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JOURNAL OF THE ITALIAN ARMY FOUNDED IN 1856

ANUARY :BRUARY

1986

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WHAT KIND OF ARMY?

Taxe Percue ( Tassa riscossa) Roma - Italy

NOTES ON THE SOCIAL PROBLEM. GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENTS

EVOLUTION OF EQUIPMENT AND TOMORROW'S WARS

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CONTENTS. . ,, ~\

European Military Press Agency

RIVISTA

MILITARE BIMESTRALE

Direttore responsabile: Pier Giorgio Franzosi .

The aim of the Rivista Militare is to broaden and update the technical and vocational training of Army Officers and NCOs To this end it functions as a vehicle for the dissemination of military thinking and as a forum of study and debate. The Rivista Militare is also intended to be a means of informing the general public about the Army and military matters through the pubblication of articles of current technical and scientific interest.

Politics, Economics and Strategy 2 12

Notes on the social problem. Genesis and developments. (Giro Di Martino)

Giovanni Cerbo Telefono 47353078

Rino Fusi. Direzione e Redazione:

AFSOUTH. Headquarters Allied Forces Southern Europe ( Ludovico Lombardi)

Via di S. Marco, 8 00186 Roma Tel. 47353372 - 47355192 Pubblicita: A c ura della segreteria dell'U ftic io Rivista Militare Tel. 6794200.

What kind of army? ( Luigi Poli)

Redattore Capo:

Graf ico:

_ Number one 1986 .,:: •~, January-February

Science, Technology and Training 30

The five pillars of efficiency. (Giuseppe Caccamo)

Stampa:

Tipografia Regionale . Roma. lllustrazioni :

Evolution of equipment and tomorrow's wars.

A cura di .Rivista Mititare

(Carlo Cabigiosu)

Spedizione:

In abbonamento pos tale Gruppo IV - 70% . Condizioni

di cessione per ii 1986: Un tascicolo: Lit. 3.000 - $ 3 D.M. 6 - £2 Un fascicolo a rret rato: Lit. 6 000 - $ 6 - D.M 12 £4 Abbo namento: Italia Lit. 16 000. estero Lit. 24 000. L'importo deve essere inviato mediante assegno bancario (per i residenti all'es tero) o versamen to in c / c postale n. 22521009 intes tate a SME Ufficio Rivista Militare Sezione di Am ministrazione Via XX Settembre 123/A Roma. Auto rizzazio ne del Tribunale di Roma al n. 944 del Registro, con decreto 7-6-1949.

Gi ancarlo De Zanet.

Ouesto fascicolo e stato dato alla stampa ii 20 dicembre 1985,

@ 1986 Propri eta letteraria, ar tis lica

~f"l ot"\•;~ : - ~

History 50

The work of Quinto Cenni. (Carlo Felici)

Uniforms 57

The Royal Italian Army 1934 - 1939. (Valerio Gibe//ini)

Technical Data.

Book Reviews.

Rules for contributors. Anyo ne can con tribute. In the interest of the maximum objectivity of information, the Rivista Militare allows con tributors considerabl e freedom, although it does not necessarily subscribe to their opinions. The articles are published unedited and free of any editorial constraints and are therefore the sole responsibility of the Author and reflect his personal ideas exclusively. The topic must be treated in an original way and the articles themselves should not exceed 10 typewritten pages in length. The Author. got his reward. makes over his exclusive article right to Rivista Militare. Rivista Militare can make over Author's exclusive article right to other pubblications and to the periodicals of EMPA (European Military Press Ag c n c y ). The articles should be accompanied by any necessary photographs, drawings and explanatory tables Each au thor is requested to send a photograph of himself, together with his «curriculum vitae» and a 10-line summary of the article to be published. The Rivista Militare reserves the right to alter the article's title and to choose the typeface in which it is set.

Without a shadow of a doubt, .the challenge which the Army must meet in the second haif of the '80s can be defined as critical to its future. The overafl framework facing. this branch of the armed forces, analogous to that facing all society's institutions, has undergone profound changes as a result of the tremendous social and economic transformations of the last fifty years. Also sub;ect to change, the rhythm and character of technological evolution are moving Âˇ ahead at an ever quickening pace. Even the possibilities tor Jong-term planning have become more remote and uncertain.

Though this scenario is definitely not meant to be pessimistic, its growing complexity onlyÂˇ adds to the .Purden of guaranteeing that the military be ready to safeguard the security and assure the defence of the . country whenever the need for such action should arise. This task is now more difficult than ever, above all in relation to the very serious organizational and industrial problems which are an integral part of the present-day reality. In view of this situation, top priority must be given to a management strategy combining determination and originality with a pragmatic concern tor concrete

results in such a way as to maintain a const;mt balance between the system's functional complexity and its ability to provide a rapid response. Though this course is certainly not an easy one, current efforts would seem to be headed in the right direction, even if a good many basic problems remain to be solved, and the optimal system is still nothing more than a distant _goal.

Preceding page. A self-propelled 109G howitzer of the "A riete" Armoured Division. Today, the ever-quickening pace of technological evolution makes long-term planning problematic. As a result, the ;ob of guaranteeing that the military be ever ready to assure the country's defense has become all the more difficult.

Above. Bersaglieri aboard an M113 troop transport. In order to create an effective coupling of overall financial resources - planning's lone "given" - with the ob;ectives targeted by the proposed 1985 budget, special emphasis has been given to a unification of the planning function for all three branches of the military. Right. A "Leopard" vehicle of the "Mantova" Motorized Division. Within the Army. the movement towards more rational methods of operation will involve singling out, reforming and, in extreme cases, eliminating organizational bodies and institutions which consume significant resources without producing truly useful results.

The elaboration of the five fundamental interforce missions, which correspond to the precise political-strategic ob jectives laid out in the "1985 Wh ite Paper", represents a first concreteÂˇ step towards the functional interdependenceÂˇ of the three armed: forces, a concept whose importance has always been fu lly recognized, though up to now a large number of differen t factors has interefered with its actual implementation . Furthermore, the proposed budget for 1985 rightly emphasizes theÂˇ unification of all planning, a measure indispensable to the effective coupl ing of overal l financial resources and targeted ob jectives. Each "interforce operational mission" is the embodiment of these objectives. This means that a more rational, more accurate system must be developed for the allocation of available _resources, still planning's only fixed "given", if one wishes ~o go about gradua lly eliminating the discrepancies and imbalances which currently exist

between the operational sectors of the three armed forces. So much for the topic of interforce relations; but the movement towards more rationa l methods of operation must also become a reality within the Army itself. singling out, reform ing and, in extreme cases, eliminating organizational bodies and institutions which are no longer adequate or relevant to the actual needs of the current situation, and which, in add ition, consume significant resources without producing truly usefu l results. Action must be taken in th is area, and there would appear to be no room for delay. So great is the need for change, that it must ovveride all concerns of a local and socia l nature. The fact is that these considerations, though they are fully deserving of respect, clash with the goal of in jecting vigor and raising operational effectiveness in the military as a whole. . We must work, therefore, in two different areas - one relates to interforce matters, the other

Above left.

Transporter of the "Hawk" anti-aircraft missile system. The modernization and development of the Italian Army has fallen behind the other two Services because of the many social and industrial constraints on the Army on account of its greater complexity, coupled by the technical constraints imposed on it because of financial restrictions. Above.

Gunners inside a tank. The restructuring carried out in 1975 affected the operational component, but did not solve any of the problems relating to territorial organization and support. Resource availability, which has made it necessary to implement a cost containment policy, demonstrates the priority of the operational component over all the other components of the instrument.

involves the inner workings of the, Army itself. In either case, what is at stake is a large part of the Army's future as regards its potential for modernization and trouble-free development. One must approach this challenge in a professional manner, asking for nothing more than what is judged to be strictly necessary in view of the targetted objectives. and yet aiming right from the start at the .elimination of certain handicaps, handicaps which, in the past, have significantly hampered the Army's modernization programs. Whatever action is to be taken, it must be fully consistent with the goal of improving the country's defense policy. Within the first area - that involving interforce operations - one should emphasize that a fi rm endorsement of the principle of integrated planning would represent a qualitative leap towards a harmonious, balanced development of the military. Indeed, the results of studies on the topic highlight the fact that the Army, though it operates in a situation whose overall difficulty can not be denied, still lags behind the other two services in this respect. And the delay cannot be explained away by simplistically blaming it on an inability to bring institutional structures up to the level of available resources - this subject has been addressed in a large number of very reliable studies - but must be understood in terms of a set of social and industrial givens which have an abnormal in fluenceÂˇ on the Army, an organization far more complex and elaborate than the other two branches of the armed forces. One must also take into consideration a number of substantial techn ical handicaps. These in6

elude: a steady drop in allocated resources. both in general terms and in relation to the other two armed forces; the methods used for distributing the burden of budgetary cutbacks; the financial erosion caused by VAT; and the absence of funds which were to have been provided by the

programs of the promotional law. All this has kept theÂˇ Army from adopting a more functional structure while leading to a series of delays in its programs of supply and reinforcement, programs which represent an indispensable prerequisite to

"Alpini" on a training exercise, marching over snowcovered terrain.

maintaining a first-rate mil itary force. In the meantime, the other services have successfully completed programs of great operational importance tha nks to the more stream lined nature of their structures, the continual increase in their available finan-

cial resources, and the presence of well organized, competitive industries in the fields of aeronaut ics and ship-building, a situation which has only recently been eq ua lled in the field of landbased armaments, than ks to the establishment of an infrastructure able to meet the needs of an

army now capable of carrying out its programs of fundamental growth with all due dispatch. Once interforce circles have recognized this objective situa tion, it will become possible for the Army to meet its assign ed operational objectives throug h a full participation in the general context of the nation's defence institution s. In terms of t he second area of concern - the work which needs to be done within the Army - it is equally importa nt that the Army itself be free to modify its structure on the basis of a more streaml ined, functiona l model. The challenge of "tak ing on the complexity of both today and tomorrow" (in the words of the Minister of Defense) calls for the urgent elimination of those organiza tional shortcom ings which, though they are both wel l known and unwanted, continue to represent a stumbling block on the path to an optimal use of both men and materiel. Though it has led to a tremendous amou nt of progress in th e Army 's operationa l sector, the restructuring program of 1975. an initiative whose potential for qualitative change has yet to be fu lly real ized, has had practica lly no effect on the enormous problems of the territorial and support organ izations. The reasons for this are many and , on the whole, not un known . They make sense within the general politica l context of a nation committed to social assista nce, and yet they lead to perplexity when viewed in terms of economic, industrial and social evolution. Whatever the case may be, they have often stood in the way of efforts des igned to restructure military institutions along more rational. and less costly, lines. 7

«CATRIN » SYSTEM

The Introduction of the CATRIN System (Computerized Fteld System tor the Transm1ss1on of Information) will represent a critical moment in the Army's efforts towards organizational renewal, functional simplification and structural modernization. The figure below illustrates the tools of electronic war.

The inescapable reality of financial resources - which, being what they are, inevitably lead to a policy of strict austerity - once again places the focus on the fact that top priority must be given to the operational component, Every other component should assume a subordinate position, dependent on the developments and status of the first. In th is context, the fundamental questions up for discussion become unquestionably pressing, weighty and broadbased. What is needed, in fact, is a surgically precise effort covering the entire range of government agencies and institutions which have yet to be touched, not even minimally, by the restructuring in itiative of 1975. This initiative definitely, and at times drastically, affected the operational area, but not the territorial or support structures. Further reductions in the operational area, therefore, must wait until the more appropriate modifications have been made in the territorial and support structures. 8

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What is more, any restructuring of the operational sector will have to be made with an eye towards the possible benefits of the new, computerized command and control systems plus the requirements of newly-purchased arms systems. For the most part. therefore, changes will not in-

valve the elimination of existing operational structures but their transformation in accordance with what is needed for the use of new weapons and equipment. The eventual introduction of the CATRIN System (Computerized Field System for the Transmission of Information) will repre-

Right. The "Stinger" anti-aircraft missile system. . . . Equipped with a _passive mfra-r_ed system, the missile has a maximum range of 5 kilometers, weighs 10.5 kilograms and is 152 c 111,, long. Below right. Two views of the Italian-made multiple launch rocket system "Firos 25". The acquisitions of new armament systems will not necessarily lead to a smaller army. Producing a better army, however, will involve significant qualitative and quantitative transformations.

sent a critical moment in this process of organizational renewal, functional simplification and structural modernization. With the acquisition of this system, the Army can be said to possess instruments of command and control which both meet operational requirements and re-fleet the possibilities offered by modern technology. But this is not all. The system may also give rise to a reorganization of the chain of command, leading to the elimination, if necessary, of any redundant links. Such an initiative would have a decidedly positive e-ffect on the overall functional capacity of the Army, producing savings in terms of both financial resources and personnel. The CATRIN System will not only put our Army on a par with Europe's best military forces in terms of command and control, but it will also aid the armed forces in the carrying out of t heir peacetime duties. Nor should one forget that the system can prove invaluable in times of civil emergency. With the CATRIN System, those in charge can quickly monitor all operations, directing them with dispatch and effectiveness, and controlling the evol ution of the situation whenever the need should arise. Âˇ A result of high-level industrial technology, the CATRI N System calls for a significant commitment in terms of research, development and production, a

commitment which should move forward at a healthy pace. The modernization of the operations sector will also include the acquisition of modern weapons systems such as the MLRS (Multiple Launch Rocket System). the "Skyguard Aspide", a low-altitude, anti-aircraft system,

the "Stinger", a self-defence, anti -aircraft system, and the selfpropelled 25 mm gun, also- an anti-aircraft weapon designed for use against low-flying planes. The conclusion to be drawn from all this is that a better Army does not necessarily have to be a smaller Army, but that any 9

The 25 mm anti-aircraft gun.

general improvement will have to involve significant qualitative and quantitative· transformations. A like in itiative will also call for a high level of co-ordination if a perfect pragmatic synchronization is to be· established between the different areas involved in the transformations. that is to say, the areas of training, regulations and personnel. Should budgetary constraints necessitate further reductions in the operations sector, all measures will have to be agreed upon in interforce consultation. Failure to do so would cast doubt upon the true value of " lnterforce Operational Missions". On the other hand, efforts to meet curren t standards and achieve reductions will be more conspicuous in the logistics, territorial and training organizations. The logistics organization is still too complex. The "Model for the '80s", with its wide-ranging series of plans for bringing the sector up to date, has yet to be fu lly implemented. The entire defense industry has reached a standstill, held

back by an anachronistic structure which is inadeguate to the actual task of supplying the military's needs. As for the Army's territorial organization, it is overly complex, burdened by a large number of state agencies and departments which often operate at very low levels of efficiency. The· organization is also handicapped by an inadequate use of personnel, the result of outdated policies which no longer correspond to the· possibilities of the current situation. It is indispensable that these areas be approached with forethought and determination. At the same time, the training organization must be restructured - wherever and whenever necessary - and always in the direction of simplification and efficiency. Only by following such a program can the Army, together with the other branches of the armed forces. stay in step with the times, meeting the country's political and social tasks and expectations. Clearly, the solutions to these fundamental problems are

not at all simple. They must respect delicate domestic and foreign situations whose equilibriums cannot be upset. It should be noted that the guidelines for developing effective solutions already exist, having been laid out in a series of thorough, in-depth studies which the Army High Command has been carrying out for some time now. The time to take action is at hand, given that all concerned recognize the urgent need to energetically reform the areas only partially affected by the restructuring operation of '75. This is the objective, the organizational standard which must be· pursued. In future issues, "Rivista Militare" will examine the organizational stages, or rather, the concrete planning - both current and tentative - needed to meet the proposed model. Luigi Poli

Supplement d o alla ed Âˇ . ella Rivista ~z,.,l'?tne inglese 1 are QUADERNO N .1 .. S

L Âˇ pedizione inugabbona lio-Agosto 19 ., i::mento postale gr. IV

GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENTS On one side lives a minority that holds as hereditary right. by reason of aristocracy's traditions, all the elements of wealth, land, machines, capital: on the other side bustles the majority, whose only property are their hands and their ability to work, and on whom weighs the need either to supply hands and work on the conditions imposed by the former, or starve. Now you, reformers of society, throw between these two classes your theory of profit, of the maximum possible prosperity. How will you reconcil e the conflicting interests?". Thus Mazzini. in his "Thoughts on bureaucracy in Europe", admirably summed up the complex contents of the emerging social conflictuality, which developed in the second half of the 19th century, often revealing its dramatic aspects.

Left.

"The banker and his wife" by Marinus Claesz Reymerswae/e (XVI cent). The author, considered one of the most renowned artists of the school of Antwerp, expresses in this work a stern condemnation of usury, as an instrument of immorality and social injustice. Note how the hands of the two indeed resemble the talons of birds of prey: the expression of both is tense with greed. Right.

"The laboratory of alchemy" by Jan Van der Straet (Giovanni Stradano) (1523-1605).

This painting is deservedly well-known, both because it shows in great detail the work and the instruments (presses, retorts, alembics) of an alchemic laboratory of the Renaissance and because it witnesses the changed conditions of researchers who, after the medieval isolation, start scientific res_earches using experimental methods. This ,s also proved by the circulation, m the same years, of the treatises on the rr:,etal/urgical and mineralogical art, by Btrtnguccio and Agricola, as well as the linking of alchemy with medicine, made by Paracelsus.

Already during the Middle Ages, in the history of the relationship between capital and labour, there had been flashes of modern light. In the 13th and 14th centuries, numerous organizations were established which, sometimes imitating the ancient Roman corporations, sometimes creating new ones, joined craftsmen

together forming associations for mutual aid, which gained great economic and political power. They carried out a strong action of solidarity and were watched suspiciously by the great lords and by the authorities. These organizations - from the "Arti" of the Italian free cities to the French "Frairies" and "Confrairies", from the En13

glish "Gu ilds" to the German "Zumfte" - with their actions aimed at obtaining economic improvements - and also political recognitions - sometimes led to gusts of rebellion which, like the Vespers of Bruges of 1302, the uprising of Gand in 1345, the Ciompi's riot of 1370 in Florence, were a foreboding of the da rk social picture of future times. At the dawning of the modern age, the struggle between capital and labour had, thereÂˇfore, already beg un. At the same time the State and the individuals were taking those initiatives intended to temper the harshness of a conflict which did not always depend on man's will, but often imposed itself over this will. Later on, between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century, science and the machine invaded and upset the field of industry bringing, at first, innovations and changes. These innovations, that were to cause a rea l revolution and bring about a new form of social order in the world, went, from England and France where the big mechanical industry had obtained its first and difficult successes in the first half of the 19th century, on to the rest of Europe and the world and charged the social problem with a significance and an importance that would make it one of the most complex aspects of modern history. The workers' crisis - which inevitably derived from the decisive and imposing development of modern industrialism, which was fostered by various factors - was only a passing event of the last decades of the 18th century and the first decades of the 19th century. The dramatic prophecy of Friedrich Engels, according to which industrialism would render the majority of the proletariat unnecessary, condemning it to death or revolution, was destined to remain the frightening dream of a stormy dawn. The dreaded event affected only the first generation of workers, the one contemporary with the initial development of industrialism . After that, a more paw14

erful contrary trend started, for the machines, while driving the worker away from a sing le type of job, improvised around him various other forms of activity. The working population increased dramatically, as did industry, and crowded around the large industrial plants, producing the phenomenon of urbanism, owing to which new cities - such as Manchester or Essen - developed in a few years.

the struggle between capital and labour can be found in the various forms of workers' associations which - starting from the British

"The forge" by Joseph Wrighl

This process of gigantic development of the working masses, together with their concentration in the industria l centres, caused inevitable, new, and wider conflicts between capita l and labour. Conflicts that soon took on unusual proportions and violence. The first manifestations of this new, more recent phase of

trade-unionism - spread all over Europe. Marxism, born at the end of 1847, stepped down into reality and became the true force of the workers' movement, gradually replacing Proudhonism, when on September 28, 1864, in London, gave rise to the International Workers' Association, better known as First lnternationale

(1734-1797).

The author, a keen observer of the technical and scientific process and of the English industrial revolution, emphasizes in this work the play of lights and the suggestive atmosphere of the ambient which is, together, a home and a working place.

"An experiment with the pneumatic machine" by Joseph Wright (1734:1797). Wright's interest and active participation in the events related to the English industrial revolution and the technicalscientific progress of his time, could not find a more pertinent and direct witness than this intense and ~assionate work . The documental importance of the painting appears immediately evident, both tor the analytic veracity of all the components of the machine and for the realistic and psychological representation of the expressions and reactions of the onlookers. The adults' attention contrasts very effectually with the

(1864-1876). The dissolution of the First International did not mean the end for the various European socialist parties wh ic.h flourished in all countries and became very active. It was this vigorous presence in the various countries that, in 1889, made possible the creation in Paris of the Second lnternationa le, which was to be alive and active until the first world war.

derived from the Rights of Man sprnad by the French Revolution, saw in the coalitions of workers an evocation of Federal corporativism and tried to oppose their success, th us helping more and more the prevalence of capital ism. Meanwhi le, theorists and statesmen were realizing the importance of the working classes' rising tide and were trying to organize their forces, spreading new theories or striving to check

attitude of the little girls, who appear to be more concerned tor the fate of the bird in the glass ball - where a vacuum has been produced - than interested in the scientific experiment in itself.

The Christian Churches Catholic and Protestant of various denom inations - tried to take away the monopoly of the workers from Marxism, imparting a radical turn to their doctrine and starting a new era in the history of the relationship between church and society. The democratic liberal ism prevalent in the 19th century,

their drive. Blanc's "Ateliers sociaux", the political and economic acknowledgment of the trade unions are stages of the worki ng classes' progre,ss, in which the extremist theories of Marx and Sorel fermented actively. They led another important feature of the modern workers' movement to success: the inter-

Left.

"The telling of the trees" by Hubert Robert (1733-1808). A protagonist of th e archeological landscapism, which in the XVI/I century attracted many European painters, Robert mainly addressed his work to th e description of man's Jabour, without neglecting - besides the individual activities - its gen eral org anization . its equipment and tools. Below left.

"The foundry" by Adolph Men zel (181 5- 1905), certainly a ma;or protagonist of realism in Germany. Menzel, besides working in this pictorial perspective - meant above all as a concrete manner to be and to communicate - does not evade the direct political engagem ent, and partic ipates in the uprising of 1848. After 1870, Menzel remarkably ch anged h is attitude, fully ;oining in the new tech nologic al and productive fervour which invested Kaiser Wilh elm /I's Germany, m aking its industry one of the most advanced and imposing in the world. Th erefore, in 1875, Menzel made this painting in a celebratory spirit, with the intention of praising, m ore than the work ers, the places and protagonists of a new national situation.

national ist spirit, tha t pervaded the proleta riat, agai nst the passionate nationalism of capital ism. Through internationalism. the thought was spread that the worker's interests were not tied to his nation and that his real world was the workers' in ternationale. Such an orientation stemmed from two considerations: the internationalism of produc tion and trade and the levelling of all workers t o the common condition of wage earners. The danger deriving from these conceptions is its tenden cy to diffuse a brutish materialism apt to repress all spi ritual values. This da nger provoked the Catholics' int erven tion. Pope Leo XI 11 tr ied to oppose the principles of Karl Marx 's Manifest with the ideologies of the Enciclica l "Rerum Nova rum ". The intervention - vis -a-vis the dominant socialism - had a Âˇ t wofold cha racter: contrasting and competing . Con trasting , in that is proposed to contrast the blind materialism with a social et hic inspired by Christian princi ples. Competing, because - like

the Workers' International - it tried to find a form of organization with the same international character. After that, the problem did not acquire other par ticular innovative aspects, excepting the intervention in the struggle of a large路 class of civil servants, which aimed at the State - its employer - its polemics and darts. The problem has remained basically unchanged since the dawning of this century, which had certainly witnessed improvements and social progress in the whole路 world. The various current political ideologies, from moderate and collaborationist socialism to communism and the most combative syndicalism, all conscious of the political importance of t he masses, always set the relationship between capital and labour at the centre of their programs. There are still many - too many indeed - who try to lever on this century-old conflict for their politica l ends. And still too many are those who do not seem to understand the words written by the American "Steel King" Andrew Carnegie: "Capital and labour must proceed side by side and he who sows seeds of discord be,tween them is the enemy of both".

THE SOCIAL QUESTION IN ITALY

The first appearance of a social question in Italy dates back to the foundation of the ~ocieties for mutual he lp, the first of which was born among the printers of Turin, in 1738. The relevant problems spread all over Italy, slowly at first and then ~t a quickened pace, after the ideas of social vindication had become active in every country as a consequence of the French Revolution. The joining together of people of equal social standing albeit for reasons of mutual' assistance, evidenced the shortcomings in their ma terial and moral conditions and brought new problems to the surface.

One of the first was ignorance and illiteracy, owing to which an interesting phase in the life of the associations of mutual help was marked by the creation of the association for mutual teaching, created by Confalonieri in 1818. This association had a precedent in the Republica Cisalpina, with the founding of the Society of Public Education in 1797. From mutuality, which is a form of assistance limited to the cases in which the individual. owing to illness or other reasons, is prevented from working, a further step is made toward a more active phase, i.e. "cooperation" among the various members of a society with the intent of obtaining improvements for the whole category. Thus, from the workers' associations for mutual help we go on to the craftsmen brotherhoods. The first newspapers for the worker are born ("L'Operaio") by Perego, "L'Emancipazione" by Bravalle and "La Politica per ii Popolo"). The first conferences are held in Asti in 1853, at Novi in 1859, in Florence in 1861. Among the economic questions, the political element slowly permeates these meetings, for also the participation of the individual to the political life appears to be a right that ought to be defended. Thus the social question enters into its political phase at the beginning of our national un ification. Nevertheless this workers' movement, organized in to craftsmen brotherhoods, is not an element of disgregation for the newborn Kingdom of Italy. The deep religious sentiment that permeates the masses prevents the first hints of social struggle from degenerating into a materialistic interpretation of life, bound to rouse hates and disturbances. Th is without mentioning that Mazzini, as head of the popular Republican Party, had given deep ethic contents to the concept of "elevation of the people", setting the idea of "people" near that of "God" and speaking of rights as compensation for the

duties done. For this reason the first Italian workers' movement remained in a national sphere of balance and moderation. And it was indeed following Mazzini's initiative that in 1871, in Rome, the various associations joined in a pact of brotherhood, which accepted the programme worked out by the International Workers' Congress held in Geneva in 1866. The first demands for leg islative provisions mark the beginning of the third phase of the social question. In the meantime, while the workshop was being replaced by large-scale industry, the workers' movement acquired the more specific character of class struggle. Mazzini's ideas clash with Marx's and Bakun in's internationalist ones. The first strikes are organized and the peasants also join in the路 workers' clamourings, especially in the south, where Marxist ideas, confusedly undestood, feed the people's exasperation. A moderate and evolutionist line splits from the路 extremists: it consists of young, cultivated and enthusiastic people such as Andrea Costa, Bissolati and Turati, who lead the workers in their claims. The Socialist Party of the Italian Workers is thus born in 1892 and the first Trade Unions are established, which in 1893, after the Congress of Genoa, will join in a federation. A hybrid organization between workers, peasants and noblemen was formed in Sicily (the Sicilian Fasces) and led to disorders. In order to stop them, Prime Minister Crispi deemed it necessary to proclaim martial law and dissolve the leagues and the organizations. The social problem had by now become a major factor, so much so that, along with the Socialist Workers' Movement, a Catholic movement took shape and, under Pius X, led to the formation of a proper confessional party. The Italian government, confronted by the workers' claims after Crispi's and Pelloux's stern reaction, followed, with Giolitti, a line of concessions. Thus for about a decade a policy 17

Above. " The parquet planers" by Gustave Caillebotte (1848-1894). Although a direct participant and very active supporter of the Impressionist group , Gustave Cailfebotte remained close to the parameters of his original realism which was, inter alia, very attentive to the figures of the workingman's world.

of social reconciliation was fol lowed; laws were passed regarding work accidents, the work of women and children, weekly rest in the ind ustry an d night work. In the politica l field. the universal suffrage, which was obta ined in 1912, increased the number of voters from 3 to 8 mill ion. Nevertheless this conc iliatory policy did not reconcile the hearts. Strikes multiplied; associations sprouted ; the weakness shown in facing pressures remarkably dimi nished the authority of the State. Meanwhile, also within Socialism itself the splits deepened. The party, which had the undeniable merit of having improved the people's education by evidencing their interests and problems. thus enhancing the living standard of the masses, now that it was materially stronger, appeÂˇared to be spiritua lly wea ker. The dissension between reform ists and revolutionaries became more ma rked : the Sorelian syndicalists, who advocated a systemat ic opposition by means of stri kes, split from the latter. The variou s currents of Socia lism were una nimous on a si ngle point: in their opposition, at first, to the Libyan ca mpaign and, afterwards, to Italy's interven18

tion in the first World War. Nevertheless, after the begin ning of the confl ict, the Socialist Pa rty's attitude was generally that of non-support, but never of sa botag e. Filippo Turati's sound patriotism set an exampleÂˇ in this direction, sta ting that "to fight imperialism at home, w e must not help that of others". But the forces witheld du ring the war period exploded immediately after the war. The sufferings, the reaction aga inst the war profiteers, the d ifficulty of finding work for the veterans, and lastly the influence of the Russian Revolution, aggravated by demagog ic propaganda, produ ced disorders, unruliness and violence. Italy was one of the countries most hit by the post-war world crisis. The new political align ment of the parties, marked by the Socialist Party's maxima lism and the birth of the " Partito Popolare Italiano", recorded, after the Con fress of Livorno in 1921, the foundation of the Italian Communist Party, which joined the Third lnternationale . The Commun ist Party was a ch ip off the Socialist Party's block; from Turin started the race between the preparation of

the proletariat to revol ution and the rea ctionary tide of Fascism that advan ced menacingly. The government found itself un able to conta in the turbulen t masses and hoped that the Bolshevizing winds would blow over by themselves. The occu pation of factories, which ended in fai lure, made some people hope in the revolutionaries' incapability to organ ize but. meanwhile, the Fascist Party was drawing forces from the disorders and from the government's weakness. Fascism, after proh ibiting the strike and lock-out rights, tried to solve the socia l problem with a corpora tive orga nization. Its intent was to su bsti tute the struggle among the classes with cooperation in the ambit of the same activity, with the State's supervision. The system's shortcom ings were precisely in its strict central ized charact er: the worker's interests were entrusted to people appointed "from above", mostly unable to resist the governmen t's pressures. The Trade Un ions conti nued to exist. but only as tools of the dictatorship. With time the socia l confrontation has grew significantly. involving huge fields and prob-Âˇ lems (agrarian reform, the civi l servants' question etc. ). Many resu lts have been achieved in the last years, through provisions which guarantee the dignity of work and the welfare of the worki ng class. The work in th is field could be even more rewarding if there were not elements of exploitat ion, which now and then disturb the developm ent and perform a polluting action in a phenomenon of democratic growth and social

From top.

"The wheat sitters" by Gustave Gaubert (1819-1905}.

Rather than describing or denouncmg situations, Coubert's re_al!st1c pamt1ngs wanted to assert the pnnc1ples of concreteness and positivity, J yp1cal of the new working class of which he, as a public figure, was in fact to share the cause and the revolutionary action during the experience of the Paris' Commune. " The hauliers of the Volga " by //ia Efanov Repin (1844-1930). This work of strong and expressive realism made its author famous. Repin is rightly considered one of the best known protagonists of both the so-ea/led "Itinerants" (a group of democratic artists counting, among others, Tolstoy and Borodin) and of the entire Russian culture. "The slaughter of tunny-fish" by Antonina Leto (1844-1913}. In this painting, very intense in its narrative clarity, which fits perfectly in the cultural trend of social and humanitarian engagement, typical of the pictorial and sculptural works of the end of the century, Antonina Leto shows the fishermen's toil as well as the perennial battle between man and nature, imposed by the often ruthless fight for survival.

progress, which is destined to rise more and more towards contents and manifestations of a higher civil ization. The disturbances are nevertheless inevitable in . today's impetuous socioÂˇ-economic dynamics. Modern reality, stemming from serious human and civil tragedies, concretizes in conf lictual dynamics which, though in more developed forms, seem to reach back to the source of the wide set of questions very wisely focused by Mazzini in his "Thoughts about Bureaucracy in Europe" . The Trade Unions are an expression of this, for they are a stimulating and driving force which confronts a Capitalism organized and amalgamat ed by '.3 strong cohesion of converging interests. The farmers' conquest of divided property and their ensuing disappointment due to the scantiness of the income derived from the land - consequent to the transformation in a reductive sense, of the big estate's

"logic" - are the foremost reason of the widespread phenomenon of urban ism, which is matched by the extraordinary growth of industry in the '50s. Th us, new cond itions of social cont rast arise, almost in a Hegelian cycle, with the owners of the so-called "work tools" on one sitle, and, on the other. the vast human reality distingu ished between industry workers and workers of the "Third Sector" . There is , as a conseq uence. a wider c ircu lation of money, wh ich, ii on the one hand encourages the progressive formation of a pseudo-bourgeoisie, evermore intent on its climb towards a more appare nt than real prosperity, on the other it creates the prerequisi tes for increasingly intense social dialectics. T his tendency becomes sharper in the '60s. In the light of it , the individua l's rig hts are emphasized and amply publ icized, but they are not always supported by actual lega l principles; and this in evident contrast with an evolution which. to be true to its name. should hold in equa l consideration the rights granted by the concrete requirements of a civil and harmonious social life. The urge to consume and the ega litarism contribute to a tra nsformation of customs which necessarily leads to a dynamics in t he social rise of the working classes not always in line w ith the necessary balance between just aspi rations and an orderly economic development. T herefore, from the '70s onwards, the defence of the " proleta rian" classes often clashes w ith the principles gu iding the enterprise; principles that are perhaps backed by economic t heor ies and models wh ich. althoug h certain ly va lid. are no longer in line with the c hanging times. The brunt is taken mostly by industria l stability, wh ich witnesses the opening of deep fissures under the pressure of politicosocial motivations. which have disruptive aftermaths, Âˇeven if they are justifiable an d deserve consideration from the human point of view. 20

The problem of growing unemployment adds itself to this context; unemployment caused by the developing technologies and, particular ly, by automation, which demand very high specialization , red uce the size of human intervention and produce at the same time among the "traditional" workers, a class of castaways who are no more accepted in a "logic" dominated by a sometimes excessive sophistication of means and materials. The prevalent use of ma chines. on the other hand, resu lts in an overproduction of goods which often does not find an adequate response by t he market. to r it surpasses the real demands of consu mption. As a result an absurd contrast of social situations comes about. which sees, on one side, a wide ava ilability of goods - a sign of prosperity - and, on the other, a diminished capability of the less wea lthy classes to absorb them. The consequence is a chainreaction which distinguishes the present world and influences heavi ly all manifestations of the physiog nomy of modern civilization. A civilization that is reso1utely projected towards the year 2000 despite the hind ra nces and contradictions that mark its image. T his is today's fundamental motivation , beyond the ad mittedly positive ideologies and the exciting achievements of the mind. The dia lectics among strong concentrations of eq ually justi-

fied positions is desperately tryin g to find a synthesis on the basis of which t he human progress will assert itself and prevail We are all responsible for it, on the moral plane and in front of history, whi ch is written in a continuity of spirit. in an epic bu silent dimension, bu ilt with conscious devotion in the sign of man . The end of the second millennium is. like the first's, full of exalting expectations. In the Middle Ages. the world's attention focused on finding the God's truth. which was mainly a search for a more human dimension of ex istence and a restoration of the essential va lues, faded after the fall of the Roman Empire of the West. In the framework of G.B. VicoÂˇs theory of the repetition of historical phenomena , today we are living in the hope of the restoration of the disrupted social ba lances and the reawakening of consci ences. shaken by inhuman disorders. The social reality, which we are now labouriously preparing, ca nnot and must not be a problematic one. because we can not accept t he "logic" of an exciting scientific development not matched by an . equally vivifying moral ascent, in a tru e eth ical vision of civil society and prog ress. T he medieval tensions ripened, afte r the first millenium, a wonderful fruit: Francis of Ass isi, who embraced all creatures, in a universa l conception of existence, to the point of calling even death his "sister". True as it is that history repeats itself with constant rhythms. in the light of the Franc iscan t eachings w e are allowed to hope that the future will see the triumph of the new man. more conscious of his qualities and devoting all his forces to the accomplishment of an irrepl aceable good : the peaceful coexistence of peoples. which is a prerequisite of civilization and a result of the supremacy of the spirit over matter. Ciro Di Martino

OTO.C13

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ARMOURED INFANTRY FIGHTING VEHICLES Weight: Road Speed: Range : Versions:

• , IFVs: .

, • J\PC: •Cargo:

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15,000 -,-19,000 kg 70 km/h ~500 km IFVs, APC, Ambulance, Cargo Carrier {payload 6.5 tm) Armament: 20, 25, 90 mm gun+ 7.62 MG + 6 grenade launchers + firing ports. 4 x 25 mm AA System. 60 mm gun+ 7.62 MG+ ~ grenade launcher + firing ports. TUA+ 7.62 MG. 12. 7 MG + 8 grenade launchers + 6 firing ports. Crew 12. 12.7 MG .

HEADQUARTERS AllI1ED JFORC1ES SOUTHERN EUJ~OJPJE

THE HEADQUARTERS OF THE ALLIED FORCES IN EUROPE The military structure of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NA TO) in Europe consists of the ~ llied Command Europe (ACE) which, together w ith the other two major Commands ·(ACLANT, Atla ntic Command and ACCHAN, Channel Command), comes under the direct control of the Military Committee. The Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) is responsible for the defence of the European members of the Alliance against external attack or threat. In peacetime, this function is carried out through the coo rdination of the All ied defence plans, by building up the Allied armed forces and making plans for thei r appropriate deployment in time of war. The complex of countries belonging to the Alliance constitutes the ACE strategic area. · The SACEUR command funct ion is exerted th rough the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers in Europe (SHAPE), located at Casteau, near Mons in Belgium, about sixty kilometres rrom Brussels. The conduct of operations in the ACE strategic area is carried out under SACEUR control by: • th ree Regional Supreme Headquarters: • Headquarters Allied Forces Northern Europe (AFNORTH), based at Kolsaas, Norway; • Headquarters All ied Forces Central Europe (AFCENT), based at Brunssum, Netherlands; • Headquarters All ied Forces Southern Europe (AFSOUTH), based at Bagnoli (Naples); • two functional Headquarters: • Headquarters UK Air For ces (UK AIR). based at High Wycombe, Great Britain; • ACE Mobile For ce (AMF), based at Seckenheim, Germany. SACEUR also shares with the Su· preme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT) and the Commander in Chief Channel (CINCCHAN), the NATO Airborne Early Warning Force (NAEW), based at SHAPE at Casteau.

HEADQUARTERS ALLIED FORCES SOUTHERN EUROPE (AFSOUTH) AFSOUTH is the refore the Headquarters of the Southern Region of NATO. Its Commander in Chief (Commander in Chief Southern Europe CINCSOUTH) is responsible for the defence of the member countries in the Southern Region (Italy, Greece and Turkey) and for controlling the Mediterranean sea lanes. In order to carry out its twofold task of territoria l defence and ~aritime contro l, CINCSOUTH avails itse lf of: · • land, naval and air forces assigned to it in case of emergency by Greece,

NATO MILITARY STRUCTURE SUBORDINATION AND LOCATION OF HEADQUA RTERS

MC· DPC Bruxelles BE

...

ACLANT Norfolk US

ACCHAN Northwood UK

I ACE Casteau BE

CUSRPG Arlington US

- -- ----I AFNORTH Kolsaas NO

I AFCENT Brunssum NL

AFSOUTH Naples

UK AIR High Wycombe UK

NAEW Casteau BE

I AM!= Seckenhe im GE

MC - OPC: Military Committee · - Defence 1>1a1111 ing Co rn rn itiee ACLANT: Allied Com m;J nd /\ tlan tlc ACCHAN: Allied Com mand Channel ACE : A llied Comm and Euro pe CUS RPG: Canada - US Reg ional Planning Gro up Operational Coord inatio n

Italy, Portugal, Turkey, the UK and the US, the six countries of the Alliance that, either because of their geographical position or through direct or indirect involvement (external reinforcements), sustain the Allied Forces in Southern Europe; • a functional organization, existing already in peacetime, consisting of HOs AFSOUTH and a chain of dependent area or funct ional commands. According to their ranking, in NATO terminology, the latter are denoted as: • Pr incipal Subo r dinate Commands (PSCs); • Subordinate Commands (SCs); The Principal Subordinate Commands of the Southern Region are: • Headquarters Allied Land Forces Southern Europe (LANDSOUTH), based at Verona; • Headquarters Allied Land Forces South-Eastern Europe (LANDSOUTHEAST). based at lzmir, Turkey; • Headquarters All ied Naval Forces Southern Europe (NAVSOUTH), based at Nisida (Naples); • Headquarters Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (STRIKFORSOUTH}, set up on the US naval vesse l " Puget Sound", based at Gaeta; • Headquarters Allied Air Forces Southern Europe (AIRSOUTH), based at Naples, at AFSOUTH Headquarters. The following Headquarters included in the Southern Region:

are

• under NAVSOUTH command: • Gibraltar Mediterranean Command (GIBMED), based in Gibraltar; • Central Medite rranean Command (MEDCENT), based in Rome;

• North-East Mediterranean Command (MEDNOREAST), based in Ankara; • Eastern Mediterranean Command (MEDEAST). based in Athens; • Submarines Mediterranean Command (SUBMED), based in Naples; • Maritime A ir Forces Mediterranean Command (MARAIRMED), based in Nap les; • under AIRSOUTH command: • 5th Allied Tactical Air Force (SATAF), based in Vicenza; • 6th Allied Tactical Air Force (6ATAF), based in lzmir, Turkey. This list of subordinate Commands is expected to grow in the near future when negotiations for the full reintegrat ion of the Greek forces have been concluded. (Greece pulled out of the NATO military structure in 1974 and returned to it in 1981 ). In particular, the setting up of a Principal Subordinate Land Headquarters (LANDSOUTHCENT), as well as a Subordinate Air Headquarters (7ATAF), is envisaged; both Commands will be based in Greece. According to the Terms of Reference, in time of war CINCSOUTH would take over the command of all land, sea and air operations in its area of responsibi lity. Internal land defence and that of the territorial waters wou ld remain the responsibility of the national authorities, although in close cooperation with NATO. In time of peace, NATO Commanders must see to the organization, training and equipping of their forces, as well as to the study, drafting and finetuning of defence plans, and to standardizing procedures. Only the Ai r Force Commander (COMAIRSOUTH), who is responsible

for air· defence, a constant need, retains operational contro l, also in peacetime, of the national f orces "assigned" to him.

NATO M ILITARY STRUCTURE IN THE SOUTHERN RE GION SU BORD INATIO N AND LOCATIO N OF HEADQUARTERS

GEO-STRATEGIC CHARACTERISTICS OF. THE SOUTHERN REGION The southern strategic region, com monly known as the "Southern Regi on", is the largest area under the control of the Regional Commanders in Chief. It covers an area of more than 4,000 Km stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar to the eastern border of Turkey, and for abou t 1,400 Km from th e coast of North Africa (excluded) to t he Alp s. This r epresents an area of 4,000,000 sq Km, and takes in the whole Mediterranean basin, including the c ount ries of Greece, Italy and Turkey. Other fu ndamenta l geo-stra tegic features distingui shing it from the other European regions of NATO inc lude 'lhe ethn ic, social, political and economic heterogeneity of the countries situated in the area and the instability of the local situation in many of them, the fact that i t is sep arated from the Central Reg i on by Switzerland and Austria, two neutral countries, and its inner divisi on into different theatres of operations.

THE MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES The hete rogeneo us c haracteristics of the Medi terranean countries not only differentiate NATO countries f rom nonNATO countries, but are also extremely apparent among the member countries th emselves.

YUGOSLAVIA Like Austria fu rther to the North, N A TO has assigned to Yugoslavia the role of "buffer" between the borders of its area of responsibility and those of the Warsaw Pact countries. Despite t he serious economic and ethnic problems with w hich it i s plagued, Yugoslavia seems to g ive sufficient assurances of stability. Its co nsistent policy of nonalignm ent affords NATO a very useful " zone of strategic early w arning", GREECE AND TURK EY Despi te the long-standing dispute between them, the fact that both count ries belong to NATO is one of the points in favour of the Southern Region, as t heir job i s to guar antee the secur ity of the Dard anelles and the Aegean Sea. Although formally the s ame, the politico-military status of Greece and Turkey inside the Alliance is substantially different. While Turkey belongs both to the Alliance itself and its integrated m ilitary structure, Greece has only recently returned to the m ilitary o rganizati on and negotiations for the full reintegration of its Arm ed Forces are currently in progress. If succ essfully c oncluded, they should lead to a Pr incipal Subordi nate Land Command and a Subordinate Air Command being set up on Greek territory.

AFSOUTH Naples

r---- --- - - , L AND SOU TH Verona

LANDSOU THEAST lzmir' TU

NAVSO U TH Naples

STRIKFORSOUTH Gaeta

L - - -- - - - ' ~ - - - - - ~ "-- ~ - - - - ' L-_

G IBMED G ibraltar

MEDCEN T ~ome

MEDNOREAST Ankara

MEDEAST Athens

_ __

SUBMED N aples

AIRSOUTH Naples

__J ~ - - ~

: L ANDSOUTH CEN T : GR 1

L ___ - - - - - - -

MARA IRMED Napl es

-- -------. '' '

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L - - - - - - _J'

Prob11 blc i uture Commands

Until such tim e as a co m plete an d prompt solution has been found to 'lhe Greece/Turkey p roblem, there is no doubt in the m inds of t he members of the Sou thern Region about these 'lwo countries' full s upport of NATO. Alth ough perhaps less co nspicuous, t here are differences of opinion and interest also among m any other member countries. In some ways this is the most obvio us, and perhaps the most e ncouraging feature of an alliance freely fo rmed b y sovereign states, in complete respect of national decision -maki ng independence. The d iversi fi c ation of interests and evaluati ons is a deep-rooted and positive characteri stic of the western w orld . and provi des a conscious basis on w hich the comm on determination to defend one's co nception of society can rest.

THE M IDDL E EAS T AND THE PERSIAN GULF This is d oubtless o ne of the hottest spots in the world, if not t he hottest. Thi s area, the main source of indispensable energy for the industrialized wes tern countries, torn by bloody nati onalistic and r eligious strife which p lunge i t into s udden, unexpected crises, inhabited by countless peoples, sects and factions w hose behavio ur often triggers off conflicts, is also of great strategic importance in the world-wide strugg le betw een the two s uper-'powers. Alth ough situated o utside t he area of r esponsi bility of AFSOUTH Headquarters, the Middle East and the Persian Gulf come within its area of interest owing to the vita l importance of the energy re sources located there, and to the peculiar re lations linking co untries in th at area to several m embers of NATO. The Southern Region is th us an· exce llent vantage point from which NATO can observe this part of the world.

THE NOR TH AFRICAN COAST This, too, is an area that, althou gh lying mainly outside the area of responsibility of A FSOUTH Headquarters, i s of extrem e interest to NATO. The political situation in this part of the world i s characte rized by highly differentiated forms of government, often ill-supp ort ed by weak internal bases and f rag ile power structures. The populations of the coasta l countries are rapidly outgrowing their economy's capacity to s upport them, despite t he development of the latter. It is particularly apparent that these countries experience great difficulty in providing jobs and social integratio n for the younger generations. None of the count ries on the North African coast present any direct or immediate threa t to NATO security. However, this is an area where sudden and unpredictabl e changes in political contro l can occur f rom one moment to t he next and so constant vigilance m ust b e the order of the· day. Also in this c ase the Southern Re gion p rovi des an exce llent fo rward positi on from wh ich NA TO can observe events. SPAIN Ever since 30 M ay 1982, th e Spanish flag has been flyi ng o n the f lagstaffs of the A llied Headquarters in Europe, together w ith those of 15 other nations. The present Socialist government, in order to fulfil i ts electoral commi tmen ts, has mom entarily suspended negotiations fo r Spanish entry into the Allied i ntegrated military st ructu re and has announced a referendu m to be held on the entire -issue of membership. The question will thus be decided directl y by the Spanish pe ople. From the standpoint of NATO Spanish membership is a political event o f exceptional import ance since it is further confirmati on of th e persiste nt

vitality of the Alliance after. !hree decades of existence. The posItIon of the present Spanish government was aptly summed up by Prime Minister Felipe Gonzales when he stated that the Spanish Socialist party has neve_r been opposed to NATO, but that Spanish pa_rticipation must be geared t9 certain specific political situations. He added that in any case Spain considers itself part of the West. At this stage it should be noted that during a recent official visit to Mo;cow, the Spanish Foreign Minister, Fernando Horan, informed his Soviet opposite number that Sp~in intended to honour its NATO commitments ior as long as it was a member of the Organization. There is no doubt that the Spanish government is faced with a large number of national problems which naturally affect its behaviour and decisions. As regards foreign policy, -NATO represents only one of these problems. The other main ones are connected with relations with Latin American countries, relations with neighbouring countries like France and Portugal, relations with the United States within the framework of the defence accords between the two countries, the question of Gibraltar and relations with the North African countries. With a 14% inflation rate and 17% jobless, a large trade deficit and with exports and domestic investments running very low, and confronted with seasoned terrorism and very strong separatist feelings in certain regions, there is no doubt that the Spanish government has many serious internal problems to contend with. It is a young democracy in full development which, in order to grow hale and hearty, will have to implement moderate and practical programmes.

MALTA Because of its geographical position this small archipelago is of great potential strategic importance. In this perspective, AFSOUTH was particularly interested in and satisfied with the treaty signed by Italy and Malta in 1981 for the purpose of guaranteeing the neutrality of this small nation, at the same time excluding its utilization as a base of operations by either of the superpowers. ITALY Italy's role in the Mediterranean basin is of primary importance. Its geostrategic position suggested the advisability of belonging to some sort of multinational defensive system and its historical and cultural traditions, together with the common heritage of democratic principles and vital interests, led to the choice falling on NATO. Loyalty to this pledge has been constantly reiterated by the Italian government in all its legislatures and the governments that have succeeded each other have always materially fulfilled the obligations deriving from it. Italy's constantly growing politicomilitary prestige is becoming increas-

Population increase in the Mediterranean countries. None of the countries on the North African coast (shown in yellow) today represents a concrete or immediate threat to NATO. The political situation along this coast is characterized by very different form s of government and by rapidly growing populations. It is particularly difficult to provide for the social integration of the younger generations .

POPULATION OF THE MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES ANNUAL INCREASE(%)

FRANCE In 1966 France unilaterally decided to withdraw from the NATO integrated military structure. The French decision led to the withdrawal of French military personnel from the integrated Commands and the transfer of the Supreme Commands outside French territory and the discontinuance of all assignments of French forces to the international Headquarters. In spite of all this, however, the French commitment to NATO was never in question. At the level of the Southern Region, actual integration of the French f?rces has been replaced by cooperation. Particularly in the naval and air sectors, France cooperates closely with AFSOUTH. French naval and air forces ~egularly take part in NATO exercises in the Southern Region, and political and military relations between France and NATO have always been excellent. Liaison and coordination with AF~OUTH is guaranteed by a French military mission to the Headquarters, led by _an ~dmiral. Although not actually having Âˇ 11 under its command, CINCSOUTH knows it can rely on the aid of the French air and naval forces stationed in the Mediterranean.

2.4

2.8

ingly perceptible at world level and the country's role in peacekeeping initiat ives is becoming ever more important. This role is closely related to the fact that Italy belongs to the Atlantic Alliance, to the European Community and to the Western European Union. Italy represents an ideal bridge between the European continent and

Africa. It is against i his background that Italian mediation in the East-West and North-South dialogues must be viewed. Italian policy takes this role into account and is implemented in the f orm of a strategy to achieve and maintain stability in the Mediterranean area. The following examples are all unmistakable signs of the political deter-

minati on with which Italy is carrying out its logical role in t he Mediterranean: the assurance of Malta's neutrality, 'lhe contacts and even cooperation with several African countries, the new "defence model" according to wh ich, without detracting from the importance of the North-East Italy theatre, the forces involved are given the mobility they need to operate rapidly anywhere on the peninsula and the contribution given to the multinational peacekeeping forces in t he Sinai and Lebanon.

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN AREA One of the fundamental characteristics of this theatre of operati ons is that it has to be divided into different areas. This div ision is due to the existence of land gaps and the pr esence of the Medi terranean Sea. From the operational standpoint, the defence planning of the Southern Region involves three land theatres and one mar itime theatre. The land theatres are: â€˘ Italy, with special reference to the Eastern front ier; Northern Greece and W estern Turkey; â€˘ Eastern Turkey. The fourt h theat re, the maritime one, comprises the Mediterranean and Black Sea system. The land theatres are characteri zed by different geo-strategic 'features. Among other things, the great distances separating them mean that each has to have its own independent operational planning. It is therefor e very unlikely that mutual support. could be achieved by the rapid deployment of their forces. It is essential for th.e land theatres to be held in order to maintain contro l over the sea lanes, and the Mediterranean sea is indispensable for supplying the theatres. It follows that the sea i s exceptionally important since, although it separates t he land theatres p,hysically, it is the only gee-strategic factor capable of providing them with any operational continuity. THE ITALIAN THEATRE There are two main areas of strateg ic importance in Italy: the Po Valley, the possession of which would allow the attacker to drive a wedge between the NATO forces of the Southern Region and those of Central Eul'ope, and Central Southern Italy, the occupati on of which would open the w ay to control over the Central Mediterranean. The North-Eastern theatre is characterized by a rugged terrain and a wide chain of mountains, which could be defended with relat ively small forces, and by the Veneto-Friuli corridor, which runs from the Lubiana basin, t hrough the historical Gorizia gap to t he Po Valley. The latter is an objective of prime importance, being the main industrial centre not only of Italy, but of the whole Southern Reg ion. In view of the aforegoing, the defence of Italy must be implemented as

far forward as possible. Furthermore, the potential enemy on the Eastern frontier is not in direct contact. The t raditional policy followed by Yugoslavia, a non-aligned country jealous of its national independence, militarily o r gani zed on the basis of a territorial def ence system, considerably reduces the likelihood of any surprise attack. At this point it is worth repeat ing what General Capp uzzo said when he addressed the CASD (Center for High Defence Studies) (1): ÂŤExamining Soviet grand strategy through Soviet eyes, and thus situating ourselves in the centre of the Soviet Union looking out towards Europe with a view to possibl y invading the West, there is no doubt that one

of the most effective options could be what I should term " cutting off the peninsulas", i.e. a medium-range airland manoeu vre across the Balkans and Italy, comb ined with a longer-range acti on across the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. This k ind of perspective thus tends to confi rm the conceptual approach underlying the Italian " defence model" , in which the importance of the North-East theatre is maintained intact and is combined with an increased "strategic vigour" of the forces invol ved, wh ich would have to be capable of intervening anywhere on the peninsula in optimal operational t imes". In this perspective, Italy's plans to enhance the mobility of i ts units and to

Left. The Mediterranean theatre of ope~ations. Its peculiarity derives from the dtv1s1on into different zones. The land theatres (North-Eastern Italy, Northern Greece, Western Turkey and Eastern Turkey) have different geo strategic characteristics and are separated by large distances which mean that each of them must make different operational plans. The maritime theatre consists of the Mediterranean Black Sea system. The Mediterranean must thus be available in order to supply the land theatres.

by amphibious operaitons in the Black Sea and thrusts against Northern Greece through Yugoslavia. The flat country in Turkish Thrace makes any defence difficult and favours the attacker. In Northern , Greece the defence is initially favoured by the rugged terrain but, once the forward positions have been overrun, the enemy will have plenty of room for manoeuvre. Eastern Greece is so narrow that in some places there are no more than 20 Km between the Bulgarian border and the sea. Mention has already been made of the fact that another important operational thrust against Greece would pass through Yugoslavia. The direction of this thrust would allow access to the Greek valleys running roughly S0uth and gradually widening as they slope down towards the sea. Also here the political position of Yugoslavia is of exceptional importance for NATO security. The Warsaw Pact countries have deployed a considerable number of modern armoured units on the Balkan front. In the same area, Greece and

The Balkan theatre The main requirement in this area is to maintain control of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles in order to deny the enemy access to the Aegean and the Mediterranean. Greece and Turkey have deployed a large number of units in this theatre.

Left. The Italian theatre. There are two areas of strategic interest in Italy: the Po Valley, the seizing of which by the enemy would mean the cutting off of the Southern Region NA TO forces from those of Central Europe, and Central-Southern Europe, the occupation of which would allow the enemy to control the Central Mediterranean.

set up a rapid deployment force is viewed with great interest by AFSOUTH. On the whole, Italy has the population, the economic strength and the know-how to achieve a sufficiently reliable standard of defence. However, the country must make a constant effort to adjust the quality of its armed forces to the danger of the threat.

THE BALKAN THEATRE The control of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, aimed at preventing access to the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean, is the main objective in this area. The attack could well start directly from Bulgarian territory, accompanied

Turkey have fielded numerous major units. However, their logistical support is insufficient and several units are lacking in suitable modern equipment and materials. Nor does it seem possible that these shortcomings can be made good by military aid from other countries, at least in the short term.

THE ANATOLIAN THEATRE Eastern Turkey is certainly the least well known of the potential operational theatres in the Southern Region and perhaps even in the whole NA TO strategic area in Europe. This zone is characterized by a land border some 600 Km long with the Soviet Union and 1,700 Km long with Iran, Iraq and Syria.

The number of units the Russians have stationed in the Transcaucasian District vastly exceeds that strictly necessary for defence purposes. Deployed against this threat are substantial Turkish forces, consisting of disciplined and well-trained troops. Unfortunately, these troops would be incapable of sustained operations and the quality and quantity of their equipment and materiel leaves much to be desired. Fortunately, the mountainous terrain, the bitterly cold climate and the lack of roads in the region, favour the defenders. The great depth behind the forward positions also makes it possible to gain time by giving up ground. This is an important factor which is unparalleled in any other zone

The Anatolian theatre. Eastern Turkey is a very sensitive area characterized by a 600 Km long border with the Soviet Union and one 1.700 K m long w ith Iraq, Iran and Syria. Th e Russians have stationed a number of major units in Transcaucasia which is vastly superior to their actual defence needs.

of the NATO s trategi c area in Europe. O n the South-East borders, comparatively small Turkish forces are deployed against those of the neighbouring countries, whose forces are currently eng aged in other operational areas. However, this situation is only temporary and the fact remains that there are gaps in the defence of the Turkish border. Another sensitive area is the maritime border r unning some 1 ,600 Km along t he Black Sea coastline. However, it is quite conceivable that Turkey, particularly its eastern part, is not viewed by the Soviet Union as one of its main objectives but merely as an obstacle to be overcome or bypassed within the framework of a thrust towa rds the warm waters of th e Persian Gulf. THE MARITIME THEA TRE This consists mainly of t he Mediterranean Sea which, as we have already seen, is also t he most important geostrategic and characteristic factor of the Southern Region. This sea is the main line of communication for supplies and the flow of reinforcements tow ards the land theatres, as well as being the o perational base of the Allied aeronaval and amphibious forces. It enables Âˇ1he problem of the geographic discontinuity of the land theatres to b e overcome. The control of the Medit erranean is essential for NATO. It is extremely difficult to make a thorough analysis of the situation regarding the r espect ive NATO and Warsaw Pact situations in the Mediterranean. This situation has c hanged drastically for t he worse in recent years. In 1963, the Sovi et naval p resence was virtually negligible and th e Mediterranean could still be considered a "Western lake". Nowadays, th er e are probably an average of fifty or so Russian vessels operating in the M editerrane an on any given day of the year, at least half of which are warships,

inciuding a dozen submarines. The Soviet presence in the Mediterranean appears in an even more t hreatening light if one considers that they can bring their stren gth up even further by bring ing in units from the Black Sea. It is tr ue that the passage th rough the Turkish straits would serve as a val i d strategic early warning. It is equally true, however, that the short distance to be crossed wo uld allow the Mediterranean Fleet to be reinforced very quickly. Furthermore, several hundred constantly present Soviet ve ssels, registered as merch ant ships or fishing craft, are capable of providing support services for the fleet, especially in the sectors of supplies, troop transport, telecommunications, oceanographic research and intelli gence. Basically, the Soviet presence in the Mediterranean consists of a threatening aeronaval force that is wellbalanced in all its components - aircraft, surface vessels and submarines, a nd is composed of modern vessels armed with state-of-the-art weapon systems. The type of Soviet ships deployed in the Mediterranean, which include ligh t cruisers, aircraft carriers and nuclear and conventional submarines, can give us some idea of their probable tasks: to prevent NATO air, nava1I and amphibious Âˇ forces from deployin g and to interdict the use of the Mediterranean sea lanes. In this p erspective, also the bombers deployed in the Crimea play a vital role as they h ave strik e c apacity anywhere in the Mediterranean basin. In contrast, the NATO naval situation has worsened over the years. France's withdrawal from the integrated military st ru cture of the Alliance deprived the Southern Reg ion of one of its strongest naval components. As part of the revision of its political commi tments, Great Britain has practically reduced its Mediterrane an commitment to zero. The Greek and Turkish fleets are partly

obsolete whereas, thanks to recent measures to boost and modernize it, the Italian fleet seems at last to be on the way to achieving at least some degree of qualitative excellence which will all ow it, in the short term, to play a more decisive role in the Mediterranean. However, despite this, the net balance is still favourable. Numerically speaking, the NATO fleets still have indisputable numerical superiority, parti cularly b ecause of the presence of the US aircraft carriers, whose ultramodern airplanes continue to guarantee s uperiori ty in the air. The main aspect of the problem still hi ngers around t he initiative, i.e. the cap acity to achieve first strike and thus fores tall the enemy's attack. In any confrontation between NATO and the Warsaw Pact in the Southern Reg ion, much will depend on the result of th e first Soviet move against the Allied naval fo rces . If this move we re successfu l, the situation would become very difficult and problematic. To ensure that this does not happen, the naval commands must k eep constantly. on the alert and the nations situated in this region must continue to maintain their forces at the required quantitative and qualitativ e levels a nd avoid any gaps occurring in their modernization program mes.

CENTRALITY OF THE SOUTHERN REGION The importance of the Southern Region is a d irect function of. the growing attention devoted to it by the Wa r saw Pa ct. For m any years the problems involving the flanks of Europe we r e neglected, particularly il'l the South. Now the political and strategic situation calls for a reappraisal of the pri orities. According to t he strategic hypoth eses of the time, Western naval supe-

---soviet unit of the "Kresta I" class. NATO naval superiority in the Mediterranean has declined considerably over the past few years as a result of France leaving the integrated military structure of the Alliance and owing to the reduced British commitment.

riority in the Mediterranean was sufficient to guarantee the security of the sea lanes and the support of the land operations. Today the situation has changed because, over the past two decades, the Soviet Union has gradually boosted its operational capabilities. Because of the present world situation, the Southern Region has become one of the focal points and a vital factor in the East-West struggle and the North. South dialogue. The dynamics of the political and social transformations has an appreciable influence on events in the Mediterranean area and thus on Europe itself. The endemic instability of the Middle Eastern countries and those along the North African coast, the oil problems, the policy of gradual penetration implemented by the Soviet Union and the likelihood of c_onflicts arising that possibly involve common interests of the Western world as a whole or of single countries, have all boosted the strategic importance of the three countries comprising the Southern Region: Greece, Italy and Turkey. Mo1'eover, the developments in the situation deriving from Soviet expansionism, based on the presence of its fleet in the Mediterranean and exploiting the constant state of strife of the Middle Eastern and North African areas, has been interpreted as an indication that NATO should perhaps review the geographic limits set out in art. 6 of the Treaty. A good deal of the West's oil requirements come from the Middle East Which, for this reason, can be considered as a strategic extension of the Mediterranean area. Much of this oil comes through the Suez Canal and perhaps even more reaches the Mediterranean along the Cape route. The decisive game is thus being played in the South, in areas lying beyond the southern limit of the Tropic of Cancer, where NATO is not in a

position to react to situations of tension or conflict as an integrated whole. However, NATO cannot afford 'lo ignore what is happening at the beginning and along the routes taken by this vital flow of energy. In this sense, the Mediterranean basin, iri view of its direct links with the areas in which the main energy sources are located, has, once again in its more than millennarian history, become the focal point of the whole world . Ludovico Lombardi

Note:

(7) General Umberto Cappuzzo: "la NATO d i fronte alle grandi sfide della nostra epoca. Quale strategia per ii futuro?", Rivista Militare, It. Ed., no. 5/

1983

Major Genera l Ludovico Lo mbardi graduated . from the Mi litary Academy and attended the War Academy, the l nterservice Staff Institute. the French Eco le Superieure de Guerre and the Nato Detense College. A military Alp ine instructor, he a lso graduated from the Italian. French and US parach ute jumping courses. He has commanded severa l units o f the "J ulia", "Cado re", "Tr identina" and "Orobica" Alpine Brigades. He has held several stall posts at the national and interna tiona l levels, includ ing: Head of t he T rain ing and Manoeuvre Section of Headquarters ol Allied Land Forces Southern Eu rope, Deputy Ch ief of Staff of the 4th Alpin e Army Corps. Head of the Operations D ivision of the All ied Forces Headquarters Southern Europe and Military Attache in Paris. Since 1982 Gen . Lombardi has been Deputy Chief of Staff of Hea dqua rters Allied Forces Southern Eu ro pe.

What is the best way to measure the efficiency of the armed forces? How can this efficiency be improved? What are the factors involved? These are only some of the questions that may be raised in this connection. In earlier times even the most powerful armies were actually nothing more than simple, comparatively unstructured organizations (1 ), measured in terms of so many rifles, so many sabres, so many artillery pieces, and so on. The rest was left to iron discipline and the genius of the commander. We have come a Jong way since then and in the place of those early armies we now have a kaleidoscope of interacting systems of such complexity that it has become very difficult to evaluate their overall effectiveness. However, some way of doing this must be found. ft is far too important a matter to be ignored or to be "played by ear", as can be done with easy music. We shall thus try to analyse it, first by examining the overall situation and then by identifying the main criteria involved and the more relevant links between them, without laying any claim to making a systematic or detailed analysis. By treating the problem globally and focusing only on certain fundamental aspects, the aim is to find a key for interpreting modern military experience and conditions. Let us begin our examination by defining the fundamental parameters, the "pillars of efficiency" on which the qualitative level of the whole structure rests. These parameters consist of the following: - the human factor and materiel, which make up the fabric of the organization; - the structure, consisting of static relations, links and interdependence between the various single elements; - the training level, consisting of the capacity to optimize the achievement of the dynamic relations prescribed by tactical doctrine. Having thus outlined a general reference frame work, let us now examine the single factors in detail.

THE HUMAN FACTOR

The men in the structure are called upon to show: • high moral qualities, th e result of character and motivation;~ • high professional competence· consisting of: _ fully assimilated knowledge; - assured capacity; - open-mindedness and common sense; • strong physical and mental consti tution. Even in an age of rapid technological development like the present one, man remains the key factor of the armed forces, of which he is both the leader and an operative member. He is called upon to display three quite distinct types of qualities: moral, cultural and psycho-physical.

MORAL QUALITIES Moral qualities are based essent ially on character and motivation. Ther e is no need here to discuss at length what is meant by character as this aspect has been dealt w ith exhaustively ever since the beginning of military studies. We shall merely point out in passing that it cons ists of a mixture of many qualities, the most important of wh ich are: determination, tenacity, loyalty and courage. These qualities are mainly the result of one's upbringing and education. However, in order to be effective, they must also be related to a deeply felt aim. Therefore, through upbringing and education, character building is thus also related to motivation. In all circumstances, it is motivation that directs and influences the will. It is the prime mover of all human activity. No action is possible, or can even be rationally postulated, in the absence of

suitable motivation; there are no exceptions to the rule that these two terms must be causally linked. Transposed to the military field, the rule is expressed by the need for motivation which has to be at least as strong as the exceptionally tough and difficult obstacles that will have to be overcome. In other words, it must be very strong and take the form of total dedication to the Institution and to one's country. Without heartfelt, authentic motivation, a military organization may be able to get by in time of peace but would be very unlikely to survive in time of war. Also the minor weaknesses of human nature, unless adequately compensated for by a strong and deeprooted spirit of service, tend to develop a destructive potential capable of undermining the very foundations of the structure. However, in the modern democracies, the Army is not a separate body, cut off from and independent of society, It is an integral part of society,

perhaps the most genuine and immediate part. The more determined a society is to defend its right to exist and to be free, the greater the endurance and resistance of its Army will be. Basically, motivation originates in the Nation itself, in the very core of its social structures; from here it extends out as far as the military component,

(1) At Water loo. bo th the Allies and the French were deployed over a 5 Km front astride the PLAN CENOlT-MON T SAINT JEAN axis. The battl e developed over a total area of no t m0re than 15 sq Km.

linking the fatter to the collective will of the country. In this field, the military structure is dependent on the people of whom it is the expression, although much can be done within the structure itself to enhance and direct motivation. The appeal to tradition, the cohesi veness of its members, its characterbuilding potential, professional pride and the setting of examples are the main means at the A rmy's disposal. However, even these means must have a solid basis of convinction and determination.

CULTURAL BACKGROUND From this outline of the moral aspects of the human factor, let us now go on to the problem of cultural background and, more speci fically, of professional and technical competence. For the sake of convenience, this aspect will be vi ewed globally, withou t making any d istinction of degree or function, which would perhaps be necessary in a more detailed and analytical treatment of the subject. This overall treatment has one ad vantage: every man in a modern army, from the commander-in-chief down to the rawest recruit, has his own sphere of responsibility and decision-making autonomy.

Although enormously differ ent at the quantitative level, these spheres are qualitatively almost identical, with each man bearing full responsibility for his actions. Professional competence is thus something highly differentiated, w hich nevertheless must be acquired w ithout fail by all and sundry, from the highest ran k to the lowest, because it is only in this way that decisions can be put into action. This co mpetence is formed by three different elements: k nowledge, skill and mentality. That of know ledge is a very vast area: it can range from a knowledge of materiel to psychology, from that of international conventions to the rules of deployment, from the natural environment to the logistics services and so on. It is practically impossible to have a complete knowledge of every aspect of this field . A selective approach must therefore be adopted, based on the criterion of the maximum possible specia lization at the low er levels; this will be followed by greater generalization with increasing rank, and thus by a consequent reduction in depth. There are no realistic alternati ves to this solution. The second element - skill - is cer-

tainly as important as the first . It entails ability to operate, i.e. to apply kn ow. ledge to practical cases. ff one lacks the discernment t o decide how and when rules an d reg ulations are to be applied, theory and practice will rema in separate and it will consequently be impossible to solve concrete problems. Knowledge w hich has been acquired after much labour will thus be of no use, except perhaps for learned debate of a theoretical nature. However, this "discernment" can not be taught by means of other rules o r formulae. It can only be assimilated and refined by practice (provided, of course, that the necessary intellectual premises exist). If this activity is not performed, even the sharpest intelligence is dulled and knowledge itself becomes worthless. The result is incompetence, which may be erudite, but which is yet incompetence. In conclus ion, technical and prof essional competence is initially acqui red by learning the theory, but must as far as possible be completed by practical experience. This is the only wa y t hrough which intelligence can measure itself against real problems and shake off the inevitable schematicism of "dry theory".

MENTAL ATTITUDE This brings us to the last element involved in technical and professional competence-mentality. This issue would seem to have been fully dealt with _by the PJeceding c?nsiderations, particularly those referring to moral qualities. However, this is in actual facts only partly true. While it is true that character and motivation play a large part in forming mental attitude, the latter requires more than this, i.e. a breadth of mind capable of grasping changing reality; a simplifying and concrete attitude capable of concentrating on the essence of the matter, neglecting all irrelevant or secondary issues; a mental flexibility capable of coping with any situation; a presence of mind that will enable everyone never to be caught napping by events. While all these characteristics may well be inborn, there is no doubt that they can also be developed by training and that they must be kept up to scratch by continual practice. This continual training must become a part of military life as a whole, at all stages of its development and in every activity. The last aspect of the human factor to be examined is the one denoted as psycho-physical efficiency. Without going

into too much detail, it is sufficient to mention that the Army as a whole, i.e. both men and materiel, must be tempered to cope with its ultimate task war, which is anything but a pleasure trip. The endurance this demands and the wear and tear that it involves have not diminished with respect to the past. If anything, the balance between the physical aspects and the psychological aspects has been partially restored, although the sum total has remained almost the same, if anything slightly greater. The development and maintenance of psycho-physical qualities through constant practice thus represents a fundamental need for everyone to be able to express his potential capacity to the highest possible degree. EQUIPMENT

The materiel is of fundamental importance. Its effectiveness is dependent also on having clear ideas as to how to use it. It is possible to offset a slight imbalance, but not a large one.

Together with the human factor, this factor represents the basic component of the military structure. For more than one century, the materiel has had a decisive effect on both the operational and the structural aspects of modern armies and the decisions to be made in this regard are always very difficult. This is to be expected, not only in view of the importance of the problem, but also because of its complexity. The latter is influenced, among other things, by the speed of technological progress, the objective difficulty of conducting experiments and the anything but unlimited resources available. Although of fundamental importance, this is not the only problem. There are numerous others involving, to a greater or lesser degree, all sectors of military organization. The following are but a few of the possible examples: , the heavy logistic and training implications of acquiring new materiel; â€˘ the impossibility of transferring other people's experience en bloc, in view of the possible incompatibility with one's own specific needs; â€˘ the need to bear constantly in mind the specific "vulnerability" of all materiel and equipment (i.e. possible errors

and failures , sensitivity to enem y countermeasures, incidence of envi ronmental factors, etc.). Finally, one is often tempted to try and change what one already has, even when perfectly well suited to the tas k, for something better. However, waiting until a 100% effective solution of the problem is found will lead to disappointment. One further criterion to keep constantly in mind is the fact that the effectiveness of all equipment is directly dependent on the technical and professional skill of the person using it. This is true both for the most primitive equipment and for state-of-the-art integrated systems. The future capab ility of the latter was impossible to be predicted even in the recent past, particularly as far as speed, range and degree of automation are concerned; this capability

enables them not only to replace earlier generations of equipment in a more than satisfacto ry way but some of the human functions involved in using them as well. They still cannot be used on their ow n, despite the label of "smart" that has been so hastily applied to them. The intelligence by means of which they become inst ruments of certain victory actually does not stem from them but from the men using them. This brings us to the last issue: what to do when the materiel is insufficient or inferior to the enemy's? There is only one possible answer: to exploit one's superiority in other domains. Better quality human resources, a more efficient structure, a more sophisticated d octrine, a higher level of training can offset to some extent the enemy's superiority in materiel, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Also in this case,

great importance attaches to making an intelligent use of all the means available, even the most rudimentary. However, above a certain limit, the enemy's superiority becomes overwhelming and no effort can possibly avoid ultimate defeat: the most dogged resistance and the greatest courage will never be enough to offset a manifest and substantial material inferiority.

THE

STRUCTURE

One factor which is essential to th e structure's function ality is the ch ain of command, which must be: â€˘ continuous; â€˘ balanced;

• linear; • stable. Bureaucratic tendencies are a serious threat to ·the efficiency of the structure. . Proper disciplinary relationships are essential for the structui.e to be operational. THE CHAIN OF COMMAND

we have seen how armies have become increasingly more complex, particularly as far as the amount of materiel and the number of functions are concerned. However, "complex" must not be considered a synonym of "complicated", because any complex organiza·tion can be brought back to the required simplicity by eliminating all the superstructures and the habits that have grown superfluous or even detrimental in the course of its growth. This is particularly true of the chain of command, whose functionality is the first, essential factor of efficiency. The chain of command is a strong thread running through the whole structure and has the task of ensuring sure control of the situation and the regular flow of orders. Since any malfunction in it will have negative effects of incalculable importance which can even lead to the complete paralysis of the organization, its functioning must be straightforward, simple and rapid, and everything must be done in such a way as to avoid any failures, something that is always in the offing, particularly in wartime. What, then, are the best conditions in order to ensure maximum functional efficiency of the chain of command? Without trying to set up an artificial scale of priorities, we can start with "spatial continuity", i.e. the absence of gaps or overlapping. Every soldier, whatever his ·rank, must have one commander, and never more than one. However obvious this may seem, it can be conveniently clarified by means of an example. If, for example, a superior skips the next lowest level and directly addresses a subordinate rank, his action overlaps that of his subordinate and sets up a temporary dual chain of command. This is an inevitable cause of confusion and ?isturbance, particularly in the case of inconsistencies between the orders given at the two levels, which is what happens as a rule. · Let us assume that a commander, e.g. a company commander, has to command a large number of subordinates, say a hundred or so, without a sufficient number of efficient intermediate ranks. His command activity will necessarily be deficient; the large number of men involved rules out the direct and constant relationship essential for any f ully effective action· there will be a gap in the chain of cdmmand. This leads to a very dangerous situation which is hard to control and objectively favours the setting up of hidden, individual and group hierarchies whose aims and methods are normally in unreconcilable

contrast with the organization as a whole. The second condition definitely consists of the balanced sharing of tasks and responsibilities among the various command levels. Any change in this balance, usually caused by an accumulation of tasks as you move up the ladder, results in two different types of problem: congestion at the upper levels (where, however competent and numerous the staff officers are, they cannot change the fact that there is only one commander and he alone can make the decisions) and the alienation of the lower levels which, caught between the "hammer" of the superior and the "anvil" of the subordinate, have their function reduced to that of "playing postman". The stage above this consists of the linearity and essential nature of the whole chain of command. Multiple dependence, purely nominal controls and all unnecessary steps must be eliminated immediately. They are, in any case, definitely detrimental since, even if they do not actually obstruct the chain of command, they lead to the wasting of time, i.e. of a particularly precious resource in time of war where the difference between victory and defeat can often be measured in minutes. This brings us to the last itemstability. Command relationships represent much more complex links than are suggested by the simple line drawn on the organization charts. The blocks with which these links are built consist of very important human factors, e.g. knowledge, respect, habit, shared experiences. Each time these slender links are broken, no matter how quickly they are mended, precious time is lost. This should be made perfectly clear.

no langer pursues its institutional aims, but limits itself to preserving the means that it should be using to pursue those aims. Completely withdrawn into itself, it is concerned solely with ensuring its own survival, even if in a completely routine and unproductive way. With all its decisions now being influenced by its obsession with ritual orthodoxy, the structure inevitably becomes slow, shortsighted, indecisi ve and obtuse in the pursuit of its statutory aims. Crushed under the weight of the very rules it has adopted in order to govern itself, it is now incapable of freeing itself, also because the disintegrating effect of the process now brings out the less noble aspects of the human personality and the pressure groups it now gives rise to are usually unwilling . to abandon the field without a fight. If this is the disease, how can it be cured? There is no easy solution. The possible antidotes are slow and hard to apply. Action must be taken both at the level of the structure and procedures, eliminating the dead wood and useless ritual, as well as at that of mentality, which is much more difficult, However, an effort must be made to halt the · tendency towards intellectual conformism, formal bigotry and the fear of taking responsibility, of which the red tape degeneration is both the cause and the effect. An appeal must be made to the nobler aspects involved in the human factor, e.g. motivation, professional competence, confidence and courage. In conclusion, the operation is a long-term one. However, it is certainly possible, provided that one acts continuously and in a firmly constructive way, with the courage to work in depth, fairly, without any special regard for outdated regulations, consolidated habits or pseudo acquired rights.

RED TAPE

This aspect is worth examining as it is related to a very important problem involving all types of large organizations. Let us first examine the nature of this problem. From the time of their creation, all organizational structures have always adopted rules and regulations for the purpose of unifying methods, working systems and behaviour, in order to achieve their statutory aims in the best possible way. Under optimal conditions, therefore, t here is a substantial equilibrium between the ends (objectives) and the means (rules of behaviour). As long as this equilibrium is maintained, the structure remains fundamentally sound and efficient. The trouble begins when th is equilibrium is shifted in one direction or the other. In the first case (i.e. shortage of means vis-a-vis the ends to achieve) there is a tendency towards the chaotic development, even if vigorous, typical of growing but unplanned structures; in the second case (i.e. when the means prevail over the ends) the opposite occurs, i.e. we have a growth of red tape. A structure affected by the latter disease has "lowered its sights", i.e. it

DISCIPLINARY RELATIONSHIPS

All that now remains to be done is to examine that part of the military structure which regulates all interactions, i.e. disciplinary relationships. Discipline is essential. There can be no objections to or doubts about this. The real problem is, however, to know what form of discipline we have to take in order to actually enhance efficiency. What kind of discipline is required? The first observation is that the only possible kind of discipline in a modern army is conscious discipline: brutish, purely mechanical discipline is no longer compatible with the mentality of modern man and with the military structure of our times. In the battlefield, where each soldier must make his personal contribution in terms of active cooperation and intelligent initiative, the formless and purely passive executor of orders is more harm than he is worth. Overwhelmed by events beyond his control, he is bound to be irretrievably swept away within hours. . But what does conscious discipline really mean?

A simple answer i s that it is composed of the following characteristic elements: • a certain sharing of aims and a solid internal cohesion of the whole structure; • a simple and essential set of disciplinary rules, in which detailed and special p rescriptions are kept to a minimum and the fundamental duties of each individual v is-a-vi s the organizati on are clearly and unequivocall y stated; • the inviolabili ty, at all levels, of a definite field of indi vidual responsibility. But thi s is still not enough. Also behaviour must be consistent with these principles. To this en d, as fundamental rules: • command, conceived exclusively as a service, must be exer ted by means of example, competently and with proper moral courage, with no unacceptable, purely personal traits. Only in t hi s way discipline can be accepted as an obvi-

ous necessity and not as a harsh imposition; • everyone must do his duty; no shortcomings regarding fundamental tasks can be tolerated w ithout the very basis of discipline being undermined; • the respect of d ignity, fairness and truth are to be considered inalienable rights. Other ri ghts are subordinated to the pursuit of the Institution' s fundamental aims; • orders that cannot be materially executed should be r igorously banned, not onl y because they do not lead to concrete results, but above all because they destroy confidence, which is the cornerstone of conscious discipline; • control must be carried out mainly on the results, since the way orders are carried out m ust rema in within the sphere of respons ibility of each executor. That is all, and i t is quite a lot. A correct approach to disciplinary relationships is not only essential for the operational efficiency of the whole structure,

but it i s also a sure antidote against all kinds of red tape.

OPERATING CRITERIA

Both the doctrine and the operating philosoph y m ust enable even the most unpredictable situations to be coped with . The forces must be large enough to cope with their tasks and all th e factors must be consistently used in a modern conception of operation al conditions.

This issue is closel y related to structural problems, since no gaps ca n be allowed between structure and operating criteria in an organi zation that pursues the objective of efficiency. There w ill therefore be some repetitions and, unfortunately, also some omissions, caused by the attempt to make

the overall situation as clear as possible. The operating criteria are dependent on the scenario and on the available forces.

THE SCENARIO After the scenario , or at least the most probable of a large number of hypothetical scenarios, has been identified, two courses of action are open to us. The first course is rigid, and is planned m inutely on the basis of the chosen hypothesis; the second is extremely flexible and can readily be adapted to any scenario. The first solution provides a theoretically perfect solution, but in only one case; the second gives us imperfect and incomplete solutions, which are valid over a wide range of possibilities. It is equally clear that the fi rst solution is highly attractive to the human mind, above all because it makes us fee l that we are prepared for the event. However, this is a temptation that must be resisted. Only too often in the past the situation has evolved in a radically different way to the forecasts on which the plans and programmes were based. There is an overwhelming amount of historical evidence to support this conclusion. One of the most obvious and convincing cases is that of the " Schlieffen " plan dratted by the German High Command, which envisaged a battle on two fronts. This plan was based on the assumption that the time made available by the slow mobilization and mustering of the Russian army could be used to first bring France to its knees before turning the full force of the army against the Russians. However, the early mobilizati on of the Russian forces in August 1914, which was brought to completion in an unexpectedly short time, changed the assumptions on which the plan was based, making it obsolete. The German High Command, realizing that the plan was no longer realistic, decided to adapt reality to the plan and p layed the only trump card it held - surprise. The overhasty declaration of war, made under the worst possible political and strategic conditions, was the natural outcome of that decision. The consequences for Germany and for the rest of Europe are only too well known. This, as we have seen, is only one of the numerous possible examples. Many other High Commands, in many different countries and periods, have had to pay the price of over-rigi d planning when faced with new and completely unexpected situations. Flexibility, therefore, is what is needed, but how much? Allpurpose solutions have often been found to be too rough and ready. In conclusion, it may be said that the most probable scenario(s} must not be ignored and needs must be satisfied according to a logical order of priority. What must be avoided at all costs is to plan down to too low a doctrinal and structural level, for instance, concerning the number of ammunition chargers needed. Planning must be kept looser so as to leave adequate scope for deal-

ing with the unexpected. This is true at both the strategic and the tactical levels. Here, flexibility is also and mainly the fruit of moral courage and of the decision-making skill of commanders at all levels, in other words, of their mentality. This last consideration brings us to another conclusion: doctrinal and structural flexibility have no meaning unless accompanied by the mental flexi bility of the commanders.

THE FORCES AVAILABLE Having completed our examination of the threat, let us now look into the problem of the forces available. This issue must be approached from iwo different angles. The fi rst approach involves the size and type of the available forces and the relative possibility of supplying and supporting them. There exist minimum indispensable requirements at both the quantitative and the qualitative levels below which one cannot drop without it becoming materially impossible to do the job. There must be no doubt on this point. The second approach revolves around deployment; we must ensure that the forces available are used in such a way as to maximize the chances of success. It is on this latter point that we shall now focus our attention. It is a commonplace to think that soldiers tend to begin the next war at the point in which they left off in the previous one. Although obviously an exaggeration, there is some truth in this statement. This is due to the overwhelming force of circumstances: the last war always represents the . only completely reliable testing ground. Even other people's experience are regarded with understandable suspicion, because it is often related to far-off battlefields and peculiar conditions, and it is difficult to make adequate allowance for specific or contingent factors. As a result, our recent direct experience, although repressed, continues to colour all our ideas regarding the future. Also here the solution does not lie in applying some simple recipe. At best one can establish a number of cri teria which may be summed up as follows: think, discuss and test in a continuous cycle, as part of a never-ending process. To think, i.e. to use one's intellingence, to exploit one's previous experience to the full, to stimulate one's creative imagination in a continual search for new ideas for coping with reality . To discuss, because ideas must be expounded, criticized and compared, without regard for taboos, prejudices or commonplaces. To test, as objectivel y as possible, because, although 100% simulation of the real cond itions cannot always be achieved, it is possible to come fairly close to doing so. This is the only way to exploit, with any chance of success, the factors of advantage that every army possesses. From Alexander, Hannibal and Caesar down to Napoleon, Montecuccoli and

Moltke, the history of the great military victories has simply been the history of how the class ical criteria entailed in the conduct of operations were "thought through" in a new w ay.

TRAINING LEVEL

The training le vel attained can never be considered satisfactory. It is necessary to improve, and to go on improving. The essential conditions for effective training are: • realism; • availability of suitable instructors , eq uipment and train ing grounds; · • quality and global nature of the training process. Training is the means by which the operational capability of the structure as a whole can be improved. Acting as a kind of link between theory and practice, it represents a fundamental and conclusive stage in the preparation ot the armed forces. In its turn, the training level reac hed, the end result of the whole process, is the most reliab le test of efficiency in peacetime. Before we go any further, however, it is necessary to settle two preliminary matters, which are essential to a cor rect approach to the problem: • the training standard reached in th e preparatory phase is bound to decline during actual operations. This is because it is not possible, during peacetime train ing, to include all the disturbing factors caused by enemy reaction ; • it is not enough to attain a generically high level of tra ining; it is necessary to establish a degree of superiority over the possible enemy. The greater th is superiority, the greater the chances of vi ctory. These two premises enable us to lay down guidelines for all the train ing activities. Constant efforts must be made to go beyond the limits reached on the previous occasion. The time will never come when we can say to ourselves: "That's it. We've fi ni shed" because the need for further preparation and imp rovement will always lie ahead of us. Numerous different factors are involved in achieving this progressive development; the following are the most important: - realism : this is the primary cond ition for obtaining effective results. The problem is to develop train ing methods aimed at reproduc ing situations and at producing reactions as similar as possible to real ones (in terms of time, space, fo rces involved and deployment conditions), including the possibility of making mistakes, which is an indispensable source of learning and experienc e. In this sense, no indulgence should be shown towards preconstructed schemas or to ready-made scripts, not only because of the consequent distorti on of ideas, but also because the partici-

pant's efforts would thus be concentrated on objectives that are diametrically opposed to those of effective and realistic tra ining;

_ the availability of instructors: this is an essential factor, in the absence of which it is wishful thinl(lng to attempt to solve the training problem. . It follows that instructor training is the first steP, in any activity. On the other hand, any prolonged fall-off in one sector will not only have a detrimental effect on the present training level but cou ld also have repercussions in the future, when the effects of the shortcomings, due to the interruption of normal and refresher training of the instructor cadres, are fell; - the availability of equipment and training grounds: this issue is so obviously essential that very little need be said about it. Of course, the early tra ining stages can be spli t up, concentrated in a short t ime span arid carried out using simulators: however, from the next stage on, real equipment will be required, together with sufficiently large areas in which to try it out. If this is impossible, the training process is likely to break down and become unproductive; - the quality of training: this is achieved mainly by concen trating efforts on the individual and through the intensity of the training. Each unit is nothing more than the sum of its individual component parts. It is therefore on the latter that the maximum efforts must be concentrated in order to raise the operational effectiveness to a level where everything can virtually be done automatically. By doing this, not only will we be making our units efficient, but we shall also be reducing the inevitable toll to be paid in t erms of losses. If these facts are disregarded it will not be possible to speak of a trained army and we will have to be prepared to pay a very high, and perhaps useless, tribute in blood;

under the psychological pressur e of the battlefield. In the end, motivation will also be strengthened and enhanced, and an autonomous microsom, a reflection of the outside world, of one:s. country and of one's family, will thus have been set up in each unit. CONCLUSIONS This analysis of training brings to a close this short outline of the parameters relating to efficiency. What remains to be said? Although I do not claim to have dealt with everything, I think at least the main factors have all been touched upon. One final consideration might be made: efficiency is a goal that must be attained well in advance, and fully consolidated during the years of peace, particularly because it is a difficult objective demanding total awareness and rocklike determination, not only from the Armed Forces but also from the Nation as a whole. It is a long-term goal which can be attained and maintained only after years of hard work, in which there can be no short cuts or half measures. To think that it can be attained when the chips are down is a dangerous illusion. When this time comes one reaps only what one has sown in the preceding years. There will be no time for second thoughts and backtrack ing: only the tool that one has forged will be available for use. It will be too late to do anything else. Giuseppe Caccamo

Âˇ- the global nature of the training, which must involve absolutely everyone, without regard for service branch, rank or function. War is not a private matter concerning the lesser army units; it is a massive collective effort in which everyone must be able to give his best. On closer examination, the factors we have been examining are seen to have also an ultimate psychological aspect. A unit hardened by tough and purposeful training will almost automatically tend to amalgamate and become a community linked by solid bonds of comradeship. Men will learn to know each other ~nd. respect the better qualities that are inevitably brought out by shared hardships. A solid bond of mutual confidence and respect will be created naturally between the commander and those under his command. Conscious discipline will tend to be accepted w ithout resistance. Self-confidence, built up out of the satisfaction at having passed the various tests, will strengthen the men's endurance and make them unlikely to break down

Ma jor Gene ra l Giuseppe Caccamo attended sta ft training courses a t the Civitavecch ia War Co llege and at the West German Army Staff Coll ege in Hamburg . He commanded the " L'Aquila" Alpini battalion, and was Deputy Commander or the "Cadore" Brigade, From 1980 to 1982 he commanded the "Ju lia" Bri gade. Genera: Caccamo has a lso held numero us stalf posts : Staff Oflicer, Regula tions Branch, Army Genera l SIat1: Ch iet ot Stall. "Julia " Briga de: Mil itory Attache in Vienna and Mi litary Advisor . Ita lian d elegat ion to the MBFR ta lks. Gen . Caccamo has also commanded the staff tra inin,J c ourses at the War Col lege of Civitavecchiu.

EVOLUTION OF EQUIPMENT AND TOMORROW'S WARS

FOREWORD

THE TANK

Even though the myriad of minor wars characterizing the aspect of today's conflictua lity reveal a mi litary reality that we could describe as "limited", the efforts of the alliances and the most important mi lita ry powers in the fields of economics, tech nology, doctrine and industry sti ll tend toward the acquisition of an instrument to be employed according to more and more soph isticated and technologically advanced conceptions. To a great extent. every thing is left to imagination rather than to practical facts which neither Vietnam and the Falklands - in the past - nor Afghan istan and the Iraqi-Iranian war - at present - have produced. It is perhaps easier to find a reference to the hypothetical aspect of a future war in some movies, rather than in the war reports of the papers. And though efforts are more and more frequently made, towards the revolution of the role of light infantry or the simplification of its equipments, the devel opment and the sophistication of materiels and doctrine is stil l in progress. In this framework, in spite of very serious national and international studies showing the ma in features of a possible war in wh ich the industrialized world could get involved, there is stil l space for some considerations - col latera lly to the situation of the development of the weapon systems - in order to try to imagine the battlefield of tomorrow.

This formidable weapon, which represents on land what a light cruiser is at sea or a fighter-bomber is in the sky, must be stil l considered the hinge of every tactica l conception as far as land maneuver is concerned. Even if technology seems to have completely developed al l its basic characteristics, it is sti ll possible to improve the performance of tanks. First of all , let us consider the aspect of protection, which is perhaps the most fascinating among the three main characteristics of tanks, giving them that quasi-invulnerability always pursued by the protagonists of the battlefield, either through Achilles' propitiatory baths or the German belt buckle with the "Gott mit uns". Technology, with the principles of the spaced armour, the ceramic compound and the exploding plates, will consent further improvements in what has been done till now, with the mere uti lization of very thick passive screens. These improvements will permit a more effective protection of tanks from shells or hollow-charge missiles. Tanks will then have to continue to be wary above all, of kinetic energy shells (which nevertheless will only be fired by other tanks or by tank-hunters), of "bomblets" , small mines or termina l-guide laser shel ls - all with a hollow charge - fired by artillery or delivered by missiles. In particular, "bomblets" and smal l mines will be in some way a forced solution in the attempt to hit the tanks in their "soft" points, that is to say, the belly and the upper part, that are still vulnerable to the hol low charges. The tank's fire power is the parameter on which the possibility to destroy the adversary equivalent equipment depends. Due to the above considerations, it is indispensable to produce a high initial velocity to obtain the necessary thrust for the high kinetic energy shel ls to penetrate through the enemy armour.

129 "Mangusta" attack helicopter, armed with two 19-cell launchers for 70 mm rockets and 8 anti-tank "TOW" missiles. Very advanced in its conception , the 2-seat "Mangusta" has a maximum speed of 270 km/h, and is equipped with a composite armour, capable of withstanding high caliber hits.

Right.

On the battlefield, a primary requirement is that of elu ding the enemy's information activit y, in ord er to ensure the survival of one's own units. The picture shows a Leopard 2 combat tank of th e German Federal Army with the new three-c olo ur camouflage, instead of the t radition al o li ve green. Below. Th e improvements in the p rotection of m odern tanks h ave reduced the d estru ctive capabilit y of the ho llow c harges. Th e ro le of tank-hunters h as therefore been reappraised. sin ce they c an also employ k inetic- energ y armour-piercing amm unition . Th e photo shows the p rotot ype of th e new Swedish UDES " XX-20" tank h unter. The main armament o f this two-ch assis system is located extern ally and loaded automatically; th e UDES, therefore, can, fire from comp letely defiladed positions.

It is possible to improve all the factor.s concurring to the aforesaid parameter. They are : the caliber of the gun, the propellent, the metal alloy of the shell, thÂˇe resilience ot the shockabsorbers and the sufficient weight of the tank. Finally, it is possible to improve the tank's mobility, which is already very good: thanks to the progress in motorization, it will be rather easy to absorb the increase in weight, caused by a thicker armour or a heavier main armament. Tanks will continue to be high ly feared due to the further improvements in the automatic firing systems. in the devices for the production of anti-lR or antiradar chaff, as well as in electronic measures and countermeasures. such as jammers against guided antitank missiles.

THE ANTITANK WEAPONS

The improvements in tanks. even if not so great. are the factor that, at least temporarily, will probably bring about the revision of the present rules of the anti-tank combat. Two of the aforesaid factors will have influence on this type of fight. The first is due to the diminished effectiveness of the hollow charges, resu lting from the tanks' better protection. This tact will have repercussions on the operativeness of the missiles - guided or not - as well as on all kinds of HEAT shells. If the ability of the hollowcharge missiles to hit and destroy decreases. the defence will have to re-estimate the role of the tank-hunters. it being understood that the still precious tank will continue to be employed as an element for countermanoeuvre and in reserve. Another conditioning factor is connected with the electronic countermeasures against guided missiles. We can foresee - even if it is not yet possible to say to what extent - that in a short time these electronic measures

will permit to neutra lize - proportionally to their flying-time a part of the antitank missiles. giving a better advantage to the attacker. It is therefore possible to imagine that the battle between the tank's electronic countermeasures and the missiles ' electronic guide will be added - as a corollary - to the gun-armour or missile-armour fight of today. If up to now it was possible to employ many missiles from distances that were longer than the range of the tank guns, perhaps tomorrow the antitank fight will again depend on the courage of the infantryman and on the possibility of entrapping the armoured formations in urban areas, which will be trans-

In the immediate future, tanks will also have to be wary - in addition to hollow-charge and kinetic energy shells and missiles - of laser- infrared- or microwave-guided bomblets, small mines and proiectiles, all of them hollow-charge or self-forging, launched by artillery or dropped by missiles. The drawing describes the different phases of an attack with SADARM (Sense And Destroy Armour) munitions, consisting of shells capable of delivering on the obiective a certain number of independent self-forging warheads, each with an infrared-guided identification system.

formed in obstacle knots, prearranged in the areas and avenues of approach and covered by fire from permanent fortifications. In order to counterbalance -these difficulties,. the armed helicopters wi ll enter the scene: they are real flying platforms equ ipped with antitank weapons. Their mobility, flexibility, rapidity of intervention and relia bility will give the Comma nders, in some cases, an exceptional instrument for decisive interventions. THE ARTILLERY

Before discussing the arti llery, we must consider the sectors of target acquisition and surveillance of the battlefield. As rega rds the fields of electronics. both of them can have very interesting developments . The first results will be obtained at the Headquarters of the Major Units with the availability of easily acq uired information given by "ad hoe" satellites deployed in space. At the centres for analysis and distribution of information operating at the Headquarters, it will be possible to hav e dat a concerning enemy elements located at any distance. It will be possible to see and hit anything moving in formation . First of all , the air forces and the longer range missiles be left mainl y to the mortars of will hit, and then the artillery the infantry and the support - at a distance of more than weapons of the combat veh icl es. 30 km. In theory, the combat could The longest range artillery be a dista nce-fight, made with fire will be a sa turation fi re, the numerous wea pon-systems based on the use of "bomblets" of the artillery, without any conand small mines, against the tact betw een the opposed forapproaching formations of tanks mations of the combat units. and artillery. This will not happen. in pracAt shorter distances, the tice, because the tanks on one "d irect support" artillery will ha nd and the foot soldiers in the enter into action. It will have a holes, on the other, will be able more marked antita nk function , to survive, and this will perm it th rough the em ployment of the former to get through any laser termi na l-guided shells or obst acle, and the latter to resist other special ammun ition. any concentration of fire, so The employment of artillery that the direct con frontation beagain st personnel and for the tween foot soldi ers and ta nks dissociation of tanks from the will inevitably occur. mechanized elements will beThe fact is tha t the artillery come secondary; this role will wi ll cause the highest rate of 46

Th e combination of massive impact and rapid penetration, typical of the enemy armoured formations - together with the action of small special force units in the rear lines - puts the defence forces in front of situations that can be controlled only with very high mobility and very close coordination. The employment of helicopters is essential to face such emergency situations. Here a p artial view of an AB-205 helicopter and the ammunition tor its mach ine guns.

damage to the enemy and it could acquire, in the perspective that has been illustrated, a preem inent role over the other arms. particularly in defence.

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AIR DEFENCE AND AIR COOPERATION

In the very near future, the attacker will tend to achieve his penetration into the advanced enemy deployment by making a number of breaches, through which a great number of tanks will enter and rapidly spread in depth. . lntrared-or microwave-guided a1r-to-ground missiles are now being t~sted in the U.S. Launched by tighter a,~craft or attack helicopters, these m1ss1fes head autonomously for their targets, hitting the armoured formations timely and effectively. The drawing shows the sequence ~~ an anti-tank attack, conducted with asp" ammunition.

In the general framework of combat, it will be more useful to give airplanes the task of distant interd iction rather than that of Close Air Support. The evergrowing effectiveness of the antiaircraft self defence systems of the land units will also lead to this choice, for they wil l considerably increase the risks for the aircraft, which are too expensive not to be employed for more profitable missions. Even the control of the lower airspace, where airplanes can act more freely, will be improved by the automatic command and control procedures. This will he lp further to divert the aircraft

towards other targets outside the combat zone. These considerations are more valid for the defender who necessarily will have to ration his resources very strictlythan for the attacker, who has more resources at his disposal. Consequently, the importance of air defence will remain unchanged, for, if it is inadequate, it will give the attacker the possibility to take great advantage from the utilization of his air forces in support of the armoured units. WHAT ATTACK AND, ABOVE ALL, WHAT DEFENCE?

From what has been said till now, it is evident that tanks,

heavily supported by artillery and , as far as possible, by air force, will be the strong point of the attacker. His line of action will tend to break and penetrate tre advanced deployment, even if only in a few points. It will not be, then, a general breakthrough, but the opening of small breach es t hro ug h which the grea test number of tanks will get through in the shortest possible time. in order to spread in depth. The advanced forces of the defender. mostly s ubject to fixing actions and necessarily anchored to the ground, w ill find it difficult to change rapidly their array and gravitation. The adversary will try to take advantage of this situation, disregarding the advanced defence array, and trying hard to el iminate the defender's armoured reserves - called in to countermaneuver - and to destroy the artillery units. chasing them, relentlessly , as far as the rear lines. Together wi th the main attack, a great number of small

actions wil l be started. Saboteurs, special un its, paratroops or helicopter-borne teams will neutralize nodal centres , control and data centres. and elements for the surveillance of the battlefield and the acqu isition of targets. The aim of this action will be that of upsetting the defence orga nization, hitti ng its most sensitive elements, tactica lly very important but intrinsecally vulnerable. The massive attack and the rapid pe netration of the armoured units, together with the action of the small units in the rear line, will be a threat not easy to coun t era ct. The forces of defence, already limited in number, will have to face sit'uations that can only be controlled by hig h mobility and close coordi nation. But let us proceed in an orderly manner , and try to imagine a line of action for the defence. The best def ence is one that can avail itself of wid e space, is able to grad ua lly absorb the enemy thrust. learning to know the enemy in order to detect his vulnerabilities, wearing him down , stopping at nat ural

obstacles, counter-ma neuvering on the flanks, hitting the most sensitive elements with speci"I forces. in order to reach a defence position in which to emp oy al l th e available forces to stop the enemy once and for all. Unfortunately, this space does not exist in our nationa situation - un less we want to give up much of our te rritory; t 'le fight will therefore become iw mediately a violent c lash between the adversary who arrivds in a rush, and the defender who standing still , awaits him, leaving him free to act by surprise - as regards the points of app ication of the effort - and free to amass and concentrate his forces at the place and at the t ime of his c hoice. There will be an accurate location or " marking" - as it is wrongly sa id today - of the stat ic deployment of forces, be it optical, electronic or w ith fire, multiplying their vulnerability. From this derives the basic and primary requirement to escape the informative action o the adversary, in order t o guarantee t he survival of the units command pos ts, reserves and artillery; this will occur througr the implementation o f a plan o f deception aimed at d isguising in several w ays the defender's deployment. First of al l. maski ng and camouflage, rea lized by every-

one perfectly and with adequate equipment. Then, false transmissions on the one hand and radio-silence of the real nets on the other. Finally, the multiplication of the sources of. electronic transmission, so as to render it difficult for the enemy to determine the ones really connected with radars or with other essential equipment tor the control of the battlefield . As accurate as this attentive defence against the adversary's surveillance and acquisition equipment may be, missiles and artillery will soon follow the aircraft in hitting the located ob jectives. While the attacking tanks are still many chilometres away, the defender's and the attacker's conventional and missiles artilleries will try to destroy each other and hit - respectively - the approaching armoured units and the vital structures of the defence organization. The defence position will have to be organized as a continuous and wide barrier, through the integration of rivers, canals and urban areas with minefields, antitank alignments and strongholds. If the front line becomes indented, it will have to absorb the enemy, but never break. The battle will have to gradually change the arrangement of the units facing each other along a certain line - tending to go

backwards, to the detriment of the defender - but it will instead develop into an areal fight. The tanks will operate at a shorter distance, their maneuvering spaces will get narrow;' it wi ll be possible to take advantage of the tanks' impossibi lity to move in numerous and compact units, due to the structure of the battlefield, fragmented by the obstacles described above . In this situation the infantry. after a classic and systematic action on the front, will make, in the areal battle, dynamic and small tactical actions, letting the enemy advance, hitti ng him on the flanks and countermaneuvering in order to regain the lost ground. Combat vehicles will help the infantry to do this. They will be used for displacements on the battlefield and to integrate the fire of the infantry weapons antitank or others . The intervention of reserve tanks will also be helpful. The utilization of the latter will be offensive, dynamic and possibly massive. The choice of the proper time and place for their action must be planned with care. Their intervention will preferably be carried out according to consolidated hypotheses. If an unexpected penetration occurs. formations of attack helicopters will guarantee greater

The progress made in the field of muni tions enables the artillery to carry out a saturation fire, from very long distances, against approaching tanks . Shown here, a "Pa/maria" 155 mm selfpropelled howitzer which, in addition to semi self-propelling munitions with a 30 km range, can employ laser-guided she/ls.

timeliness and effectiveness. since their characteristics and possibilities of employment are well suited to face emergency situations. Armed multirole helicopters will play an importa nt part also in counteracting the dangerous threat of the special forces in the rear lines and in case of air land ings. The intervention of helicopter-borne forces, taken from the motorized units assigned to the defence of the rear lines. will guarantee the necessary timeliness of reaction to such actions, and reduce the possibility that the enemy units. penetrated in the rear lines will reiterate their attacks. CONCLUSIONS

The availability of adequate technological equipment, an efficient command and control system. well-trained units and accurate defensive arrangements, will permit to face the threat of a "major conflict" thus hypothesized. The reality of today's minor wars makes us sometimes think that there could be another way of defend ing ourselves, different both in its procedures and in the equipment to be employed. But the reality of today's world does not appear to give us many alternatives. The industrial society gives us - as raw material for defence - highly sophisticated equipment and systems, as well as men who are more apt to operate on a technical basis, according to their mental ity and habits. As far as we are concerned. it is very unlikely that our civilization of "prosperity" and "social demands" will give birth to motivated and determined guerrillas ready to fight with cold steel, while it is possible that our citizen-soldier, during the period of his conscription. will learn to press the right buttons of the weapon-system put at his disposal by progress for the defence of the Fatherland. Carlo Cabigiosu

'II I I

THE WORK OF QUINTO CENN

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" He was never a soldier, but loved soldiers. He never held a rifle in his hands and loved the profession of arms. He never mounted a horse and loved horses. And he became the most importa nt historiographic painter of soldiers". These words about Quinto Cenni were written by Arna ldo Fraccaroli, who ac knowledge t hat the painter persisted - among

difficulties and incomprehensions, with tena city and courage - in his attempt to make the Italian soldier known and loved. Actually, the Italian Army, through Qu into Cenni's work , co uld avail itself - and, in a sense, stil l does - of an effective tool for the popularization of the mi litary traditions of ou r Country.

"Rivista Militare" has publish ed a series of volu mes with the watercolours by this great painter, in which he represented scenes of wars fough t not only in Italy, but also in the most faraway battlefields. These publications are im porta nt documents for those who are keen on "uniformology" and for students of the Italian milita ry customs.

In his drawings Cenni notes _ emphasizing them by Ch ina ink or watercolour - the particulars which are most interesting to him. the changes - albeit insignificant - in theÂˇ uniforms and materiels of the Italian Army, as well as in the armies of other countries. With patient care, Cenni collected an enormous quantity of drawing of uniforms of every Army and Nation from

and rea lized that in the rest of Europe the mi litary questions were followed with great attention and that history and traditions of the various units were considered with great care. Cenni, in his representation of uniforms, was also an innovator: in his portraya ls one can find a vivacity and a spirit which make them really captivating . The RisorgimentoÂˇs volunteers are

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1650 onwards; already in 1891 he estimated to have more than twenty thousand drawings, whose number was progressively and constantly increasing. It is an impos ing collection, a really priceless historical and artistic patrimony, obtained with an initiative never undertaken before in Italy, and never again accomplished in such a large scale. In order to portray his

un iforms true to the origina l ones. Cenni interviewed veterans and survivors. to have first-hand information on details lacking a reliable documentation. He had free access to the barracks. the commanders received him and invited him to attend parades and manoeuvres, which he never missed . He made the acquaintance of experts from other countries,

represented with their youthful boldness and candid enthusiasm; the "Garibaldini" have never been depicted so well; sometimes - special ly as regards the troops of the First War of Independence - we see an almost dreamy view of those who fought for their freedom. They are small sketches of actual life which -

even today -

give us a real 51

pleteness which were its fundamenta l qua lities and its great value. Cen ni contr ibuted greatly to the diffusion of the uniforms o f the past. which continue to attract and fascinate not on ly the experts but also those who appreciate all which is really and genu ine image of milita ry life in al l its aspects . More and more f ond of this particular field, Cenni publ ished at his own expense the historicartistic-military album "Custoza 1848-1866". It is a real ly exceptional work , where scrupulo us precision and patience emerge in the numerous sketches, portraits, drawings, w ar scenes and topographic plans. -Cenni contributed to several reviews such as " L'lllustrazione lta liana", "Epoca " and "Spirito Follette", special izing in the research on uniforms from every country. Another very important album of drawings w as published o n June 18, 1886, on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the Cor ps of Bersaglieri, the "Number One" with the title "l Bersaglieri" The volume was republished in 1896 f or th e sixtiet h an niversa ry of the Bersaglieri, wi th the purpose of retracing the history of the Corps' uniforms from 1836 t o 1886, represented in a colour plate which earned Cenni the Cross of Knight of the Crown of Italy, bestowed on him by King Umberto I. In 1887 Cenni, on his own initiative, began to publish the magazi ne "L'lllustrazio ne Militare lt aliana" - which sti ll today remains unexcelled - extremely ri ch in drawings and colour plates. made with the skill and scruple whic h are his most typical q ual ities . Qu into Cenni bade t he last farewell to his Country and t o his art w ith a watercolo ur painted tw enty minutes before his death, on Aug ust 13, 1917. After hi m, no one equal led hi s stature; his coll ection went to his son lta lo, a worthy continuator of his work for a short time, since he also di ed. The collec tion, divided among seve ral amateurs, has lost the homogeneity and insuperable corn-

beautiful and - at the sam e t ime - deeply humane. This is what emerges fro ,, the publicatio ns on Quinto C" nni, published by " Rivista Militare" with the idea of recalli ng the history of the Italian Army through the works of th is gre t artisan of the image.

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The watercolours are accompanied with documents and objects through which one .can relive the simple problems of the officers and non-commissioned officers of a century .ago, without forgetting the great historical events confronted by our young army.

This project is a noteworthy initiative also because it gives a complete documentation historic and iconographic about problems and facts which are part of our more or less recent past.

THE WORK OF QUINTO CENNI

Carlo Felici TAV. '

ARMATA AUSTRI A CA

SPECIAL ISSUE n. 2/ 1986

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Every uniform reflects the spirit of the army in a specific historical moment, and "the relationship between military traditions and civilian customs is very closely con nected with the succession of fashions, which are preceded or foffowed by the uniforms, in a surprising flourishing of styles and modes. Convinced of this continuing its programme of research, which has already enabled "Rivista Militare" to publish the volume "The Jtalian Armies from the pre-unitarian States to the national unification" the magazine has started, in 1985, a study of the Italian Army's uniforms. They are of remarkable aesthetic interest and. above all. have moral contents concurring with the ideals that motivate the soldier. The series reproduced in this book, which is in possession of Rome's National Museum of Castel Sant'Ange/o , consists of 67 photographic plates, retouched and handpainted with the watercolour technique, in the absolute respect of the original · colours. Made by the Lavazzano photographic studio of Rome, the set was delivered to the Museum of the War Ministry in 1932; it is not known whether the photographer was also the author of the subsequent colouring or whether this exceptional operation was carried out by somebody else. The photographs represent officers, non-commissioned officers and enlisted men - of aff corps, services and insVtutes of the army - wearing the uniforms established by the Regulation of 1880 and modified by Act n. 101 of May 16, 1895, in force until 1902.

An aspect of these photographs, increasing their rarity and importance - not only tor those who are especially interested in this specific field., but also for aff st udents of that particular period - is the great difficulty in finding original material representing single individuals and not groups. At the end of the century, in tact, photography Was a valid "message" sent by the soldfers to their families, a witness of their service in uniform; the photographs still existing are therefore widely spread and scattered in private collections . The work of filing the photographs and the individua tion of the various Corps has been carried out, for the first time, during the preparation of this volume which, as a whole, is an absolute novelty. ft has the merit of bringing back to fight real images of our military tradition.

Non-subscribers will be able to purchase the book either at full price, or with a 20% discount if they send this form together with a request for subscription to ''Rivista Militare" and a remittance of Lit. 24,000 (or U.S. $ 12 . D.M. 36 · F.F. 100). by cheque or international money order, addressed to: Stato Maggiore Esercito . Rivista Militare . Sezione di Amministrazione - Via XX Settembre 123/A . 00187 Roma (Italy).

NEIJ,.'OPERADI QUINTO CENNI

Quinto Ccnni's watercolours revive the conscripts of the just unified Italy, the officers and non-commissioned officers, veterans of the battles of the Risorgimento, fough t also on the side of the losers, but always with sense of duty and spirit of sacrifice. With skillful strokes, the pain ter brings back to light the everyday life of an army which had been entrusted with the difficult task of comhining very diffe rent cultures and distant traditions, held together by a single unifyi ng cement: the tongue of Dante and Mazzini. Quin to Cenni, who was born in Romagna bu t lived in Milan, a "bourgeois'' artist who was never a soldier, spent all his life depicting the mili tary customs. From this point of vievv, he is the best witness of the affectio n for tl1c Armed Forces felt from at leas t a part of the "Third Italy".

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To RIVISTA MILIT ARE Via di S. Marco, 8 (Italy)

00186 Roma

• •

Others could have doubts or show hostility: Cenni always saw, crystal-dear and unequivocal, the continuity between the armies of the Risorgimento and the Italian Army, custodian of the unity and freedom conquere<l on the battlefield. The initiative to recall the history of the Italian Army, through the work of this artisan of the image, was not taken at random by "Rivista Militarc" and the Director of the Museum of Castel S. Angelo. ''Rivista Militare", of which, in my capacity of Minister of D efence, I am - let us say the publisher, has had, from the beginning, the purpose to keep alive the relations between military and civilian society; the Castel Sant'Angelo Museum from the time of its first direc tor, General Borgatti, has been the scene of an active cooperation between military and civilians aimed at the enhancement of a common heritage of history and traditions. I am happy to sponsor this project and I h ope above all

that the gew generations will conscience on the making. rediscover, through it, an important - and up to now · Sen. Giovanni Spadolini neglected - aspect of our Ministro della Ojfesa history: the contribution to the moral and civil growth of our country given by the Armed Forces. Our Armed Forces as - ~ ·

------------------------------------------~- ---~ Dear Reader, we pla n to publish in the very near future the volume " II soldato italiano dell'Ottocento" (The Italian Soldier in th e 19th Ce nt ury}· il lustrated by Quinto Cenni's watercolours. with captions in Italian and English and high quality binding. By returning this form, the subscribers of "Rivista Militare" will obta in a discount of 20% on the book's cover price of Lit. 100,000. Non-subscribers will be able to purchase the book either at full price. or with a 20% discount if they send this form together with a request for subscription to "Rivista Mil ita re" and a remittance of Lit. 24,000 (or U.S. $ 12 - D.M. 36 - F.F. 100), by cheque or international money order, addressed to: Stato Maggiore Eserc ito - Rivista Militare - Sezione di Amministrazione - Via X Settembre 123/ 4 - 00187 Roma (Italy}.

For subscribers. I wish to reserve th e vo lume "II soldato italiano dell'Ottocento·· at th e price of Li t. 80,000 (20% discount on the cover price) - Mailing expenses: Lit. 20,000. Name Street ... . .............. . ........... ........ Postal Code ....................... . City ....... ...... . ...... ........... Country ....................................... . Signature .................. .......... .. ....................................... ,.. For non-subscribers. I have subscribed to "Rivista Militare"' o n ......................·-····· by cheque or international money order n" .......................- ......... ....... and reserve the volume on Cenni's watercolours at the price of Li t. 80.000 (20% discount on the cove r price) - Mailing expen ses: Lit. 20,000. Name .................- ................................................ ...., ...................... . Street .............. .. -.. ....... ............ Postal Code ................. ..... . City .................... ......... ..... Country ......................................... . Sinni:it,,r.,

THE ROYAL ITALIAN ARMY 1934 - 1939 The official foreign policy in these years demon,strates clear signs of incoherence and a lack of seriousness which though masked by unexpected decisions causes upset and surprise both abroad and at home. The diplomatic improvisations o f the Prime Minister - and this is perhaps one of the most serious aspects - result in negative repercussions on the strategic planning and on the preparation of the Armed Forces. In fact, the Armed Forces are unable to prearrange an acceptable plan from the point o f view of validity and of completeness as each time they have to follow the government's area of interest, now the lower Alps area, now the Balkans, or even in the colonies. Thus, the readiness of the national war appa rat us which shou ld be the logical con sequence of the objectives to be reach ed, proceeds disjointedly and without fixed terms, accentuating still further the division between the Armed Forces to the point where they are planning practically separately, even though the Prime Minister is the head of the three respective ministries. In such a situation it is hardly surprising that events in East Africa, in Spain and in Albania occur in a climate of total surprise even on the part of the General Staffs, who should have been res ponsible for the technical solution of the operational problems. Still more, the signature of the "Iron Pact" in Berlin in May 1939 takes place without even one military Chief being consulted and while operational plans and troops are in a complete state of unpreparedness. Tha t this method of handling the Wide powers concentrated in the hands of the Prime Minister is contrary to national interests can be clearly seen in the fo llowing months during the now inevitable conflict. As regards the organization o f the Army, the years immediately preceding the Second World War are characterized

by a series of steps, sometimes rad ical, wh ich change the balance of the previous decade. One can note a steady increase in the number of units through t he setting up of new corps or groups, particularly to meet overseas requirements. In 1938 th e overall total is impressive al though events later on show up serious basic gaps: 5 Armies, 17 Army Corps. 1 Armed Army Corps, 1 "Celere" (fast) Army Corps, 1 Senior Headquarters of Alpine troops. 51 Infan try divisions, 2 Motorized divisions, 2 Armoured divisions, 5 "Alpini" divisions, 3 "Celere" divisions, 1 Carabiniers, 13 Territorial Defence commands and 28 militari districts. In all some 22 Carabiniers Regiments, 9 Grenadiers re-

ITALIAN

MILITARY

UNIFORMS

giments, 100 infantry regiments, 4 Motorized infantry regimen ts. 12 Bersaglieri regiments, 10 Alpin i regiments, 6 Armoured infantry regiments. 12 Cavalry regi ments, 51 Regiments of Artillery assigned to the infantry divisions, 2 Motorized artillery regiments assigned to the infantry divisions, 2 Artillery regiments assigned to armoured divisions, 5 Alpin e artillery regiments, 3 "Celere" divisions, 6 G.A. F. ("Guardia alla Frontiera"), 16 Army corps artillery regiments. 5 Artillery regiments, 5 Antiaircraft artillery regiments, 16 Engineers reg iments, 2 Miners, 2 Engineers (bridges). 1 Railway technicians. 1 ChemicalÂˇ warfare unit and 100 military districts. The problem of insufficient quality and quantity of armaments, especially for artillery and armoured troops, in addition to a serious delay in the programme for the strengthening of motorized units remains unsolved, however. In fact, the situation becomes even worse during this diffi cult period when one considers the enormous quantities of materials and troops sent to Africa and to Spain. The overall figure in 1938 is a total of 300,593 men under arms with a conscription period of 18 months. Between September 1933 and May 1934 five "add it ion and amendments" are issued to the 1931 regu lations on uniforms. Contrary to expectations these are not a series of partial modifications but a total and important new change which plays an important role for the Italian Army. In fact, in 1934 soldiers completely alter their appea rance, their dress becom ing much more modern and practical. The resul ts are not entirely satisfactory : certain traditions are con tinued and in some cases details from the 18th century are even reinsta ted. On the other hand. the attempt at reform includes radical changes such as, for example, the disuse of the centuries-old distinction of gold and silver metal according to corps, special unit

or g roup and the subseq uent adoption of gold colour for use by all. But the three most important and re markab le new measures are: the final abolition of the "stove pipe" headwear, which partic ularly for officers had become of d isproportionate and unacceptable pat terns: the open collar, as had been decided during the World War fo r as sault troops, and the subsequent adop tion of a turn -down collared shirt wi th a c ivilian style tie; and th e application of a new system of ran k insignia far officers which. as ca n be seen from the illustration. is now worn above the cu ffs. As rega rds ra nk insignia mention must be made of the establis hmen t in 1938 of the rank of First Marshal of the Empire, rank to be held by the King and by the Prime Minister. the ins ign ia cons is ting of a double z igzag pattern braid; and of the transfe r in 1937 of the ra nk insignia fo r sergeants and corpora ls from the cu ff to the sleeve, with appropriate reduction in s ize. The new series of uniforms basical ly includes: for officers g rey-green uniforms for use as full uniform, marchi ng uniform and ordinary un iform: of black uniforms for use as fu ll dress or evening dress or formal dress; and of w hite uniforms ~or full o r ord inary dress: for warrant-offi cers a grey-green series, inc luding full dress, marching and o rdinary dress and a grey fatigue dress. The ceremonial dress for officers which includes a white shir t and black tie (or t ie of the specia l co lour for units wh ic h a re so priv ileged) maintains the wearing of special headwear, the blue sash, the sword belt (now g ilt co lour for all ranks), and of the sword with gilt sword -kn ot. Dress worn when on the march an d ord inary dress are very similar except that for the fi rst a grey' green tie is worn with the shirt and a pi stol c arried on a brown belt. The other two newly established series - the blac k and the whi te - are particularly interesting. The pattern and type of the first brings to mind the un iforms worn du ring the King Humbert period. Rich in adaptations for the various occas ions, it is certainly dist inguishable on account of the lavishness of the ornaments and of the colours which are to be fou nd on the collars. o n the cuffs an d on the trouser stripes. An unusual detail is that con trary to the cen turies-old tra dition, the double stripes are now worn ! by foot corps, while the simple stripe is worn by Service Corps on ly. The second series, that is the white unifo rms. is highly original and new , although perhaps hardly practical. With th is seri es, the full unifo rm is co nside rably simpli fied. In fact, the use of special headwear. of sword-belts. plumes and metal epaulettes is strictly forbidden. As from 1937 permi ssion is given to the w eari ng of the white jacket wi th the grey-green ridin g uniform during the summer months. As regards warrant officers, the un iforms in use are very similar to those of officers bo th as regard s qual ity and manufacture and they appear

1934 - Sergeant, "Savoia Cavalleria" Regiment, in ordinary dress.

Th e helmet and the red tie, together with the black collar badges, are the

characteristic details of this Dragoon Regiment. The progressive improvement in the appearance of the NCO's uniforms can be noted. Rank badges on the cuffs are in use until 1937.

1934 - Soldier of 73rd "Lombardia" Infantry Regiment, on armed duty. The 1931 model helmet. on trial, is

distinguished b y the crest attached at . th e top. For full uniform this dress is completed b y attach ing metal badges to the sh oulder straps and by the use of white c otton gloves.

1936 Âˇ Lieutenant Colonel of the Armoured Infantry, in service dress. As from 24 June a ministerial order changes the black velvet collar to a blue cloth collar: the red collar badges remain the same.

1935 - Colonel commanding the 55th "Marche" Infantry Regiment, in full uniform. Tllis officer, who on parades has tile privilege to mount, wears a white aigrette on tile mod 1933 helmet: the rank insignia on dark red cloth denotes a regimental commander.

Rank insignia established by the 1933-1934 Regulation

Marshal of Italy General Lieut. General (Army Cdr.) Lieut. General Major General Brigadier General

Colonel lieut. Colonel Major

1st Captain Captain Lieutenant 2nd Lieutenant Aspirant

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Battle Adjutant Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer 1st class Warrant Officer 2nd class

Sergeant Major

Sergeant

Corporal

Lance Corporal

completely satisfactory. The situation of corporals and other ranks is rather different. It is true that the new series allow wider variations and, therefore. more practical . solutions to the various needs for operations ana seasons. However, it is also true that th e quality of the materials used and the manufacture are rarely acceptable. Also the cut of the various models is consistently inelegant and complicated with the net result that even the most careful sol-

dier appears untidy and tar from smart. In fact. that the final result was not satisfactory even at that time is proved by the fact that within a short period of time numerous and" Âˇ even radical modifications are made. The years following the reform of uniforms are characterized also by an extraordinary efflorescence of new colour combinations (one can cite the series of badges worn by mechanized troops and motorized troops on the

blue collar; the wearing by the divisional artillery regiments of characteristic items of the infantry and artillery; the badges of the chemical warfare units, of the Frontier Guard, ecc.) and by the appearance of new items such as the 1933 model helmet - still in use - which is an improved version of the 1931 helmet. Numerous details belonging to single units are maintained and improved (such as the red and blue ties proud-

1938 - Soldier, "Cavalleggeri di Lodi" Regiment, in full uniform. The plume and cords on. the busby, as well as the metal badges on the shoulder straps denote the full uniform worn by enlisted men.

1936 - Lieutenant of Ordnance Cor ps, in summer full uniform. Jn summertime the full uniform. the same for all officers, is simplified as compared to winter dress: in fact, the sword -belt and th e metal epaulettes are not worn.

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1938 - Captain, Field Artillery, in summer riding uniform. The elegant combination of white with grey-green clothing makes this uniform particularly ele9ant.

1937 - Grenadiers' Major, in formal dress. This impressive black uniform is also used as full uniform with the addition of the blue sash, the sword-bell, the gilt fringed epaulettes, medals, and in addition the black sword-knots are replaced by gilt sword-knots.

1936 . Corporal, bugler of the Horse Artillery Regiment, in full dress. The wh ite horsetail attached to the kepi _ the characteristic headwear of the regiment, still in use to.p ay - denotes that the corporal is a bandsman. In tact, all the other troops wear aÂˇ black horsetail in accordance with the uninterrupted tradition of the Piedmon tese horse artillery.

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1938 - Sapper of the Frontier Guard, in service dress, The G.A.F. ("Guardia al/a Frontiera") which are set up in 1934, are distin guished by the Alpine hat, worn however without the typical leather, and by their green collar. Infantry wear red piping on the green collar, artiller y yellow and engineers maroon. The typical arm badge bears the number of the frontier sector.

ly worn by the infantry, cavalry and artillery; small pin badges, awarded to some units for meritorious ac tion d uring fighting) or even created (such as the d ivisional badges worn on th e sleeve). Oddly enough, however, despite all the modernizations no studies are made nor action taken to free soldiers fro m pu ttees, nor towards their wel Ibeing part icularly regarding field dress which is too hot in Âˇ the summer and insuffi cient in the w inter. Valerio Gibellini

1939 - Corporal of the Motorized Transport Corps, in service dress. As from 1937 enlisted men wear a ;acket with cloth belt. Rank insignia tor sergeants and corporals are now worn, in reduced size, on the forearm and no longer on the culls. The forage cap, in use since 1935, is worn by all troops except "Alpini" and " Bersag/ieri".

THE ROYAL ITALIAN ARMY 1934- 1939

TECHNICAL

GIAT TR 155 The GIAT TR 155 is operated by a 7-man crew, can be put in fi ring posit ion in about 90 seconds and has a rate of fire of 6 rpm. It can use munitions made by the manufacturer, U.S. made 155 mm shells and all standard-NATO ammunition. with a maximum range of 34 km. The TR 155 is powered by a 65 hp engine which enables it to move autono mously, at a maximum speed of 8 km/h; its maximum gradient is 60%. it can cross watercourses 1 m deep w ithout preparation, 1.20 m after preparation. Positioning and firing operations are performed wi th the assistance of a hydraulic servosystem fed by the engine; if this system proves ineffi cient. a.n external hydraulic-energy unit can be used. e.g. that of the towing vehicle or that of another gun. Towed by an artillery tractor, the TR 155 can reach a roadspeed of approximately 90 km/h.

FOX-MILAN RECONNAISSANCE ARMOURED VEHICLE A new high -mobility armoured vehicle has recen tly been realized, according to the speci fi cations issued by the British A rmy; it has been named "FOXMILAN " and will perform reconnaissance duties. A Milan turret is installed on the Fox. equipped wit h two components of the anti-tank system used by infantry and a machine gun. The vehicle is powered by a 190 hp Jaguar engine. is manned by a 2-man crew, can be transpor ted by air (a Hercules C130 can carry three). air-dropped. and can operate at tempera tures from - 25'' to + 50Â° c.

SPECIFICATIONS Weight Length Height Width Max speed Range Max gradient Traction Ammunit ion

6,136 kg 4.22 m 2.4 m 2.12 m 105 km/h 434 km 58% 4-wheel drive 2 Milan, ready to fire, 4 stored, 2600 rounds. 7.62 cal.

DATA

TECHNICAL

DATA

A NEW U.S. COlylPASS An American fi rm is producing for the U.S. Army and Air Force a new series of compasses which can be used at night without the help of a light source, since they contain tritium-permeated crystals. The crystals block the passage of radiations that could be dangerous to the users. The compass, placed in an olive green container, is not immersed in shock-absorbing liquid, which could cause the classic air bubbles and make the instrument completely useless. After six seconds the needle stopsÂˇ on the North. The compass is equipped with a graduated plate divided into grades and mils, is impermeable, shockproof and can be used at tempera tures from - 50" to + 160Â° F.

HUGHES MG "DEFENDER" HELICOPTER The American industry has presented the "Defen der", a new helicopter made with the cooperation of a team of specialized fi rms. The "Defen der" is a third -generat ion light helicopter, whose philosophy is to op timize and redefine the relationship vehicle-crew. The "Defender" is equipped with a mult i-function display (MFD) which con tinuously shows data on navigation, engines, armament and other information, alerting the crew about possible malfunctions. The VID (Virtual Image Display) enables the copilot to follow the operations performed by the pilot and to employ the craft's armament in accordance with the information acquired. The aircraft carries a cassette for the pre-programming of th e mission and the pre-selection of radio frequencies, reference points for navigation, and data on the targets; a flight-control system is also available. Therefore the pilot, without leaving the control s, can switch radio freq uencies, insert and disconnect the automatic pilot, and opera te the armament. The helicopter is equipped with a modular Mission Compu ter, functi oning as general servoassistance for the aircraft and as connection between controls and equipment, ensuring the storage of all operational data as well as the information for the helicopter's maintenance on the ground. The "Defender" can use modular

weapon systems as anti-aircraft TOW missiles. air-to-air missiles. 7 to 12-cell multiple rocket launchers, two -barrel

7.62 cal. machine guns, and .50 cal. guns. which can be installed on the aircraft in a few minutes.

TECHNICAL

DATA

"BILL" ANTITANK MISSILE

Figure

The British industry has perfected a long-rang.e wire-guided anti-t ank missile system, whose . warhead hits the target from above, with an inclination of 30Â° (fig. 1). The application of this new concept permits to hit the enemy tank where its armour is thinner and - at any rate - to pierce armours remarkab ly less thick than those normally hit by the tradi tional hollow charges (fig. 2). The missile flies above the line of sight - avoiding many of the natural obstacles found by the traditional missiles along their trajectory - and has a much wider target area. The explosion o f the warhead is controll ed by a proximity fuze. The weapon system can be pu t in firing position in 20 seconds, is rec hargeable in 7 seconds and c an be employed against moving targets from 300 to 2000 m. The " Bill" consists of three loads: launcher, 27 kg; missile in the container, 17 kg; sighting device, 11 kg. 0

Figure 2

ti/os an integrated logistic system designed and manufactured by Tangram to suit all your needs when operating in tactical area. tilos a really mobile system made up by an intell igent, multipurpose wide body (4x4) towing veh icle and a towed unit convertible to all logistic function you may

need. Both elements are completely armored and cross country. tilos a new concept in military logistics; when auxiliary functions are required, the towing unit acts as a shuttle or as a complementary mobile shelter. to integrate the main function making the system self sufficient.

S.o.A. - 161 28 GP.no::i - lt;:ih,-\/i;:i r.nrc:i~;:i 1Q . - Phr.n,:,.

10/'-'<1 1 0 1 _T o l o v <=;71')<=;(1 T/\r--1~

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--TECHNICAL

ANTI-AIRCRAFT FIELD SYSTEM FOR Tl:IE '90s

DATA

In the tracked version, the system can reach a speed of 45 km/h and a range of 480 k m; in the wheeled version,

speed and range are respectively 720 km/h and 600 km,

A weapon system for anti-aircraft defence in the combat zone, based on a radar-connected 35 mm complex, is now under construction. The system, besides being employed against aircraft, can also engage ground objectives at a distance of 4 km, is equipped with a radar for IFF surveillance, and can operate in motion, as well as in an NBC environment. It consists of a chassis - wheeled or tracked - a radar for target acquisition and firing, and a 35 mm two-barrel unit using Oerlikon munitions with 5 different types of rounds. The system is mann~d by a 3-man crew: the leader, tasked w ith the surveillance of the air space and designation of targets; the gunner, charged with the acquisiti on of objectives, pursuit and engagement; the pilot, who can be employed for any supporting job when the vehicle stands still. The system's reaction time is very short: only six seconds elapse between the loca tion of the target and the opening of fire.

ALL THE SYSTEMS EXPERIENCE OF TWO IMPORTANT FIRMS ACQUIRED OVER TWENTY YEARS

THE RESULT: THE OPTIMISATION OF COMPLETE ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS FOR ANY TYPE OF NAVAL ARMAMENT

SELENIA-ELSAG I CONSORZIO SISTEMI NAVALI 00198 ROMA/ Via Panama 52, Tel. (06) 841441 / Telex 62 1276 ELSEL I

BOOK

GIANNI ROCCA

Cadorria

G. Rocca : "Cadorna", Mondadori, Milan, 1985, pp. 341, L. 22,000. Until only recently, no one had managed to write an adequate biography of the man who led the Italian Army during th e first three years of th e Great War. What was needed was a work able to address the la test advances in a field which has become a subject of major studies only with the end of the Second World War. the first example being the official version of th e controversial events at Caporetto {not published until 1967), an episode which, in truth, has left too great a mark on CadornaÂˇs legacy. obscuring the broad overview and the highly relevant com parisons with other European armies which are necessary to a proper judgement of such a military career. Gianni RoccaÂˇs work is meant to fill this gap; it does so with a wealth of details, some previously unpublished and little known. These enrich an overall picture which is notable, above all for its presenta tion of the character deiects and darker aspects of one of the major figures - if not the major figu re - in twentieth-century Italian military histo ry . Indeed. the entire book revolves around a very simple central thesis: tha t Cadorna should be held responsible not only for the defeat at Caporetto, but also for the bl oody, yet ineffectual, offe nsives along the lsonzo River. This is certainly not a new thesis. In . the thirties, for example, certain voices within the military itself - such as_ that of General Zoppi - blamed the failures of the First world War, or rather, its unrealized successes, on a lack of leadership. Others - such as General Grazioli or Li eutenant Colonel Canevari - held t he "war of attrition" theory to be respons ible, going so far

REVIEWS

as to use the anti-milit~frist works of Remarque to suppor t their argument. In any case., the western front saw the greatest loss of life and limb, especially within the French and English armies, while the bloodshed on the Italian front, viewed in a European context, remai ned relatively modest: as we see it, this is a matter of no small importance. The entire field of investigation is still a delicate one. Multi-dimensional and complex. it should not be subjected to categorical, absolute judgements meant to construct a pat fo rmula from the reality of a total war. In this clash of peoples, the factors which came into play - and they were not always predominantly military - are very hard to s ingle out, fathom and place within an investigative framework which would rise above the level of journalism, maintzi ning as high a standard of objectivity as possible. In terms of the general picture, the very concept of total war would seem to argue against holding any one man respon sible fo r failures or victories: is war a question of leaders or of peo ples? In the case of the First Worid War, in particular, the answer would appear to be obvious. For this reason, th e biographical fo rma t, thoug h today very much in style, would seem the leas t suited to a study of even ts which must be understood in a European context, a context that will certainly not emerge from a mere detail of the grand tapestry whose thousands of settings and figures depict the tw ilight that settled over Europe following a war which, in hindsight, produced no rea l victors. The tour very interesting questions posed by Rocca (Why did Cadorna believe in an easy victory? Why did he "risk d isaster" on the p lateau in 1916? Why did he remain on the offensive rather tha n switching to the defensive? Why was he not able to prevent Caporetto from happening?) call fo r a much more thorough treatment than that contained in a biography meant for the general public. What is missing, above all. is an examination of the period between 1900 and 1914. In preparing an army, there is no room for imp rovization: both victories and defeats are a long time in the making. In this sense. the works of Marazzi and de Chaurand - neither of th em cited in the book - and, on the subject of Caporetto. of Giuseppe Prezzolini, along with General Stefani's recent ly-published volume on the operational reg ulations of the Ital ian Army as they existed both before and during the conflict, could have helped the author to do a better job of outlining the overall situation and the enormous difficulties which faced Cadorna, a military man who frequently found himself in a position of isolation, lacking a consistent line of

political direction - all circumstances which did nothing to help soften the less pleasant aspects of his character Did Cadorna rea lly believe in a short war? Given that no military leader has ever declared himself to be pessi mistic or unsure of victory when speak ing of operations under his own command, and allowing for the slight rhetorical ben t which is a natura l consequence of such a situation. Cadorna d id believe in a short war: but only at the start, as did all milita ry commanders and analysts in the period before the war, beginning with Von Schlieffen, second only to Moltke among Germany's military minds. In 1909, he forecast a quick war which wou ld be fought by armies of no more than a million men, maintaining that the nations of the world cou ld not endure a lengthy war. Furthermore, one must also take into account the manipulative, ''political" element in Cadorna's initial conviction, remembering that it was the conviction of an interventionist supreme commander whose tasks included th e heightening of his army's never too brilliant offensive spirit. Did Cadorna fai l to understand the way in which the art of war was changing? It seems unlikely, g iven that - as Rocca himself demonstrates with a quotation on page 108 - he was able to provide a telling summary of its chief characteristics as early as January of 1916: "I know that people say I am throw ing the troops against an insurmountable wall. Before they criticize, let them co me to a precise understanding of this war. Two elements dominate: th e one, passive, is composed of trenches and barbed wire: the other, th e active element, is represented by artillery ... war has become a matter of brute force: if Napoleon were to rise from his tomb, he would go back and hide ... Advances are only gained gradually, throu gh attrition: a war of attrition requires a tremendous quantity of supplies, not only ammunition, but also weapons, for weapons wear out and must be replaced". Did Cadorna really fail to understand the war, or (and th is is something entirely different) was he simply taking what he thought to be the best. or rather, the least harmful, course of action, given th e politicalmilitary situation at that ooint in t ime and considering the means at his d isposal? We would opt for the second hypothesis. The war of attrition (a phenomenon frequently ''revived" during the Second World War, and still with us today) had been accepted by the different army high commands, but against their will. They made vain attempts to overcome the practice, seeing it, and rightly so, as th e negation of the art of war. The war of attrition was born of a hundred fa thers. not all of them military in

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nature, for it was a product of technology (the machine -gun, barbed wire) rather than strategy; in any event. it was not created by General Cadorna on the Italian front. The German Army (besides being responsi ble for the slaughter at Verdun. a ba ttle where attrition. t he stated objective of the operation, reached its highest form of expression) was the only one of the opposing forces which could boast of successes such as the breakthroughs at Riga and Caporetto. These were not gained by employing the usual tactic of the mass assault, but by rely ing on the traditional initiative of the German lower ranks , starting with the large number of very able non-commis sioned officers who led highly motivated units in which the problem of illiteracy had long disappeared. But how would this have been possible for the Italian Army, with its inferior. habitually undertrained officer corps, its noncommissioned officers, whose qualifications fell far below the German "standard", and its troops, often poorly armed and poorly trained peasants. many of whom were ill iterate and undoubtedly felt little enthusiasm for the war, though they fought it with a spirit of sacrifice and a hardiness in the face of discomfort which will ever be a merit of our people? And what can one say about the shortages. especially at the beginning of the conflict. of artillery, machine-guns. airplanes and other equipment? This was certainly not a question of regulations. In 1914. Italian operational regulations stressed autonomy and self-initiative, to the point where they were certainly to be preferred to French policy (overly concerned with offensive actions) and could even be favourably compared to the German version. But (as Bastico contends in his work on the subject) the theory had not been well assimilated, and. on th e whole, it corresponded poorly to the realities of a force which, for tha t matter, represented nothing more or less than what the nation had to offer at tha t particular moment in time. As for Cadorna's refusal to abandon the offensive, was it simply the outward 'manifestation of one man's stubborness? Once we have noted that the almost continuous defensive posture of the Aus trian Army along the Italian front was a matter of strategic necessitv rather than choice, and once we have seen that even beyond the borders of Italy, and outside that particular time fram e, the dominant theory of war has always held that decisive res ults can be won only by launching offensives, then what can we say of the First World War - on all its fronts except that it was a back and forth series of offensives,. none of which produced decisive strategic resu lts: not

REVIEWS

even the Austro-German success at Caporetto, which, it must be remembered, even tually stalled at the Piave River, And to what extent were Cadorna's actions influenced by political con sidera tions and decisions, on both the national and international levels, which, in the eyes of Paris and London, at times made Italy's offensive efforts actually seem insufficient? Examined attentively, the issue of the unusually rigorous disciplinary measures introduced by Cadorna also turns out to be more complicated than it may appear at first sight. Each different type of war has its own generals and requires its own particular brand of discipline (not the contrary}. There can be no doubt that, given the nature of the conflict at hand - a bloody, inconclusive examole of trench warfare fough t by a largely improv ised army drawn from the general population coerc ion was inevitably to be chosen over consensus : and at this point, we can only judge Cadorna's actions by confronting them with the policies of other Entente armies. But the French mutinies of 1917, put down by Petain, though not without difficulty, and the presence. also in France, of a large group of officers who were " limoges" (dismissed from their posts: the term refers to Limoges, th e locality where many of them were quartered} should lead us, at the very least, to use caution before we make any judgements; nor should it be forgotten that during th e first few months of the war, the illconceived theory of the "jeune ecole" lef t the French Army with a number of dead and wounded eoual to the Ital ian total fo r the entire war. As for the Caporetto episode, Rocca provides an abundance of references and quotations meant to demonstrate Cadorna's responsi bility. If leaders are to be given the lion's share of credit in victory, then it would seem inevitable, for consistency's sake, that they receive most of the blame for defeat, at least along general lines; and, in fact, one of the points to emerge from the long list of military factors leading to Caporetto - as reported in the aforementioned 1967 publication of the Army Historical Bureau - is the unquestionable responsibility of General Cadorna for a number of specific errors. But, given that the General wrote a great deal in his own defense, why not allow his theses a proper hearing, rather than Âˇ limiting the discussion to a quotation of the famous telegram in which units of the Second Army were crudely condemned for their failure to hold the line? This makes all the more sense in that one is dealing not with a history of th e war, but with a history of Cadorna. meaning that the voice of the man himself, that is to say, the

motivations on which he based his actions, should be given absolute priority In conclusion, the book under review tak es a subject which often causes the general public a great deal of difficulty and presents it in a manner that is clear, uncomplicated and ef fective. It demonstrates a significant capacity for synthesis, while placing the necessary emphasis on the military-technical side of the question, a feat all the more remarkable for having been accomplished by an author who is not an "insider''. But too much o f a shadow is left on the undeniable historical accomplishments of one of the last of the old Piedmontese school of soldiers. The harmony of the entire work is damaged by this lack of light, which does not even permit a proper identification and evaluation of the shadows. Beyond th e errors he committed in a set of exceptional circumstances. something to which nobody has ever been immune, there is no doubt that Cadorna deserves credit for the major accomplishment of having form ed a grand army capable of emerging victorious from the bloody test of a long and d ifficult war. He constructed this force in a brief period of time, despite the handicaps of a divided nation, an unstable social-political framework. a lack of national spirit, a modest industrial capacity and a first-class enemy who could boast of a grand military tradition. Along with all this, we should not forget his foresight in constructing the Mount Grappa fortification, the left flank of the Piave stronghold. And, finally, the weaving of the Piave defensive line itself: Cadorna's last achievement in chronological terms, this marked the tru e prelude to a victory which demonstrated the spirit of sacrifice, the breath-taking, unexpected recup erative capacity, and the attachment to their native land, which not only th e Army, but the entire Italian nation demonstrated at that moment in history. The brilliance of these noble sentiments simply grows that much stronger in the unsparing ligh t of RoccaÂˇs tightly-focussed analysis, giv~n that only a firm spirit of resis tance could have overcome so many reversals. difficulties. discomforts and inefficiencies. Ferruccio Botti

Supplemento alla edizione inglese dell a Rivista M ilitare Settembre-Ottobre 1985 Spedizione in abbonamento postale gr. IV- 70 %

Lire 5.000

BOOK

N. Marselli: " La Vita de,l Reggimento", ("The Life of the Regiment"), Historical Office of the Army General Staff, Rome, 1984, pp. 244, L. 7,500. Niccola Marselli's The Life of the Regiment is one of the series of noted military works being reissued in modern editions by th e Historical Office of the Italian Army General Staff. Formerly a tea cher at the Advanced Institute for the Study of War, Marselli was one of the most versatile of the "uniformed" essayists to come out of the last half of the eighte en th century. The most important of his many books is without a doubt War and its History. Nevertheless, The Life of the Regiment is also a major work, noteworthy for its nostalgic, psychological and didactic qualities. The text offers much more than a mere descript ion of a military environment. Drawing on experiences and memories from his years as a regimental commander. the author has turned a simple account into a tour de force of theoretical thought. Not content to simply' examine the behaviour of different individuals, he goes on to provide solutions for some of the more pressing, fundamental issues of military life in general. We can see as much in th e very org,anizatio-n of the book, divided into fou r parts, it begins with a first section dedicated to the High Command and the life of the regiment. The second part addresses the intellectual life of the regiment. The third discusses the moral life of the regiment and the fourth covers a number of topics. Some are merely technical (for example, the promotion system fo r officers), while others are spiritual (the story of Enrico di Beauregard and Alessandro Poerio, two symbolic figures whose lives exemplified high moral values). The te xt is preceeded by Vincenzo Gallinari's biography of the author. As noted above, the book's strength is the way in which it manages to weave a set of highly convincing lessons into an overall narrative scheme. Silvio Saccarelli

"Memorie Storiche Militari 1983", ("Historical Military Memoires 1983"), Historical Office· of the Army General Staff, Rome, 1984, 858 pages plus a 31-page supplement, illustrations and charts in the appendices, L. 20,000. This is the latest book in a series published by th e Historical Office of

REVIEWS

LA VITA DEL REGGIMENTO

MEMORIE STORICHE MILITARI 1983

the second, written by Marziano Brignoli. Th e third part is set aside for student dissertations. The efforts of Giuseppe La Bua and Manlio Manganaro deserve particular attention. Finally: the fourth part offers five research papers. Their authors are: Ald o Giambartolomei, Edoardo Castellano, Fernando Frattolillo, Virgilio lari, Luigi Polo Friz and Ambrogio Viviani. We have provided nothing more than an abbreviated summary of t he book, but the reader should still come away with a fair idea of the volume's importance, not to mention the excitement which such a work is sure to generate among specialists and other lovers of military literature. Nicola della Volpe

"L'ARTE MILITARE., DI FL AVIO RP.NATO VF.GEZfO

th e Army General Staff. Created in 1977, the initiative has already produced six anthologies of scholarly articles. As was the case with each of the previous editions, this seventh book addresses a wide variety of topics, though all fall under the same general category of military historiography. Organized according to the now traditional format, the articles are divided into distinct categories. The first part includes eight essays: Franco Andreis discusses the "Military Characteristics of Venetian Verona"; Giulia Moratti Arcieri has contributed her "Essay on Historical Criticism during the Renaissance Period": Renato Artesi describes the "Battle of Luzzara and the War of the Spanish Succession" and "The Battle of Guastalla (1734)"; a penetrating analysis of the Italian Army's particip·ation in th e Tunisian Campaign (1943) is provided by Vincenzo Gallinari, a scholar whose recent death deprived this review of one of its most perceptive, valued col laborators; Salvatore Loi has researched the period of the Salonicco Front (19151918), producing an account of th e diplomatic and political events which took place behind th e scenes; Raimondo Luragh i has created a profile of Raimondo Montecuccol i, soldier, statesman, and military thinker; Arturo Marcheggiano tells the story of th e Venetian Revolution of 1848-1849: Fortunato Minniti examines the military policy of Luigi Mezzacapo. The second part features two biographical sketches: in the first. Antonello Biagini describes the life of General Giovanni Rossi Longhena; General Giovanni Di Breganze is the subject of

A. Angelini: "L'Arte Militare di Flavio Renato Vegezio", ("The· Art of War according to, Flavius Renatus Vegetius"), original text translated by the editor, Historical Office of the Army Gen,eral Staff, Rome, 1984, pp. Vll-301, illustrated, L. 15,000. Flavius Renatus Vegetius was an Imperial Roman official who lived either in the last half of th e fourth century or th e beginning of the fifth. Information on his life is sketchy at best, but one thing is certain: when he died, he left the world with a treatise on the art of war. His text qualifies as a major work thanks to the broad range of its topics and their intellectual depth. Its five books touch on nearly every aspect of the art of war. The tone is pragmatic, reflecting the mentality of t-he ancient Romans, but much of the thinking is surprisingly modern. Th e issues discussed include recruiting and training soldiers, constructing field fortificat ions, establishing and maintaining security, th e principles of supply, logistical problems, the waging of both offensive and defensive campaigns, military arms and machines, and combat at sea. An equal amount of attention is given to spiritual factors . These are depicted as playing a crucial role in the health of an army. Indeed, it is no coincidence that the Roman Empire fell at a t ime when such values were on the wane. The first translations of Vegetius' treatise date from the late Middle Ages. From the fifteenth century on, a number of others were produced, including one by Temistocl e Mariotti in the 1800's.

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In 1937, th is vo lume was republished in Rome by Andrea Maggiorotti, Ange lini has given us yet another version, this one based on the o riginal as found in Schwebelius' /ection (published in Paris in 7878). The book is structured as fo llows: a preface written by General Ciro Di Martino is followed by the editor's introductory notes. The trans lation includes an extensive set of footnotes, the original text, a Latin glossary of military terms and a bibliography. General Di Martino, the second ranking officer at the Army General Staff, privileged to be both the guardian and heir to a past whose lessons he has always fo llowed w ith the utmost attention, decided to comm ission a modern trans lation of Vegezio's treatise. There can be no doubt as to the need for this red iscovery of a most important text. This book is tru ly a significant work: one wh ich invites the reader to reflect upon a number of pressing issues. Salvatore Loi

Gianni Oliva

STORIA DEGLI ALPINI

Dall872 alla vigilia del 2000 RIZZOLI

Gianni Oliva: "Storia degli Alpini. Dai 1872 alla vigilia del 2000", ("A History of the Alpine Troops. From 1872 to the Eve of the Year 2000")Âˇ, Rizzoli, Milan, 1985, L. 18,000. That new generations should w ish to rewrite history according Âˇ to their own particular impressions and judgements of past events would seem a foregone conclus ion. But in his "History of the Alp ine Troops" the young historian Gianni Oliva (born in 1952, he has produced numerous arti cles o n d if-

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ferent military topics) simply presen ts us with the traditional legends of the Alpine troops, stories which already fi ll volume after vo lume of military literature. Let no-one misunderstand me: these inva luable legends are imbued with an unquestionable moral and spiritual greatness which can only enrich the heritage of the Italian Army. All the same, one naturally approaches a book re leased by a major publishing house in the year 1985 with the expectation of something new, someth ing beyond a set of subjects which has already been drawn upon in hundreds of books. For example, one feels justified in looking for new information on the origins of the Alpine Corps; th is, along . with a consideration of the contribut ion made by Agostino Ricci. an hi_storica l figure who. as shown by the- i-a test research, deserves no less credit for the birth of t he Alpine troops than Giuseppe Perrucchetti This area of study ca lls for additional investigation: in particu lar, an open, courageous debate of the type to which Rivista Militare has already dedicated ample space. To re turn to the book, one finds very little discussion of the operations carried out by A lpine troops during the 1960's campa ign against terrorism in the A lto Adige. This, despite the fact that thousands of A lpine troops saw duty on the very difficult terra in of those high-altitude zones. Charged with guaranteeing the integrity of the border against terro rists operating out of Austria, the Alp ine troops made excep tiona l sacrifices during th is campa ign , as is testified by the number of the ir dead and wounded. In truth, this operation has never been fu lly appreciated: patrolling day and night in an environ ment wh ich. at 3,000 meters above sealevel, was often extremely hostile, our A lpine soldiers spent years guard ing the border. Faced with the discomfort and tota l isolation of life at high altitude, they more often than not had to supply themse lves through small, local grocery stores. rathe r than by army helicopters. At the end of his work, the author presents a broad overview which deals w ith the "dual capabi lity" and "versatility" of the Alpine troops. Using phrases extrapolated from Rivista Militare, he neglects to provide a convincing analysis of his own, concern ing the Corps' potentia l ro le in future . operations. Instead he comments on songs, barracks life an d ANA programmes. He also lists the names of the officers in command of the Army Corps, the Brigades and the Alp ine Military School. along with the presidents of the ANA. On the whole, this is a book which can be added to the list of those already written in praise of the Alp ine units' cohesiveness, the valor they have shown whenever ca lled to wa r, and the ir

system of regiona l recruiting, which has always represented an element of unity and strength. Pier Giorgio Franzosi

EDOARDO BORRA

AMEDEO DI SAVOIA tcrzo duca d'Aosta eviccre d'lltiopia

MURSIA

E. Borra: " Amedeo di Savoia, terzo duca d'Aosta e vice re di Etiopia", ("Amedeo di S~voia, third Duke of Aosta and Viceroy of Ethiopia"), Mursia Publications, Milan, 1985, L. 25,000. Edoardo Borra. former personal physician to the Duke of Aosta, has produced a biography of the man whose health he attended to and cared for over a number of years. More than just the profile of an historic figu re, his book succeeds in providing the reader wi th a vivid , penetrating descript ion of Italian society as the Duke's generation knew i t. Indeed, it wou ld be wrong to approach the figure of the Duke of Aosta with a modern-day mental ity, ignoring the rea lity of those years. One would miss the ful l import of the undercurrents and deeply-rooted motivations which inspired the life of th is commander. honoured by the British wi th a full military funera l. Amedeo d i Savoia, the th ird Duke of Aosta, led an exceptionally adven turous life. Having been a student in England, he began the Great War as a private, rising to the rank of Captain by the end of the conflict. He was a laborer in the Congo, an official in Libya and an explorer. As Viceroy of East Africa, he undertook a series of peace initiatives. dea ling w ith the Ethiop ian liberation movement in a manner that was firm . but just. He won the esteem of his opponents, to the point where one of the best known guerilla

BOOK

commanders labelled him Ethiopia's greatest enemy, "for he has succeeded in winning over the souls of the Abys sinians. and this has robbed them of their love for independence" . As a man of peace involved in a world conflict, the Duke left a set of positive, lasting memories. above all fo r the dignified way in which he suffered through the sad events surrounding th e· defeat in East Africa. Opposed to the war, he had done everything in his power to prevent it. But when his country needed him, he fought with honor and integrity. On account of his

,,,,

REVIEWS

poor health, he was given permission to return home, but he refused to do so. staying on in Ethiopia to share in the danger and suffering of his soldiers. He was present right through to the final defeat. a moment he faced with the utmost dignity. Later, he was to die in a prison camp. The longings, hopes and fears of so many Italians of that period seem to find expression in the figure of Amedeo di Aosta. He personified the deception of an en t ire generation of young people, who, though sent off to fight in a faraway, at times incomprehensible, war,

LAND - SEA AND RIVER

carried on nonetheless. right to the "final ruin", with honour and dignity. Borra's book is a simple, linear work. free of rhetoric and sentimentalism. The author's intent was not to construct a myth, but simply to demonstrate that. within certain limits. and given a certain cu ltural pre-cond itioning - all of which is objectively noted the Duke of Aosta's life and actions were always characterized by honor, honesty and steadfastness of purpose. Though it may be for no other reason than this, the man deserves to be remembered. Claudio Magris

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