

(MONETA.RY)

GNP IMPLIED DEFLA.TORY

' 2.373,4 (1) 1974

(2.005,2)

20.338,26

9,86

110.719

1,85

197-5"

2.4?1,3

30.373,9

8,o7

125.378

1,96

22,5

17,5

38.071,i

7,77

156.657

1,89

20,62

18,-

..;

1977

' f956,7

1976

3.530,6

4.3q,8

1978

1979 • . . ·.·_s:119,1:·

47.083,5

7,49

190.083

1,86

19.41

19,-

64.444,-

6,69

222.254

1,94

22,18

13,8

119.376,- (2)

4,28

269.657

1,90

18,67

15,9

150.249,-

3,85

337.402

1,71

12,91

20,8

29,94 (4)

17,6

.5.780,0; .. :.. . ..

1900·:.-, .'·,

. _7.51.0,7 ·

1981 ,.

1982

: 9.918,~

1983

~2:047

1984

13.798 ·~ ,·

,< ...

177.731 ,...:

4,23

398.125

1,89

235.366,-

4,21

472.970 (3)

2,10 (3)

32,05 (4)

16,1

. 273.227

4,40

558.350 (3)

2,09 (3)

17,45

15,5

340.413

4,054

18,05

not available

(1) Up to 1974' .the budget includes also pension outlays, which as from 1975 will be assumed direct ly by the Treasury. For the, homogeneity of the historical sequence, t he amount within bracke ts is taketl into account. (2) -Acc.cndi,ng to ·Law no. 468 of August 5, 1978 and starting from 1979, the estimate State budget has been "expanded" to include · expenses regarding decentralized authorities and hospital institutions. (3) Estimated data. . (4) In assessing t he considerable monetary increases of 1981 and 1982, one must not over:ook the insignificant increase- of the budget of 1980, the darkest year of the defence budgets from 1975 to this day. Therefore the, average increase in the last 3 years is approximately 25%, very little above the· average of the preceding· years. These data are contained in Decree· no·. 3630 "Estimate State budget for FY 1983".

sca rce pol itical attention to the military cou ld not be compensated by the sums assigned. In addition, nobody was shrewd enough to connect the financing with the depreciation of the lira, with the result Gf having it eroded by inflation and, for the materials earning from abroad, by the continuous worsening of the rate of exchange of the lira vis~a-vis the other currencies. Therefore, already in 1981, we were again in the difficult situation of 1975, which was made worse by the increase of the threat - both in its gravity and in the variety of its sources - and by the cuts made in the Defence budget in 1982 and 1983. The Minister of Defence of the time, to whom the situation had been duly expla ined, deem ing appropriate to inform the Parliament about t he needs aris ing from the threat looming in the Mediterranean area, ordered the elaboration of a document in order to poss ibly shape a new model of defence. In th is document, submitted to the Min ister in the Spring of 1983, it is stated that in comparison to 1975 there had been no decrease in the threat to the north-eastern border, wh ile additional necess ities were appearing in the cen tra l-southern area. It seems neither possible nor opportune that the opposition to these threats, of prevalent air and nava l character, should go to the detriment of our defence capability in the VenetoFriul ian area, to which, moreover, Italy is bound by its pledge to NATO. From th is derives t he subst,rnti::i l c:ontirm::ition of thA model of defence based on the reorgan ization of 1975, which is to be quantitatively and qualitative ly completed in order to face the increased vulnerabi lity of the South . From the ana lysis sinthetical ly described here, a technical -operational programme has been worked out by the Defence General Staff, together with the Genera l Staffs of the three Serv ices . The programme covers the years from 1983 to 1992 and its fi rst phase shou ld be limited to the objectives established in 1975, wh ich are to be considered as minimum goals. The subsequent stages, appropriately phased according to the avai lable financial resources, should gradual ly al low us to adj ust to the new situation . As for the Army, to list its main shortages, wh ich were also pointed out by NATO in its eva luation of the 1983-1988 force goals, we shall ava il ourselves of the statements of the Army Ch ief of Staff at the "Nationa l Conference on the Defence Industry", wh ich was held in Rome this year in July. In the manoeuvre and mobility sector, wh ich is made up of armoured and mechanized troops, the main problem are the tanks, characterized by heterogeneity, decl ining operativeness of a good portion of them (namely the M. 47s) and by the technological aging of the firing-systems wh ich , besides bei ng unable to perm it firing while moving, are absolutely insufficient in the acquis ition of the target and first hit probability.

~ op1n1ons -

"'\\~ The modern 155 mm. "FH. 70" howitzer, in service with the Italian Artillery.

The Army General Staff, confronted by an ob jective ly unbearable situation, has decided to acquire a certain number of 2nd generation tanks and home-bu ilt armoured cars of domestic production, in order, to replace, at least partial ly, the M. 47. About the convenience, under particular cond it ions, of the nationa l choice, I have already expressed my opinion and therefore I shall not repeat it, while in my capacity as an expert in employment, which I think I am due to my professional background, I wish to make some reservations about the usefulness of the armoured cars. At the same time, and in order to regain the time lost in the past useless diatribes, the qua lified organs of the Army Genera l Staff and the Genera l Directorate of Motorization are working briskly at organizing the complete overhaul of the 1st generation tanks (M. 60 and Leopard 1). This overhau l will go together with a substantial updating, regard ing particularly firing systems and protection. In the perspective of the '90s, our Army wil l have at its disposal two groups of tanks, one modern or modern ized and the other made up by tanks of grad ually decl ini ng operativeness, which shou ld be replaced in the mid '90s by the 3rd generation tanks. For these, a feasibi lity study shall have to be started as soon as possible, also in 63

OTO-MELARA 25 mm. four-barrel antiaircraft field system, on a M-113 hull.

view of creating the conditions for a joint cooperation - on an equal base - with the European countries most advanced in this sector. Ragarding the supporting fire, the aim is - in accordance with the ever growing success of the "Airland Battle 2000" doctrine inside NATO - to acquire land .systems capable of neutralizing the second echelon enemy units. These systems, owing to their cost and high technology, shou ld be obtained through on early participation in multinational projects. The rocket launcher MLRS and the LANCE are the most outstanding of these systems. The MLRS studies have reached the 3rd phase, which aims at developing rockets equipped with submunitions w ith terminal self-guidance; many obstac les will have to be overcome, notably the financial costs which the Army is absolutely unable to tackle with its scarce resources only. As for the LANCE, of which we already have a battal ion managed, for the logistic support, by NAMSA, there is a multinationa l project for the substantial improvement of the system in its LANCE 2 version, with a longer range, from the present 80 kms. to 200 kms. It is almost unnecessary to add that we shall have to carry on with the SP-70 programme, which will equip the armoured artillery w ith a self-propelled gun having the same characteristics of the recently acquired FH-70 towed howitzer. As regards the antitank fire, whi le we intend to take part, under equal conditions, in the multinational development and production of a 3rd generation missile, there are national initiatives concerning the medium range and, potentially, the technical capability to participate in a European programme, with clear advantages as regards 64

costs, which are very high, and the possi bility to obtain foreign orders. As for the antiaircraft defence, the situation is rather fluid. In the long run - but not very long - the HAWK system, which has almost reached the end of its operational life, shall have to be replaced. To cover the units likely to be t he most employed, the acquisition of 24 SkyguardAspide light miss ile systems has been decided; they will meet the needs of 12 Brigades. The oth er Brigades and the units of the territorial defence will have to be equ ipped with the same system, unless we participate in the multinational studies for a higher performance 3rd generation system . There remain the problems of low altitude about which we are waiting for the results, not very encouraging up to now, of the study for a four-barrel 25 mm gun on a M. 113 hull, assigned to a national firm - and the problems of self defence, to be solved preferably with portable missile systems. For the modernization of the light aviation we anticipate, in the long term, the replacement of the AB-206s with a family of hel icopters derived from the A-129 for reconnaissance and fire observation and control, and the acquisition of a tactical transport helicopter for the replaceme nt of the AB-204/ 205/ 212. Command and control is mentioned last for exposition reasons, but it inflL-ences all others. Without disparag ing the moral value of the physical presence in the hot places and moments of the battle, it is electronics - a science whose continuous development is astonishing - that the higher Commanders turn to, in order to learn and see what happens on the battlefie ld, and to give orders, on the timeliness of which victory or defeat can depend. CATRIN, a national project of remarkable importance and high-technolog ical contents, should give an adequate answer to this fundament al need. The shortages listed above , and other less important ones which nevertheless must not be neg lected, from which our Army suffers, will be removed on ly if the next budgets - taking into account the inflation's actual rate, confirming the annual increase of 3% and not making extemporary cuts - will leave the necessary margins to the item "modernization and renewal of materials". If the contrary happens, the only choice would be to reassess the tasks assigned to the Armed Forces and probably also the political strategy of our country. These are decisions that go beyond the mil itary authority and are the responsibility of Parliament and Government. While it is essential to draw the leg islative and executive powers' attention on our problems, at the same time it is our duty to spend wisely the funds assigned . to us. In this regard we can ask ourselves whether it is wise to pay 100 in Italy what the foreign market offers for 50. In t he abstract, the answer is negative, but in practice one can concede that in a situation of economic

~ s h i p , as the present one is, one should try to favour the national industry: the Defence Minister acted well when he issued reccomendations to this end to the bodies cha rged with the acquisition of goods and services. Nevertheless. if we want to avoid turning into arbitrariness or mere beneficence what is to be understood as a contribution made by defence to the recovery of the Italian production system, it seems necessary to: • continue inviting the tenders of foreign firms. for their bids. besides being a reference point. have a price-controlling function; • quantify in percentage (Minister Lattanzio did so some years ago for a certain acquisition) what allowance can be given to the national firms, for equipment of the same quality; • ensure. with appropriate surveys, that the game is worth the candle, that is. that one does not pay more for goods of inferior quality; • evaluate with maximum accuracy and adequate technologies the "congruity" of the price requested by the suppliers. This is all the more necessary for the supplies by private contract, in which there is no competition; this will happen with the joining in consortia of the possible interlocutors of Defence for complex weapon systems. The evaluation of such "congruity", in which various elements. difficult to assess. are itertwined (among them the firm's profit is a particularly thorny one) has always been an arduous problem for the Defence Administration - and, I believe, also for other Administrations - which has been solved in empirical, approximative and uneven ways. It would be useful to create a very skilled group of cost analysts, under the Secretary General of Defence or at the Central Office for Military Equipment, with the possibility to be employed also by the Director Generals; • shorten. as the Secretary General of Defence underlined in his speech at the abovementioned National Conference on the Defence Industry, and as I have pointed out in another study (3). the very long time now lapsing before the contracts are approved and the firms receive their dues. The supplying firms are not banking institutions and must therefore ask banks for the funds they need and it is logical that they make us pay the interests. which today are very high. I should like to add, addressing myself to the good -or-bad-faith pacifist circles, which condemn the military industry attributing to it the responsibility for the situation of insecurity in which mankind lives and also for the local conflicts that cover the world with blood - which instead, have various and less simplistic causes - that the Italian defence industry, even if it is at the fourth place (but with a modest 4.3%) in the list of the arms-exporting countries. which is headed by the Soviet Union with 36.5% (4), is an essential component of the national defence, whose aim is to guarantee the independence and territorial integ-

rity of our country and to guard the Institutions it has chosen for itself. But there is more. Our armament industry is trying hard. also thanks to the technological contributions it receives from the international cooperation. to make up for the delay occurred in the first half of the post-war period. It will certainly succeed in the medium term unless the beneficial external contributions are blocked with anachronistic protectionisms and its impetus is repressed by reducing orders. Today. this impetus places this industry among the small number of metal-mechanica l activities that withstand the crisis which has hit our country. It has been estimated that for every 100 billion lire withheld from the investments of Defence there is approximately a decrease of 2 million working hours and about 2000 workers are put on the dole. The economic and social consequences are evident: • decrease of the national productivity with a negative influence on the balance of payments, on our competitivity in the international market and on the technological development of our industries; • increase of unemployment; • the expense by the State of approximately 20-25 billion lire a year for the personnel on the dole. To conclude, a last consideration. The inadequacy of the financial resources has a moral aspect that must not be undervalued and involves the responsibilities of the ruling class. Rightly, Fascism is blamed, among other things, for having sent our youth to die on the African sands and in the Russian steppe, in a little-felt war and with scarce and in part inadequate means. History could repeat itself, because the days in which Marshal Suvorov could say: "the bullet is crazy, the bayonet is shrewd" are definitely gone. Though the statistics of the losses are never peremptory, it has been reckoned that in World War I as well as in World War II the percentage of the wounded by sidearms did not reach 1%. And also passed are the more recent times when it was possible that a high number of men at arms (the 8 million bayonets of unhappy memory) was synonimous with power. It is true that in war the maker of success is still man, with his preparation and the virtues he can express in time of need but, in order not to betray him. it is necessary to give man the best equipment offered by technology or, at least, all he requires to withstand a confrontation with his probable enemy. Lt. Gen. (ret.) Luigi Salatiello

(3) See "L'Amministrazione della Difesa", lnformazioni della Difesa. no. 3-4/1983. (4) Data contained in the "Report on Armaments, 1982" by SIPRI (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute) published in Italy by the Disarmament Archives, De Donato editions.

TECHNICAL

DATA

THE MERLIN MORTAR BOMB This newly announced in fantry launched anti-armour weapon has been devised and developed by British Aerospace as a company funded venture. It is launched by a conventional 81 mm mortar giving low cost per round and low cost of operation. Merlin is a terminally-· guided armour piercing mortar bomb offering a highly effective fire and forget capability to infantry confronted by tanks and APCs. The active millimetric guidance sensor is highly resistant to ECM and gives a full all-weather fire-and-forget capability.

MISAR

spa

via brescia,39·41 castenedolo ( 6s )· i ta I ia tel. 030/273241 l telex 302081 misar i

/8i41.'B1

1OERLIKON 25 mm AUTOMATIC CANNON, TYPE KBB

The Oerlikon 25 mm KBB cannon is a gas-operated weapon featuring a two part positively locked bolt. It has a selectable dual feed capability, the ammunition feed being operated by the sliding bolt. Two removable pins attach the cannon to the cradle upon which it recoils. The ammunition guides are fixed to the cradle. The small average recoil force of only 8000 N together with its low total mass of only 146 kg makes it suitable for a wide variety of installations. The high rate of fire and the high muzzle velocity of the projecti les provide the cannon with its excellent characteristics as an anti-aircraft weapon and at the same time guarantee outstanding effectiveness aga in st ground targets. The 25 mm KBB cannons are very ruggedly constructed to ensure operational reliability under adverse environmental conditions (sand, dust, heat. rain, etc.). Routine maintenance calls for no special sk ills from the operator and requires no special tools. For naval applications the KBB cannon is mounted in a

mu ltibarreled configuÂˇration. The "Sea Zen ith" quadruple gun mount is the weapon of the SEAGUARD close-in weapon system, designed to destroy antiship missiles. bombs and aircraft. The rapid firing KBB cannon and its AMDS anti-missile ammunition have been optimized to give a one hit = one kill probability against missiles. A un ique feature of the mount is its Zenith engagement capability. TECHNICAL CANNON DATA Total mass (including ammunition feed mechanism. without belt chutes): 146 kg. Rate of fire: 800 rounds/min. Muzzle velocity Vo: . 1160 m/s (standard ammunition); . 1355 m/s (AMOS ammunition). Average recoil force: 8000 N. Recoil: max. 34 mm. Overhall length: 3190 m. Barrel length: 2300 mm (92 calibre) . No. of rifling grooves: 78. Rigling angle: progressive 7" 30'.

TECHNICAL SEA ZENITH DATA Mass of gun (withou t ammunition): approx. 4500 kg. Am munition (7300 rounds): approx. 5500 kg. Rate of fire: 3200 rou nds/min. Muzzle velocity: 1355 m/s. Types of ammunition : TP-T. HEI, APOS-T, AMOS, 'APP-T.

[

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NA30 FIRE CONTROL SYSTEM The NA 30 Fire Control System represents the most complete and technologically updated product of the line of the new generation equipment designed by Elettronica San Giorgio - ELSAG to cope with the present and future operational requirements of modern Nav ies. This System was adopted by the Italian Navy for installation in the new ASW Frigates of "Maestrale" class and in the Helicopter Carrier "Garibaldi". The Na 30 F.C.S . is available in two configurations: Mod. A and Mod. B, the ma in difference between the two versions being the number of Lines-ofSight available. Intact the NA 30 Mod. A utilizes for target tracking two independent directors. one supporting the Selenia ORION 30 X Radar and the other equipped with optronlc sensors sue~, c:18 c1n Infra Red thermal camera. a Laser range finder and a Dayl ight TV camera . As on option, Daylight/Lowlight level TV camera con be also installed in the Rodar Director. As NA 30 Mod. B is provided with a single Director where the same ORION 30 X Radar is combined with an Infra Red sensor and a Daylight TV camera . From the weapon control point of view. the NA 30 Systems, depending on the configuration considered, can provide up to four independent gun outputs and proper ballistic calculation for up to three different calibres, besides supplying launching data to Surface-to-Air missile Systems and target data to those Sur-Âˇ face-to-Surface missile systems requiring this input. SYSTEM COMPOSITION NA 30 Mod. A The NA 30 Mod. A Fire Control System is composed of

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THE NEW OVERKILLER AGAINST AIR-THREAT .DESICMED UPON ITALIAN ARMY REQUEST

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4x25mm KBA Oerlikon cannons, compad Oto Melara mount, Galileo optronic OG 1 4 FCS. Suitable for any A.P.C. Rate of fi re: 24 00 rds/minute Traversing: 360° Elevation:-5 +87° Rounds: HEI-T, SAPHEI- T, APDS- T

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~GALILEO SYSTEM DIVISION - SINCE 1907

TECHNICAL

DATA

• no 1 Servoed Pedestal supporting the ORION 30 X F.C. Radar Antenna, an 1/R Thermal Camera and Daylight TV Camera . • no 1 Data Processing Unit. • no 1 Servo and Data Conversion Unit. • no 1 Set of ORION 30 X F.C. Radar Equipment (Transmitter and Receiver). • no 1 Operator Console. An additional console, for purposes of data logging control and video recording for the evaluation and analysis of the tracking actions, can be optionally supplied as complement to either version of the NA 30 System. The ORION 30 X is a monopulse, coherent chain MTI tracking radar, operating in X band and belonging to the new generation of Fire Control Radar designed by Selenia. In addition to the above characteristics the ORION 30 X has the capability tu radiate C.W. energy through the same antenna, providing target illumination for Surface to Air Missile guidance such as in the case of either versions of the Selenia ALBATROS System. The very high qualitaiive level of sensors employed as well as the wide range of dedicated tracking and firing modes specially ta ilored for the most updated threats, put the NA 30 in the vanguard of Fire Control Systems of new generation for employment in the modern naval warfa're.

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the following main items of equipment: • no 1 Set of ORION 30 X F.C. ing the ORION 30 X F.C. Radar Antenna and, optionally, a Daylight/Lowlight Level TV camera. • no 1 Servoed Pedestal supporting an 1/R Thermal Camera, a Laser Range Finder and Daylight TV Camera. • no 1 Data Processing Unit. • no 1 Servo and Data Conversion unit.

• no 1 Set of ORION 30 X F.C. Radar Equipment (Transmitter and Receiver). • no 1 Main Operator Console (for F.C.R. and SA. Missile Control). • no 1 Secondary Operator Console (for Optronic Sensor Control). NA 30 Mod. B The NA 30 Mod. B is composed of the following main items of equipment:

READY TO MEET THE NEEDS OF TOMORROW

Aeritalia , a member o f the IRI- Finmeccanica Group and Ita ly's ma jor aerospace manufacturer w ith a complets systems capab ility is playing a significant role in technologica l progress . It is engaged in the research, design, development and production of mi lita ry aircraft : Tornado , AMX, F104S. of tra nsports G 222, and in the genera l aviation aircraft of the P68 series, and assemblies for airliners DC9, DC10, 8727 and 8747. It is participating in the design , development and production of the adva nced commercial aircraft 8767 and the passenger commuter A TR42.

~ERITALIA Gruppo

. tÂˇ aeros;~~l:1: itallana IRI-Finmeccanica

80125 Napoli - Piazzale Tecchio 51 P.B. 3065 Tel. (081) 72.52.111 Telex 710370 AERIT

MISSILE LAUNCJ-IER ALBATROS WEAPON SYSTEM

The La uncher is a part of the Albatros point defence sysstem with Sparrow Ill (Sea Sparrow) and Aspide missiles, intended for installat on on warships ranging in size from corvettes upwards. The launcher consists of a training mount supporting two 4-cell g roups capable of moving in elevation and depression. Each cell houses a Sparrow or Aspide missile, carried by a la unching ra il. The cells are airtight and provided with autonomous climatization and automatic fire extinguishing system; two fra ngible covers wh ich break du ring firing close the front and the rear of the cel ls. A Servo Unit Cabinet with a control panel for launcher servicing completes the installation .

LAUNCHE R CHARACTERISTICS

The launcher consists of two cell groups movable in elevation; a training carriage supporting the two cell groups by means of trunnions; two power drives, for tra ining and elevation; a blower system for the cell climatization together with a heating system . a deicing system, a temperature control system and a CO2 fire extinguishing system . Cell Groups. The two cell groups cons ist of a metal prismatic shaped rectangu lar base structure and are connected to each other through a cylindrical body forming the trunnion axis . The cel l groups move in eleva tion by means of two trunnion bea ring mounted on the carr iage which houses also the power drive controll ing the elevation movement.

Each cel l is closed at the front and rear by two covers of the frangible type. The missiles are arranged in the cel ls by means of a ra il gu ide and a launch ing rai l. Training Carriage. The carriage is a light aluminium alloy cylindrical structure and consists of a fixed pedestal and a training ca rriage. The pedestal is provided with three access doors for servicing t he interna l components and houses the train power dr ive. The carriage trains on the pedesta l by means of a ball bearing, sing le row type, with steel wire races. Servo, Systems. The servo systems are of the electric type with controlled rectifiers. The motors have printed rotors and thereby low inertia and high specific power.

LAUNCHER FEATURES

The launcher design is based on the following features: • lim ited weight without impairing the launcher sturd iness and performances; • reduced height (at zero degree elevation) which greatly sempl ifies the loadi ng operations; • use of light-weight, highly efficient and reliable servo-systems; • relative low moment of inertia in train and elevation; • insta llation on the same baseplate of the ship used for the 76/62 OTO Compact Gun Mount. The launcher (with the exception of the loading and arm ing of the missiles which are carried out manually) operates automatically. All the operations of the launcher and the condition of the missiles are contin uously controlled by electric and electronic logic circuits .

TECHNICAL

DATA

Temperature Control System. The temperature control system consists of a series of thermostats arranged inside· each cell and controlling the heating, the blower and the fire extinguishing ' systems. The temperature control system is cut-off during the launching sequence . Fire, Extinguishing System. Each cell is equipped with a CO2 fire extinguishing system wh ich automatically enters into operation when the internal temperature of a cell reaches 100°c. SERVO UNIT CABINET The installation is completed by a Servo Unit Cabinet which forms the, interfacing unit between the launcher and the launching system. It contains all the electric and electronic components for the automatic operation of the launcher through a control system forming the power supply group, the interfacing logic group and the servosystem group.

TECHNICAL DATA Total weight without missiles: 6500 kg. Loaded with eight missiles: 8200 kg.

Electric circuits: Power supply: three phase, 440V 60Hz. Rated power: 18 kW. Servo System supply: three phase, 440V 60Hz. Rated power: 12 kW. Peak power: 55 kVA. Synchro network: Single phase 115V 400Hz. Rated power: 150 VA.

Servo System performance: Train: . ~v :~·~".t._;~~ -·~ -~ 4: ~~ ::::: .:-v---- :

- ------

, ·-·-·-

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Blower System. The blower system dissipates the heat produced by the missiles when they are energized or the over-heat produced by hot weather conditions, maintaining the temperature inside the cells below 38°C.

;

The system consists of two electric blowers (one for each cell group) installed on the upper side of the cell groups and forces. air in the cells through air ducts.

Arc: unlimited. Max. speed: 45° sec. Max. acceleration: 30° sec2 • Max. time required for 120° slewing: 4 sec. Elevation:

Arc: from - 5° to +80°. Max. speed: 25° sec. Max. acceleration: 3D0 sec2 • Max. time required for 60° slewing: 3 sec. Working temperatures: from -10° to +65°C.

...

BOOK

..•

M. Howard, "The Causes of War and Other Essays", Co.unterpoint, London, 1983, pp. 291, £3.95 (paperback).

REVIEWS

. There is no doubt that these are some of the finest contributions to strategic studies that have ever been published in the West, and are essential reading for anyone wishing to appraise the impact of nuclear weapons on strategy, on the system of international relations, and on Western security. ln a period of such far-reaching change as the present, this is essential. Before any preparations to defend the West. or any attempt to keep the peace and maintain security can be made, we have to understand the nature of modern warfare and its role in the context of international relations and against the background of Western civilization.

Michael Howard is one of the main exponents of contemporary strategic thinking . In a sense, he is to Great Britain what Raymond Aron was to France. A scholar of Cla usewitz, a distinguished historiar with a complete grasp of the state of West. he has made a decisive contribution to the strategic debate of the past 20 years. He has always stood out for his down-to-earth approach and sound common sense (that "conventional military wisdom" which strategic analysts often forget). and his firm rejecCarlo Jean t ion of any form of dogmatism and pseudo-scientistic rational reductionism that has often characterized Western military/strategic thought. He is an advocate of subjectivity and contingency, in the best tradition of strntAgy scholarship. He knows the value 5. Chubin, R. Litwak, A. Pascor: of his own discipline - history "Security in the Gulf", Gower, but is careful not to abuse it London, 1982, pp. 180, £7.30. by. arbitrarily applying the events of the past to the contemporary This book contains the main world. papers delivered at a conference This book is a collection of essays and papers written by the . organ ized by the Institute for Strategic Studies, and illustrates author during the past 10 years. mainly published by the London- the changes in the parameters relating to security in the Gulf. based International Institute for This area is of vital relevance Strategic Studies and the Foreign to the West, not only because Affairs magazine. The most i! contains 50% of the world's interesting are "The Cause of oil resources, but also because War", "War and the Nation Stait blocks Soviet access to the te". "The Strategic Dimension Indian Ocean. The Gulf area is· of International Relations", "Sohighly unstable and is an essencial Change and the Defence tial component of the "cris is of the West", "The Forgotten crescent" that runs from the Dimensions of Strategy", "On Combating a Nuclear War", "The Horn of Africa to the Middle East and Afghanistan. Use and Abuse of Military HiThe reasons for its instability story". and "Confidence-building and Detente: the Defence of the are primarily endogenous, and knowledge of the politica l, social West in the Eighties". and economic developments is These titles clearly show the therefore essential. To protect variety of the topics discussed and their importance to an under- Western interests, strategic/military factors are not so importa nt standing of the role, functions as other measures designed to and nature of war in our day.

consolidate the socio-political-· economic situation of the countries in the area, to prevent them from being destabilized from which the Soviet Union would benefit enormously. Th is book only deals with Saudi Arabia and the minor countries in the Gulf. Other fundamental issues, such as the Iraq-Iran war. relations between Israel and the Arab States and Afghanistan are not dealt with explicitly, except insofar as they have repercussions on the countries under consideratio n. In the past 20 years. the Gulf States have undergone far-reaching changes. The West - particu· larly the United States, which took over from Britain as the main external power in the area has underestimated the implications of these interna l changes. Quite simply, the West felt that it could safely ignore them, because the economies of these countries depended on oil exports, and reckoned that their only possible customers were the Western countries which would be able to implement an appropriate procurement strategy giving them a permanent capacity to influence the ruling elites of the Arab countries. In reality, howeve r, their traditional socio-political systems have not proven capable of checking such rapid and farreaching changes. brought about by their enormous oil revenues. Domestic tensions have emerged, partly fuelled by Islamic fundamentalism, which have eroded the regional security system which the United States built around Iran. Increased Soviet political activity in the area, the ArabIsraeli conflict and the unsolved Palestinian problem have also contributed. The enormous increase in their wealth has proven difficult for t he traditional structures to absorb. Secularization trends have provoked reaction from the

BOOK

REVIEWS

Defence Minister Spadolini, and religious authorities; the values continues with the account of of Islamic civilization have come to loggerheads with the Western- t he Commander of "ltalcon", followi ng the events accurately ization process; largescale emias they happened, with personal gration from the Arab countries comments and judgeme nts .and the countryside has created that bring them to life with an extremely volatile urban subvivid realism. proletariat which has fallen easy prey to subversion; the huge The reader is led through those financial resources have led to small and great events in the lopsided development. breaking life of our Lebanese peacedown the traditional socio-politi- keeping contingent (the deparcal eq uilibria, and causing peoture, the welcome they received, ple to question the legitimacy the slaughter, the hea rtwarming of the traditional ruling classes; stories of Governolo Ibrahim, the West has scant possibilities and the contingent's "mascot" for intervention, and can certainly Mustafa. the camp hospital, the do little to attain any concrete Red Cross nurses and so many goals. The area's strategic prob- others) to re-live the atmosphere lems cannot be solved by taking of the moment; and th e words a strategic approach to them. and thoug hts of General Angioni, What the West has to do is to offer a first-hand impression of work with the local elites to the problems of the present and design an extremely "soft" and the future. The illustrated tables well-articulated strategy based provide considerable detai l on essentially on financial resources the salient moments of the opand technical assistance to avoid eration, and show the scale of socio-politico-economic upheavIta ly's commitment, without false als. Such a policy should respect modesty or exaggeration. the independence and specific The 120 photographs taken by features of each country, and well-known reporters are not be designed to identify the type merely decorative but are indiof economic relations they should spensable to satisfy the deeplyhave with the West. not based felt need to capture a gesture solely on trade but also strategic or an expression that sum up considerations, to obviate the , the deep significance of a social destabilization of the whole area. situation that words are unable to describe in terms of all its Carlo Jean human implications. Fabio lsman successfully manages to .show how the social reality of Italy and of Lebanon are linked through the person and the deeds of General Angioni, subtly studying every aspect of his personality as a soldier and Fabio lsman, "Angioni - Noi a as a man with minute attention Beirut", ADN Kronos, Rome, to detail. 1984, pp. 127, L. 16,000. The Commander of "ltalcon" becomes transparently real, and The Author. Fabio lsman, was an eye-witness of the events of 1982, through him the reader can share the commitment. the anxiety, the and has written this thorough and complete account of a period activity and the danger which that will go down in the annals our soldiers lived through with such great dignity, in the knowof history. It begins with the ledge that they were actors on words of Sandra Pertirii, President of the Italian Republic, and a stage of suffering - but not

resigned - humanity, awaiting the peaceful outcome of a conflict that has gone on for far too long. This is what the book is about: , our soldiers, under good leaders and not exposed to useless risks, brought peace to a distant la nd, and managed to keep that peace and defend it with humanity, but also with firmness, winning the praise of the country, and the esteem and affection of the people in whose country they operated. Claudio Magris

Franco Angioni, "Un soldato Italiano in Libano", Rizzoli, Milan, 1984, pp. 154, L. 14,000.

General Angioni is the Author of this book: it is difficult, very difficult, for a soldier to speak about what another soldier has written without seeming to be partisan or being carried away by the sentimental substrate that is shared by all Âˇthe men who have made the Army their way of life, whatever their rank. But the occasion is too obvious to ignore, and it is useful to begin by saying that, however one might interpret it, the "ltalcon" Commander's bo:::>k is a formal and substantial document tha t had to be written to set the seal on an operation which began amid controversy. scepticism and even sarcasm, but which ended with the consensus of everyone. Using a clear, straightforward style, the Author gives an accurate chronicle of the events of those days, and provides a keen insight into the political/military aspects of the operation in detached, down-to-earth language that is accessible even to a layman.

BOOK

R EVIEWS

The background and.the history (for that is what it is) of. our expedition in Letanon are set out in simple, refreshing terms, revealing the intima te perso nal involvement of the "lta lcon" Commander in the daily life of a people overwhelmed by war. Aware of the enormous responsibili ty weighing heavi ly on his shoulders , and o" the great importance of performing his duty by remaining impartial. General Angioni - a man as well as a soldier - also al lows something else to emerge between the lines: pride. And this is on ly right and human, because a man who has stood firm, organized and lived in peril for 18 months. is entitled to feel proud of never having uselessly placed the lives and safety of his own men in jeopardy, of having managed to carry out the task entrusted to him in an extremely complex and mobile socia l and politica l si tu::ition, earning the loca, people's attect ion, their gratitude to the Italian contingent, and winn ing the respect of the other cou ntries' conting ents, and of its own countrymen. Apart from the anecdotes, the large and sma ll events. and the short sketches of the daily routine this book also revea ls someth ing that is never spoken about explicitly, perhaps out of a sense of mod esty : the reality of the Ita lia n Army. For it is a "reality", not an "image" , which is better left t o the messages that travel in the mass media. And this "reality", made up of so many sma ll day-to-day problems that are still awaiting a solution , is that of an efficient conscript Army, and above all, o ne wh ich is constantly committed with human ity and firmness to maintaining the peace. If this is wha t General Angioni intend ed to make clear with this book, well , he has been completely successful. Claudio Magris

M. Angelozzi and U. Bernini: "II problema aeronavale italiano - Aspetti teorici ed attuali" (The problem of the Italian Naval Aviation - Theoretical and topical aspects'), Belforte, Leghorn, pp. 268, L. 12,000.

This is an excellent book . With a careful ly prepared bibliography, and an appendix giving extracts from the laws on milita ry supplies, it sets out the subject matter masterfully, starti ng with the historica l backgrou nd to the use of aircraft by the navy, and moving through to a description of the modern navy in Italy and ab road, and ending wi th an account of what naval aviation solutions might be adopted in Italy in the future. The authors are highly qualified to write on this subject: both are Vice-Ad mi rals, both are lectu rers on naval military art. and both have a vast wartime experience at sea and in the air. At least three types of readers should read this book: the manin-the-street (a nd tax-payer) who wants to find out more abou t such an essential aspect of the th ings that have to do with recent wars and the state of national security today; members of govern ment or parliament, who have to legi slate, and who do not wish to play things by ear any longer, merely in t erms of shortsighted sectional _interests based on poli tical patronag e, but intend to be in a position to look after t he country's defence interests with wisdom and farsighted ness (perhaps by re-reading th e 1932 "Bonza ni Report" that was dismissed out of hand - together with its author, a Senator and a General - by M ussol in i); and senior "technical" defence officia ls who do not wish to remain slavishly attached to the mortifying "parochial" mentality wh ich views everything in terms of ind ividua l branches of the Services, or Corps, or specialism, etc., or worse still, to the "polit-

ical" menta lity, wh ich always looms large on the horizon of the sunny countries. Very briefly, the book is divided into seven parts. The first deals with the beginnings of naval aviation and use of aircraft in World War I; the second discusses the use of aircraft between the wars and during World Wa r II; the third examines th e present state of naval aviation in the world's major countries; the fourth looks at the Italian Navy; the fifth deals with the navies of the United States, th e Soviet Union, Great Britain, France, and West Germany ; the sixth exami nes the need for an integrated naval aviation instrument; the seventh gives a general overview and looks ahead to possible future solutions. The purpose of the book is to remind the reader that "Today, Italy is the only country in the worl d with la rge Armed Forces whose navy is not wholl y free to choose the naval aviation facilities it considers to be the most appropriate to conduct operations falling within its sphere of respons ibil ities" . No-one can deny that "un ity of action" is impossible without "unity of com ma nd ", and that any form of "cooperation" - which is often a necessary and indis pensable ex pedient in emergencies - can on ly be rationally justified when there has been a lack of the most typical, the most important and forward-looking command action: coordination. This is the first lesson to be drawn from this work. In Italy, we should not forget that the first man to understand the significance of nava l av iation, " even in small seas" and to call for " air torpedoes", was Admira l Thaon. di .Revel, Chief of Staff of the Italian Navy in World War I until he went into voluntary retirement in 1925, followed by a small group of scholars. Neither should we forget Admirals Ja-

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chino and Sansonetti, who held the exact opposite views in perfectly good faith. Certainly these are facts that belong to the past. but new light has now been shed on them by the "wisdom of hindsight", and the authors have done well to remind us of them: the politician must always be on his guard against technical colleagues who are over-keen to subscribe to current thinking or to advocate theses just because they happen to be in vogue and favour at the time. This is the second lesson of the book. Lastly, it should be remembered that naval warfare has shown that "aircraft h_ave to conduct search, identification and strike actions in a chronological unity of action with the surface vessels and submarines". This lesson, which updates the theses (ignored under Fascism) advanced by General Amedeo Mecozzi about assault planes and follow on planes ("counterforce strategy and tactics" and "aircraft as the main combat instrument under all environmental conditions" as we would say today). seems to be the third lesson that the two Admirals wish to impart. Giorgio Anedda

William H. McNeil!: "Caccia al potere: tecnologia, armi, realta sociale dall'anno Mille" (The pursuit of power: technology, Armed Forces, social reality since the year 1000), Saggi Feltrinelli, Milan, 1984, pp. 386, L. 38,000. This title is very promising -

perhaps excessively so, running the risk of telling us what we already know: a close reading of Clausewitz shows that war is the

REVIEWS

result of a complex interplay of forces (in which the ingredients given in the book's title account for the magna pars). And we are all familiar with a work that was first published in 1956 entitled, "The Social History of War" by R.A. Preston and S.F. Wise, and which also aspires to deal with a similar subject. We have deliberately used the word "aspires", because while its American author, McNeill. a lecturer at the University of Chicago, has a praiseworthy capacity for typical Anglo-Saxon empirical simplification, in addition to access to a rare variety of sources, a work that sets out to cover so much ground cannot be immune to omissions - some of them glaring - or to ill thoughout interpretations, or faulty forecasting. It is therefore hardly surprising to find that the author (except when he deals with the Renaissance period) restricts his study to the triangle France-BritainUnited States (is that always fair?) or, more solito, fails to go very deeply into the internal, organic/tactical aspects of the development of military institutions. Despite the wide array of forces that the author evidently sets out to deal with, judging from the title, technology is put across as having a central role, almost the sole motive force of strategy and the resultant changes in the military structures since ancient times. It is probably this that led the Italian translators of the work to mistranslate "Armed Forces" as "armi" ( = weaponry) and "pursuit" as "caccia" (which is aÂˇmore aggressive and adventurous hunting term indicating a "thirst" for power). which undoubtedly better reflects the bitterness of the internal and international struggles that painfully lead to the changes. Apart from the limitations that are mostly unavoidable, the book

does provide an extremely useful interpretation for an understanding of events that are looming darkly over the present age, such as the runaway arms race â€˘ and the chaotic, irreversible snowballing of the causes. One very clear parallel with the present situation is the chapter on the crucial period 1884-1914, in which, according to the author, the interplay between politicians (and the hard-headed socioeconomic motivations that influence them), the military and industry was intensified. Whatever the political system might be, this inevitably leads countries to resort to the automatic adoption of political/military measures and to very rigid centralized planning, which constituted one of the main causes of the first world war. One of the things that spoils the book is the author's sympathies, here and there, with the threadbare commonplaces that belong to conventional antimilitarism, in a work that otherwise takes a serious scientific approach. However, we are dutybound to note that these outbursts (such as when he views the military man as a "macroparasite") in no way detract from the overall soundness of the analysis in which he sets out to- refute them, giving the reader a fairly faithful and objective view of the interests, aspirations, anc the composite spiritual, moral and material forces that inevitably condition the life and the development of every institution, incl uding the military institution. It shows that the difficult (past and present) relationship between the military institution and tech nology is not all that different from the complex interplay between technology and civil society, with all the agonizing changes that are being demanded by or imposed on it, and which is the main issue of contemporary society. Ferruccio Botti

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