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~1 JOURNAL OF THE ITALIAN .A,:IMY FOUNDED IN 1856
SERGIO PININFARINA
FRANCESCO CERVONI
RUDYARD KIPLING
Italian Economy and Industry
The Problem of Defence in Italy
On the Italian Front during the 1st World War
gr. IV/70%
CONTENTS
Numero 4/89 LUGLIO - AGOSTO
Rivista Militare a ims at b roadening and updating the technical and vocational training of Officers and I\COs It is thus a means o' p ropagating the milita ry way of thinking and a forum of study and debate Through the p ublication or articles of technical and scientific interest. Rivista Militare also aims at ;nforming the genera l public on the Army and on military ·ssues
Politics, Economics and Strategy The vitality of the Italian industry represents a point of honour of the Country in view of the European single market, as it was, hcwever, over more than 40 years from World War II, that witnessed the grandiose transformation of a Country that was mainly based on agriculture, into the fifth industrial power of the World.
2 Italian Economy and Industry. (Sergio Pininfarina)
14 The Problem of Defence in Italy. (Francesco Cervoni)
Science, Technology and Training BIMESTRALE
22 The Italian Research Programme Antarctica.
IJirettore Responsabile Pier Giorgio Franzosi
Sociology and Staff Problems I >ire zione e Red azione · 'ia d i $. Marco. 8 -,0186 Rome ·. el. 47357373 : •ubblici1a • cura della segreteria . 1ll'Ufficio Rivista Militare al. 6794200. f ,lampa l:,tituto Geogralico De Agostini
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Spedizione 'n abbonamento postale Gruppo IV - 70%. C-on dizioni di ce ssione per ii 1989 'Jn fascicolo: Lit. 4.000 Jn fascicolo arretrato: Lit. 8.000 ·.bbonamento: Italia Lil 22.000 stero Lit 30.000. L 'importo deve ssere versato su c/c postale . 2252 1009 intestato a ;ME Ufficio Rivista Militare -
;ezione di amministrazione 'ia XX Scttemb(e 123/A - Rurnc1.
33 Foreign Language Studies in the Italian Army. (Susan Murphy)
History 38 The Trajan Column. (Annamaria Liberati, Francesco Silverio)
48 On the Italian Front during the 1st World War. (Rudyard Kipling)
66 Glossary 77 Book Reviews
residenti all'estero possono ersari: l'importo tramite assegno ancano o vagha ,nternazionale . ,utorizzazione del Tribunale Registro
Ji Roma al n. 944 del 'I on decreto 7-6-1 949.
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~ascicolo curato da: Augusto Mastrofini
© 1989 Proprieta letteraJia artistica e scientifica riservata
Associato all'USPI Unione Stampa Periodica ltafiana
Instructions for contributors: Anyone may contribute. To gara ntee the higt1est objectivity of information. Rivista Militare leaves con tributors consi derable freeoom. thoug h it does not nec essarily share their opinions. The Author is th Js solely responsible for the articles whicl1, publ:shed unedited ano without editorial ties, exclusively reflect his personal id eas. Articles must b e original in thought and should not exceed ten typewritten pages. Once the Author s paio for his art icle. he loses all exclu sive rights. Rivista lv1ilitare may then p ass the article on to other publications and EMPA (European Milita ry Press Agency) period ic als. Articles should be ac companied by suitable photographs. illustrations and explanatory tables. A photograph of the Author, together ·with a briei · curriculum vi tae·· and a 1o line typewrtten summary of the article woulc be rnucl, appreciateo. Rivista Militare claims the right to chang e the titl e ot anicles and choose the typeface deemed most suitable.
2
I think the first aspect to be marked, concerning the prospects of the Italian economy and industry in view of 1992, is the quantitative, that is the dimension of the European single market. In 1992 there will be a market of about 320 million consumers, bigger than the North American one and almost three times bigger than the Japanese. A market with technical standards that must be uniform, where public orders will be offered in free competition to all Community enterprises, where there will be full competition in bank and financial services. The birth of this market will cause, according to the Cecchini report, in its opening phase, an increase in the European GNP between 4% and 5% and an increase in employment in the order of 2 million units. So it represents an occasion co start a new phase of development in our Old Continent and a way to better equip it in the competition with the economically strong areas of the world, the United States and above all Japan. But the single market also represents for the European Countries the engagement to be subject to new rules and new behaviours, both in the domestic and international fields. All the European Countries have to keep up pace: so, the single market is an occasion that will turn into a necessity. In fact, chose who do not adapt themselves in time, will not only run the risk of getting no more space on a w ider market, but even of losing space on their own national market. Today, the problem we have to face is this: to take the great opportun ity of economic and social growth coming from the single market, and to avoid this can start a process of outcasting of our Country or of its weakest areas. Which is the state of the Italian
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Francesca Gagliardo di Carpinello: Composition , o il canvas cm. 50 x 70 (1985)
3
Francesca Gagliardo di Carpinello: Bird of Paradise, oil canvas cm. 100 x 120 (1988)
economy and industry in sight of 1992? Which are the strong and the weak sectors? What is necessary to do to take the growth opportunities and to avoid the risk of decay? These are the questions to be answered in order to evaluate the real conditions under which our Country is going to face the appointment with the single market. I think that nobody denies the effectiveness of the Italian industrial system and its capability to compete effectively in the international context. If we go over the history of our last half century, we can see that the industry played a decisive role, both in the reconstruction of the Country and in the economic "boom" 4
The vitality of the Italian industry represents a point of honour of the Country in view of the European single market, as it was, however, over more than 40 years from World War II, that witnessed the grandiose transformation of a Country that was mainly based on agriculture, into the fifth industrial power of the World. of the '50s-'60s, and in the positive effects coming from that fundamental choice for the economic development represented by the opening to the European markets, that took place by the end of the '40s and that was strengthened through the Rome Treaty in 1957. These are real cornerstones that outlined, from a strategic point of view, the position of our Country on the international scene. Such decisions were taken during those years by a far-sighted political
class that was able to overcome the numerous corporative resiStances an<l the fear of some sectors of the industrial and production world, still used to the protectionism of the '30s. Then, I think that it was thanks to the industry if our Country overcame the crisis of the '70s, due to international problems, such as above all the oil "shocks", but .also to the widespread dissent of the Western world and of the capitalistic society started after the movement of 1968.
In those years capitals and financial resources, necessary for the infrastructures and the support to production activities, stuted being used more and more for the expansion of the welfare and patronage system of the social State, for the recovery of bankrupt firms, and to balance the loss of the public industry. The Italian industry lost its competitiveness while the whole economy suffered heavy inflationary waves. It was just the industrial system that, facing domestic and international difficulties, was able to react positively, entering the way of reorganization and innovation, coming out of this experience stronger. This allowed the Country to change the downward trend and start expans10n. The industry - entrepreneurs and workers - acted without the support of the Government. It will be enough to remember the facts of Turin of 1980 and "the march of the 40 thousand" to realize it. Yet, it is right and proper to admit that, facing the terroristic attack that covered our streets in blood, the political class and trade unions were able to find a significant unity of goals and firmness in defending the State that was decisive to defeat, or at least limit, the phenomenon of terrorism. The process of reorganization of our productive apparatus started gaining speed just from the turnpoint of Turin in 1980 on. It concerned both the process and the products and all financial aspects as well as the organization and running that deeply chauged, also thanks to the more and more massive introduction of the new technology. This caused new massive investments of the enterprise, that at the beginning were used to increase the productivity of plants and to improve products, and now also used to widen production. The process of reorganization of the Italian industrial system was more intense than that of most industrialized Countries, allowing a
decrease of 4.6% in the unit costs in our private sector. During this period only Japan (-7.1%) and Great Britain (-6.4%) were better, while the decrease that took place in France (1.6%), Germany (-1.5%) and the United States (-1.5%) was definitely lower. This process of reorganization, together with the high quality of the products, allowed our Country to remain, as a whole, competitive on the foreign markets and to cope adequately with the price rise that occurred because of factors external to
Francesca Gagliardo di Carpinello: Composition, mixed technique on cartoon cm. 50 x 70 (1988)
the enterprises (levying of taxes, contribution burdens, inefficiency of services, interest rates, etc.) and that today penalize our enterprises with respect to foreign competition. The difficulties that the Italian industry had and still has as regards international competition, just came from these reasons that are external to the enterprise itself, do 5
Francesca Gagliardo di Carpinello: Brooms, oil canvas cm 100 x 120 (1987)
not question but confirm the solidity and the technological and modern organization of our industrial system that is, however, able to get good results. This is shown, first of all, by the growth of the industrial production, that since 1984 has been about 3-4% per year, and by the esteem that the "Made in Italy" trade-mark still has in the world. Actually, many are the signals showing the high level reached by the Italian industry. The structure of the enterprises' budgets is another significant proof: in the '80s, in the light of a decrease in debts, Italian enterprises came to budgets similar to those of the main industrialized Countries. And such a process of financial adjustment took place without hindering investments, that increased, and in parallel with a big increase of the added value per unit (equal to about 4% per year). Equally meaningful is the level of internationalization. Now it involves also small and medium enterprises and shows itself, not only through a better stability of the trade flows, but also through more numerous industrial investments inwards and outwards. Everybody knows how Italy is well disposed towards foreign trade; its exchange is equal to about one third of the GNP (350,000 billions). On the contrary, the international productive integration of our industrial system is more recent - and so it deserves more attention. According to a survey carried out by CNEL (National Council of Economy and Labour), in 1985 there were already 1,200 Italian enterprises - with about 500,000 units and t0tal sales equal to 80,000 billion Lire - having foreign investors and about 700 foreign enterprises - with 250,000 units and weal sales equal to 40,000 billions having Italian investors.
6
The realization of the single market must he accompained by common policies about research, environment, energy, instruction and training, small enterprises that must he helped to grow, also in terms of dimension, foreign trade. This estimate does not consider portfolio investments, made by those who do not take part directly in the industrial running of the shared enterprise, and that would of course increase a lot the amount of these figures.
During t he last three years the trend became more marked and concerned both the influx of capitals from abroad, and, above all, the expansion of Italian enterprises abroad. In fact as concerns Italian investments abroad, there was a rapid
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increase, due to the initiatives of state shareholdings, are the mam some large enterprises and to the aspects to face and solve. Within this sphere, today the top progress made by our legislation on the way of tbe monetary priority is with no doubt represented by the public expenliberalization. In the last few years the interna- diture, that must be attacked tionalization strategy of the Italian without delay, to reduce that huge enterprises was characterized by an deficit that is the weakest aspect of increasing engagement towards the the Italian economy. This is a facsigning of cooperation agreements tor we were under the illusion to with foreign enterprises. Such forms live with for a long time, but now of cooperation took, from time to it has reached its crucial point time, the shape of "joint ventures", beyond which it is impossible to go within which is established a share without heavy effects for the whole society, or a society based only on system. It is necessary to limit the public contractual agreements, without any capital sharing and limited to deficit both through cuts in current technology exchange and to com- expenditure and selecting tasks and mercial and production relationships. direct interventions of the State, Other strongholds of the Italian freeing the public administration economy of the '80s are: the revival from the burden of direct running of the contracting spirit that brought that can be carried out by privates to the formation of a plurality of more efficaciously. Instead, actually new enterprises and new initiatives; the situation is characterized by an the regained trust in the contracting excessive public presence in the runsystem from savings, that started ning, and the attempts to limit it pouring again into the production are not enough yet. So, public services, and in general activities. The latter is a very important aspect if we consider that infrastructures are another very Italian families save about 25% of crucial point for our system. If the industry, modifying the their income: this figure is more than double that of the other Euro- structure of offer and utilization of pean Countries, higher than the productive factors, made, in the last Japanese (17%) and much higher few years, important steps forward, than that of the United States (4%). reorganizing and adapting itself to This brought to coin for Italy that the new needs of the domestic and expression "widespread capitalism", international market, there took that I think represents faithfully place, instead, an inverse process, a enough the climate of these years degradation process, in the field of of steady expansion and that is, in infrastructures and public services. All available indicators show in my opinion, the main guarantee of the last years a decrease, or in the progress for our Country. ff industry, propensity to save and most favourable cases, a stability of contracting spirit are the real the level of efficiency of services. Few examples will be enough. The strongholds of the "Italian system" in international competition, yet transport and communication serthere still remain weak points stop- vices were characterized by a reducping our development potentiality, tion of productivity that caused a making our way to the European lower level of efficiency than in 1970. A survey carried out by the integration more difficult. Public finances, insufficient in- Ministry of Postal and Telecomfrastructures, the inadequate efficien- munication Services shows that in cy of services, the backwardness of the past few years, together with a the fiscal system, the high labour high increase in personnel, a worsenand capital costs, inelasticity of the ing in the quality of service took labour market, the presence of areas place, so that our distance from our that are not yet open enough to other competitor Countries increascompetition such as credit, trade and ed. The results of a survey carried
out by an important institute, recently presented, confirms that our Country is the tail-ender of Europe in the field of services: we definite1y have the lowest number of telegraph, telex and railway lines, of bank counters and of underground lines per number of inhabitants. As a consequence of this situation, the regained efficiency of our private sector in the '80s, that allowed, however, the enterprises to compete on the international market, was not enough to improve the competitiveness of the "Italian system" as a whole, so that it had to suffer the consequences of public services chat not only did not gain back their productivity, but in many cases are still backward. In order to change this trend, it is necessary to aim, above all, at an increase of investments in infrastructures. A serious program of public investments, would not only relaunch the efficiency of services and reduce costs, but would also be an important factor of income and employment growth, creating, moreover, professional character and ability that could be decisive to improve competitiveness in many production fields. For example this happened in the past with investments in the sector of motorways and hydro-electric power plants. These phenomena cannot be ex~ actly measured, but each of them contributes to increase the efficiency of enterprises and the quantitative growth of production; probably similar effects would .take place also in case of massive investments aimed at improving the infrastructures of rail transport, of telecommunication and postal services, and more in general, of any public service. But the realization of a program of investments in infrastructures can not leave out of consideration the ability of the public administration to get ahead with it. At present this ability is not enough. Experience teaches that on one side, the accomplishments are much less numerous than the pro7
Francesca Gagliardo di Carpinello: Sti/1life, oil canvas cm. 50 x 70 (1988)
jects and that for the public sector it is more and more difficult to spend the sums destined to investments, and that on the other, faults in the running of the public services increase and make them expensive and inefficient. It is impossible to get out of this situation if new efficiency and market regulations are not introduced into the public administration, and if a more open dialogue and more penetrating synergies between public and private sectors are not encouraged, both for the realization of infrastructures, and for the running of the public services. This implies also a progressive elimination of the monopoly under which many 8
The growing role of technology and innovation requires for every industrialized Country to choose an adequate research policy, that is today the most important strategic factor of its industrial competitiveness and, I would say, of its own defence.
public services work, leaving more space, when it is possible, to a real private competition. Of course, the modernization of infrastructures and the better efficiency of public services are tightly li nked with the resources available for these operations. Therefore, the proble~ o~ pu?lic finan_ce . and its reorganization 1s top pnonty. From this point of view the Financial Law, even if it contains some innovative measures to reduce the public deficit, can be considered
only as a small step in the right direction. In fact it is an action mainly based on income, that in some cases is uncertain and in any case unrepeatable. On the contrary the decrease in expenditure is very modest and above all does not concern waste, but damages investments that, this way, are delayed. So, if on the one hand the purpose of reorganizing the State accounts, that is the basis of the economic manoeuvre for 1989, must be praised on the other it is
necessary to realize that it doesn't have enough effect on the mechanisms that feed the current expenses and does not .,solve what we defined as the main pro~lem, that is to develop infrastructures and make public services more efficient. After all, the Minister of Treasury himself, after the passing of the Financial Law from the H ouse said "the difficulty comes now", that is when it is time to face seriously the problem of re-equilibrating the expenses for health and social security that go on breaking the ceiling on expenditure. It would be wrong to go on increasing t he tax and contribution burden, both because it is already heavy, and because without a deep reform of t he public management, such operation would turn into a transfer of resources from the productive to the idle sector. In other words, to keep inefficient institutions alive, beside damaging workers and citizens use lessly, weakens those enterprises that produce resources, starting perverse spirals that our Country already experienced. Among the other weak points of our Country in view of the European single market, I think we have to mention the fi scal system that is very important in any industrial democracy, both from the point of view of equity - in Italy there is too much tax evasion - and for t he economic development. The fiscal problem of our Country is not that of a total increase of the fiscal burden, but rather that of an equalization and of the starting of a process of simplification able to encourage development and to take the Italian system nearer to that of our Community partners. It is necessary, above all, to encourage i1:1vestments rather than consumption; to re-equilibrate the burden among direct taxes, social charges and indirect taxes; to simpli fy proceedings and to improve t he admin istrative structures and the mechanisms to control evasion. An adequate use of the fiscal lever could supply an important contribution to t he strengthening of competitiveness among enterprises.
In order to increase the number of tax-payers allowing this way to reduce the fi scal burden on employees and productive activities, that are today the main, if not even the only, sources of income, without jeopardizing t he State income, it is necessary to fight evasion. On the contrary, it is at least debatable to face the problem of the financial revenue and that of capital gains, separately from the p roblem of the reorganization of the tax system. Also in order to avoid negative effects on the propensity of savings to pour into the productive activities, it is necessary to come to a gradual uniformity of treatment of the financial revenue, in view of a Community harmonization, to avoid inequal~ties at the expense of our enterprises. Let's explain now the part that t he "Confindustria" is going to play in view of the European single market and the initiatives it already took and that it is going to take. Since we consider the European single market as a good occasion for a better and more balanced development, for the broadening and success of t he market economy, for the widening of the citizens' fundamental freedom, we engaged, as social part representing private industrial enterprises and making ourselves responsible fo r general interests, to support every initiative able to encourage an effective and timely European integration. Since today the major difficulties Italy has to face for its complete integration in Europe are those of the public seccor, I think that the first task of industrialists, and so of the "Confi ndustria", must be that of urging the Government and the political parties to make up for the delay in /ublic fi nances, infrastructures an services. All this can be done through our analyses and proposals in order to contribute to reach the best solutions. T his is what we are doing with our meetings and initiatives about strategic matters as well as matters concerning general development, such as the relation among State and
econ omy, energy, environment, reorganization of towns, o f the South of Italy, of School and formation, that are just some of the most impo rtant ones and that recently have been subject of our attention. Moreover we are always in touch with the Government, the Parliament and the political parties to which we refer our ideas and proposals about t he economic policy to adopt fo r the development and European integration. For this purpose we are also drawing up a precise fiscal proposal that we are going to submit to the Government as soon as possible. We also turn the same attention to the relation with the workers' trade unions. The European integration - that requires similar conditions among the Community enterprises as concerns the labour cost and the order in the labour market - needs fr om C onfindustria a strong engagement to establish a system of industrial relationships, moving within general co mpatibility, and allowing to define new regulations, being up co the level of the challenges we have to face. General compatibilities that must be respected also as regards the labour cost of the public service that recently showed a dangerous trend: to ignore the fundamental problem of the relation between salary increase and productivity increase. We already started a confrontation with the trade unions about general matters such as taxation and specific matters such as job-training contracts that proved to be a very useful instrument allowing young people to start working (about one million in du:: la:;L three years). N ow it's our intention to start, as soon as possible, negotiations to debate the whole matter about the regulations of the industrial relations. All t h is is unavoidable, both because in 1989 some important contracts expire, and because the European integration needs a more flexible structure of th e labour cost and labour market. Then the European single market requires also a specific engagement 9
Francesca Gagliardo di Carpinello: Composition, oil canvas cm. 50 x 70 (1986)
of the Confindustria towards the partners. Although the Italian industrial system is generally well equipped to cope with the challenge of the United Europe, yet the year 1992 will undoubtfully ask our enterprises further adaptation attempts. Above all small and medium enterprises have to speed up their process of modernization in the productive, promotional, commercial, organizing and financial fields. Also the Confindustria has to make the same adaptation attempt. Taking above all into consideration the smallest enterprises, that need more support, we passed our "Project Europe", involving the whole associative system and that established five fields of activity: study and research, information, promotion and look, entertainment, training. The project envisages a series of initiatives-information net about the EEC lines and regulations, flow of information about the progress of the European internal market, support of the industrial organization to the Italian interests represented in Brussels and Strasbourg, unity with the European representatives, that is among the many industrial confederations - in order to help the Italian industrial enterprises to take all opportunities offered by the single market. The co-ordination Committee of this Project already turned its attention to some important matters for enterprises, such as the fiscal harmonization, liberalization in the circulation of capital, public contracts, public-private relation, school etc. And we also opened in our Associations 41 Eurocounters, feeded through the Brussel Delegation, and connected to each other, to the main office and to Brussels through our Giano system. 10
The problem of the lack in public resources and the difficulty in starting a constructive dialogue among all researchers and in transferring the results to the application field still remains, and I think also our Armed Forces can realize it. Last 13th December we met the other industrial confederation of the European Countries in Paris, within a meeting that stressed the engagement of the European Entrepreneurs for the European integration. Later, that is on December 15th, on the occasion of the Council of the
P residents of our territory and category associations that took place in Rome, beside a series of new initiatives in the field of information and promotion, we also presented a real manifest of the Italian industry for Europe. The Confindustria thinks it is
necessary to speed things up in order to respect the terms fixed by the stages of the Community integration, and first of.. all that of July 1990 for the liberalization. in the circulation of capital, that is propaedeutic to the establish ment of an European central bank and the adoption of a corn mon European currency, that all entrepreneurs wish because they think it is necessary for a real and deep integration among European Countries.
Moreover, the realization of the single market must be accompained by common policies about research, environment, energy, instruction and training, small enterprises that must be helped to develop, also in terms of dimension, foreign trade. Since we do not consider the single market as a stronghold closed to the rest of the world, but on the contrary we consider it as an occasion to increase and liberalize the world exchange, the Confindustria is today very active in encouraging the international projection of the associate enterprises, above all the small and medium ones chat experience the major difficulties. This brought us - through meetings and missions abroad - to improve our economic diplomacy both on the traditional markets and on those offering new chances to our enterprises, such as East Europe and South-East Asia. Today Europe is more and more interested in the political and economic innovations of the East European Countries, and above all of the Soviet Union with it s
perestroika. T hat Country is now much more interested in the opportunities coming from collaboration and economic and cultural exchange with the Western Countries, and this is already giving the first results. T he Italian presence in East Europe and above all in the Soviet Union, with specific structures and representation, is increasing more and more. Contracts, agreements and joint ventures, that in the past concerned above all big enterprises, are now beign extended - even if
with major difficulties - also to the small and medium ones that, because of quality of products and flexibility of action, can better satisfy the needs of that market. Yet, the cooperation relationships between East and West and between our Country and the Soviet Union are not enough with respect to the respective potentialities. In particular, during the phase of carrying out the agreements, difficulties and delay arise, due to diffe.n~ nc.es in the legislation and ideology that reduce t heir importance and hamper their full development. Because of the capacity of that market and given that our enterprises need to be assisted, as Confindustria we think we have to strive to overcome any obstacle and facilitate the development of relationships with the Soviet Union. For this purpose we are going to establish useful contacts among enterprises, without opposing or duplicating the work of Chambers of Commerce or of ICE (National Institute for Foreign Trade). T hese economic opportunities are based on and will benefit from the strenghtening of the detente process between East and West that has made important steps fo rward during the last years. Also the end of the Iran-lrak war cannot only smoothe the way towards a closer commercial cooperation with both Countries, but, more generally, can contribute to limit tension in the whole Middle-Eastern area, that still today is one of the most troubled spots of the world. In this sector Italy has a big responsibility. Ours is an European Country and is workiu~ for a closer, not only economic but also political, integration of the EEC Countries. Yet, we are in the core of the Mediterranean sea. There are still many Countries chat have not started yet a real economic development. The demographic pressure and unemployment may force many workers from those Countries to look for a job in Italy or in other European Countries; in face this is what is already happening. In any
case they are immigrants chat our economy could need. But in order to avoid tension, it is necessary to increase the engagement of all Community Countries, to support the development of che other side of the Mediterranean sea, promoting this way, the birth of an integrated econ omic syste m and red ucing disparities. Before concluding, I would like to stress a matter I think very important: the increasing role of technology and modernization in the general competition characterizing the international scene on the threshold of the '90s. This requires for every industrialized Country to chose an adequate research policy, that is today the most important strategic factor of its industrial competitiveness and, I would say, of its own defence. Also fro m this point of view the single market can represent a good occasion for the European Countries and Italy, allowing the starting of common research progra mmes, avoiding mistakes, stimulating industrial and technological cooperations and increasing collaboration among Industry, University and Research Centres. Community programmes such as ESPRIT, BRITE, RACE, ÂŁ CLAIR, as well as the internation al tech n ological cooperations (EUREKA), are already very important to present the European industry as ready tO compete, in terms of innovation, on the world market, and will be further developed with the realikacion of the single market. This is really necessary, since, notwithstanding the progress made in the last few years by the E uropean Countries and Italy in the research and modernization, the gap with the economically strong areas of the Atlantic and Pacific is still big. The expenditure for research in the United States and Japan is in fact about 3% of the GNP, while within the EEC it is not even 2%. And Europe is also at a disadvantage on the account of the number of researchers, that is defi nitely lower than that of those Countries, 11
Francesca Gagliardo di Carpinello: Sti/1life, mixed technique cm. 50 x 70 (1988)
transferring the results to the field of application still remains. I think also our Armed Forces can realize lt.
All the European Countries have to keep the pace: so the single market is an occasion that will turn into a necessity. In fact, those who do not adapt themselves in time, will not only run the risk of getting no more space on a wider market, but even of losing space on their own national market.
and the situation is even worse as concerns the technological balance, that shows a considerable active for the United States and a considerable passive for the EEC Countries. Under these conditions, the research policy of our Country seems not to meet the needs. 12
It is true that in the last few years the Government turned more attention to the problems of the promotion of research, both basic and applied. Yet, the problem of the lack in public resource and the difficulty in starting a constructive dialogue among all researchers and in
A serious engagement in the research was undertaken in the last few years by the industry, whose expenditure for research increased as shown by a survey carried out by the Confindustria - by 13.2% in 1986, by 15.2% in 1987 and by 21.3% in 1988. But in this field industry cannot do everything by itself. In all industrialized Countries this is a field in which the synergy between the private and public sectors is maximum and this is the way our Country has to go to strengthen the economic development, to increase employment, to be successful in international competition. Then I think that also the Armed Forces feel this need. in fact they need more and more efficient and sophisticated products and systems, that only a Country, including within its priorities research and modernization and a Country that adopts policies able to realize them, can supply. Armed Forces and industry in the common interest for research can find a meeting point and a mutual spur to develop and to allow the Country to take all the new oppor~unities. supplied by the European mtegrauon.
Ing. Sergio Pininfarina
ITALIAN ECONOMY AND INDUSTRY
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THE PROBLEM OF DEFENCE IN ITALY The particular characteristics and the importance that the Constitution ascribes to the Armed Forces as essentia I institutions of the state organization, as well as the specific link established by the "Fundamental principles on military discipline" with the Constitution itself, sanctioning the rules of action, life and behaviour of the military structure, represent the particular sources of legitimation of the military instrument.
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Also the main task of the Armed Forces, that is the national defence, has a constitutional origin. The defence policy that Italy could adopt, defining, in consequence, also its role and international responsibilities, should, at least in theory, be chosen among the following options: unarmed neutrality, armed neutrality, alignment and nonalignment. But the solution is bound and subordinate to the careful consideration of some basic constant factors: the geostrategic position, the resources, the international politico and economic bonds and agreements. So, discarded neutrality, impossible to be proposed because if 'unarmed' it doesn't guarantee security, and if 'armed' can guarantee security only at expenses that cannot be met, the choice is between alignment or nonalignment. For a medium powerful nation, such as Italy, that is rich enough in human resources, but unable to be self-sufficient because of the lack in natural resources, and whose industrial development is mainly based on the credit of the trade balance, the choice is only one: peace can be achieved only cooperating with partners our Country shares political, economic and social interests with.
Stronghold of our military policy, now worldwide accepted, could be just the Atlantic Alliance, whose strategic doctrine, based on the concept of flexible reply and advanced defence, had up to now represented the inspiring motive of the national defensive organization. The adoption of such a conception is, therefore, a consequence of those reasons that, then, led to look for security in a military political context that, in the field of common defence, could ~llow the safeguard of the national mterests. So, it is now unquestionable that the NATO is an alliance among independent, free and sovereign countries, guarantors with solidarity of a rigorously defensive and geographically limited military pact, that can be held only if each country entirely performs the engagements freely undertaken. In order to allow all this, every Country must rely on a defence instrument, whose credibility must be assured both in institutional and operative terms.
MAIN PROBLEMS The Italian defence apparatus must be able to perform the following tasks:
• show clearly its defence ability so to avert, deterring, the starting of armed controversies; • actually show the Italian will to take its responsibilities within the Alliance; • facilitate the recognition of the active role of Italy from the other Mediterranean Countries. But first, its effectiveness needs the solution of some basic juridical and operative problems. To the first group belong those due to lacks in the regulations establishing the working of the top-level politicalstrategic management, of the technical-military management and of the operative components of the military instrument; to the second group belong those operative problems linked with the emerging functions, to be ascribed to our defensive organization, and with the new tasks that should be assigned to the Armed Forces. JURIDICAL PROBLEMS
The defence policy can be seen as the whole of the institutions, decisions and activities our regulations establish for the safeguard of the Country. The "political" order cons cerns the competence assigned by the Constitution to the Head of State, Parliament, Government and 15
Supreme Council of Defence. All together these organs form the political-strategic top-level management. Therefore, their task is to organize, prepare and elaborate the defe~sive strategy of the Country, that 1s not only military defence but global d~fence, in which all political, economic and social forces of the nation participate. The problem of the link and of the coordination between political power and military command of the Armed Forces comes from this premise. The juridical duties of the toplevel poli~ical-strategic management are established by the Constitution: in art. 87, for the President of the Republic, who is in command of the Armed Forces and chairs the Supreme Council of Defence¡ in articles 80 and 78, for the Parl{ament that deliberates the state of war and grants the Government the powers necessary to its direction; in art. 71, for the Parliament, that exerts the legislative initiative, referred by the Constitution itself. As concerns the Supreme Council of Defence, law n. 524 of 28 July 1954, defines it as the organ within which is the tightest link among the Head of State, the Government and the military top management. Is the juridical picture enough? Th~ re~ponsibility of a top organ, actmg m a democracy that refuses war as a way to solve international controversies, should explicitly concern the goals of the defence policy, the level of security to be achieved, the amount of resources to be destined, the coordination and control of the various sectors concern16
ing the national defence and the mobilization of the Country's war potential. So a clearly limited and organized structure, would be necessary that could be even based on a political organ, having more decisional power, supported by a technical organ, able to make proposals, that can be turned into operative actions. The technical-military top management acts at an immediately subordinate_ level and, according to the instructions of the political-strategic top management, takes care of the preparation of the Armed Forces and the direction of the operations. It forms a complex organization articulated, like in all countries, i~ two separate branches: the first the technical-operative one, made u~ by the General Staffs; the second, technical-administrative, made up, in Italy, by the Secretary General/DNA, by the General Directions and by main offices of the Ministry of Defence. Also the technical-industrial bodies of the defence belong to the second branch. The characteristics of the decisional technical-military organ are a big problem in all Western Countries. In Italy, this sector is mainly regulated by some decrees (D.P.R. 1477 and 1478 of 18/11/1965), by the law n. 200 of 8 March 1968 that introduced the Committee of the Chiefs of General Staff as the minister's maximum consultative organ, and by the law n. 167 of 9 January 1951, that established the Superior Council of the Armed Forces. The problems to be solved are mainly two: the individual or collegiate characteristics to be attributed to the management and a more realistic distribution of functions between Committee of the Chiefs of General Staff and Superior Council of the Armed Forces. All Western Countries chose, for the top-level management, an in-
termediate solution, avoiding both the risks of the centralization of authority and powers and the diffic1:1lt working of a collegiate organ acnng on the principle of unanimity. As concerns, in particular, the Superior Council of the Armed ~orces, the organism could develop itself towards a more marked ~echnical-administrative specialization ~n the sector of contracts, by givrn g its opinions a compulsory character. Such opinions could also become substitutive of those of the Council of State, in case the representative of this assemblv within the Superior Council, e~~ presses his assent to the decisions; this would be very useful for the semplification of the bureaucratic passage. Another juridical problem to be solved is the regulating order to give to the Armed Forces by law: the most recent law is that about the Army, dating back to 1940. So, witho~t an up-co-date regulating order, !t. seems very difficult to pool all poliucal, technical and economic efforts for a better utilization of the resources to be destined to defence. On_ the ~ther hand, the changed social reality requires the establishment of new relationships between
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the organs of the State and citizens, basing on precise and unequivocal laws. OPERATIVE PROBLEMS
The series, even if very synthetic, of the problems to be solved is not complete since, to those already mentioned it is necessary to add the operative problems, that directly affect the efficaciousness of defence. First of all, we refer to the politicalmilitary situation that changed, since the previous vulnerability increased, and secondly to the new tasks assigned to the Armed Forces in the social field. As concerns the first aspect, it is easy to notice an increased vulnerability of the NATO south side as a consequence of two factors: qualitative increase of threat on the north-eastern border and greater instability in the Mediterranean area. The threat increase is due to the strenghtening of the enemy opposing powers, that is the result not only of the natural process of modernization that took place in the units of the Warsaw Pact in the last years, but also of the recently incresed importance of such powers. The change of trend, also supported by the missile deployment and by the most up-to-date air vectors, makes us think that, from a strategic point of view, the eastern bloc turned a
growing interest to the N A TO southern area with respect to the past, maybe because this is considered easier to penetrate. But this outlook could change in the context of the so longed for process of balanced and gradual disarmament. Yet, until this process makes some steps forward, it is necessary to think of this threat with its potential and effective characteristics. The second factor -
t_he greater
instability in the Mediterranean area - is a consequence of the high quantitative increase of forces in potentially hostile countries, some of w hich have means and equipment that are in excess with respect to their real defence need. Moreover, the new tasks are those established, fo r the Armed Forces, by the "regulations on principles", concerning the support to the safeguard of the free institution and to those populations suffering calamities; new tasks will also be established through some measures, now under examination, such as the famous D.D.L. on "Civil Defence". In other words, the Armed Forces have to be ready to intervene quickly, also in social fields, with forces and equipment being qualitatively adequate and quantitative ly numerous.
GOALS ALREADY ACHIEVED AND DEFECTS TO BE ELIMINATED Because of the threat and of the more and more insistant call of the nation to the utilization of the Armed Forces' scarce resources in the social field , the '70s saw a radical change of the national military instrument, through a process of reorganization concerning the three operative components and the technical-industrial component of defence. The growing importance of the technological development, with the high increase in the costs of acquisition and utilization of arms and equipment, caused in fact a further decay of efficiency, that is more evi-
dent in those sectors depending directly on electronic technology. But the reorganization, that among the other things, aimed and still aims at rationalizing the structures to retrieve resources to be destined to the modernization, is subject to the need to complete rhose programmes decided at the beginning. This is necessary both to perform adequately the most important task the defence of the north-eastern border - and to rely on more forces on the remaining national territory, in order to cope with the new needs of the Mediterranean area. Moreover, special laws concerning qualitative reduction, hardly achieved their goals in the fixed terms, because of lacks in financing. Inflation and the followi ng price rise slackened the process of modernization and this could cause a delay in carrying out the programmes of some years after the '90s. But the incomplete realization of the programmes, that are considered as necessary to compensate, with an increase in quality, the decrease in quantity that took place during the reorganization, does not allow to cope adequately either with the threat envisaged in 1975 or, at least, the present one. The weak sectors, that mostly af17
feet the land operative capacity the most important to face the direct pressure of the opposing forces - are the air and antitank defence, the target acquisition, the watch of the battlefield and the command and control. Moreover, it is important to stress that in 1975 the peninsular and insular national territory was penalized with respect to the north-eastern area, because the resources available and the estimation of the operative capacity of the Warsaw Pact countries did not allow a further reduction of the units to be deployed in the North. On the other hand, considering the local situation, the threat in the Mediterranean area was estimated in a limited number of "raid" actions. From 1975 to now, this menace, yet being considered in the context of "raids" (invasions are not envisaged), has become more and more serious because of the possibility for the potential attackers to lead more actions of this .kind at the same time. So, in order to exert a better control on the territory, it would be necessary to count on more forces, such as at least three elementary Big Units at brigade level, to deploy respectively in Sicily (for the defence of the islands and of the Straits of Messina), in Sardinia and in the southern area of the peninsula (to guarantee both the Ionian and the Tyrrhenan sidest in other words, it seems absolutely necessary to give credibility to the operative instrument. And in order tO get all this, it would be necessary 18
to achieve at least the minimum goals established with the reorganization project. The global dimension of the instrument, the qualitative level, the balancing of the single components, the number and kind of equipment and, consequently, the technological choice for the material acquisition, must be estimated according to these minimum goals. On these choices depend also the criteria for the reorganization of arsenals and plants, in sight of the intervention capacity they must be supplied with. In fact, given for granted the need to keep a military industrial organization, necessary also to control private industry, and to rely, under any circumstance, on a certain autonomy free from conditioning, it is necessary to wonder how
to proceed on the way of modernization. In this connection, the main goal could be a modern and flexible industrial structure, able to adapt itself even to the working systems of the most sophisticated materials. So, in this sector the most efficient solution would be the building of plants, specialized in the integral revision of the systems of arms.
SECTORS OF INTERVENTION The main problems of the defence policy are substantially imputable to the concepts of credibility and efficiency of the military instrument in all its aspects: from the normative sector to that of social services, to the technological choices, to the
moral and cultural motivation of personnel, to the military condition, to the planning. The sectors of intervention are many, complex and articulated. In a very synthetic picture, it is possible to mention just the main ones. THE INSTITUTIONAL SECTOR
A defence policy able to supply the image of a country standing out on the always changing surrounding scenario adequately, and so, able to discard, for its own security, external and internal attacks, cannot ignore the precise establishment of relationships among political power, military command and economic and industrial organization of the Country. And since such relationships play
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a decisive part and the principle of security is based on them, these must be legitimated eh.rough juridical instruments and through an organization able to coordinate the political, economic and social components of the nation, for an adequate global defence. From this premise arises the problem of the link and coordination between political power and military command of the Armed Forces, that as legitimate expressions of the State authority, pursue the same aim. This gives rise to the need to clear and define the responsability of the political-strategic top-management, in a harmonic picture of the respective constitutional duties of the various organs forming it, and to harmonize, in the respect of the unavoidable operative autonomy, the
sphere of influence of the organisms making up the technical-military top-management. As regards the second one, it would be advisable to take into consideration the experience of the other western countries facing the same problems. Only this way it will be possible to reach the balance among the duties of the Committee of the Chiefs of General Staff, of the General Staff and the Secretariate General/DNA and then of the Superior Council of the Armed Forces, also in order to harmonize the needs of the technicaloperative and administrative sectors of the military instrument. Thus, not even the need tO legitimate with adequate regulations the global order of the Armed Forces can be put off. THE SECTOR OF SOCIAL SERVICES
The need to rely on an organization able to face the new tasks assigned to the Armed Forces by the "Regulations on principles" and those established by the D.D.L. on Civil Defence, requires: • to establish more stable links, according to different levels of responsibility (State, Region, Province), between civil and military authorities; • to rely on a logistic and technical-administrative organization, able to meet the needs both of the Armed Forces and those coming from domestic emergencies (intervention for public calamities, cooperation in the safeguard of free institutions); • to improve the quality of social services (in the information, certificate and health sectors) in fovour of citizens, resorting to informatics. THE SECTOR OF MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
This series of problems concerns the supply and utilization and is strictly connected with the problems of research, development and production. As concerns the defensive 19
instrument that must always be kept efficient, and the careful examination of its efficiency with respect to costs, it is possible to establish both the technological level of the materials and equipment to be introduced, and their quantity within the single components. The technological level and the quantity also depend on the real possibility to guarantee their technical reliability and to rely on both the operative ability necessary to their maintenance, and the indispensable spare parts supply. That being said, it is possible to define the functions and tasks to assign to the arsenals and defence plants, in the sector of production and maintenance. A particular notice is worth the utilization of the materials and equipment within the Armed Forces, that postulates a massive resort to informatics systems for the automatized running of parks, as well as a deep examination of proceedings and a more marked decentralization of the administrative authority in the sector of expenditure (increase of the limits granted
to commanders). THE SECTOR OF PERSONNEL
The credibility of the military instrument would not exist if it were not the result of a highly motivated personnel. But personnel motivation depends on many factors, above all the moral and cultural ones. As concerns the moral factor, a relaunch of the ideal motivations seems necessary, that is the search 20
for security and identity, above all from young people. In this connection, an important step forward was made also with the institution of the military representation that, even if it showed some functional excesses, has also contributed to confirm both the right to the presence of the military institutions in the society of the '90s, and their really democratic spirit. This took place through the establishment of relationships that, if on the one hand confirmed the equal dignity of the individual, on the other are not contradictory to the fundamental principles of discipline and hierarchy of competences. At most, the problem is to start a_ ?1or~ and more responsible part1c1pat1on. As regards the cultural aspect, a more careful reconsideration of the military reality, is necessary both as social reality - and so expression of the symbiosis between the military and the other state institutions - and as peculiar military condition characterizing its members. It is in this prospect that the cadres' claims, as regards in particular remuneration and pension treatment and the right to an apartment, must be analyzed. In fact they are citizens, who even if for free
choice, are subject to particular employment conditions. Also the citizens' claims can be seen in the same picture. The latter, in fact, being subject to compulsory military service, must find in it the real possibility to make experiences able to reconfirm and strengthen the spirit of responsible and aware participation supporting them. THE SECTOR OF PLANNING AND
PROGRAMMES
But the interventions above mentioned would not be feasible or even effective, if they were not considered within a forecast mechanism through which it is possible to define the synthesis goals. These goals, identifying the qualifying elements of the pursued instrument of defence, should above all indicate the direction where all efforts should be directed. In other words, it would be necessary to consider as unavoidable the decisional procedure already defined by the Ministry of Defence and called technicaloperative planning, that should become the usual instrument, for both political and military members, to make long-term decisions, and would become the only point of reference of the accomplishments.
POSSIBLE INTERVENTION INSTRUMENTS The necessity to allow Parliament to consider the expenditure for the maintenance of the military instrument, taking this way the responsibility of the risks connected with the decisions taken, and to allow, at the same time, th e topmanagements tO fulfil their mandate, requires to resort to modern and flexiblP. legislative instruments and to measures able to create a more complete osmosis between the military world and civil society. Above all two laws would take on a particular importance: one establishing more precisely the shape and working of the political-strategic top-managemen t and another regulating and programmatic bound with the ten-year technical-operative planning. Such regulating law would also unify all organisms of the Ministry of Defence in a single cadre, defining clearly the relationships between the tech nicaladministrative bodies and the Armed Forces, and would also indicate the goals to be achieved, legitimating not only the number of the staff necessary, but also the relative carreers. Among all measures aiming at
establishing this symbiosis between the military sector and the administrative organization of the State, there should be the establishment of a link, and of stable interlocutors, between the Armed Forces - above all the Army - and the state authorities. Such measure, together with a better organization of the social services that the Armed Forces already supply - through district and health organizations would contribute to establish a more efficient Parliament-Armed Forces Country circuit. This could be the answer to the demand for more efficient social services made by the Country to the Armed Forces.
mative sector by which the military institutions are legitimated and supported in their work , t o the relaunch of the image of the Armed Forces in the Country; an image that is based on the moral aspect that, on its turn is the base of the staff motivation - both of the cadres and of the conscripts - and on a new and more pertaining cultural view. This should not present the military instrument as means of offence, but as an unquestionable reality, whose main task is the defence of the territorial integrity of the State. This gives rise to the double need for an up-to-date, clear and unequivocal normative body and for an instrument of defence, adequate to the international situation, as well as the need for the reliability of the military instrument: against the menace to be faced with the allies and in front of the national public opm1on. Gen. Francesco Cervoni (*) The last alternative could be to gi ve complete autonomy and full mobility to at least some of the big. already existing units, in order to allow their rapid moving and intervention on the whole national territory. Yet, also this compromise solution wou ld require adequate extra modern ization programmes, to be financed completely.
CONCLUSIONS A synthesis of the above could be represented by only one concept: the credibility of the defence instrument. But the credibility implies at the same time a goal and a serious and constant engagement aiming at rationalizing and utilizing adequately the resources destined by the Country to its own defence. So, it can be guaranteed only through the determination and carrying out of a programme rich in legislative and organizational initiatives, going fro m the reorganization of the nor21
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THE ANTARCTIC TREATY The Antarctic Treaty, signed in Washington on December 1, 1959 by the twelve countries that carried out scientific activity in Antarctica during the 1957/58 International Geophysical Year, has as main purpose to assure that "in the interest of the whole mankind Antarctica goes on being always used only for peaceful purposes ¡and is not turned into theatre and cause of international strife". The Treaty's regulations apply to the whole area south of a latitude of 60 degrees south. Later, 25 more countries joined the Treaty, and among these Italy in 1980. In order to achieve its main purpose the Treaty states among other things, t he delimitarization and denuclearization of the territory. But as sole exception, it is allowed the
employment of military personnel and equipment both for scientific research and for any other peaceful purpose. In order to stress more the concept of peaceful use of Antarctica, the Treaty also states that "freedom of scientific research and the cooperation to this end will go on, as applied during the International Geophysical Year". The twelve signatory countries and those that joined the Treaty later, that according to art. IX, paragraph 2 of the Treaty, showed their interest in Antarctica "carrying out important activities of scientific research in this area, such as the building of a scientific station or the sending of a scientific expedition" have the right to send their own representatives to the consultative meetings provided for by paragraph 1 of art. IX. The meetings of the Consultative Parties are usually held every two years in order to exchange information, to consult on subjects of common interest as well as to propose, consider and recommend, to the respective governments, measures aiming at assuring the respect of the principles and the pursuit of the goals.
ITALY AS CONSULTATIVE PARTY TO THE TREATY In April 1987 the Italian Government notified its formal request to obtain the status of Consultative Party. The recognition took place on the occasion of the XN ordinary meeting of the Treaty, held in Rio de Janeiro in October 1987. With the joining of Italy, and at the same time of the Democratic Republic of Germany, the number of the Consultative Parties increased to 20, on a total of 37 member Countries. Two important Conventions are inserted into the system of the Antarctic Treaty, one concerning the protection of the Antarctic seals (adopted in 1977 in London) and the other about the preservation of the sea resources living in Antarctica (adopted in 1980 in Camberra). In J une 1988 the international negotiation on the regulation of the exploitation of the mining resources in Antarctica ended in Wellington. The Convention's final text contains the regulations necessary to guarantee in any case the defence of the Antarctic environment and of the associate ecosystem and the compliance with the rules of the Antarctic Treaty. In order to strenghten the bonds with the Treaty, it is envisaged that within the Convention's organs are considered member by right those Countries already being Consultative Parties and the next to be, as long as they keep the right to such title. Also Italy falls in the first group.
THE INTERNATIONAL PICTURE International cooperation is one of the Antarctic Treaty's inspiring principles. In fact art. II says that "freedom of scientific research in Antarctica and the cooperation lo this end will go on", while art. III supplies indications on how to encourage such cooperation. Amost all consultative member
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countries of the Treaty continuously carry out scientific activities in Antarctica and 17 of them have permanent workin g bases, manned throughout the year. The United States and the Soviet Union stand out also in Antarctica for the importance of their programmes. Particularly the United States, with an annual budget over 100 million dollars, predominates in almost all disciplines for the guantity of equipment, mobility and volume of activity, the scientific one included. One of the American bases manned throughout the year is the Amundsen-Scott base, located at the South Po le. The Soviet Union stands out for the number of permanently occupied bases (eight) and for the winter population (300). Among the other countries, the programmes of France, the Federal Republic of Germany, the United Kingdom as well as those of Australia, Japan and N ew Zealand are particularly important. T he activity of South American countries is mainly concentrated on the Antarctic peninsula. The collaboration among countries is often a necessity, considering the particular logistic situation, both for possible emergency problems and for the high cost of the operations. But some collaborations also started on the basis of mere scientifical interests. Beside bilateral cooperation agreements, such as those between the United States and N ew Zealand, Sweden and N ew Zealand, Norway and the Federal Republic of Germany, Argentina and the Federal Republic of Germany, there are also multilateral agreements such as, for example: the IAGP (International Antarctic Glaciology Project) that employs scientists fro m Australia, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union. The sector in which the largest number of joint cruises was organized is the oceanographic one. In particular the Federal Republic of Germai:iy offers about 25% of the places available on the Polarstern ship to foreign scientists, including those
coming from developing Countries. Other Countries that cannot rely on sufficient resources, send their researchers to foreign bases; this is the case of Belgium, Sweden and Norway that collaborate above all with the United Kingdom, and of the People's Republic of China, that in wintertime sends its scientists to American , Soviet or Australi an bases. Recently also Sweden starred its own programme with the aim of joining the Ant~rctic. c:lub. As to Italy, notwithstanding all the limitations due to o ur recent autonomous presence in Antarctica, any possibility for an international collaboration has been looked for from the beginning. Excluding the agreemen t sign ed with New Zealand, country that in the past offered its collaboration to our researchers, agreement that was due to our need to rely on a support base in that country for all logistic aspects of the national programme, the cooperations in progress or under examination are mainly based on personal relations amo ng researchers. Among the latter we can mention for example: • the joint programme of La Sapienza University of Rome and the United States A ntarctic Program in the field of atmospheric physics and in particular on the ozone reduction, which considers the installation of an optical radar (Lidar) made in Italy in the Amundsen-Scott polar base; • the agreement with che O hio U niversity for the exchange of weather data; • the Italian participation in the EPOS project (European Polarscern Study) in the field of oceanography, within the European Science Foundation; • the collaboration of a group of researchers fro m the C NR (National Council for Scientific Research) with American colleagues, to study the haemoglobin of the Antarctic fish. For the future, some contacts are also in progress with the United States as concerns the logistic aspects, the use of air connections with the McMurdo base, and the
scientific aspects, oceanography and earth science; with the French, who proposed the European partners a joint programme for the use of the base in Durmont d'Urville, to be developed with an airport, and a short-term programmes in the field of atmospheric physics; wich Brazil for research in the sector of geology. Within the international scientific . . organisms or assoc1at1ons a very important role is played by the Scientific Committee For Antarctic Research (SCAR). SCAR is the scientific committee of ICSU (International Council of Scientific Unions) whose cask is to start, promote and coordinate the scientific activity in Antarctica. Members by right of SCAR are the national scientific organization members of !CSU as representatives of the scientific community of the Countries that carrying out continuous and independent research programmes in Antarctica, established a N ational Committee co keep in couch with SCAR itself.
THE PERMANENT BASE The site chosen for the installat ion of the permanent base, called "Terra Nova Bay Station", is a place on the Northern Foothills coast area of Victoria Land in the Ross Sea, point of coordinates Latitude = 74° 41' 42" South and Longitude = 164° 07' 23" East. The realization of the base structures is a very important pare of the techn ological development p roi;ra1 11Iu1;;. In fact, for its geographical position, more than 400 km from the other bases of the area and about 10 days' navigation from the nearest ports, its planning needed the use of the most advanced technology in order to guarantee its maxi m um reliability under particularly hostile weather conditions (winds blowing at more than 200 km/h, minimum temperatures in the order of - S0°C). Suitably insulated modular elements were us25
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ed for its realization. One-floor buildings on a total working area of 670 m 2, are placed on "piloty", in order to avoid the roughness of the land, reducing the earth moving operations as much as possible, and to decrease the load on the structures due to snow accumulation. The buildings are fastened to the soil through steel tie-beams. The base is fitted with the follow. . mg equipment: • automatic weather stations to measure air temperature and humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind direction and intensity, global solar radiations. The data collected are broadcast locally and in Europe via satellite (ARGOS system); • HF receiver for weather charts sent via radio/facsimile; • radiosonde system to get weather data at high altitude through the launching of sonde balloons; • local reception system, via ARGOS, of the data sent by automatic weather stations;
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• long distance telecommunication system via satellite (Satcom) liked with the INMARSAT net, allowing the telephone telex traffic with any telephone and telex subscriber all over the world.
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL RESULTS Within the scientific and technological research programme in Antarctica, three campaigns centred on the general purposes of the pluriannual programme passed by the CIPE (lnterministerial Committee for Economic Planning) have taken place up to now. Fields of these activities are: • cosmogeophysics and cosmogeochemistry; • atmospheric physics and climatology; • earth science; • oceanography; • biology and medicine; • . environmental impact; • technological research. The need for an articulated programme of geophysical exploration of the geologic structures off the continental shelf was also stressed.
COSMOGEOPHYSICS AND COSMOGEOCHEMISTRY The low concentration of steam and the high thermal stability of the atmosphere make Antarctica a very good place for the study of the background cosmic radiation. In order to measure, or at least to fix an upper limit, the value of the background cosmic anisotropy ant to test some observation techniques to separate the astronomic effects from the atmospheric ones, the OASI project (Antarctic Submillimetric Infrared Observatory) was developed, contemplating the installation of a three-meter infrared telescope fitted with a photometric system operating at the temperature of liquid helium (about 0.3° K). With the help of a one-meter parabolic flow collector it was possible to carry out some tests on the possibility of measuring the background cosmic radiation at an angular scale of 1-10 degrees.
ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS AND CLIMATOLOGY The creation of the net of automatic weather posts, with telecast data, employing stations able to work autonomously even in wintertime, allowed the collection of the data necessary for the weather characterization of the site. The data collected have also been regularly sent to the American base of McMurdo for a collaboration with the Ohio State University. Through the use of sound probes it was possible to make measurements of the planetary boundary-layer. The observation with a SODAR mono-channel instrument showed a strong convection (vertical speed of even 4-5 metres per second) due to very high thermal gradients coming from the radiation absorption in the deglaciated areas. The use of a triaxial probe with Doppler test in real time, beside examining closely the study of the convection, allowed to supply an accurate description of the catabatic winds. A second closer-meshed net of
small weather cabins, was installed around the base, as well as Brewer spectrophotometer to measure the columnar content a.f ozone. The data collected about the atmospheric particles will allow the determination of the dimensional distribution, the mass concentration and the optical characteristics of aerosol. The measurements of the solar irradiation with a solar photomet_er permit to esta~lish the optical thickness of the particles and so the parameters of the atmospheric turbidity; also the columnar content of ozone will be obtained, as well as data about the ozone concentration near the soil. During the 1987-88 campaign an optical radar (Liclar) developped at the University of Rome was installed in the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. The Lidar is kept in operation, within a collaboration with the United States Antarctic Programme, by the staff of NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) throughout the year, and the data collected are sent to Rome via satellite. Purpose of the measurements is the observation of the particle content of the atmosphere, of the distribution of clouds and of the effects of these constituents on the ozone concentration; these measurements are very important if carried out in wintertime, when the "ozone hole" takes place. Another Lidar, made by the IROE Institute of the CNR in Florence, that worked in summertime at the Terra Nova Bay base, supplied a long series of measures about the vertical distribution of clouds and aerosol as well as on their variability.
AUCT) - with plutonit imrusives, above all chalcoalines of different composition, leuco_granites and tonalities with minor grabs and ultramafic complexes, belonging to the so-called Granite Harbour Intrusives. These complexes have been charted at the scale of 1/250,000 in the areas between the Campbell and David glaciers. The data collected on the ground have been integrated, in the laboratory, with the examination of the material collected. So it is possible to show a very original model of tectonicmetamorphic-magmatic evolution of the Wilson Terrane. With respect to the panorama offered by the previous literature that considered a rnonolitic evolution (Ross orogeny) this one is characterized by having discovered at least three orogenic cycles, going backwards in time, that are: • tectonics, low grade metamorphism and plutonism of CambrianOrdovician age (Ross orogeny); • tectonics, high grade metamorphism (low pressure amphibolite facies) of unknown age; • high grade metamorphism in medium and high pressure granulitic conditions, of unknown age. During the third expedition a
research was also started, aiming at a first evaluation of the glacimentologic aspects. The volcanologic surveys were carried out both in the Mesozoic basaltic expandings (Ferrar dolerites) and in the numerous neogenicquaternary volcanoes of the area, located between the Campbell and A viat0r glaciers. As regards the latter, it came out that it is possible to distinguish two phases of volcanism: one having an alkaline character with abundant differentiated products, linked with the Overlord Mountain and the surrounding effusive centres, and the other, more recent, having an alkaline character too, but mainly basaltic, typical of the Melbourne Mountain, but also common in a large area in the north, where it covers the products of the Overlord Mountain. Both phases seem to be linked to a recent stretching tectonics, developed with faults having a North-South direction. During the last expedition another research was started, aiming at testing the geothermal capacity of the area. Research in the field of geology, glaciology and paleo-climatology led to the following results: • reconstruction of the East Antarctic cap in the Terra Nova Bay
EARTH SCIENCE Geological-petrological research in the igneous and metamorphic basement of the Terra Nova area permitted to distinguish 3 lithostratigraphic complexes in the Wilson Terrane - high grade migmatic granulitic (Priestley schists AUCT), low grade migmatic granulutic (Priestley formation 27
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seismic profile, were carried out, transversally to the Ross Sea and along the Western coast of the Victoria Land; it was arranged for these directions to intersect and cover an area where previously some magnetic anomalies had been noticed. A first compilation of the collected data, integrated with other surveys made by German, American, French and Japanese researchers, makes it possible to draw the extension of the sedimentary basins inside the Ross Sea and to show the positive maximum values of the gravimetric anomalies.
area and of its relations with the Ross platform; • identification of three different glacial complexes and of traces of prepleistocene glaciations; • dating and numerical evaluation of the mai11 Hulo~<::nt: events: deglaciation, isostatic folding, variations of the sea level, faunal repopulation, fluctuation of the logical glaciers; • detailed geomorphologic cartography of the Northern Foothills OCEANOGRAPHY territory, with special attention to As regards physical oceanography, the preglacial forms and problems; the batimetric survey of the area of • first evaluation of the mass the Terra Nova Bay was carried out; balance of the front variation of this brought to the publication of local and outfall glaciers; a 1/50,000 thematic chart. • studies about the origin and Four acoustic signallers that allowdevelopment of the Hell's Gate ed to measure the horizontal and floating ice platform, the process of vertical component of the currents till collecting in cold bottom glaciers have been moored. With the use of and the development of the Shear marigraphs, it was started a research morams; about the variations of tides, and • survey on the oscillation of through the utilization of glaciers with front to the sea. multiparametric signallers it was In the field of geomagnetism a possible to outline the hydrologic summer geomagnetic observatory characteristics (temperature, salinity, was installed and explorative surveys were carried out. The geomagnetic survey in the area of the Terra Nova Bay led to the discovery of two "highs", one north of Mt. Melbourne and the other NNW-SSE oriented, coincident with the basset of the Jurassic vulcanites of the Ferrar group. Surveys were also carried out about phenomen of electromagnetic induction, in order to analyze the magnetovariations at high latitude and to study the electric conductivity of the lithosphere and of the Antarctic crust, and to measure the magnetic susceptibility on rocks of the crystalline basement and on recent vulcanites. In the field of sea geophysics, aiming at the reconstruction of the geodynamic model and of the history of the Ross Sea basins, 2323 km of multichannel reflection gravimetric and magnetometric
28
pH, dissolved oxygen). In the field of biological oceanography, during the last campaign, a research on plankton, benthos, nekton and fishing resources, microbiology, primary productivity was started. The results refer to the first surveys and measurements made on the spot; the following examination, in Italy, of the samples collected will allow to get complete information about the ecological asset of the area under study. The first microscopic observations of samples of plankton showed that the area of the Terra Nova Bay is not rich with krill and that the Euphasia Superba is almost absent, while Euphasia Cristallorophias are present. The distribution of the filoplankton biomass is not uniform under the spacial distribution aspect, while the peaks of maximum density related to time may be uniform. As regards benthos, the survey showed abundant settlements both along the coast and offshore. Concerning zoobenthos the most important groups were: gasteropodes and echinoderms up to 25 m depth; molluscs and echinoderms up to 70 m; sponges, hydrozoans, bryozoans and echinoderms up to 400 m. It
COUNTRIES THAT SIGNED THE ANTARCTIC TREATY ~ (in chronological order of ratification)
UNITED KINGDOM SOUTH AFRICA BELGIUM JAPAN USA NORWAY FRANCE NEW ZEALAND USSR POLAND ARGENTINA AUSTRALIA CHILE CZECHOSLOVAKIA DENMARK THE NETHERLANDS RUMANIA DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF GERMANY BRAZIL BULGARIA FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY URUGUAY NEW GUINEA ITALY PERU SPAIN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA INDIA HUNGARY SWEDEN FINLAND CUBA SOUTH KOREA GREECE NORTH KOREA AUSTRIA ECUADOR
31 May 1960** 21 June 1960** 26 July 1960** 4 August 1960** 18 August 1960** 24 August 1960** 16 September 1960** 1 November 1960*'~ 2 November 1960** 8 June 1961* - {29 July 1977) 23 June 1961** 23 June 1961** 23 June 1961** 14 June 1962 20 May 1962 30 March 1967 15 September 1971 19 November 1974* - (5 October 1987) 16 May 1975* - (12 September 1983) 11 September 1978 5 February 1979* - (3 March 1981) 11 January 1980* - (7 October 1985) 16 March 1981 * 18 March 1981* - (5 October 1987) 10 April 1981 31 March 1982 8 June 1983* - (7 October 1985) 19 August 1983* - (12 September 1983) 27 January 1984 24 April 1984 15 May 1984 16 August 1984 28 November 1986 8 January 1987 21 January 1987 25 August 1987 15 September 1987
** Signatory Countries and Consultative Parties * Other Consultative Parties (starting date in brackets)
is important to stress the great abundance of the Adamassium Colbeckii mollusc, that between 25 and 70 m, often covers 100% of the bottom. As regards fittobenthos, there is uniformity of the vegetal associations with poor flora variety. Very often the algae covering of the rocky bottom is total. In the field of nekton and fishing resources the first results of the capture operations allowed to recognize 10 different kinds of bony fish and also many samples of benthic macro-
invertebrates, above all echinoderms and sponges, on a total of more than 1400 samples. As regards the field of chemical oceanography, the survey, aiming at the evaluation of chemical parameters, such as oxygen, nitrites, nitrates, am monia, dissolved phosphates and silicates, showed up to now only a certain homogeneity in their distribution, that will be better specified by the processing of the analytic data collected. Concerning the aspects of
geological oceanography, a research was started on morphology and sedimentology of some coast ponds, of the coast-littoral belt and of the continental shelf and slope; isotopic geochemistry of marine carbonates and their dissolution; paleomagnetism and magnetic susceptibility; aeolian transportation. Samples for national museums were also collected. Totally 200 sea samples and SO ground samples were collected and about 2400 km of light seismology were covered. From the biogenetic carbonate samples {calcareous benthos, offshore and near the coast) it will be possible to get geochemical information (oxygen and carbon stable isotopes); geochemical surveys will also be applied to the analysis of the sedimentation rate on core and sediment samples, as well as for the dating of the Holocene bank lines examined along the coast; the discovery of important phenomena of decalcification in the shells of some carbonatic organisms suggested the starting of tests to acquire semiquantitative information about the dissolution of CaC03 in the Antarctic waters. Surveys on paleomagnetism have been started correlated with those on land, and measurements of magnetic susceptibility carried out in order to establish the origin of sediments and define the correlation among rocks, morames and sediments. For an evaluation of the problem of aeolian transportation, considered very important for the sediment carried to the sea, because of the lack of a fluvial tansportation and for the presence of strong catabatic winds in large bare areas, many samplings, lasting 12 hours each, have been carried out. This research is also important to assess the possible contribution coming from incinerators.
BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE The biochemical research on the adaptation mechanism of fishes and birds is linked to the research carried out by the CNR researchers at Palmer Station before the start of 29
EXPEDITIONS TO ANTARCTICA the national programme. The research on the haemoglobin of bony fish allowed the refinement of five kinds of haemoglobine, later studied with diffractometric methods; also the amino-acid sequence of globin mixtures was tested
through HPLC. During the second expedition the researchers started the study of the oxygen transport system in the Emperor Penguin; tests showed some qualitative and quantitative differences in the haemoglobin of adult and young subjects. Samples of pure haemoglobin, of mixture of globin and of CNmetHb+ from Emperor Penguins, as well as samples of the tissue of many fish species were prepared for the following test in the Italian laboratories. In the third campaign an important result has been achieved in the field of haemoglobins, thanks to the finding, in non-endemic species, of components with functional characteristics very different from those, almost constant, noticed in endemic teleosts. Another result, concerning the enzymatic aspects of the adaptation, is the purification and the obtainment, in crystal form , of L-glutamatcdehydrogenase of a kind of blood having no haemoglobin. The other activities of the sector (study of fauna and flora, biology and evolutionistic genetics) were started only in the last campaign, during which it was possible to collect samples that will permit to carry out deep studies in the laboratory. The survey on the spot showed that fauna and flora are almost uniform. The zoological groups are very few; the finding of tur bellarians is very interesting, the communities seem to be very simple with many organisms of few species. The floristic-mycologic survey allowed to 30
FIRST EXPEDITION Participants: 26 people aboard the "Polar Queen" ship, plus helicopter pilots and crew for a total of 42. Departure from Genoa on October 27th, 1985. Return to Christchurch on February 26th, 1986. Purposes of the expedition: • technical survey of the area in order to choose the place suitable to the installation of the permanent base; ·• execution of research in the fields: earth science, atmospheric physics and climatology, oceanography, biology, also in order to acquire information useful to the planning of future activities. Final budget: 7 billion Lire.
SECOND EXPEDITION Participants: 70 elements ( 31 researchers - 23 logistics operators and 16 base builders) plus helicopter pilots from New Zealand and ship crew, aboard the "Finnpolaris" ship. Departure from Genoa on October 22nd, 1986. Return to Christchurch on February 26th, 1987. Purposes of the expedition: • construction of the permanent base, fit for habitation during the Antarctic summer, and of the meteorologic infrastructure; • execution of a research programme in many disciplines of the sectors: cosmology, atmospheric physics and climatology, earth science, oceanography, biology, environmental impact, technology. Final balance: 20.5 billion Lire.
isolate about a hundred stocks, a high number of which were already identified in the base's laboratories.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT A programme about the monitoring of the impact on the environment of a humane settlement was started in the 1986-87 campaign, together with the creation of the permanent base, and it is supposed to continue during the whole national programme. Purpose of the first campaign was to determine the level of natural bottom in a virtually undisturbed environment (zero curtain). The group taking care of chemical methology made measurements on
water samples, collected along prearranged courses at increasing distances from the base up to a range of 50 km, after filtering, using an analytic technique known as Anodic Stripping Voltammetry (ASV). The accurate analysis of the samples brought to Italy will allow the necessary controls about the reproducibility of the datum relative to each parameter and about the datum variability depending on the collecting stations. The first data coming from the analysis through neutron activation of the atmospheric particles collected with filtrating systems, already supply a valid support for the definition
THIRD EXPEDITION Participants: 140 eeople, 95 aboard the "Finnpolaris" ship, 31 on the "Polar Queen" and, 14 on the "Explora". • "Finnpolaris and Polar Queen" Departure from Genoa on October 26th (FP) - November 4th, 1987 (PQ). Return to Lyttelton on February 29th, 1988. • "Explora" Leaving from Ushuaia (ARG) on January 26th, 1988 Return to Wellington (NZ) on March 8th, 1988 Purposes of the expedition: • execution of a large programme of scientific research in the following fields: biology and medicine, oceanography and sea floors, cosmogeophysics, atmospheric physics, environmental impact, earth science, technology; • completion of the permanent base. Final budget: 51 billion Lire (expedition, preparatory activity and sample analysis and data processing in Italy).
FOURTH EXPEDITION Participants: 150 people among whom 75 researchers, 2 doctors, 2 male nurses aboard the Dutch/Swedish "Barken" cargo sailing from Genoa, and aboard the "Ogs explora", an Italian ship for geophysical research, sailing from Trieste. Departure from Genoa on October 16th, 1988. Purposes of the expedition: • top priority: study of the ozone belt that is dangerously growing thinner and thinner; • further development of the LIDAR radars for the annual ozone control; • start the study of the lacustrine fauna; • instruments and techniques for the millimetric measurement of the annual shift of continents. Estimate: 50 billion Lire.
of a circulation model. As regards the measurements at sea, carried out in an area of about 10 miles around the base, they are: the sampling of bioaccumulators to be analyzed in order to establish the level of polluters and contaminators, such as heavy metals or hydrocarbons; the collection, with submerged ~anels, of the biological encrustmg material, which is an index of the stability level of the manne ecosystem.
TECHNOLOGY In the plurannual programme, appr?ved by the lnterministerial Committee for the Economic Planning, some sectors have been established
where subjects of technological research can be inserted: science of materials, structuristics, ro botics, te~eco_mmunicat\ons, systematics and se1sm1c processmg. In the first three expeditions the technological developments played a less important role as a consequence of the priority given to the aspects that would permit the recognition of the status of Consultative Party to the Antarctic Treaty (permanent base and important scientific programme). Moreover the construction of the base and the performance of scientific activities caused the need to examine different approaches to technological research, because of the particular environmental situation in which the work takes place.
For example, this is the case of carbon fiber optics and of the longautonomy 0,3°K cryogenic system for the OASI project, or of the automatic seismic data processing. Other technological activities are: • planning, development and use of servoassisted and robot instrumentation destined to a non-stop work and to be used in remote conditions; • planning, develo pment and operation of a system for data
telecasting via satellite from autonomous monitoring units and in remote conditions; • studies and tests aiming at the creation of a base habitab le throughout the year; • building, in Italy, of an ice mechanics laboratory. As regards the permanent base, the necessity to guarantee its total efficiency after an almost ninemonth absence of the staff, under very harsh climatic conditions (wind speed of more than 200 km/h, temperature lower than -50°C), the reliability of the systems and the stock organization under conditions of impossible exteral intervention, caused the need to solve technological problems concerning: • energy supply, and above all storage at very low temperature; • water supply; • waste disposal; • telecommunications; • radionavigation; • transportations, including diagnostic methods to test the resistance of the ice.
31
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ARMY UNITS ENGAGED IN THE MISSION Aosta Brunico Padua Rome Belluno Turin Livorno
Alpine Military School "Tridentina" Alpine Brigade Command of the North-East Military Region Military Hospital "Cadore" Alpine Brigade "Taurinense" Alpine Brigade "Col Moschin" Paratroopers
ARMY PERSONNEL
The pictures contained in the article are from "Progetto Antartide", 1987/88 campaign.
32
FIRST EXPEDITION
SECOND EXPEDITION
Col. Ezio Sterpone Lieut. Col. Mauro Spreafico W.O. Lorenzo Boi Cap. Enzo Giacomin
Lieut. Col. Mauro Spreafico Lieut. Col. Italo Bonvicini Maj Simone Baschiera W.0. Pietro Amadio W.O. Lorenzo Boi
THIRD EXPEDITION
FOURTH EXPEDITION
Lieut. Col. Mauro Spreafico Cap. Paolo Serra Cap. Fabio Catalano C.W.0. Pietro Amadio W.0. Edoardo Loiacono Sgt. Maj: Luigi Pedrolini Sgt. Maj. Ugo Yori
Maj. Enzo Giacomin Dr. Maj. Roberto Razza (MC) Dr. Capt. Roberto Bramati (MC) Cap. Sandro Caneppelc C.W.O. Pietro Amadio W.O. Giacomino Sola W.O. Edoardo Loiacono S.F.C. Ugo Yori
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ¡ STUDIES IN THE ITALIAN ARMY
The Army Foreign Language School was founded in 1963 to teach the English Language to the personnel of the Army. The growth of the requirements of an international nature has led to the study and assessment of an ever-increasing number of foreign languages (currently twenty-three). The School's teaching staff consists of professionally highly qualified native-speakers. Their efforts combined with those of the Schoofs permanent staff of Officers and NCOs enable the School to carry out its tasks despite a certain, rather noticeable lack of infrastructures and military personnel. The new system of assessment - adapted to NATO standard parametres - will shortly be introduced following the decision made by the Joint Committee of the General Staff Chiefs. This system involves the adoption of a new test which has already been proposed and will be more suited to the linguistic assessment of military personnel. A new organisation of language training has also been proposed which will better correspond to the requirements of language learning. Lastly, language teaching is becoming ever more related to the employment requirements of military personnel of all ranks in an international context. 33
THE ITALIAN ARMY FOREIGN LANGUAGE SCHOOL It would seem that one of the difficulties of finding the correct approach to the study of foreign languages in the Army is that it is a field which has belonged exclusively to the civilian sphere for many years. Language teachers within military organisations are civilians; experts who write books on linguistics are civilians; and the 2nd language itself is the verbal expression of a culture which is predominantly civilian. This fact may create problems of a psychological and organisational nature both for the military personnel who have to organise language courses and for those who have to attend them. The former cannot reasonably be ¡ expected to be linguistic experts even if they may possess a reasonable knowledge of a second language and the latter cannot expect to face a language course as they would face any other course on military subjects. Last but not least, the civilian language teacher within a military organisation has to feel his way carefully amongst rank, regulations, programs and a military mentality which, on the one hand, can give him a refreshing sense of discipline and order, rarely found elsewhere, but, on the other hand, hinders his task due to an insensitivity to the problems of the exchange of mentalities and cultures involved in language teaching. The English language will be the one mainly dealt with in this article because the demand for this language is such that it constitutes the main, but certainly not the only, teaching activity of the Italian Army Foreign Language School. However, some of the problems which will be discussed are not limited solely to the teaching of English. THE GOALS T o state that the course objectives
34
of teaching English for the Army are to enable Italian officers and other ranks to work efficiently in an international or national context where the knowledge of that language constitutes a vital vehicle of communication would seem to be too obvious to be worth mentioning. However, sometimes it is easier to define objectives than it is to find ways of overcoming some of the problems involved in the attainment of them i.e. systems of assessment of linguistic knowledge, methodologies, materials available on the market, military terminology, motivation, timetabling, the intensive nature of the courses and learning effectiveness.
THE SYSTEM OF ASSESSMENT The system of assessment of linguistic knowledge, known as the Unified Test for the Armed Forces, has some obvious advantages and a few disadvantages. Being in the form of a quiz, it is easy to administer to the hundreds of candidates who constantly apply for assessment or re-assessment of their linguistic knowledge. This test is designed in such a way that one of three levels or degrees of linguistic capacity is attributed to the candidate, according to his final score (50-64 1st
level; 65-85 2nd level; 86-100 3rd level). An officer who desires an appointment abroad or in an international context within the nation must possess the 3rd level. Other ranks are required to obtain a second level. However, over the years, this test has become progressively more difficult and the overriding importance of work-relatedness, which is the primary objective of English for the Army, has been lost. Presumably, the reason for the ever-increasing difficulty of the test is to ensure that the personnel, who are destined to work in International and NATO contexts, are really capable of performing well. Unfortunately, the difficulty factor now embodied in this test is not related to the objective because in order to obtain the 3rd degree, an officer is required to demonstrate linguistic knowledge of great refinement and possibly of little use in a working situation. This imbalance has been partially corrected by the introduction of an oral test for those who reach 80/100 on the Unified T est but even so an individual must have knowledge of extremely complicated literary structures which native-speakers rarely use for communication in a working environment. The punitive nature of the test could be corrected by changing some of the exercises and lowering the 80/100 barrier for admission to the oral exam. After all, questions on tests with multiple choice answers do not effectively test all the knowledge individuals possess but are simply "tasks set for them by the school system - tasks for which there are single, predetermined and 'right' answersÂť ('f). Before leaving the subject of assessment, one further point arises. The very broad range of linguistic knowledge that the 2nd degree covers should be subdivided. It is clear that a candidate who just succeeds in obtaining a low second degree will have a considerably more limited working knowledge that one who barely misses the 3rd degree. Lastly, a great deal of the distress and embarrassment experienced by Army personnel who
to assume that a civilian language teacher within a military language institute would be incapable of coping with a military work-related methodology. But it would necessitate a great deal of time and good will on the part of the teacher to become familiar with the concepts and doctrine behind the tactical, strategical, technical and political terminology that he is required to teach without the support of adequate military lingui~-cic material.
find themselves abroad for the first time could be avoided if the system of assessment, (The Unified Test for the Armed Forces) -vr;hich is one of the necessary qualification.,s for their appointment, were more related to the practical use of the language which they will need on the job and less academic in its requirement. Naturally enough, language teaching methodologies used in Military Schools should also be adapted to this aim.
METHODOLOGIES Teaching methodologies and materials are clearly inter-related and since the English language has become a big business concern, any course programmer is faced with a bewildering choice of materials. Publishing houses compete with each other to produce ever more books and engage experts in linguistics to produce new methodologies in order to sell them. Very often they are the same old methodologies with slight changes to make them appear new. However, the market is singularly lacking in course-books designed for fullimmersion courses of 36 hours per week for courses which have from 3 to 5 moths' duration, as is the case with the Italian Army Foreign Language School. Therefore, the course programmers have to fall back on the American Language Course, produced by the Defence Language Institute-English Language Branch at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas in 1966 and despite some revisions, has the defect of being rather mechanical, repetitive and, above all, uninteresting. It is also surprising to find that quite a large amount of the material on the open market is also uninteresting but as T.A. Raznik says in his essay on Psychometric Measurement of Creativity "Creative learning requires creative teaching" and linguistic experts, who may have admirably scientific minds, may not necessarily be creative people who are capable of producing creatively stimulating material. Since military personnel require a
MILITARY TERMINOLOGY
knowledge of a second language for a very specific military, technical and/ or political context, it would be desirable for experts in the various military schools to create course material which would adequately fulfil the aim of work-relatedness and thereby provide additional stimulus to the learning process. As Prof. Renzo Titone of Rome University pointed out in his very interesting lecture on Psycholinguistics at the BILC Conference, held in Florence in 1985, "The context of learning is also an important factor. If, as behaviourists claim, the environment is a contributing factor tO the learning process, then the teacher should always be sure to provide a stimulating learning environment". He also said in the same lecture that "Since learning must always be meaningful the teacher should make use of situational exercises which relate t0 the students' everyday life. In this way, the communicative experiences can be more easily stored for future retrieval". It can be deduced, therefore, that if language learning for a specifica1y military context is to be stimulating, meaningful, situational and related to the students' everyday life, some effort to produce work-related material should be made and financed. It would be false
Military terminology is one of the most insistent directives of the Italian Army Foreign Language School. When civilian teachers are told to teach military terminology, the question becomes problematic because the directive has not specified which type of terminology should be taught. The choice is bewildering. Should the students be taught technical military termin'?logy for sig~als, _artillery, informatics, motonzat1on, or terminologies for tactics, NA TO, General Staff and so on? Each field has such a vast specific terminology that it would clearly be unreasonable to expect a student on a three or five month intensive course to face such a task when it is all he can do to master complex grammatical rules and structures and absorb an adequate vocabulary for communication. A certain very basic terminology could be taught but inevitably an officer or N.C.0. employed abroad will have to resign himself to a period of adjustment which can last from 3 to 6 months
where he will be learning his new job and therefore the terminology involved with it. To overcome this problem it would be necessary to run specialized advanced courses of English, for the various branches and military attaches but, at present, this doesn't seem to be a feasible solution due to the present situation of the School's infrastructures, personnel and equipment. It is necessary to point out that the 35
Italian Army Foreign Language School Studies Office has recently compiled a dictionary of military terminology drawn from glossaries from various military institutions. Also an experiment to enliven and render the teaching of tactical terminology more meaningful has successfully been conducted. A commercial, tactical computer war-game was adapted to a classroom situation so that the students of an advanced level of English were required to discuss the evolving situation using English tactical terminology until they arrived at a decision. They then gave their orders to the computer and were able to discuss the new situation which resulted from their orders. Other experiments of this nature are being planned: the simulation of a situation in a bunker, such as UN observers might have to face, or NATO telephone calls. In the absence of adequate material and infrastructures these efforts are naturally limited, however, they will certainly contribute to the students' motivation and learning ef36
fectiveness.
THE LANGUAGE COURSE The vast majority of students who attend courses at the Italian Army Language School are very highly motivated. If the opportunity to improve their personal culture were not enough to ensure their diligence, then the possibility of improving their professional efficiency and of opening new cultural horizons by employment abroad would surely constitute an undeniable safeguard against their wasting their time and the tax-payer's money. Therefore, motivation being no obstacle to learning effectiveness, it is necessary to examine other factors which may impede or enhance their productivity. It has long been recognized by linguistics experts that the factor of "intensiveness" in the language teaching/learning experience is of fundamental importance for learning effectiveness and, in this respect, the Italian Army Foreign Language
School is fully in line with this criterion as most of the courses it programs are of a highly-intensive or moderately intensive nature. The period of time which is generally regarded as being optimal by experts is 6 or 9 months but the organizational requisites of the Italian Army can only concede a shorter period: 3 or 5 months. In this shorter period the objectives are: • a second degree of the Unified Test of the Armed Forces for those who attend the intensive phase of the correspondence course; • a high second or third degree for those who attend the Advanced Course. Clearly, a student who attends these highly-intensive courses of rather limited duration is under quite a lot of external and selfimposed pressure to conform to these course objectives. A language course is quite different from any other course an individual may attend in the course of his military career. It not only involves understanding and memorization, which are common to all courses, but, as Professor Renzo Titone puts it, it "is a process of assimilation which tends to incorporate a language behavioural system into the learner's personality". Needless to say, the more flexible and communicative the personality structure of the learner is, the more effective the learning process becomes. However, since language aptitude testing is not one of the conditions of admittance to the language courses, it is necessary to study the case of the less linguistically-gifted individuals who require the knowledge of a 2nd language for their work. The process of assimilation into a learner's personality of what may often seem a throughly alien form of expression, due to differences of culture and mentality, requires time and in these very intensive courses, a course-programmer should take into account the most efficient way of establishing the daily time-table. In courses of such limited duration, it would be desirable for the lesson hours to be concentrated into six
periods per morning, thus leaving the student free, in the afternoon, to review and assimilate all the new structures and vocabulary taught during the morning lesson-hours. Furthermore, it is necessary to consider climatic factors which may influence an individual's learning effectiveness. In the summer heat of July afternoons an individual cannot be expected to attain his full potential with the temperature around 35° centigrade at the end of a year's work. Office hours may be suitable for work of a different nature where there is a variety of activities but a School with such particular and specific characteristics should be free to establish a time-table which will be most likely to lead to the attainment of its goals.
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS In conclusion, it can be said that amongst the many problems which the permanent staff, teachers and students have to face, at the Italian Army Foreign Language School, only a few of the most urgent ones have been dealt with in this article: the system of language assessment, methodologies and materials available on the market, military terminology, student motivation, the intensive nature of language courses, appropriate time table of daily activity and learning effectiveness. However, it is opportune to emphasize that in the world of today, in which no nation can afford to remain isolated because its social, ecnomic, industrial and political sur-
vival depends on co-operation, language teaching and learning must necessarily be seen as a vital means towards communication in an increasingly international interdependence. This could not be more true for a modern Army.
Susan Murphy NOTE (*) T.A. Raznik, Psychometric Measurement of Creativity. P.E. Vernon Penguin, Modern Psychology.
Susan Murphy received her diplomas from the Cambridge Institute of Education and from the Rome Academy of Fine Arts, Sculpture Course (the sculptures and paintings reproduced in this article are hers). She taught at numerous schools in England and after her arrival in Italy, she has taught at Rome University "La Sapienza" as assistant and also at the Rome Association of Architects. She has also taught at the Army General Staff College and at the Carabinieri Officers' Training School. She is Deputy-Dean of the Army Foreign Language School where she has taught for seventeen years.
'FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDIES IN THE ITALIAN ARMY 1,
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THETRAJAN COLUMN l
l HISTORICAL-MILITARY ASPECTS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT THE END OF THE I CENTURY A.D. The Trajan Column rises in the omonimous Forum which Trajan had built between 107 and 113 A.D. Built to celebrate the two campaigns which the Emperor led against the Dacians (101-102 and 105-106), it presents itself as a very long roll (volumen) (1) along which the war against the Dacians unfolds itself, for a total length of 200 metres and with more than 2,500 pictures in a continuous relief. The account of the events avails itself of the schemes which were usually used for the pantings shown in the parades during the triumphal display (construction of works of engineering, speeches to the troops, battles, religious ceremonies...) though enriched by a whole series of episodes, especially relevant to the Dacian war, without repetitions or decline in tone, even in the crowded collection of facts and characters. The Column is 100 Roman feet high, equal to 29.78 m. (2) and is formed by 17 huge drums of precious Luna marble, inside which a comfortable winding staircase has been created (3). As is said in the memorial epigraph situated at the base, the size of the Column corresponds to the height of the cut made to pull down the saddle which in the old days connected the Quirinal hill to the Capitol and thus allowing the monument's construction. We also know that the golden urn containing Trajan's ashes was layed down in a cell inside the base, an event to be considered exceptional since it took place inside the pomoerium (4) and it was
made possible by the fact that the Emperor had celebrated the triumph inside the walls. From an artistic point of view, the Column can be considered one of the masterpieces of ancient art, so much so that it constitutes also a source of inspiration for many Renaissance artists. In fact, we find ourselves faced with a work of great personality, of which, among other things, we know nothing - Roman art was in fact State art - identified by many with Apollodoro from Damascus. At the beginning, at the top of the Column there was Trajan's statue which was lost during the Middle Ages and was substituted by will of Sixtus V in 1587, with that of S. Peter, made by Giacomo della Porta. From a thematic point of view, this monument is a never-ending source of information on the most diversified topics. Since it relates war events, it is however clear that the military aspect is prevailing and very interesting under a historical and documentary profile. In this article we have wanted to underline certain particular scenes of the Column which more than others help to understand the military organization in Rome at the time of its maximum expansionism. In the presentation we have used the plates found in t~c work by E. Pistolesi, dated 1846, since, thanks to the excellence of the engravings, it is one of the most beautiful graphic restorations of the reliefs.
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Relief with eagle. Originally in the Trajan Forum, it was placed, in the Middle Ages, in the church of the SS Apostol/. The eagle, symbol of the Roman power, Is flying, . wings spread out, and clutches a cro wn in its talons. Trajan age. Right
The Trajan forum and column in their original setting. Particular of the relief map representing Rome in the age of Constantine. (Rome, Museo de/la Clvilta Romana)
PLATE I BOUNDARY SYSTEM In this plate there is an illustration of the Roman defensive system along the Dan ube. The river in fact represented the natu ral boundary which divided the sphe res of influence between the Dacian and the Roman powers. The right bank had been long since fortified and represented a part of the more complex boundary system, identified as the Danu bian limes. Generally speaking, the limes muse be interpreted as a complex road system rather than as a real static barrage. It was in fact a net of terrestrial or ri ver co mmunication routes, at the border or beyond, logically supervised and defended by a whole series of fortified works. The above mentioned concept of limes is also close to che Trajan era, since up to that time the Roman forces had always shown the tendency to solve wars with open-field battles, i.e. going rowards the enemy, rat her than taking on a defensive attitude, taking refuge within the walls of the great cities or taking cover in the boundary defensive structures. Later on t he limes became, on the contrary, an ever more ~,atic defence system against the barbar ians pressing at the borders. Moreover, the importance of this concept has been handed down to us by che Theodosian Code (5) where we find a measure taken by Constan tine, dated 323, according to whi ch the soldier who abandoned his place in the limes was sent to the stake. The fortificatio ns whic h ar c he re represented were certainly not continuous or connected to each other if not by some military roads, and chey had the role of
sighting and communicating any movement beyond t he boundary, as is effectively expressed by the representation of the torches placed on each turret. T he final action against probable invade rs was delegated to the large legionar y units positioned in the casrra well within friendly territory: thus, the infantrymen here represented belong to the auxiliary un its. T he Danubian limes was also strengthened by a river fleet (classic moesica) which had its own series of signa1ling and warning towers.
PLATE VII SETTING UP AN ENCAMPMENT Jn it we find the various stages of the set-
ting up of a stable encampment (castrum stativum). T he construction of an encampment represented a very im portant part in Roman military engineering. Infact, an army moving on hostile territory, built an encampment at the end of each day's march, an d its typology varied above all according to the duration of the settlement. T he first and essential thing co be done, was of course spotting the right place in which to settle. T his task was carried out by specialized staff, land-surveyors and men¡ sores, something like today's non commissioned officers, who also marked out the lines on which the cam p was supposed co nse. Even if often in a co nflicting way, the sources (6) have handed down to us a whole series of very precise rules wh ich were to
be followed. The camp had to be limited by a soil relief (agger) behind which the soldiers could keep watch and fight. In the plate we arc examining, the agger made of soil is substituted by a masonry structure: it is the clear demontration of an encampment destined to be occupied for a long period of time. The defensive of the agger, completed by one or more ditches, is here represented by a watercourse, underlined by the presence of two railings of a bridge. The construction of the encampment was assigned to the legionaries themselves, supervised in their work by the centurions (7), while the cavalry units and the immunes remained co keep watch in arms. The latter, represented in the plate by the three legionaries in arms in front of the castrum, were soldiers exempted from the ordinary service to carry out special and particular tasks. The importance taken on by the encampments in the Roman military organization is underlined by the fact that, even after long sieges, the enemies very rarely managed to conquer the castra legionaria. The few exceptions arc regularly related by the historical sources, precisely for their extraordinariness. The Legion that lost the castrum risked to be even broken up. It is known how, during the period of anarchy after Nero's death, up to four encampments of the Rhine army fell into the hands of the Civil GallicGerman rebels: Novaesium (Neuss), Castra Vetera (Xanten), Mogontiacum (Mainz) and Colonia Agrippina (Cologne). The event
40
was considered so serious that, when reorganizi ng the army, Vespasian did not set up again the units whose camps had fallen.
PLATE XI ARMAMENT AND LEGIONARY BANNERS This picture has been chosen since 1t 1s a sound representation of a unit of perfectly equipped legionaries and some banner earners. The legionary of the Trajan era wore a kneelong cloth-tunic and on top a shore leather jacket which protected him up to the arm. The actual armour was formed by metal pieces, joined cogether by scuds and clasps, shielding chest and shoulders. The stomach instead was protected by a series of leather strips, decorated at the ends with bronze pieces. The helmet was in metal, without a crest, with a vertical neck-guard and a mobile cheek-protector, while the semicylindrical, wooden shield had a central boss and metal decorations. The rest of the armament, which is not represented here, was formed by a shore sword slung over one shoulder, attached to the baldric on the right, and by a javelin. The banner carrier wore a wolf's hide as emblem of his duty. The plate represents three standard-bearers, whose task was that of guarding the legionary eagle, i.e. the Legion's most important emblem and two signifers who instead had the task of protecting the maniple's banner. On the ban-
ner's pole, as one can see, apart from the eagle and the open hand, symbol of the maniple, there are also the decorations which the unit confered upon itself. For the maniples there are above all phalerae (medallions), while for the legionary banners there are coronae murales, vallares (8) and other phalerae with the effigy of emperors or patron deities. The banners (signa), inside the encampment, were kept in a sacrarium, indicating the nearly religious relationship which the legionary had with them. The loss of the banners in war, especially of the legionary eagle (numen legionis) was considered particularly defamatory.
PLATE XVI WAR INSTRUMENTS: BATTERING-RAMS In the plate one can see the use of a war instrument which has always been used by the ancient armies, i.e. the battering-ram. In this case it is handled by a group of Dacians attacking a Roman encampment. The model here shown is the most primitive example of aries i.e. formed of a simple but strong battering-ram held by some gunners, with which one tried to pull down the enemy fortified works, with the repeated and violent action of the weapon's impact. The Roman armies' siege parks were of course equipped with technically more
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sophisticated battering-rams such a.~ the aries pensilis which h ung from a wooden scaffolding; the aries s ubrolatus, si m ilar to the previous one but mounted on wh eels, and the testudo arie tata in which the gun ners were protected by a mobile canopy covered with fireproof m aterial. These devices could also be placed in the turres a mbulato riae or mobile towers, i.e. the war machines destined to approach and attack the enemy fortificatio ns. The instru ment which could be used to fight the action of the battering-rams, was the lupus, a kind of big metal grapnel used to lih the beating part of the battering-ra m so as to block its action.
PLATE XIX THE EMPLOYMENT OF SPECIAL CAVALRY UNITS T he central part of this drawing is characterized by the representation of a heavy cavalry unit. N o doubt they arc Roxolan Sarmacians, allies of the D acians, wellknown for their capacity to for m a kind of arm y o n horse back precisely because they were highly protected. The employ ment of the fully-arm o ured cava.lry is not Eu ropean but Iran ian, and historical data cells us that the Parthians were the o nes wh o greatly e mplo yed this particular type of unit, arm ed w ith bo w and lance.
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M ost probably the mounted sold iers here represented arc not runn ing away, bu t are fighting using a tech nique w hich is also typically Eastern: gallopping the ho rse, the w a rrior k noo ks and s ho ots the a rrow back wards against the chaser. P recisely because it had to s ubmit to this technique, in 53 B.C . in Mesopotamia, Ro me suffered o ne of the most disastro us setbacks of its Republican life. In fact , on that occasion, C rassus' army was practically destroyed by the Parthian army which fought in the above mentioned way. T he Ro mans for m ed very few full yarmoured auxiliary cavalry units. \Y/c know that in 159 A.D. in D acia, there was the Ala I Gallon1m et Panno niurum cataphractaria, a unit wh ich was probably bro ken up after a short time.
PLATE XXXIII WAR INSTRUMENTS: BALLISTA This relief is characterized by the representatio n of some war machines apt for bullet launching. T he Roman arm y always knew how to use best war instruments capable of hitti ng the ene my with more strength a nd at a d istance greater than what the soldier could do just with his physical strength. T he m achinery used was not created by the Ro mans, but mainly taken from the G reeks. The sources w hich tal k to us about it (9), have identified it w ith different, often con-
trasting terms, also according co the hi~1:orical period which is examined. In any case, sco rpiones, cat apultae and ballistac, employed the same propulsive system, i.e. the twisting fo rce of two hanks of ela.~tic but at the same time resistant material (ani mal nerves, t.e ndons and horsehair). T hey practically acted as great bows in which the propulsive force was substituted by the twisting force instead of being given the elasticity of the bow itself. It is clear that such instruments have evolved in t ime. T he bull ets which they could shoot were formed by dares or by actual javelins which were up to m 1.70 lo ng, and by sco nes, of various weights, from the smallest of little mo re than 500 grams to huge o nes of 50 and 75 Kg. AJong short a nd med iu m dis tances, t he bulle t had t o neut ralize the enemy even if its maximum range was of course much longer. T he examples here shown (botto m right inside a fortified weapon-pit, centre top o n the walls of an encampment and finally centre bottom on a chariot) are no do ubt ballistae, but of a rat her particular kind. It is believed that the progress in technical know-how allowed the Romans in t he Trajan period to use a special kind of ballisca, identified w ith the name of crossbow. It practically integrated or substituted the twisting force of the hanks w ith the elasticity of an iron bow, schematically represented by the bow which is visible in t he top part of the weapon's frame. Another extre mely interesting detail, despi te the limits imposed by the relief's conventional representation,
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is the portrayal of the steps which held the propulsion trolley in the centre of che machines' frame. In the two top models, it presents itself at ics highest elevation, while in the one bottom right it is ready for lowangle fire and thanks to an overturned perspective view, one can sec the groove with in which the bullet passed. Instead the model mounted on a chariot pulled by a pair of mules was known as ballisra chariot.
vex.ilium, provoked the spreading of hissing, sharp sounds thus frightening the enemy. Centre-top, one can observe a position ballista handled by cwo Dacians. It is possible to consider it as spoils of war or as a Dacian creation. To support the latter possibility, one should be reminded thac, according co the clauses of the peace treaty signed by Domitian, specialized expert personnel, such as engineers, carpenters and mi litary instructors, had been sent to the court of king Decebalus, and from it the Dacians could have learned the technical notions to build the weapon.
PLATE XXXIV WEAPONS AND DACIAN EQUIPMENT Various interesting news can be obtained by observi ng this drawing. First of all one can notice chat the Dacians had no passive protection except an oval shield. They did not even have a helmet, but they wore the national headgear called pileus, which differemiated the members of an aristocratic class from the rest of the population (comati). The national weapon was che deadly falx, a kind of curved sabre, the model and use of which disappeared with the progressive Romanizacion of Dacia. Centre top one can see a draco, the typical banner of che Dacian soldiers. It was formed by an elongated, serpentiform envelope made of hides, held by a long pole. Its structure allowed the passage of air so chat when the army attacked che w ind, by blowing up the
PLATE XXXVI ROMAN AUXILIARY TROOPS Talking of the Roman army one usually refers to the Legions. One must remember though, that there were many auxiliary corps serving the Roman banners, so much so that their effects turned out tO be numerically equal to the legionary ones. These soldiers were recruited among the inhabitants of the provinces: Roman citizens were only officers (10). They served in cavalry and infantry formations, alae and cohortes, that could incl ude SOO and 1000 units {quingenariae or miliaruie). T he latter could also be supported by a cavalry contingent (equitatae). Usually the auxiliaries received the Roman citizenship when they were discharged, i.e.
after 25 years of service. T hey were divided under various names according to the region of origin (cohors Ill batavorum miliaria equitata, Rhaetia 107 A.D.), or the emperor under w hom they had been formed (cohors I Ner-viorum, Britannia 105 A.D.), or moreover according to a particular armament (a/a Ill augusta Thracum sagi.ttariorum) Northern Pannonia 133-268 A.D. T his plate shows a group of auxiliaries in formation for attack. At the top one can see a group of archers who, because of the bow and helmet's shape, arc certainly from the East. Practically outside the formation t here are two soldiers with uncommon arms: one, who seems of the Germanic kind is practically naked and fights with a bludgeon and a shield; the other is simply armed with large stones which he keeps in the sagum.
PLATE XXXVII WAR INSTRUMENTS: TESTUDO The scene, which is dom inated by the figure of the Emperor helped by some members of his General Scaff (consilium), is particularly interesting since on the left there is the portrayal of a testudo. It was a formation to attack a fortified work and it was a representation of the instinctive movement made by the soldier co protect himself from the blunt instruments thrown from above. The cestudo here represented is formed by
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XXXIV
a group of soldiers set out in various Ji nes. The unit approaches t he enemy protecting the top part of the formation with most of the shields while the rest are used to protect the sides. It is clear how the above mentioned method of actack could be of use only if employed against partly fortified cargets and its actio n had to be backed up by the use of launchi ng war machines and integrated by chose which help the approach and attack. O f t he latter, it is worth mentioning the vinea, a fixed wooden shelter for about 20 men; the porticus, with the same structure, but mobile and formed by more vineae together; the musculus, used by the pioneer units to fill wich fasc ines an<l stones the moats in front of walls and aggers; and finally the pluteus, a small protection for a few soldiers with the tas k of observing and disturbing t he enemy with some bullet launching. T hey were all covered with fireproof material capable of abso rbing shoc ks.
PLATE LXXIII THE SUICIDE OF DECEBALUS, KING OF THE DACIANS th ey would have cenainly gained greater rewards by capturing the king rather than by having him dead. In face, Decebalus would have been the most longed-for prey to exhibit in chains. in Rome durin g the triumphal procession. No doubt his end
Ballista with man
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TAv. LXXIII
DESCRIPTION OF SOME GREAT LEGIONARY UNITS WHICH TOOK PART IN TRAJAN'S DACIAN WARS Trajan's Dacian Wars were military operations carried out with a relevant deployment
of armed men. All together the Legions (11} which took part in the two campaigns, or at least in pare of the operations, were probably 10-11, ro which one must add a strong presence of auxilia units: so about one third of the legionary effectives of the whole army took part in che conflict. The analysis of the literary and epigraphic sources, of historical rcliefs and of che monuments shattered in the Empire's ancient
provinces, have allowed us to put together a large amount of data useful for the practical! y certain identification of the great legionary unitS which t0ok part in the Dacian wars. We have here recomtructed the hiscory of some of them, extended beyond Trajan's period. The choice was not dictated by a particular aim if not that of presenting some of the Legions which "made" history two thousand years ago.
AN OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY cians: this is confirmed both by Suetonius and Plutarch. Before engaging in the fight, however, Caesar and Burebist, more or OF THE PEOPLE OF DACIA AND THEIR the same time, fell victims to an attack. RELATIONSHIPS WITH THE ROMAN POWER lessIt at must be mentioned, however, that the actual conquest of The political and economic development of a strong DacianGetic state, whose nucleus was situated in the Carpathians of the south, began in the second half of the II century A.D. The material and commercial base of the phenomenon was to be found in the development of activities connected with the mining and processing of iron. These activities greatly developed (through the use of new, easier to use and cheaper tools) building and agricultural activities which resulted in an increase of the population. The people of this political entity, of Thracian origin, who had already settled in the region in the VI-IV century B.C., had given themselves a political organization which, though still of a tribal kind, was essentially monarchic. The importance of the king changed according to the characteristics and the strength of his personality: the high priest, who sometimes balanced and integrated the power of the king, and the tribal aristocracy (Tarabostes and Pileates) were also very important. The establishment of a strong Dacian state, however, was greatly encouraged by the threat represented by the neighbouring people, the Cclts and the Roman influence. Literature and archeological findings allow us to consider Burebist, king from 82 to about 44, the first great Dacian king. Besides putting together and strengthening the state from within, he carried out a dynamic and expansionist foreign policy. Around the year '60, Burebist began operations against the Scorrliscs and the Bastarns (of Germanic origin) and conquered the Celt populations of the Boi and the Taurisc, thus incorporating these territories in the Dacian state and moving the new boundaries on the Danube and the Moravia. His power spread to the Pontus where he attacked and occupied several cities of Greek origin, reaching the foot of the Balkans with his army. Rome had obviously already been in contact with Dacian expansionism: when Burebist, for example, conquered the Scordiscs, he reached the provinces of Macedonia and Illyria. Caesar, who at the time (second half of the I century B.C.) represented the power of Rome, had to think of operations against the Da-
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the regions inhabited by Dacian populations was not part of the political programmes of the last republic nor of the principality: the engagement between the two cultures was limited to Dacian raids and partial operations by the Romans which cannot be considered true and proper military campaigns. The years 85-86 A.D. saw the beginning of a raid deterioration of the relations between the two powers. The Dacians entered the province of Moesia and repeatedly defeated the Roman forces and the Roman governor of the Appian Sabine province was killed in action. Their actions were restrained only by some units located in the legionary "castra" of Novae, the Bulgarian Svistov, Oescus and Viminacium, in the neighbourhood of Belgrade. The Legions involved in these operations were the I Italic, the V Macedonian, the VII Claudia and the V Alaudae. Emperor Domitian and his army managed to drive back the invaders. In the year 86 or 87, a strong Roman contingent, under Cornelius Fuscus, prefect of the praetorium, made war on the enemy territory. In Dacia, the power was then taken up by a king who succeeded in "being" history, not only for his people, but for the whole region, for over thirty years: Decebalus. Fuscus made the mistake of penetrating in the Transylvania mountain chain whe.re he was attacked and his army
destroyed in ¡a series of battles. The V Alaudae legion was decimated and probably lost the eagle. This was considered such a serious matter that according to the custom of the Roman army, the unit would not be re-established at the end of the conflict. The following year, however, somewhere between Transylvania and Banate, the Dacians were defeated on the open field. Military problems arose on the boundary of the neighbouring Pannonian province over which hovered Quadis, Marcomans and Sarmati Jazigis and this caused Domitian to slacken the pressure on the Dacians and stipulate a peace which was considered no more than a dishonourable compromise. ¡ Theoretically, Decebalus could have become a kind of client king, but some articles which favoured the Dacians such as the one regarding skilled staff (engineers, military instructors, etc.), permitted them to prepare for the inevitable confUct. In the
LEGIO I IT ALICA It was created by Nero in 67 A.D. with Italic elements. In the beginning it was based in Lugdunum (Lyon), but when its founder died, and afcer the conyulsive rapid succession which brought Vespasian to the throne, it was moved tO Moesia with the headquarters in Novae (Svicstov .in Bulgaria). It fought against the Dacians, first in the wake of Domician and then during Trajan's campaigns; it also fought, at least with vexillaciones (12) in the subsequent operations in the Ease against the Parchians. During the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180) it was employed in keeping the Quadi and Marcomanni at the Western borders. It is also known that it took part in Sepcimius Severius' glorious war, against the Parthians. In the late Imperial age, the I Italica formed two comitatensi Legions (13), one with Diocletian, the other with Constantine. A formation of frontier troops (14) derived from the rest of the Legion, still situated in Novae.
LEGIO I MINERVIA Domician (81-96 A.D.) formed it during historic period which followed, the Romans concentrated in the two provinces of Moesia, superior and inferior, at least another two legions, the IV Flavia (with the castrum at Singiduoum, Belgrade) and the II Adiutrix, besides several units of "auxilia" and they also strengthened the Danubian "limes" and opened new routes of communication. The advent of Trajan completely changed the Roman policy. The reasons which caused the empero.r, who had been a professional military, to intervene, may be identified with the intention of making the frontiers with Pannonia and Moesia secure and eliminating from the politico-military scene those people who had become, along the middle and low Danubian boundary, a point of reference for all those who fought the imperialism of Rome. The first stage of the Roman offensive started in the Spring of the year 101. Besides the Legions located in Moesia, the I Minervia and the XIII Gemina withdrawn from the Germanic boundary and perhaps the XXX Ulpia and the newly established II Trajan also engaged in the fight. The base from which the army moved, which was also the basis of the logistic system, was Viminacium from where one could reach Tibiscum (the present Karansches, in the Themes valley), Tapae and the Iron Gates. Once the Romans passed the Danube, they obtained a first victory at Tapae and then occupied the modern Banate (now politically divided between Rumania and Yugoslavia). In the winter between the year 101 and 102 the Dacians, joined by parties of Sarmatians and Germanics, attacked Moesia, but were defeated by Nicopolis. In the year 102, at the beginning of the good weather, the Romans advanced to the Carpathians. The army was divided: Trajan with his legionary infantry methodically attacked and conquered the fortified mountain chain while the plains were watched by two mobile columns in which cavalry prevailed. Not wanting the capital Sarmizegethusa to suffer a siege, Decebalus accepted the peace. The terms, for the Dacians, may be summed as follows: delivery of the war machines, destruction of walls and strongholds, the handing over of Roman deserters and of certain territories (corresponding more or less to the southern Moldavia, Walachia and the Banate). Peace lasted till the year 105 when Decebalus, probably due
to pressure within his kingdom (revenge, intolerance for the humiliation suffered, etc.) started hostilities again, occupied the territories he had given up and attacked the Roman garrisons. Trajan, immediately returned to the region and dedicated the whole of the year 105 to restrain the enemy advance and free the "castrum" which still resisted. In the year 106, the army was divided into several columns and the emperor returned to Dacia; slowly but surely the whole area was occupied and Sarmizegethusa was first besieged and conquered and then spoiled and burnt down. Decebalus managed to escape and take refuge in the mountains, where he tried to organize some kind of resistance; however, when he saw himself surrounded by a unit of the Roman cavalry, he preferred to kill himself rather than be taken prisoner. The last hotbeds of resistance died down in the summer of 106 and the Dacian state ceased to exist while the region was organized as a Roman province. The population never recovered from the defeat and had to suffer the superiority of the Roman culture. It is historically proved that the Dacians who survived, living almost exclusively in the country, preserved their customs for some time (for example the cremation rites) and some of them found refuge in the areas which were not subject to the Roman dominion (Trajan had not occupied Chrysania and the Maramures and Hadrian had evacuated Walachia and the southern Moldavia). Several Dacians serviced in the "auxilia" units (e.g. Cohors II Aurelia Dacorum and Cohors II Augusta Dacorum Pia Fidelis Miliaria Equitata), located in the most remote corners of the empire (Britain, Cappadocia, etc.). They were obviously part of those Dacians who had already decided to before the defeat; however, we cannot say whether the units had been strengthened by recruits of the same stock. Romanization spread quickly and in a capillary way with the initial settlement of people coming from Syria and Asia Minor, and the help of a strong army which had its strong points in the two Legions located permanently in Potaissa and Apulum. This process of cultural integration, which gave birth to a population amongst the most Romanized of the whole empire, was virtually completed when Aurelian, almost two centuries after the occupation, in 271, decided to abandon the province.
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fleet who, during the military anarchy in 68-69 A.D., had declared t he ms elves favourable co Vespasian, who consequently named it pia fidelis. T he II Adiutdx was posted in various provinces: in the Gauls to put down Civile's uprising, finally crushed in the year 71; around the years 86-88 it was sit uated in Britannia though one knows not precisely where since it left traces in Deva (Chester) and Lindum (Lincoln). Shortly after it moved again co Moesia, and that is why it fought in the wars against the Dacians both under Domician and Trajan. After 106 it was permanencly posted to Pannonia with its headquarters in Aquincum (iludapest). Under Antomne l'rns, it subsequently took part with some contingents in the operations in Maurecania and during Marcus Aurelius' tormented reign it defend ed both the Eastern borders against the Parchians and the Western borders against the Barbarians. Having moved to Brigetio in Southern Pannonia, it fought with Septimius Severius and Caracalla against the Alemannians. Its presence in the East against the Persians is docu mented in Alexander Severius' operations and in 242 in Gordian III's. After the Diodetian reform, two comitatensi Legions derived from the II Adiutrix, one in Pannonia and the other in Britannia.
LEGIO V MACEDONICA I-II century A.O. eagle bearer.
his reign employing it immediacely in the operations in Germany against the Cacti: its camp was sec up in Bonna (Bonn), in the province of Southern Germany. With the approaching of the war against the Dacians it moved to the Danubian border: from 101 to 106 it was in the suite of Trajan in Dacia. Ac the end of the hostilities it returned to the Rhine border, again posted in Bonn. The Legion was subsequently employed in many military events: between 138 and 145 it fought in Mauretania, to protect its boundaries from the continuous revolcs; ic rook part in all Marc.us Aurelius' war operacions; having supported Septimius Severius, one of its units was permanently posted to Lugdunum (Lyon) in 193; form 231 it fought to control the pressure of a confederation of Frankish populations at the Western borders; it initially supported Gallienus (260-268), buc subsequencly it backed up the attempt of usurpacion by Posthumius and finally during Diodetian's reign it lined up with another usurper, Carausio, commander of the Channel fleet, subsequencly routed by Constant. During che Dioclecian age, a comitacense Legion derived from I Minervia.
LEGIO II ADIUTRIX Its origin was quire strange: it was in face formed by sailors taken from the Ravenna
46
The Legion had pre-Augustan origins: probably recrui ted by Brutus, it also fought in Philippi. During Augustus' reign, it was first destined to the East and then posted in the province of Moesia, in Oescus. With Nero on the throne, it subsequently wok pare in the campaigns against the Parthians headed by D. Corbulone: its presence in the Pontus is certain. From the year A.D. 67 its headquarters were in Judea where, under the Flavians' orders, it helped co suppress the Jews' violent rebellion, which ended with the taking of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Temple. In the Domitian age it was again posted to the Danubian border: from the years 85-86 it was on garrison in Oescus, fighting against the Dacians. Trajan moved it immediately afterwards, posting it to Throesmis and employing it in the two Dacian campaigns. After that, its permanent headquarters were set in Potaissa, in che Dacian part occupied by the Roman forces. In this final sire, which it garrisoned for at least a century, the Legion became an essential foundation for the Romanization of the region: in face the V Macedonica left its quarters only when Aurelian (270-275) planned co create new boundaries co the Danubian limes, thus leaving nearly all che Dacian tenitory. The Legion was once again deployed around Oescus' castrum, remaining there as fighting force for cent uries to follow. In the lac Imperial age under Galerius, Diocletian's caesar, it fought a victorious campaign against the Persians in Greater Armenia. It is also known that still
during Diocletian's reign, a Legion known as V Macedonica and p robably derived from the original formation, was dep loyed in the new Egyptian province of Herculia.
LEGIO XIII GEMINA Litde is known on the origin of this unit; however, it is certain that after the year A.D. 9, its permanent headquarters were in Vindonissa (today's Windisch in Switzerland). Around the years 45-46 it was sent to the camp in Poetovio, in the Pannonian province. During the Wars of Succession determined by Nero's death, it first declared itself favourable tO Otho, for whom it fought and lost in ltal y, and then to Vespasian. In subsequent years it was transferred from Poetovio to Vindobona (Vienna). It took part both with Domitian and Trajan in the operations against the Dacians: in the end, having been destined to garrison in the new province, it sec its headquarters in Apulum. In 249 the emperor Philip sent part of the legion to Aquileia: in the following war against the usurper Decio, the emperor was beaten and died in battle. Around the year 261 the Legion's headquarters, probably with most of its units, was sent on the river Mehadia, in the Southern end of the Dacian province. When Aurelian left Dacia, the XIII G emina moved to Ratiaria, in the new province Dacia ripensis formed with the territory which already belonged co Moeria, and being divided in many mobile units it had the cask of concrolling the boundary based on the Danube's right bank. During Diocletian's reign, it formed a Legion destined to be on garrisson in Egypt. Moreover, around the year 296, it fought with the veterans, in the suite of Diocletian's caesar Galerius, in the victorious campaign against the Persians, during which the ancient capital of Ctesifonte was occupied.
Annamaria Liberati Francesco Silverio
NOTES ( l) The typology of the representation found an appropriate c;orrespondcnc;e in the books preserved in the two libraries, Greek and Latin respectively, situated ;1t the sides of the Column. (2) Considering the basement we reach 39.83 metres. ()) The relief was made after t he column had been mounted and going towards t he top it increases in height to neut ralize the optical effect caused by the distance, so that all t he bands seem the same height. Despite the recent restoration, the original <:olour of the relief has not yet been demonstrated; most of the weapons and tools employed by the soldiers were however made of bron7.c and very carefully applied to the figures. T his certain ly contributed tO a pictorial effec;t and an efficacious sense of depth.
(4) The pomocrium was formed by an ideal strip of land which surrounded t he city, lhus forming the sacred belt. • (5) T heodosian Code Vil, 1.1. • (6) Polybius, Historiae; Hyginus, Libcr de m1mitionibus castrorim1; F. Vegezio Renato, Epitoma In-
II century A.O. legionary in battle dress as seen in the reliefs 'of the Trajan Column.
stitutorum rei mLitaris.
(7) The centurion formed the intermediate cadres of the mi litary chain of command . A.ppointed by the tribunes and coming from the troop, he was of the utmost importance because he was entnisted particular ly important tas ks suc h as th,· maintenance of discipline and the command ol minor units in the conflicts. (8) The crowns. rnural or of the valleys. wcr,· granted to those who first attacked a stronghold and penetrated the enemy camp respectively. (9) Vit.ruvius, De Archilecwra; F. Vegezio Renato, op.cit.; Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Cesttlrum. (10) As a rule the auxiliary units were under the command of praefecti coming from the equestrian career. T he cohortes miliariae and the cohortes civi11m romanorum under t he command of tribun,-s were the exception to the rule. (11) 1n this period a legion had about 6,000 men. (12) T he te rm kgion really means detachmems which formed part of t he forces to be employed, according to contingent rC<Juircments, in those provinces which were threatened by an armed intervention. (13) T hese Legions were under the direct corn· mand of the Emperor and formed 1.hc mass of the manoeuvre army. (14) These for med units coming from t he Legions which, located on the boundary, had become a kind of boundary militia of peasants. Type of Dacian combatant.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Bibliography on the above subject is very vast. We shall have to limit ourselves t o a list of books which can start the reader on the subject. AA.VY.: Storia Antica · Cambridge University, Milan 1967. G. Becatti: La colonna coclide istoriata, Rome 1960. E. Clausetti: L 'ingegneria militare dei Romani, Rome 1942. P. Connolly: Greece and Rome at war, London
198 1. A. Liberati-F. Silverio: Organiimu.ione militare: esercito, Roma 1988. E.N. Luttwak: La grande strategia dell'Impero Romano, Milan 1981. E. Pistolesi: L,, colonna Traiana, illustrated by E. Pistolesi, drawings by S. Busuttil, Rome 1846. E. Ritterl ing: Legio in Pauly-Wissoi!la Realencyclopadie, Stuttgard 1924. I'. Romanelli: £.iercito in Mostra A11gustea dclla Romanita, Rome 1973; rev. in M1<seo della Civilta Romana, Rome 1982.
Annamaria Liberati is an archaeologist of the museums, galleries, monuments and excavat ions of the Sovrintendenza Antichita e Belle Arti of the municipality of Rome. A uthor of many articles and publications, she took part in several exhibitions and meetings in Italy and abroad and has taken ea.re of the scientific coordination. She has been asked to direct the creation of a collect ion of books on the life and customs of the ancient Romans and she has been advisor and director of radio and television programmes on history and archaeology. At p resent she is the director of the Rome Museo della Civilta.
After having attended t he 5th co urse of 1.he Police Academy, assistant deputy questor Francesco Silverio has occupied several posts in departments of the Home Minim y. H e is an expert of ancient military art and has taken part in several meetings on the subject. He is also the author of publicat ions. At present he is direccor of a police office in Rome.
47
,
RUDYARD KIPLING
Following is an interesting research carried out by "Rivista Militare Europea" on Rudyard Kipling's visit to Italy, especialy on the front of the First W~rld War. Kipling came to. Italy for the first time in September 1890 and then returned with his family several times in the years before the first World War. He thus knew Rome very well when he arrived here as war correspondent on 1 May, 1917. On this occasion Kipling was accompanied by his friend Perceval Landon, who had been correspondent of the Times during the Boer war. This visit to Italy was the result of an invitation by the British Ambassador in Rome, Sir Rendell Rodd, in May 1916. Rodd seemed concerned by the fact that the bearing and the expenses the war meant for Italy were hardly taken into consideation in England and he disapproved of the British official bodies who did their best to be gratuitiously offensive as regards the Italians. Propaganda in Italy was in the hands of Northcliff who was also responsible for the propaganda in the enemy countries and Lloyd George had given the Italians a particularly obliging speech... "In fact, war is like a football match ... ". The ambassador thus suggested that famous Enslish writers should be sent to the Italian front and vice-versa and that their articles should be published on the national and allied press. He was an admirer of Kipling whom he had had the opportunity of meeting in London and then again in Rome. In exchange of Kipling, Ambassador Rodd wanted D' Annunzio to go and see the British forces on ¡ the Western front. Other English authors such as Conan Doyle had been on the Italian front in 1916 and had written articles, books and pamphlets. Kipling, still very depressed by the death of his son at the battle of Loos, hesitated a long time before accepting the invitation on 16 April, 1917. There was not much time left to organize the trip and Kiplmg and Landon had to reach Italy without any official plan having been made. Once in Italy, the organization was excellent and Kipling was able to meet all the important people, from the king to Cadorna, from Ambassadors to Cardinal Gasquet. During the first part of his trip, while he could still send his mail to London through the diplomatic bag, Kipling wrote to his wife almost every day. His letters are very accurate as regards hours, dates, places and menus and were mostly written a few hours after the events they describe. They clearly show how attracted Kipling was by our country and its people. A few days after Kipling returned to London the letters were published on The Globe. Reuters organized a press conference and the articles on the Italian front were published on the Daily Telegraph and the New York Tribune.
11 Messaggero, 8 May, 1917 RUDYARD KIPLING IN ROME Rudyard Kipling, the famous English author, arrived yesterday morning in Rome. The author of Kim and many other beautiful literary works of art will soon visit the front of our war. We give the great poet our warmest welcome.
other voices - not many, unfortunately - which in England have rendered justice to the effort of our country to the considerable contribution that Italy has given so far to the cause of the Allies and will continue to give to the victorious
end of the war. L'Idea Nazionale, Rome 9 May
Il Messaggero, 9 May, 1917
1917
A GUEST
RUDYARD KIPLING SEES MINISTER SCIALOIA
Rudyard Kipling is in Rome. The great English writer who, after Kim, has sung with the impetuosity of the poet the glories of the Anglo-Saxon imperialism and sustained with enthusiasm the fairness of this war which will have to mark the end of militarist autocracies. Rudyard Kipling will visit our front and we feel certain that his authoritative voice will join the
Rudyard Kipling arrived yesterday in Rome and is staying at the Grand Hotel. This morning at half past ten the famous author was received by Minister Scialoia. They talked at length and in a very friendly m¡anner. Rudyard Kipling then returned to the hotel. He will leave Rome this evening to visit our front.
L'Idea Nazionale, Rome 16 May, 1917
KIPLING ON THE ITALIAN FRONT Headquarters, May The great English author Rudyard Kipling visited our front after visiting the Franco-British front. He was accompanied by the journalist Perceval Landon of the Daily Telegraph, of Anglo-Indian birth, like Kipling. Despite his health which is not very good (the poet is 52 years old) Kipling made his excursions on the front of the Isonzo, in Cadore and on the T rentino front, with the keen curiosity of his best years as war correspondent and of a very good walker. He seemed more tired on his arrival than when he left. The author of the Book of the jungle and Kim who did not know Italy accepted with the joy of the 49
is rightly considered the legitimate representative of the English national spirit in its highest virtues. II Giornale d'Italia, Rome, 16 May 1917
RUDYARD KIPLING ON THE ITALIAN FRONT
In these last days the great English author Rudyard Kipling has visited our front after having visited the Franco-English from. He was ac-
I ooslri eroi : • Kars•Bu.Adi.
a capifaoo Civardl, ferito, al slanda Ira I pri~i, grid4ndo; (Dflr.1)1M di A
'' 8ersaglieri di Lamarmon,, avant! I ,..
8ctlromr.l
companied by the journalist Perceval Landon of the Daily Telegraph of Anglo-Indian birth like Kipling. Despite the poor health {the poet is 52 years old) Kipling made his excursions on the front of the Isonzo, in Cadore, and on the Trencino front, with the keen curiosity of his best years as war correspondent and proved himself a very good walker. The author of the Book of the Jungle and Kim who did not know Italy accepted with the joy of the author and the pride of the ally all the wonders of this trip. The great praiser of nature and of every new human activity, seemed enthusiastic of the unsuspected energies this land showed him. Before leaving he wrote in the album colonel Barbarich - head of the press office of the Higher Command - keeps for allied visitors' signature, the following sentence of gratitude for the beauty and the strength he witnessed during his stay: "Have seen a new world, a new war and a new Italy", Rudyard Kipling, 12 May, 1917. II Messaggero, Rome, 16 May 1917
author and the pride of the ally all the wonders of this trip and this could easily be noticed by whoever accompanied him. The great praiser of nature and of every new human activity, seemed enthusiastic of the unsuspected energies this land showed him. Before leaving he wrote in the album colonel Barbarich - head of the press office of the Higher Command - keeps for allied visitors' signature, the following sentence of gratitude for the beauty and the strength he witnessed 50
during his stay: "Have seen a new world, a new war and a new Italy", Rudyard Kipling, 12 May, 1917. II Giornale d'Italia, Rome 8 May, 1917
RUDYARD KIPLING IN ROME This morning the great English poet, Rudyard Kipling, arrived in Rome. He intends to visit the Italian front. Our warmest and most respectful welcome to the famous author who
RUDY ARD KIPLING ON THE ITALIAN FRONT
In these last days the great English author Rudyard Kipling has visited our front after having visited the Franco-English front. He was accompanied by the journalist Perceval Landon of the Daily Telegraph of Anglo-Indian birth like Kipling. Despite the poor health (the poet is 52 years old) Kipling made his excursions on the front of the Isonzo, in Cadore, and on the Trencino
front, with the keen curiosity of his best years as war correspondent and proved himself a very good walker. The author of t~ Book of the Jungle and Kim who did .not know Italy accepted with the joy of the author and the pride of the ally all the wonders of this trip. The great praiser of nature and of every new human activity, seemed enthusiastic of the unsuspected energies this land showed him. Before leaving he wrote in the album colonel Barbarich - head of the press office of the Higher Command - keeps for allied visitors' signature, the following sentence of gratitude for the beauty and the strength he witnessed during his stay: "Have seen a new world, a new war and a new Italy", Rudyard Kipling, 12 May, 1917.
The Globe, Saturday, May 19, 1917 MR KIPLING'S CONFIDENCE Impressed with the zeal and energy of our ally
Mr Rudyard Kipling has just returned from a visit to the Italian fronts on the Carso, Isonzo and Trentino, and has given some of his impressions to a representative of Reuter' s Agency. Mr Kipling was allowed every opportunity by the Italian authorities to see all that he desired and is full of enthusiasm for what the Italian Army is doing, and is full of confidence in their ability to conquer. He spoke with the keenest admiration of the physique, the zeal and energy of the Italian armies, as well as of the mechanics of Italian transportation in the face of the pro6 le m, "almost unrealisable in England" of warfare among mountains and snows. This aspect of the campaign has evidently greatly impressed Mr Kipling, for he dwelt emphatically on the manner in which Italy has, as he said, "given battle in the third dimension and lifted her heaviest artillery to her highest peaks". He expressed his belief that out of this war a new and revitalised Italy will arise, spiritually united by
Le ooifor011 dc11'Escrcito haliaoo: '°.me sooo Ycslin gfi uomioi combauenU per la grandcua delta Palrla.
common effort, and materially transformed in its industrial development for the future .
Hotel Brighton 218, Rue de Rivoli
Paris (before anyone is up) 6.30 a.m. May 2
The originals of these letters are to be found in the Kipling Papers in the Manuscripts Seclion of the Library of the University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QL, England. Rights of reproduction are reserved. The Copyright is held by The National Trust, 36 Queen Anne's Gate, London SWlH 9AS.
Very dearest 801h Our channel passage (hope you got my wire) was in perfect weather with hardly a ripple. We were a sort of convoy us: a hospital ship: another hospital ship, I think Belgian, and fringe of destroyers. Don't suppose there was more than two destroyers but the-y produced the impression of a fringe. And we got in at 6.30 to find the Pari.s train started at 9.6 p.m. We were met by kind and adequate officers
51
L~<D0MEN1etl.DEL@RRIERE
French flying officer - who was enormously fat and thick - kept him awake with snoring. I r11!11er heard a sound 'twixt 10 p.m. and fi.1,-e. Our train was ahout JOO yards long and progressed about 15 miles per hour. And I am ever and always Your beloving
(t) Vemet-les-Bains, Pyrenees Orientates, a favourite winter holiday resort of the K.iplings before the War. Sec Carrington, Page 482. · (2) Railway Transport Officer; a British military officer to be found at railway stations which have much military traffic. (J) Landon, Perceval, (1869-1927) Barrister, Dramatist, author and special correspondent. Friend and companion to Kipling in his middle years_ Largely ignored by the biographers.
H mel Bri gh ton 218 Rue de Rivo]i Paris
May 2. 1917 6.30 p.m. No. 302 (the room in the middle of the landing go ing tO 301 which John (I)
had)
I pr'odifl dtlla nosfr.a urliglieri.a: un c~losso d'acciaio sale vc-n;o un' alti5Sima cima. fl)ftMfl"
,1'
rn 1h,· I< I (J iu1<· v:;/," took charge of us and wld us that we should find lits-couchenes(lj reserved for us to Paris. ft all went on wheels. Mrs Kennard - a youngish woman, very tired with hospital work, came down to the quay in a car, took us up to the ramparts of Boulogne, then throu?,h square miles of hospitals into the country to see the cowslips and then to a /iule square court-yarded inn at the back of the town (La Bour?,O?,ne) where we had a very nice little French ·meal among French folk. It 's too far from the quay for most of ficers. At 9 o'clock we went to our train; found all the baggage in the lits-couchenes (rememb<..>r 1hat trip to Vemet?,I (1) and the R TO (2) very ripologetic fi1r the presence of a senior French flying officer who had taken the 3rd lit {the
52
A
Btfl.,~n\til
compartmem was ours). But we said it was his country and would'nt have him ejected. l spent a most comfy ni?,ht (slept. like a dor· mouse). Landon (3) did'nt - he says. . Got imo Paris in dear dawn at 5.45: went lO Ritz which was risleep, all except one porter. Ritz was full. So round to the Brighton where one much overwhelmed person w"as sweeping out the dining hall. He has gone fiJr coffee toute de suite - I am writing in the little hall. L. is reading the paper and it's Paris Paris all divine in the morning light. Now when I get my room, I wash and shave and go to bed - not because I need it, but it's a fine safe place to keep unbeknownst in. Jhen the Rome train tonigh1. I do really think this is going to be a comfy journey. L. swears the
Dearest and most Dear, There is hut one mail, as far as I can make out, to England and it leaves Paris 1Jt 7.30 ll.m . which means that, early as I wrote this morning I must ha'l.oe missed it. So write again lO explain ourselves and 011r mO"vements. It was an interminable morning. We arrived lx!Jl)re the milk. Ne1,-er do that because yo11 can't have your coffee before ei?,ht anyhow: and we wanted coffee and when we had got it, a.nd were clean - or at lerist cleaner - we telephoned to the Gare de Lyons to know wh11t berths had been reserved /or us fi>r Rome tonight. After much delay came the reply that there were none. So off we went en auto to the Gare de Lyons at 9 a.m. and there we were, as usual, herded into an imerminable file of people waiting to reserve places. It was all lahorious and official and teasing but sud· denly - it was l,andon who subjugrited her - a bare-headed female employee of the company took us in charge and sieered us by w"ys we should never have found out for ourselves, all across the gigantic station to the Wagon · Lits offices, where she stood over us hasking in our reflected glory - such as it was. The Wagon-Lits people knew nothing of any rese1·· vaLions - no one had been to. them - and were rather doubtful as to our gettin?, any places to Rome inside of several days. '/1Jen I played Paul Cambon 's (2) letter which broke the ice into lar?,e pieces. There ·was no possible place for toni?,ht but if we went to the Head Office, 5 Bid. des Capuchins ·we co11/d get places for tomorrow night, ,md chat is exactly what we had to do. Evidently there is a sort of noman's land between the kind offices of the
British Foreign Office {.J) and the lr.alian Administrar.ion and till we reach the Italian frontier we must fend for ourselves. Neither of us object in the least to the extra day here tho', of course, it would have been bettl'T to have gone on. We had a nap after lurch - an exceedingly good lunch - rmd tonight we go and take dinner at the Rit1. al 8 o'clock. The old concierge is still here. The head waiter calls himself an Egyptian, bm he really comestrom Assiout and talks both French and Enp,lis . He is a Berber or a Sudanese. To-day has been deliciously wam1 throughout. 1he leaves in the Tuileries gardens are ollt and spring seem s a fortnight ahead of 11s in Engl,mrl. Paris is f11/ler than I have seen it - more people, more taxis and a general air of business doing. Food restru:tions do not seem to exist: the bread is extremely good and the amount of green vegetables on sale in the streets is very astonishing. But the blackness of the garments strikes one more and more. More shops are shut but those who do business have more business and there appear to be erver so many more English officers in Paris than last time. The Americans an: out in force too; holding their heads hiP,h and talking loud in the Rue de Rivol~ the Rue Castiglione and the othc,,- places that they inhabiL I got my article in the Revue des Deux Mondes which I am posting to you. It reads very well. I have, honestly, reduced my consumption of tobacco 10 an extem which would asumi.sh yo11. I find every conceivable 1/ktnt and thought of mine, anticipated and cared for in my packing at every cum, and now I will, very gin[!.erly, extract a white shirt from bag No. 1 and get into it, that I might not disgrace Bateman's (4) al the Ritz. This goes - I am afraid - with the letter that I wrote to you in the dawn of today, at least a century ago. It tA.kes eno,~gh afji:c:tion for several, and I'll Sl'Yld you a line lO·morrow on the l!V<! of O1/r departure. / 't know whether our leuers are censored from the French side. If so I can conjimi - what I have long suspected - th,~l t.hty keep a special brand of officer to be censor. Ever your Rud.
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Take note lri the wire Landon sent, the Telegraph sent it back asserting that there W€7e two Rurwashes in England and therefore the county also must be md1caced! You can't get ahead of the of fu:ial m ind. (1) Kipling's only son. He was a lieutenant in the Irish Guards, and had been killed in France at the Battle of Loos in September 1915. (2) F rench Ambassador in London. Th e letter is in t he Kipling P apers at Sussex U niversity. (3) Letters at Sussex University suggest that the War Office was responsible for makin g the travel arrangements, but as Kipling did not decide to go to Italy until the 16th April, it is not surprising t hat the arrangements had not been made. (4) Kipling's house al Burwash in Sussex.
Le ru~tr1: Cn,ppe i.:.., pui111:u10 la l•Jth: r,o:ti1:ionc ,;H ,\\or11h: ~tun, 1',ull'altipiano a noriJ-ovcsl di A,.,:;~,n. ihh..111() "' A rnilr,u"irl
It is now owned by the National Trust and is open to the public.
Brighwn May 2 Wednesday 10 p.rn. (I will n ot write at the wre>ng end of the paper)
}ml back from the Ritz. I was wrong when I said there were no food restrictions. It was m eatless dinner at the Ritz. So we had hors d'ocuvres; boiled turbot with a sauce rightly named Divine: eggs in small pots (en cocotte) with asparagus tips: eggs were fatigued but
.asparag11s was quite young: then a beauti/11! o:auliflower au gr:uin 11ml black coffee TJ,,, •whole 33 francs which I don't call excessive. ·The Ritz is chock full o/ soldiers bur. the-y mostily dine at the cheaper places. We m et there - he came over to speak to ,me - Major Rock and his bride. She is small, :rather /latfaced very composed ,md very elo,quenl Amerimn child o/ the type who has had ,her lightest word much hung upon. She is ex;treme cosmopolitan and I sho11ld imagine ,believes lx.'IJl!lj to be serious. There wt>re touches ,of the L.H.j. about her as she expounded the Italian situation to me and she was good £enough to approve of the gt=al efforts of the English. It am11sed me a P,Ood deal. Rock is
53
these a man's chief preoccupation is his innards. The concierge - who desires lo be remembered to you and 10 Ada - advised us to do, what we had already decided upon i.e. to go down to the Care de Lyons at 6.30, get our dinner there in comfort and ascend into our wagon-lit in ample time. 'JJJere are plenty taxis in Paris but as evening comes they do no1 like to take long fares but prefer to frisk about from restaurant to restaurant. I honestly don't think there is anything else to tell you my dears: except that l saw this morning a little lx~vy of maidens going to their Confim1ation in white robes followed by male relafrves in uniform and female relati'1.)eS in mourning -
a shrl'lp rhree colour conrrn.~l
down the bright street. It's a beautiful warm day with never a cloud in the sky and I hope and pray it has reached you. L. who looks out for coincidences, says he would'm be in the least surprised if Lloyd George (3) were in our train for Rome. He is somewhere on the cominent I believe. Now I will go and pro'1,)ide myself zvith postcards which I can shoot off at you at the various stations. Allah knows if they will arrive in less than three or four days. Write me all your news to the Embassy at Rome. Ever and always Rud
(1) This would have been LtCol Charles A'Court Repington, (1858-1925). Rifle Brigade. Had served in Burma and Africa. Military Correspondent of The Times 1904-18. Author of The First World War 1914-1918 Constable, 1920; in Vol. 1, page 557, he describes a visit to Paris at this time. (2) Could have been one of the two sons of the Earl Beauchamp, Major the Hon Henry (1884-1936) or Major the Hon Robert (1858-1952). (3) Lloyd George went to Paris on the 3rd May for a conference on what was to be done in the face of the disastrous failure of Nivelle's offensive.
Suglf esfttmi Jimifr d'ell4 guern: una nostr4 scolea avauz.ata. od.la, pjttoresca tenufa invenwe. (Dili'(J>tQ di A
not yet past the stage when his eyes sought hers. Landon, whose e路vil acq,.ainca11ces a,e
unlimited, ran across Mrs Elinor Glyn who was just going out. So - Allah be praised I was not introduced. After dinner we met (I did'nt} A 'Court Repington (I) and a F. C man called L ygon (2) who was a friend of young Hartingtons and said he was most char路 ming. Got out at 9.45 into a still wann night and so home and to bed.
T hursday 10 a.rn.
A splendid night's sleep till 8 a.m. which, after three hours solid ''doze" in the afternoon
54
Friday May 4t h: 9.30 a.m. (on train)
8t(t,tl,ntl
is not so bad. Since then l have devoted myself w packing with a single mind and the intelligent help of the chambermaid. The white shirt which I wore last night goes back into the suitcase quite fit for fresh adventures at 1he Vatican: and nothing has been left behind. You were quite right. Everything that my wildest desires could conceive has been met and forestalled in my suitcases and, if you could see how they have been repacked you would admit; I think, that now and then, I really have my mind about me. Yesterday, Landon complained of not feel路 ing quite the thing - "queasy" was his word. So I gave him one calomel tabloid which has been blessed umo him. On such occasions as
Ji1st going into Modane. Same old wagon/it: after a good night and a pleasant journey we are running up to time. Much love. Smell of 2nd class ncxl lo us vividly ,路cminiscent of our Italian experiences. 7be soldier 51.>rvant with officer aboard. Grave but quite uninterested in these foreign parts.
Buffet de la Care Modane (Savoie) Le 4th May. 1917 Friday: 12 noon
This is a wonderful world. We got into Modane at 10 as I wrote in my P.C and were met by a lea.n, youngish, English Railway Transport Officer of the name of Clarence who had had instructions to look aft.er us; which
he dui very nicely indeed. Incidentally the lady who ran the buffet (she came from Dijon) pro· fessed herself a profound admirer of La lumiere qui s'etiem whereby we were taken imo an inner room and given coffee in cups de luxe which was most grateful. Then . we w ent for a walk up r.he valley w ith the R. 7: 0. whose interests were etchings, primitive man, m umm ies, and art generally on which he and Landon talked with great sympathy. Imagine the road dow n from En~elberg (I) after the vallry opens - a roaring rn;er of snowfed water full of grey pale boulders, overhung on one side by houses of pale grey, ch11s and crossed at intervals by raw timber bridges of silvery grey. On chP. other side the hills going 11p sheer in t11mbled rock and shale with the usual little hardly won terraces in the sides of them jllSt like Vernet. Then as the valley widens, the carefidly kept w rf. st11dded with b11nches of narcissi not yet out, a cowslip or two and microscopical cranesbil/ - the prnned and groomed orchards, and the brushed and combed fields of c11ltivation. One man was mourning over a field - rather bigger than Bateman's hall - on co which great rocks had fallen from the hillside above cutting and scarring the turf and breaking some young birch trees. The air was heavy with the wannth of spring but the snows atop of the mountains were not far off and there w ere glimpses through the clouds above us of solid snows. Ihe R. TO. has been here for six months. 7bere are J feet of sno-w in the winter. He has only two people he can talk to and he has to deal with every sort of curiosity - naval, militaT}\ flying corps, civils, mmes and the rest of it. I saw som e of the people - naval chaps and a few sailor men, q11ite calm and impassive. L. and I managed 01melves very well in the wagon -lit which brought ba,·k to m e all manner of old memories. And oh the smell of the 2nd class!! We I.eave here at 2.30 (MaiUlme is making fo r us a lunch de luxe!) and I expect we shall be in Rome about 9 a.m. tomorrow . Dear love to you both. I just drop this scrawl that you may have an idea how comfily we fare. Ever Rud
(1) A resort in Central Switzerland, near
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Rome Saturday May 5th 1917
10.15 a.m. to 11.20 a.m. grey warmi5h and sticky We got in on time from Modane: after a very Jood buffet dinner al Tun'n which we share with a young R ussian Naval Officer (six feet six long) whom we met in our train. Certainly no food restrictions seem lo worry Italy. Our other companions were a doctor from Salonika who had been in the Cameroons show; a Major of Engineers who knew Greece
and the Near East, and a fat cherry,cheeked Colonel of Cavalry who seemed to kr,,:yw f>"fty well all d1e rest. Yhry were going on their way to Salonika. (1) At MoiUlne there was a scrong detachment of our sailors - mostly "bostiliry" men o-n their way to the Mediterranean ports. One of them found a rubber ring and began to throw it at a hook in the wall. Someone st11ck up a I lira ,wte as a prize to the man who first made the ring stay on. In less time than yo11 w ould think the affair developed into an orderly game; with a bright-eyed petty officer in charge, regulating the distance thrown, seeing that no one threw out of his turn and so on. Very occasionally som eone made the ring stick
on the hook. Then L or I put another franc priu and the win ner bored solemnly through the crowd to shake 11s by the hand. It kept 'cm q1tiet and amused for nearly an hour. No one co11ld have been kimkr to us than Clarence the Railway Transport Officer and he is prepared to make everything com fortable for us on our retllrn. Once through the Mont Cenis we were in the full flush of spring - pears and almonds t0gecher in bloom; the young wheat nearly a foot high beneath and all the m o11main sides pencilled and splashed with every shade of God's own greens. It began to rain there a warmish growing rain - the k ind we could do with in the valley at home. I have seldom ,H
55
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1
mation and attitudes here (I've got an idea 1ha1 all letters are pretty carefully censored or al any rate pried into so I won '1 give you details except to say that I was glad - and so was Landon - that he came). Then we went to our palace-like sitting room (glad we were 'twas so palatial) to box a cup of cocoa and after tha1 there came a Cardinal (4) - hat and all - an English gentleman of the mos1 charming that ever was, accompanied by his secretary also an Englishman (5) hut notably unlike a priest in that he contradicced his Eminence on certain matters. Well, conversa , tion turned on a ceremony to-morrow at S1 Peter's where theJI are Beatifying a certain Camielite nun who died I >O years ago and is now to be made the Blessed Anne of somewhere or other (6). His Eminence gave us the whole business of beatifying - how it's done and how long it takes and who decides on the evidence (there must be at least two proven miracles) and all the rest of it. I'd m~Ji.'Y heard it all told from the inside by an expert. The Cardinal is on the Board of Examiners or Committee of Admission for Blessed Ones. We talked of other matters too - very sensibly and humanly but somehow this detailed and serious a.ccount of a &atification struck me as very - vl>ry wonderful indeed. And he left amid bowed bare heads like a Prince of the Church which indeed he was and the hotel management humble before is now on its tummy. Then for a stroll with Landon among the shops. I wish I had the size of Ada's hand and I'd gee her some gloves as I know she likes 'em. It was a sticky, grey, homesickish e-vening and I drifted up {L. was going to the Excelsior (7) to the Albergo Savoia (8) whose face had been washed and looks wondrous clean and I thought of you and the Bird and her measles long ago and grew sentimental. Then I returned and that is all my account of the day. I Lunch wi1h the Cardinal on Mon day. He came to ask me. He'll be worth a wilderness of smaller folk for ins1ruc1ion. If I have anything special I'll send it in the Em · bassy bag. With a heart 's love ever Ruel
1ouc1n<> di /I Sr.ttNmfi
seen such beauty. The campagna in the morning (oh how it reminded me o/ uur trip!) ·was all grey and green with solemn silky white bullocks watching us. We got in punctually, found Rome much as she always is and have since been washing ourselves and arranging our baggage (you'd be surprised at my system and nearness} in the palatial suite of rooms which they have given us at 65 lira per diem. I can't see myself that thl>re is any;ne staying here par· ticularly. Now 1 have just telephoned to the British Embassy and am waiting their reply. More anon. 6 p.m. So we went to the Embassy on foot in this heavenly warmth, with roses and
56
wistarias full out on all the walls and Rome al large looking as rhough it had'm heard of any war. Rodd (2) was out, but sent us a note later asking us to dinner al 8.15, and we're going. Thm. to dejeuner - extraordinarily good omelette and grilled chicken - a boiler. After that I went to the Borghese Palace to leave my card upon Count de Salis (.1) with a note, in case he was out, asking him to see me. Landon was off on excursions of his own so when I came back I got into my - got out of my clothes and had a luxurious snooze of an hour before he came back. Then came a newspaper correspondent of one of 1he London papers not to see me at all but to give me some infor-
(I) There was heavy rail traffic from the Channel Ports, across France, Northern Italy, and down the East coast to Taranto, in support of the British Forces in Salonika and the Near East. The French used the line down the West coast and the port of Genoa. (2) Rodd, James Rendell (1858-1941). (3) De Salis, Sir John Francis Charles, 7th Cte de Salis, (1864-1939). (4) Although not mentioned by name, this could only have been Cardinal Gasquet (18 46-1929). (5) This would have been the Cardinal's Secretary and life-long friend and companion Father Philip Langdon, known in Rome as " Don Filippo". (6) Anne of St Bartholomew, (1549-1626).
Anne Garcia, born Almendral, Spain, daughter of poor shepherds. Joined St Teresa's reform movement at Avila. St Teresa's secretary. In 1606, sent to France. Prioress at Pointoise and. Tours. Founded convent at Antwerp for Engli~h refugees. Author of some "delightful religious verse". (7) Headquarters of the British Military Mission. (8) The Kiplings had stayed at the Hotel Savoia in 1905 when Elsie ("Bird"), Kipl· ing's surviving daughter, caught measles and their stay in Rome became protracted. Murray's Guide for the period gives an Albcrgo S::ivoi::i near the Piazza Barberini, gia de! Gallinaca, via Maroniti 5. This is on a hill near the Grand Hotel, and Kipling would therefore have drifted "up" to get there.
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Very dear, Just my usual daily line to let you know that I am bu.t this instant returned from che Beatification of Anne of St Bartholomew a Carmelite Nun. The Cardinal senl us places which were good enough in themselves but talk of coincidence - as I looked al the blaze and splendour of the A Lear of St Peu:r I saw in the next block of seats, reserved jrJr diploma.ls, a Chamberlain of the Pope (there are scores of 'em all about the place) in ruff, hose, sword etc ecc who, for che moment struck me as one of the finest Rembrandts I'd ever seen. Then slowly through my mind as I stared passed the words: "/ am so sorree!" (Elsie will understand} and as I looked and looked he turned and S/JW me and flashed into smiles. 'Twas Spinola! Dressed in the costume of his office. No wonder we thought he looked well at the Engelberg fancy hall! He came to 11s at once and said: - "The minute the Pope has come you may come into my crihune or block of seats". Which we did. Result was we had absolutely the finest view of the ceremony anyone could by any means get. I saw De Salis among the diplomats buc all my eyes and ears were for the ceremony which was beyond belief - in splendour, mass, colour and every grandiose appeal. There was onl)• one hour of it: the main pru~,:edings us fur us ihe legal position of the Blessed Anne went having been got through in the morning_ where lhl"Y read oul her record for two hours I believe. The Pope (1) entered in his chair a liule dark man wilh glasses, very petit all over hue w ith an interesting face. I-le said not a word, of course because Popes do not lightly speak. The prayer /or peace was read almost at the beginning but most of the rest of the service was merely singing - I did'm mu,-h care for the sini:(ing. There were the Noble Guard - 12 oj 'em in helmets: the Papal Guard in their uniforrn.1, helmets and halberds; ... nuns and friars of every known description; Cardinals, Rishops and dignitaries of the whole
tA ... ,NE DJ UM ,E"UtATA. Ga <:ACCl4'1()tpf<l.lUl<lt"e IUJ!/().•,;tt, 111r.,,utt:>O) (Jlllo), llrr/ldllf<J UJI sowmor;:ibifo llktt<ICO • al.OJl() di voo.al 10/gJlr.., aubJJ() Jol•f6 J,11, c1taolu. II sommorglbllo •f'ov• ovldtJntmwUUQ d<tl lf05.l'ttl, ,, »1>21 tooo t u to.w.po ,. 11omD:ierl'OntL 8tMaa 011lu6IOJ:&t1, JI a~l&JQrpltd/DION git m tt.\l ',IU cQutNJ A tnffa nliJcl" <I Jo apacc6 l o dao. U)i~tr;m, r1, A
hierarchy and about - well Spinola said 60,000 people buc L. an.d I chought it might be 20,000. In that marble sea of a place you ca.n 't tell to a thousand or even five thousand. I can give you no idea of the actual ceremony for se-1,-eral reasons buc chiefly because I'd ne-v'l-r seen anything like it. My impressions I will tell by word of mouth. At the end when the golden liuer had lefi through a far door the whole crowd liquefied and flooded the Cathedral. L. and I were borne along in a stream of people who ceased to interest us 1hey squeezed too much - and we turned aside through a gap in a barrier, found a little door and ran literally into the arms of our Car· dinal who very kindly took us home in his
aci,,n.nt>
car. Nota. Cardinal's car have an am1 cushion like first class rai/w,zy carriages so thrll ynu shan 't jossle the Cardinal. I approve of thrit! 'Fact is I think Cardinals' motors are the only cars worth taking in Rome. I lunch with the Cardinal to-morrow and I don't think it will be time wasted. So here I am at 7 p.m. in evening dress (how useful that evening dress will be none but you will know). The grey sirocco sky has cleared; there is a divine sun and the spectacle of the whole enormous crowd vomiting out of the steps of St Peter's in the aftt'T1100n light will remain with me till I die. This is hut a scraw l in haste to catch the post. l don't know what I do to-morrow h11t
57
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with a portrait of the Pope (who, I maintain, resembles Woodrow Wilson facially) and in front of it a tal/ golden chair back facing us, sped.ally resen-ed for his Holiness when he calls. (But I don't see how he can get out of the Vatican to calllj. Then, Our Cardinal emerged and said: - "Come into my den. I can't live up to those yellow chairs'' - and we went into a little wonder of a study full of priceless old prints and a genuine Holbein. The lunch - artichoke omele1te: beef chicken and ma.r-.;e/lous ice-cream, with many curious wines whereof I did not drink. There was only L. and I and the Cardinal and his domestic chaplain who was also general secretary. This latter was of' qu ite a new type to nu:. I ne,;er knew before that domestic chaplains contradicted Cadinals. Well, we talked and we talked (the domestic chaplain talked most) fo r about two hours. I am a low minded beast and I suspected from the first that we had not been asked for nothing. We had'nt: but that is a matter which I must tell you viva voce when we meet. (This land rightly or wrongly gives me the impression of being more fr.di of eyes and ears than. a peacock's tail). Finally, we were shown some p_riceless reproductions of ancient Bible texts. (Jhere is a most learned commiuee revising the Latin Bible (2) in a long room off' the Cardinal's study). Also we were shown the private chapel which he and the domestic chaplain made by luck and spoilation and the picking up of bargains - such as a set of priceless XVth century choir stalls and a 16th century entrance door and a few other trifles. It was the Cardinal's Bateman's to him and I think he really liked our delight. ft was a gem of colour and design under a sbarrel-valuted roof - a mixture of greys, greens and golds lovelier than aught Uncle Ned {3) had conceived. And so we got away - much - oh much interested! This is the d-dest queerest trap-doorest world I've ever got into. Nothing resembles its external appearance in the least and when you are told to go north-east it means you ought to steer sou'east. I shall be main glad t~ meei real plain soldier men again. And to-night at 8. 15 I dine with de Salis really to see Tony (4) but Gawd alone knows what new signs and wonders I shall wander into or what what is said to me will really signify. Finally, to-morrow morn I meet a minister w ithout a Portfolio who is in charge of Publicity and Allah alone can say what he'll want. To-morrow """", Gnd he thankerl, we leave for the Udine front. Three days in Rome are ample and too ample for me. I would'nt have missed the &atification l w·roU? you about for anything but all the rest I can resign without a sigh. It's divine weather today. Scirocco has vanished and the skies are blue and fresh. I've been for a meditative stroll on my own getting my ideas into order. If only I had you to discuss 'em with! Howe'Tll."T, the straight road is alu.:ays the best. I am here to describe some aspect of the Italian Campaign against the Austrians and noc anybody else's campaign against anybody else. Landon is enjoying himself hugely over the drama of the whole thing. His account (5) 0
L;1 s c;oniilrn ddla dccima urnulta rus~ netla Prus.s.ia Oricntalc: sofdalf rus.si che Jeva9.o le bteccia per arrendeNi, 0 JUl'?111) di A 8dtromr.)
I expect it will depend on the Cardinal. Sorry!
If he has uctually ananged aught
I shan 't be told of it till the actual momen1. Meanwhile I am still humbly Yours ever Rud. (1) Benedict XV.
Grand Hotel Rome
May 7 1917 6.30 p.m. Dearests,
58
And - after seeing the Embass-y this morning, in the course of which I bought a trifle for Keene's child and some tortoiseshell combs for you - Landon and I went to lunch with Our Cardinal in his palace (1) which was part of and built itself into a Benedu:tine monastery. It was across the river (d'you remember our drives on cold spring days in that direction?) near St Maria Calista, a bit of Papal Rome that I never kne·w before. Also it was quite like a scene out of all sorts of novels. There was the quiet brooding inner court facing a square of hot sunshine; a covered cloister, a climb up four flights of feet-worn stone stairs and at last a long, long suite of rooms, till the final one was all upholstered in yellow silk
of the Cardinal's lunch will iriterest you. He's off now on some job of his own and won't come to dinner with De Salis; alleging that he knows quite mot1gh. We have got seats in the sleeper for Udine to-morrow nighL. There is a1so a restauram car on ,hat train! Amazing land, which has not yet interfered .with the Wagon-Lits Company. The streets are filled with more strong handsome well set up yot1ng kmm in civil dress than I can ever remember 10 have seen in the past thn'<! years. Not a letter of any kind has c-ome in from you but, on thinking things 01,·er, I can see that unless you wrote at once on my deparwre there is scarcely a chance, as the mails are sketchy. However there may be somer.hing to-morrow in which case I'll acknowledge by wire: but / am always Your loving Rud
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(t) The Palazzo San Calisto. (2) The Commission for t he Revision of the Vulgate, the major task of the Cardinal until its completion in 1926. (3) Sir Edward Burne-Jones. (4) Count John de Salis's second son. (5) Landon's writings from Italy do not appear to have survived.
Grand Hotel Rome May 8. 1917 2 p.m. {a di vine day)
Dearest, I have just had che ne-ws by telephone chat there is a feller for me at the Embassy (1), and while it is coming over I sit down to wn'te to you. 1he scene has shifted to-day. Cardinals etc. have dropped out and their places have been taken by the Military-attaches (2): assist.ant alla.ches: big guns at Head-quarters and so forth. ft is like one scene fading 011t and another appearing. All hands are united that we are to have no trouble and, by the look of things, l fancy that that will be the case. It is easy en()11gh to get inco the war ione but it is not so easy to get out unless - as will be done fo r us - we rr11m break thro11?,h a whole hedge of mutually mspiciou.s ar· rangements put up between France and ltal}'· We had a military attache here for abouc an hour this morn discussing things. He said to me: - "Have you any photos?" Remembering you more than hum.an foresight in this mal· ter l said: - "Yes; lots''. "All right", said he. "Then they can be used if necessary''. Landon who had not a wife to provi.de him. with spare photos fled out into the sun blaspheming to be photoed They mayn't be wanted but 1/ they are, it's just as well to have 'em. Clarence the RTO al Modane is the kingpivot of all France-Italian arran?,emerllS. Everything seems to boil down to him and, as we his good friends, we shall have a good time. He can get 11s back into France without delays and can override the small ojf'tc·ial. Moreover, the luck that looks after Landon and me when we are on the war-pach sent 11s to
,'hhund•nh d11'a)ltru~ n~••e&Ct in 1181ia:
vatante cJ1e pr~o Tenda cravolge un b11.ncc.umencu. (()li t11ui d • ;I
day Colonel Gabriel (an ex Indian civil and old friend of L's) (.J) now on duty at the ltahan Commando Supremo. He may be go· ing up to Udine with us to-night - in which case we shall be as Gods. Anyway the wheels are perfectly well oiled. Today they "released" the news that I was in Rome. I rather wish they had kept it till co-morrow bm no matter. I had a note from Miss Jay {.lvfartha McCook 's sister {4) 6, Via Pideenza, askin?, you to lunch on Wednesday at 1.15. I told her that most unfortunately yot1 were not with me. Then began the papers but as they have not been told my hotel they do not gi1,-e much trouble. My dinner ac de Salis last night included Er·
t uc.cuk unpicfah t 00<01i
Odlt«onr;
skine and Mrs !:rskine of the British Embassy: Gaisford and Mrs Gaisford of the Papal Embassy: Howard (de SaLis's predecessor) (>) his two daughters and Spinola. Quite official. I only saw Pl!{(!r (6) for a few minmes before dinner. A very handsome child with all Tony's (7) infernal cheek beautifully veiled behind his impish eyes. He is more like Count John than anyone else. His father said I should see him again after dinner but did'nt call him. So l missed what I really went for. Hurrah/ llere comes yours of J p.m. Thursday 3rd. The first I've had and more welcome than words can tell. My beloved, if you don 't gee Letters from me, ii 's the fault of the post and not of the poster. You 011ght 10 have got
59
heart good to see me sleep - as I propose to do now - in the a/iemoon - a solid hour at a stretch. I say it's the heat. L. says it 's m y habitual la.ziness. Either way l enjoy it. Once again bless you both. I go my ways with ,1 glad hear/. Strange that one diriy lit1ll! bit of very vile handwri1ing should so liji up the heart of a Teally educated rnan or, as the Idea Nazionale says a "grande scriuore e grande cittadino ". Spinola sent all manner of gn?l!lings to you both. He is 36: he is head of a /acwry for making instruments - he wears a brassard green and white rmd red on his arm and he has no sharn.e whatever that he is where he is. "Dodo" (the prince 1vho was Mrs Hood's shadow) is married and bas a baby. And now I really will stop. I am provided with stamps etc. lO 1vrite to you to-morrow hut where I'll be Allah and the Commando Supremissimo alone know. Anyhow I'll be loving yo11. Evl!r, Rud.
.,n,w XVII. - ~um. :1:1.
Venice. May 9th, 9 a.m. En route Udine - after a splendid night m elegant wagon-lit. Grey sofi weather : Venice looking like a pearl (8). Restaurant car comes on here. Delme-R wires he •will meet us Udine at noon but I think we shall be a little lale. Enjoying ourselves hugely. Love R.
l11,n(' -.i dirij(t urt aziont: ii gen. Cadorna, II Due.a d'Aosta, ii Conic dl Torino e ii ien. Porro. mc:ntrc si S\'Olgt tm comNUime1110. (f>i,..t,ntl di A 8t:11ram..:1
the wire from Paris also by now as well as heap of letters fi1r I write (as St Paul died) daily. But the maiL1 are a law unw themselves. I have co-day sent you a wire telling you where to write to. As usual it is the invaluable Clarence, who is Guide, Philosopher, Poste Restante and all the rest to all the travelling world. Great joy about the Marks. ft would be a splendid thing if they became a comfort to look upon and talk tO in place of - 1he oth£-r thing. Lord how I wish you were along and how unfeignedly glad I am that you are not. Congrallllations also - if not prema.ture - to Mrs D.S. Thrush. Here the products of the dairy are limited to milk. Oh hut it was nice and wholesome to see )'Our dear fist once
,1
60
(1) In the Via Vcnti Settembre. (2) Probably Col. Sir Charles Lamb, the MA (3) Formerly a Political Officer and resident in India. In Rome, he was Head of Special Intelligence at the Military Mission. (4) A Brattleboro connection? (5) Sir Henry Howard (1843-1921), Minister Plenipotentiary in British Mission to the Pope 1914-1916. (6) Count John de Salis's youngest son. (7) Count Anthony de Salis. Like Kipling's son John, he was an officer in the Irish Guards. He visited Kipling at Bateman's in January 1918. Sec visitors book for 23rd to 27th January 1918. (8) Kipling had visited Venice in March 19 12, at the time of the Kaiser's visit.
again. Urge Bird to write - even though I have bought her naught unless she bags one
Udinc. May 9: 2 pm.
of the ''genuine tortoiseshell" hair combs. Thty were bought at 1he same place where I bought her her ramhead little brooch. If you remember? Landon is much perked up with life and from gloomy pessimism advances LO the position that we are going lO have a splendid ti·me of it. This shows he has recovered (a) from his calomel pill and (b) from being photographed in pure Italian by a very ugly girl. (He was a scared manlj. We leave to-night by the 8.50 and are not diswrbed till 10 a.m. You ought to see me sleep in a wagon -lit! And it would do yuur
...And so we arrived a lixtle after noon at Udine which is large and scattered among green crops and has avenues of chestnut trees whose blossoms are alread)' falling! There was a fatted ease about our progress in the wagonlit which more or less prepared me for the two cars (one shut t'other ~pen) which greeted us. General Delme-Raddifje (1): an Italian Col· onel {2) in charge of the pressmen; a young Italian captain who spake exceedingly go-od English were on the platform and we moved so lO speak on red carpets to this house which is marked in large leuers as "a hospital for neruous diseases". I expect tha.t was its walk
I in life before the war. Ii faces an immense circle of roughly pebbled ground {3) from which roads and avenues radiate. There are railway lines down the roads (4) and occasionally a fn·endly irain-load of low t"(µcks goes roaring along or an officer on a spiuing .motor byke flees lo some job or other. One avenue is bordered by a rushing canal of milky water on one side of which women wash; on the other there is a hospital for the wounded (5) who lie abo11t in the healing soft sumhine. All
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the rest is cultivation, stone-pim:s and mounds on mounds of flowering chestnuts, with roofs of deep fl,~u.:d tiles emerging, and here and there a facto ry chimney. My quarters are a bedroom with a wierd tcutonic sort of bed: a real sofa and everything else in the way of luxury and as the wamt idle ivind walks or rather sirolls about this town, it bangs my shutters. There never was shutter in lraly yet that didn't bang. Delme-R and his next in charge Alexander {6) ha1.;e gone off for their deje,mer {we had ours in the train) and we have lea at four. When I have expiated a little more I pu rpose to do a snoo%e. I have to see the King and Cadorna but whether to-day or U>-morrow I know not. f resign m-yself into the hands of the Military which is a damn sight beuer than trying to fuss. Moreover, there are no hosts in the world like soldiery. Think of the pure boredom of having to meet civils of all kinds and temperaments, to take them around and to try to put some idea into their, opinionated heads. 3.45 And then c,ime General D-R to tell me things and then we talked and discussed future arrangemems. 1£ appears that I see Cadorna to-day at 5.30 and the King LO· morrow. I can't give yot{ an)• idea of the ex·
cellence, or the amplitude or the smoochness of the arrangements. It appears that we are - very much so - the guests of the Italian Government who have a breadch of vision as UJ the duties of a host which fairly takes the breath away. And now f close this 10 go to tea. More LO· morrow, but as ever I enclose Miss Jay's letwr which I had ought to have sent you yesterdary. I thought any kin of Martha McCook would interest you.
P.S. This goes in. the special bag and is posted from London. Hence the penny stamp and my dearest love.
"'·:1 t .;Jr"iO. 111 rHa1tinu
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1111a nn:jlrn Vil(orou t:onIroiler1si,•a fioi<:tcc cc111 um1 vc.ra roua Pfl' ~Ii au:;1ri1ci. ll>i,r'J«lt ,Ii A 9,.1,,.• .._,,
Udine (1) Chief of the British Military Mi~.~ion. (2) Colonel Pietro Andrian. Information from his daughter, Contessa de Scarpis, of Venice. (3) The Piazza Primo Maggio, formerly the Piazza d'Armi. (4) A steam tramway ran through the town and out to San Danicli de! Friuli. (5) There was a military hospital in the Via Pracchiuso, which leads off the northern corner of the Piazza. One of Udine's many small canals runs by thi s corner; so perhaps Kipling's quarters were somewhere in the immediate neighbourhood. (6) Henry Lethbridge Alexander (1878-1944), later Major-General.
May 10
f,
p.m.
Dr:arests, I don't quite recall where f left off: There 'UJl7e so many things to record. Anyhow my last letter to you must have gone off with the bag here just before I went lO see Cadoma {I) at the Supreme Commando on the evening of the 9th. He was in a smallish (as palaces go) palace (2), scrupulously d ean and austere, sitting so to speak in a large cool silence with very few visible members of staff around him. He was extremely nice and polite to me, and talked - as one in his place must - sonorous generalities 10 which f responded in my bc:st
fwld French. J'hc main poim he bon: upon was the creation of the new Italy 1mified - as up till now it has not been - by sacrifice. Then after that al 8 p.m. we dined in a Little restamant with General Delrne-Radcliffe and Colonel A lexander - ju.s1 Landon and me. fr was on the edge of moonrise just before U71 when we walked back 10 the quarters here. Udine at nighz is liz - fo r obvious reasons - wizh a few ligh1s all dark blue. /r's a beautiful city in itself - with a main square, a Cathedral and a few other old buildings all grouped LOgether which are extraordinarily beautiful. The effect under the moonlight in the great square, dotted here and there wiih the blue lights was lovely b<.,yond words. The
61
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La tucrra modc:rna: come i soldati pro,t~itono le ri:;pcttive pcsizioni e le ditricoh8 d· supera~i pe-r in\.'A1.krt.' ii ( ~~ttcW' u(·rni('' ({)tir.1r1,, di A
town was silem; the moonlighl slashed the fronts of the old buildings and the arcades and loggias showed like pits of blackness. And so home and to bed in a room that somehow reminded me of preuy nearly every room I had (!"<Jer pitched my tent in the East. Next morning the 10th at 9.30 appeared Pirelli (3) our nurse - same as Puaux in France - a Cavalry officer and a millionaire being the son of Pirelli the motor-car tyre manufacturer. He and General Radcliffe accompanied us in a big closed car to see the country of the heaviest fighting of the cam paign. It was a vivid light spring day; the roads 1.vere as white as bone and dry after days of wet. Every road was flanked by a little
62
8<':1r,rmt1
flashing water channel and lined with piles of limestone pebbles from which every fow hundred )'ards a couple of men or a man and a boy sprer,ul spadefi~ls of pebbles in evet)' tiniest depression and worn spot, and poured water out of a tin can al the end of a pole atop. Ihe incessant traffic of motor-cars, tractors and carts ground the stuff down almost al once and the water made it bind: so that, the heavier the traffic the better the road. It was a miracle to watch. Ihe Italians are Princes among Roadmakers. They make their roads save their vehicles instead of knocking the vehicles to pieces, and the whole land is seamed with new roads. Round Udine the land is flat and cultivated
to the last inch wheat, vines and everywhere the closely pollarded gnarled mulberry trees: for this is great silk country. All round the horizon, ·with ihunderstorms in their laps, lie the mountains just like the Himcdaya.<. Some are white with snow, others only speckled: but they are all dark and forbidding. 1hr rivers with their shoals and reefs of white pebbles, are all milky blue green with snow water and they rise and fall without warning. The far· mhouses of any size; the country houses and the chateaux are all turned into hospitals but one sees no1hing of the wounded: and all along in the clean stone villages one passes masses of troops either at instruction or in re.'w:.r<Je. These are much bigger men than you'd expect. The-y mostly wear two helmets ,md carry themselves with the swing of Roman legionaries. They are made up of all sorts of Italians mixed together - North, South, Central and the Islands. Ibis is so tha.l the loss1:s shall be equally shared. Presently our car came to the old Austrian frontier - the fringe of level ground before the hills begin. The houses here had been battered about a good deal but they were all rebuilt by the Italians who are as handy with stone and cement as the Canadians are with wood. Their neat-handedness impressed me enormously. 7hrm we came to Gradisca on the lsonzo river - a great scattered town of hutments, cemeteries and all the rest and here the level ground stopped. Across the broad shallow river the land rose into ridges of a few hundred feet - say six or seven hundred - and the soil was red what there was of it - a sort of pocky conglomerate of stones, boulders, pebbles, stuck together with a little red dirt and covered with a false appearance of vege1ation. But one kne-.v without being told that the growth of the green was only due to the wet and would wi1her away after a J~·w days' heat. A foot bener"h the ground the land seemed to be solid limestone either in chunks or layers or nodules - impossihle to dig in with spades - impossible almost to describe. It reminded one of the Karroo at times, only the bushes were scrub oak and pine srnmps destroyed by fire. Every few hundred yards there were huge hollows and sink holes, some of them leading into caverns underground, which the Austrians had comJerted into shelters for whole battalions. And all this inexplicahle mess was scattered with battered traces of old trenches, bales of red rusted barbed wire, and all the wreckage and debris of battle that you could imagine. Ihe road wound up among the wreck Lill we came to a few pale walls singing to themselves in the thin noon wind. Ihat was all that was left of the village of San Martino - that, and a petrol pumping engine pumping water for the troops in the far off trenches somewher on the sides of the further hills. There was a little firing of heavy sw/f and now and again one saw the smoke of a shell through the heat haze, as it fell on the crest of a hill. Once we heard a big thing overhead going about its job - from 1he Italians to the Austrians. Then we reached a desolate quarry as it were of splintered stone on the ·very top of a stony ridge.
That was St Michael {4) - which is their Ypres and their Hill 60 and all the rest. We were on che point No. 2. No J point had been taken and lost six times before thf')' could get a hold on the hill and, in one. way or another, there were between 50 and 60,000 dead somewhere along there. '!he dead Italians had been carried down to the side of the River [sonzo below us where they lay in mile long cemeteries. The Austrians had been simply buried under stones and stones and stones and tar and lime. You didn 't need to be told it was a Golgotha. You felt it om in there in the clean sunshine under the blue sky - felt it as though it were midnight. It was a land apart from any thing else - it was the Carso and the Italians pronounce it w ith loathing. Unlttekily it's the only open ground there is and they must fight down it on their way u, Trieste. if the Karroo married the Matoppos the Carso w ould be child of that union. Well, w e went, on foot, over those slivers of rem stone up to the top of the crest, (5) picking our way among the shell holes. A shell hole on stone is simply a funnel of finely shatwred stone. There was a big gun speaking somewhere under the hill to the Austrians. No bombardment bm a mere interchange of compliments before dinner. Suddenly there was an explosion in front of us, just like when Landon tried his blasting experiment at Keylands and the rocks began to whizz. Then came another and another and yet more. They were excavating a position for a gun somewhere below us and the noonday assortment of blasts had just been touched oJj and they had'nt thought to warn us. So we turned back from that place but for half one lively minute I was sure it m11SC be "pip-squeaks" though commonsense told me that nothing less than six or eight inch stuff would reach us where we were. I don't like stones flying. Then we went dow n to the reverse side of the hill and found enormous gallen·es where new big guns are coming in - a sort of T shaped tunnel eight or nine feec high full of rails and mechanisms. Then we came out into the dry staring sunshine all among the stones again and got into the car and fled downhill and recrossed the river imo Gradisca, picking up Radcliffe who w as colloquing with a General, and werit on to Cor1nons (6) where we had a lunch with General Campello (7) who commands God knows what all on this front and will presently - I belie-ue - launch a big atlack. It was a simple businesslike lunrh - curiously clean in all its appointments cleaner to my mind than the French idea. After lunch we went forth again - Pirelli, Landon and I - to see Pod?,ora (8) over against Gorit:zia. Now Podgora is a Gibraltar of mud even as St Michael (9) ffl'1S a Gibraltar of sLOne. The mud is now w med into hardest red earth but one realizes what a muck it must be when it is w et. Again the road left the plain and shot up and doubled and twisted for hundreds of feet 1mci/ it reached the shoulder of this isolated Gibraltar. It is a hall sloped like this We entered it by a boarded gallery of infinite steps that climbed up and up to the very top where there was an artillery observation
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post jmt under the letter "s" above. We were told not to show ou r<P:foe.1 too much 1tp abo-ue as we were in plain sight of the enemy. Below us, not half a mile away as the eye goes lay Goritzia - apparently unto1iched, till you let your c"ye search a little - and certainly w ithout much life. As we looked and womu'Yed and watched the Austrians dropped a shell on a con-uertl jttst behind the town, we heard one of che Gunner subalterns talking to a pal through a telephone. Even I, who have no Italian could get the sense of the last sentence. It ran roughly: - "Congrawlatiom. 71,en you 'll dine with us to-night and )'OU can pay for the drinks!" A youngster w ho was at that time doing observing ojfuer in the citadel at
Goritzia below, had jusc got his commission as Aspirant - i.e. Sub-Lieutenant and - very rightly - would celebrate the occasion by stan· ding drinks at mess that evening. We heard the laughU'Y of his companions rumbling in the galleries beneath us. And when we had seen and discussed all. the hot sullen landscape and the frowning hills close by we retttmed 10 our car and went into Goritzia - in order that we might say we had been there. Goritzia in its hollow is amply and thoroughly and plentifully dominated by the enemy guns. They pepper it every day a methodical 11 inch or e-uen J 5 inch howitzers. Hardly a house could I see that had not been shattered and pitted by shrapnel -
Jew
63
up this. Both she and Countess Gleichen have been affected by the X-Rays though I believe not to any serious extent yet. They have con· ducted close upon 6000 radiograph examina1.ions. And we had t.ea and left them to their bravery and simplicity. We got back at 5 p.m. I had an hour's lie down and then went with the Gem!ral lO see the King {14} who was good enough to express a desire to see me. I found him in a room a liule beuer, because cleaner, than John's quarters in the uniform of a fu ll General in the field which isn't much more distincli-ue than th,u of a pri.vate. He is a man of amazing and elemental simplicity but every bit a man both of affiiirs and knowledge and gut.5. One felt t.he1t all through. He kept. m e over an hour during which he talked of the following, among other matters: - the Army; the people; foreign travel; his visit in 100 ton yflcht to Spitzbergen; the Ionian Islands; agriculture; wol/shooting and legends of webrwolves; artillery; his experiences in Shadwell Docks for rJ fortnight; his visit to the Emir of Bokharri; apple trees; agricultural devi!lopment; Amen.can ploughs; classic literatun! anrl about ten other things. He's a keen nwn and I shouldn't imagine had many illusions. So we parted, with mutual esteems and then to din · ner - Pirelli, another Liaison Officer, Landon, D·R, Alexander and I, at the restaurant adorned with one of the hugest wistarias in full bloom that I ever did see. A rid so to bed comfily at 10.30. It wasn'L a hard day.
May 11th
frincc:1 ir.11K<:SI! o<:fla ChJmp:.i~n(; ioondata dai tcdeschi di pecrofiu c poi inc.(ndi,ua con k bombc: torri:nti di iuo,:c. t-t1i :-oldit 1'·
the Cathedral was in ruins; and house after house had been laid down. But the Italians mend and clean up as quickly as the Austrians destroy. There were no holes in the streets and the rubbish was all carted away. 711ere about 1000 people lefi in Coritzia still as well as the troops. The-y have the same delicacy of movement as the inhabitants of Soissons. Half the roads are screened by hanging mats, from the observation of the enemy: but in the main place the full stately chestnut trees are all in flower and the wind goes through them lazily. We spent about half ,m hour there, during which the Austrians very kindly did not send in anything (1 couldn't understand why the-y don't hreak up all the bridges every day} and
64
then we came back to Cormons where I was taken to see Cl Radiographic hospital (10) run lry Countess Helena Gleichen (11) and Mrs Hollings (12) which has been doing wonderful work, They have about half a dozen women assistflnts, including a Miss Hanbury Williams, who was at Rideau Half when we visited the Greys there in Canada. They dress in khaki and their hospital - which was some sort of palace (13) - has a garden full of irises, and they have two cars to carry their apparatus and thL>y are deeply grateful when 1hey are allowed to go into Gorit,,ia and practise their art there among explosions and gas shells. Cer· tainly God made z0omen most marvellously. Mrs Hollings had lost her only boy and so took
Today we don't mo·ve out till after lunch. I didn't find any letter from J,V.>u yesterday but I wish to slate that your forethought in gi·v· ing me tinted glasses made me quite happy all my trip. It's a strong hard light this Italian spring, and one has to treat it seriously. Now I will close up. As I write t you day fry day, though I had to miss yesterday, there s no need tO tell you my movements ahead. In the first place I don't know 'em for cerlain: beig in the hands of the Military who make changes from time to time. In the second, ,·,;en i/ I knew 'em 1 couldn't be sure where to pick up your letters except at Modane, where I hope the invaluable Cla:rence is sitting on a she4 of 'em. A heart's love to you and the Bird. Ever, R.
(l) General Cadorna, Chief of Staff. (2) Probably the Ginnasio Liceo Jacopo Stellini, then an Army HQ. (3) Pirelli, Alberto 28 aprile 1882, Milan, tyre manufacturer, milionaire, cavalry officer, later to head Pirelli & C. di Milano. Author of several books on economics. (4) Across the lsonzo, 5 km due East of Gradisca. (5) Most probably Monte San Michele, as he mentions 'St. Michael' later. (6) Hemingway's novel "A Farewell to Arms" is set in the town; his British Military Hospital was based on the British Red Cross Hospital at the Villa Trento at
s.
Giovanni di Manzano nearby. (7) Commander of the Gorizia Group of Armies. (8) Appears on the maps today as Picdimonte. • (9) Monte San Michele, cast of Gradisca. (10) The 4th or Radiographic' British Red Cross Unit. (11) Daughter of Prince HohenloheLangcnbcrg. Her grandmother was Queen Victoria's half sister. Painter, sculptor and author of Contacts and Contracts, Murray, London 1940. Painted some battle scenes on the Isonzo. She had also provided some illustrations for Landon's book on the Younghusband Expedition to Tibet in 1903-4. She records in her memories that "Mr Rudyard Kipling and Pcrceval Landon came to see us''. (12) Hollings, Mrs Nina. Daughter of General J.H- Smyth CB, sister of Dame Ethel Smyth- Her son had been killed in France earlier in the war. (13) They had four rooms in a villa owned by Count Zocco, an Austrian. (14) Victor Emmanuel III, numismatist, said to have hated the Duke of Aosta (who was commanding the Italian 3rd Army), anti-Church (a mangiaprete), given to pedantry. A tiny man (only 5ft tall); even Kipling could look down on him.
May 11th 1917. 7 p.m.(1) Oh Bird! I've just received your note of the 4th on my return from war among the Alps. An inconceivable trip at the height of 4000 feet, in a country to which the Engelberg valhy is tame and of no account, over roads like the creations of giants. And all the while, above us - 3000 feet above us, on the eternal snows one saw the trenches of the lt.alians on the edge of Monte Nero (2). Conceive our Saint Louis trip multiplied by 50 and you'll get some notion of it. We passed miles of amhushed guns and looked out through hidden casements over seas of mountains at ¡villages of Austrians crawling beneath our feet, thus: and all the time guns were booming one against another, lazily as they tried trial shots. They were 8" or 11" howitzers on our side: and when we climbed (or our car did) up to the very bare tops of mountains behold the grass was all pitted with shell holes. It's a war of giants among rno1mtains. I looked into Tolmino and along 30 mile of Austrian front - wholly di/farent from all I saw yesterday. The immensity of the landscape and the zvork dwarf all comparison. l don't know how on earth or in the clouds I can describe it (3). We go off early to-morrow into real Alps: so I write this to give you all my love and to tell you how glad 1 am that Motht'r has
(at l.astlj learned the habit of resting after lunch. Also the news about the Marks is most cheer, ing. This is a splendid climate but I will share it with you. lf only you could be here to see the beauty of it all and to hear my curious adventures all along. Now I have to go to dinner. Dearest love. Ever your Daddy.
(1) The Xth battle of the Isonzo began at dawn the following morning. (2) Now shown as Km (2245m). (3) Kipling was taken along the Kolovrat, a ridge which runs east of the Isonzo and along the present day frontier with Yugoslavia. They probably went north-east from Monte Corada parallel with the lsonzo, looking down into Tolmino (in Austrian hands) and across to the trenches on M. Nero. Then along by Cambresco, Livske Ravne, M-Kuk to Livek (Luico), returning through Polava, Cepletischis and Savogna to Cividale del Friuli and Udine. Alternatively, they may perhaps have gone beyond Livek to Caporetto (Kobarid or Karfreit on some maps), then back by Stupizza and San Quirino to Cividale. This would have been a journey of some 120 km, consistent with the '30 miles' of front. See Trevelyan 'Scenes from Italy's War', Pages 126-140.
Ruyard Kipling with a group of Alpini during his visits to the Italian front. This photo, sent to us by Commander Peter Lewis of the Sussex University, is reproduced on the cover of the book " The war in the Mountains" published in Italy in 1917. We invite readers to inform us on the soldiers photographed with Kipling.
65
ENGLISH
ITALIAN
GLOSSARY
D-day,
s.
dagger, s. daily, ag. d. bulletin d. estimated position summary d. general orders d. equipment st atus report d. inspection d. personnel summary d. resupply damage,
s.
d. area
d. assessment d. control heavy d. light d. moderate d. nuc lear d. damage radius to claim d.
66
giorno predisposto per un ' operazione tattica (specialmente ii 6 giugno 1944, data dello sbarco alleato in Normandia) stiletto, pugnale giornaliero, quotidiano bollettino quotidiano ricapitolazione quotidiana della p-osizione stimata ordini generali giornalieri rapporto giornaliero sullo stato dell'equipaggiamento ispezione giornaliera rapporto giornaliero sul person ale rifornimento giornal iero, normale danno, guasto, avaria, indennizzo, risarcimento zona entro la quale potrebbe esplodere una mina valutazione dei danni controllo dei danni danni pesanti danno lieve danno moderato danni da esplosione nucleare raggio dei danni chiedere ii risarcimento danni
d. threat war d. d. control centre to damage, v.t. danger, s. d. area d. close d. signal a d. to navigation dangerous, ag. d. cargo dangerously, av. d. exposed waters to dare, v. dif.
the enemy wou ld dare any danger the enemy dared us to fight daring, ag. daring, s. daringly, av. dash,
s.
to make a dash at the enemy the troops were full of dash
probabilita d'avaria danni di guerra centro per ii controllo dei danni danneggiare, avariare, far subi re dei danni pericolo zona pericolosa nemici in prossimita segnale di pericolo un pericolo per la navigazione pericoloso carico pericoloso pericolosamente acque pericolose (esposte al nemico) osare, affrontare, risch iare, sfidare ii nemico affronterebbe qualsiasi pericolo
ii nemico ci sfido in combattimento audace, temerario audacia, temerarieta audacemente, con intrepidita slancio, impeto, toga, i3ttacco attaccare ii nemico con impeto le truppe erano piene di slancio
to dash, v.t .i.
the troops dashed at the enemy date, s. d. time group d. line due d. at long d. at short d. datum, pl. data, s. d. level
d. point air amovement d. firing d. d. link map d. d. amministrator d. bank d. file d. control units d. collection and
distribution unit d. transmission and processing d. acquisition
d. analysis system dauntless, ag. dauntlessness, s. davit, s. paravane d. day, s.
ammunition d. of supply d. of supply d. fighter
C-d. M-d
d. ration to win the d. to lose the d. daylight, s. d. aiming and observation periscope system dazzle,
s.
to dazzle, v. t. to dazzle a ship to deactivate, v.t.
precipitare, infrangere, infrangersi, frantumarsi le truppe si precipitarono sul nemico data gruppo data/orario linea di cambiamento di data data di scadenza, data stabilita a lunga scadenza a breve scadenza dato, elemento d'informazlone, fatto, notizia, premessa livello di riferimento punto di riferimento, capo¡ saldo dati su l movimento aereo dati di tiro collegamento dei dati dati cartografici amministratore dei dati banca dati archivio dati unita per ii controllo dei dati unita per la raccolta e la distribuzione dei dati trasmissione ed elaborazione dati acqu i sizione in formazione sistema per l' analisi dei dati intrepido intrepidezza gru d'imbarcazione gru paramine giornata, battaglia, lotta, giorno giornata di rifornimento munizioni giornata di rifornimento caccia da giorno giorno d'inizio dello schie¡ ramento operativo giorno d'inizio della mobilitazione razione del giorno vincere una battaglia perdere una battaglia luce del giorno, giorno, alba sistema con periscopio per l'osservazione e ii puntamento alla luce del giorno abbagliamento, accecamento, (mar. mil.) mascheramento, mimetizzazione abbagliare, mimetizzare mimetiuare una nave smobilitare
dead, s. dead, ag. d. angle d. line d. mine d. space
d. zone deadener, s. sound d. deadening, ag. deadlock,
s.
i morti, i caduti morto, deceduto, inerte angolo morto linea da non superare mina inerte zona ad angolo morto, zona di silenzio zona non battuta ammorzatore isolante acustico ammortizzante, isolamento acustico, antirombo, insonorizzazione situazione insolubile, punto morto
deadly, ag.
a d. combat a d. enemy deal, s. a d. between nations dearth, s. death, s. to be frozen to death to put someone to death to bleed to death cause of death death rate to debark, v.t.i. debarkation, s . d. schedule to debouch, v.i. the army d. into the plain debouchment, s. debris, s. to debus, v.t.i. (sf. mil.) to deca mp, v.t. decampment, s. decay, s.
radioactive d. d. curves d. rate to deceive, v.t.i. decentralization, s. to decentralize, v.l. decentralized control deception, s.
d. measures d. plan electron ic d. to decimate, v.t. to decipher, v.t. decipherable, ag. deciphering, s. decision, s. decisive, ag. d. battle
mortale, micidiale, implacabile combattimento all' ultimo sangue un nemico implacabi le (pol.} accordo accordo tra nazioni scarsita, penuria (di viveri} morte, decesso morire assiderato condannare a morte morire dissanguato cause di morte mortalita sbarcare, fare uno sbarco sbarco orario di sbarco (anfibio) sfociare (di fiume), sboc¡ care l'esercito sbocco nella pianura sbocco, sfociamento det riti, rottami, macerie scaricare, far scendere (da autocarro) levar le tende ii levar le tende decadimento, deperimento, disinteg razione (di sostanza radioattiva) disintegrazione radioattiva curve di disintegrazione tasso di disintegrazione ingannare, confondere decentramento decent rare cont rollo decentral izzato inganno, confusione, frode, insidia misure di inganno piano di inganno confusione elettronica decimare decifrare decifrabile decifrazione decisione, idea di rnanovra decisivo battag lia decisiva
67
netta superiorita ponte (di nave), coperta ponte di vo lo, cabina piloti porite d'imbarco ponte di coperta ornare, adornare, coprire, rivestire i m band ierare mezzo d i trasport o a piani (aer.) biplano, (mar.) nave a due ponti sbandieramento (di navi,
d. superiority deck, s. flight d.
loading d. main d. to deck, v.t.
to d. with flags decker, s. double d. decking, s.
vie, ec c .)
declaration, s. d. of war to declare, v.t.i .
to d. peace to d. war against declared, ag . a d. enemy d. speed to declassify, v.t. declension, declination,
s. s.
d. compass magnetic d. to decline, v.t.i. to d. battle to decode, v. t. decontamination,
s.
d. stat ion nuclear, biological, chemical (NBC) d. to decorate, v.t.
he was decorated with the George Cross decoration, war d. decoy, s .
s.
d. ship d. site deed, s.
the d. of the army during the war signature of a d. deep, ag. a d. wound d. fording capabi lity d. minefield
68
dichiarazione dich iarazione di guerra d ichiarare, proclamare, render noto proclamare la pace dich iarare guerra a dich iarato un nemico dichiarato velocita dichiarata annullare la classifica di segretezza declino (di un impero) incli naz ione, pendio, pendenza declinometro declinazione magnetica declinare, rifiutare non accettare ii combattimento decifrare azione di t og liere ii contagio, bonifica decontaminazione stazione di de contaminazione decontaminazione nucleare, batteriolog ica e chimica decorare ricevette la Croce di S. Giorgio decorazione, onorificenza decorazione di guerra esca, rich iamo per ingannare ii nemico nave trappola, esca, nave mimetizzata luogo di richiamo fatto, gesta, atto di valore, atto le gesta dell'esercito in guerra sottoscrizione di un atto profondo, alto una ferita protonda attitudi ne a guadare in profond ita campo di mine in profondita
d. supporting fire defaulter,
s.
defeat, s.
to suf fer a d. to defeat, v.t. defection,
s.
defector, s. defence, s. air d.
al l around d. antiaircraft d. antitank d. civil d. close d. coast al d. combined d. d. beyond the border line d. in depth d. in place d. on a wide front d. stores hasty d. line of d. mobile d. national d. nuc lear, bio logical chem ical d. passive d. position d. d. readiness cond ition perimeter d. reverse slope d. self-d. temporary d. territorial ai r d. un it d. area offence and d. to fight in d. of one's country in d. of to make a d. against defences, s.p l. defenceless, ag. defencelessness,
s.
to defend, v. t.
the army d. the town against the enemy defender, s. defense, s. (amer.)
tiro d'appogg io in profondi ta trasgressore, inadempiente, colpevole di infrazione disciplinare, soldato punito, consegnato sconfitta, disfatta subire una sconfitta sconfiggere, sbarag liare, rovesciare defezione, abbandono, diserzione disertore, profugo politico d ifesa difesa aerea difesa a giro d'orizzonte difesa contraerea difesa controcarri difesa civile difesa ravvicinata d ifesa cost iera difesa combinata difesa oltre confine difesa in profondita difesa ad oltranza difesa su ampio fron te materiali di rafforzamento difesa improvvisata linea difensiva difesa mobile difesa del territorio nazionale difesa nucleare, batteriolog ica e ch imica difesa passiva difesa ancorata stato di preparazione alla difesa difesa perimetrale difesa su pendio inverso difesa personale, autodifesa difesa a tempo determinato difesa antiaerea del territorio zona difesa da un reparto offesa e difesa combattere per la difesa del proprio paese a difesa di soste nere una d ifesa, contro difese, forti ficazioni, opere di difesa senza difesa, ind ifeso incapacita, impossibilit a di difendersi dif endere, proteggere, fare una difesa ¡ l'esercito d ifese la citta contro ii nemico difensore per defence
(i) defensibility, s. defensible, ag. defensive, ag. to be on the d.
d. action d. area d. battle d. capacity d. coastal area d. fire d. mine countermeasures d. minefield to defer, v. t.i.
to d. something to a later date deferred maintenance d. telegram deferment, s. defiance,
s.
to shout d. at the enemy to set someone at d. to defil ade, v.t. defile,
s.
to defile, v.i. to deflagrate, v.t.i. deflagration, s. defl agrator, s. defl ection, s. to defy, v.t.
the fortress defied all attacks to degrade, v.t.i. to defoliate, v.t. defoliating agent defoliant operation degree, s .
d. of contaminat ion d. of alertness d. of heat d. of latitude d. of security d. of humidity d. or risk deicer,
s.
dekko,
s.
to delate, v.t. delay,
s.
an hour's d.
difendibilita difensibile difensivo, s. difensiva stare sulla difensiva azione difensiva area di difesa battaglia difensiva capacita difensiva zon a costiera di difesa fuoco 路difensivo mi sure di protezione contro le mine campo di mine difensivo differire, rimandare, prorogare rimandare qualcosa ad altra data manutenzione in servizio telegramma differito rinvio dell a chiamat a di leva sfida lanciare una sfida al nemico sfidare, non rispettare (gli ordini) riparare dalla vista, dal ti路 ro del nemico gola, passo stretto attraverso cui le truppe sono costrette a procedere solo in fila marciare, procedere in fila deflagrare, far deflagrare deflagrazione deflag ratore deviazione (di un proiettile) sfidare, provocare, offrire difficolta insormontabi li la fortezza resistette a tutti gli attacchi degradare spogliare, sfrondare (piante) agente chimico che fa perdere le fog lie operazione di sfrondamento grado grado di contaminazione grado di vigilanza grado di calore gradi di lat itudine grado di sicurezza grado di umidita grado di rischio (aer.) dispositivo anti ghiaccio (sl. mil.) sguardo, colpo d'occhio den unciare (una persona, un misfatto) ritardo, indugio, rinvio un'ora di ritardo
without d. to cause d. to delay, v.t.i . delayed, ag. d. action delaying, ag.
d. action d. detachment d. echelon d. operation d. position delegation, s.
posizionc ritardatrice
a military s. d. of authority deliberate, ag. d. action d. attack d. breaching
d. cross ing
d. defence to deliver, v.t.
to d. someone from captivity to d. someone into the hands of the enemy to d. oneself up to to d.a message to d. a speech delivery, s . d. of a team air d. d. error d. means
to have a good d. mail d. to demarcate, v.t. demarcation,
s.
line of d. demilitarization, s. to demilitarize, v.t. d. zone demission, s. to demit, v.t.i.
senza indug io causare ritardo ritardare, rinviare, ostacolare, differire ritardato ad azione ritardata che ritarda, che causa ritardo azione ritardatrice, di disturbo distaccament o di cont rasto dinam ico scaglione di disturbo manovra di disturbo delegazione, commissione, rappresentanza, delega una rappresentanza mili路 tare delega del potere cauto, prudente, ponderato, premed itato azione cauta attacco premeditato operazione di rimozione delle mine attraversamento premeditato e pianificato di un fiume difesa preparata in anticipo consegnare, distribuire, lanciare, pron unciare salvare qualcuno dalla cattivita consegnare qualcuno al nemico arrendersi conseg nare un messaggio fare un discorso resa, consegna, distribuzione, lancio, ii pronunciar resa di una citta spedizione via aerea dispersion e (del tiro) mezzi di lancio, di spedi路 zione, di consegna saper pronunciare bene un discorso c.Jistribuzione della corrispondenza demarcare, tracci are una linea di demarcazione delimitare demarcazione, delimitazione li nea di demarcazione smilitarizzazione sm i litarizzare zona demilitarizzata abdicazione, dimissione, rinuncia dimettere, dimettersi
69
to d. office
to demob v. t. demobilization, s. to demobilize, v.t.i. to demolish, v.t. demolition,
s.
atomic d. munition d. belt charged d. target
d. equipment d. firing party
d. guard uncharged d. target to charge a d. to demonstrate, v.t.i.
demonstration, s. to demote, v.t. demotion, denial,
s.
s.
d. measure self-d. dent,
s.
the d. in a helmet denunciation,
s.
to deny, v.t.
to d. access density,
s.
d. (land mine warfare) d. altitude d. of motor column traffic d. department,
s.
d. of the Army
dimettersi dal proprio ufficio smobilitare smobi Iitazione smobilitare, smobilitarsi demolire, abbattere, distruggere demolizione m ina atom ica (nucleare) zona seminata di esplosivi obiettivo di demol izione caricato materiale per la demolizione gruppo tecnicamente responsabile della demolizione distaccamento per la protezione dei materiali per la demol izione obiettivo di demolizione non caricato preparare, caricare una demolizione dimostrare, fare un 'azione dimostrativa per ingannare ii nemico azione d imostrativa ridurre, far retrocedere ad un grado inferiore retrocessione ad un grado inferiore diniego, rifiuto, rinnegamento misure di divieto abnegazione ammaccatura, segno di un colpo le ammaccature su un elmetto denunzia {di abuso, di tregua, trattato) negare negare l'accesso densita densita di mine densita altitudine densita di marcia densita di circolazione reparto, servizio, sezione, ufficio, dipartimento, ministero, dicastero dipartimento dell'Esercito
depletion, s. to deploy, v.t.i. deployment, d. area
s.
d. operating base d. stage line of d. to deport, v.t.
s.
deportation, deportee, s. depot, s.
advanced section of d. artillery ammunition d. central d. joint d. main section of d. ordinance and signal mobile d. POL d. smal l arms ammunition d. depredation, s. depredatory, ag.
d. expedition depth,
s.
d. contour defence in d. d. of a column d. charge d. finder deputy,
s.
d. Chief of Staff d. Commander
d. Chief of Staff operations d. Chief of Staff Support description,
s.
ground d. personal d. d. of target descriptive, ag. d. name
(USA)
the War D.
ii Ministero della Guerra
derringer,
s.
(USA) departure,
s.
d. airfield d. point estimated time of d. to deplane, v.i. to deplete, v.t. 70
partenza zona di decollo punto di origine ora d i partenza prevista. scendere da un aereo vuotare, esaurire (riserve, forze)
to desert, v.t.i. deserter, s. desertion, s. designation, s.
target d. to despoil, v.t.
esaurimento (riserve, forze) spiegare, spiegarsi, schierarsi spiegamento (delle forze) zona di spiegamento base di spiegamento fase di spiegamento linea di sp iegamento deporatre, esil iare deportazione, espulsione deportato deposito, magazzino , spaccio sezione avanzata di magazzino deposito munizion i di artiglieria deposito centrale sezione mista di magazzino sezione principale di magazzino parco mobile deposito carburanti e lubrificanti deposito mun izioni per armi portatili saccheggio, rapina caratterizzato da saccheggio, rapina spedizione a scopo di rapina profondita linea bat imetrica difesa in profondita profondita di una colonna bomba antisommergibile scandaglio sostituto, vice sottocapo di Stato Maggiore vice comandante sottocapo di Stato Maggiore operazioni sottocapo di Stato Maggiore logistico descrizione descrizione del terreno connotati personali descrizione di un obiettivo descrittivo termine descrittivo (cartografia) pistol a a canna corta e di grosso calibro disertare, abbandonare disertore diserzione, defezione designazione, indicazione designazione di un obiett ivo saccheggiare
to d. of wounds received in action Diesel, no. pr. d. engine d. oil d. rail car to dig, v.t.i . to d. oneself in to d. out digging, s. d. of emplacemP.nts din s.
the d. of war dingey, dinghy, s. dip, s. flag at the d. to dip, v.t.i. to d. a flag to direct, v.t.i.
the general directed his men to advance as d. Directing Staff direct, ag . d. air support d. damage assessment
d. fire d. illuminat ion d. support direction, s. angle of d. d. finder d. finding
d. of attack d. of fire fire d. directive, s. d. function to follow d. director, s. D. General of Army Medical Services fire d. d. general of Army Veterinary Service d. gunnery division d. general of military training d. general of personnel
morire in seg uito a ferite di ¡guerra diesel motor diesel nafta automotrice diesel vangare, lavorare la terra, scavare trincer1:trsi, scavare t rincee tirar fuori dalla terra, disseppellire scavo, sterro scavo di postazioni baccano, strepito, fracasso, tumulto lo strepito della guerra (mar.) lancia immersione, posizione a mezz'asta di bandiera bandiera a mezz'asta immergere, abbassare abbassare la bandiera in segno di saluto dirigere, amministrare, dare ordini ii generate ordino ai suoi uomini di avanzare secondo le istruzioni ricevute gruppo direttivo, Direzione Esercitazione diretto, immed iato appogg io aereo diretto valutazione immediata dei danni ti ro diretto illuminazione diretta appoggio diretto direzione, amministrazione angolo di direzion e radiogoniometro ricerca della direzione, orientamento direzione di attacco direzione di tiro direzione del tiro direttiva, istruzione, ordine fun zione direttiva seguire le istruzioni direttore Oirettore Generale del servizio Sanita dell'eserclto direttore del ti ro Direttore general del ser¡ vizio veterinario dell 'esercito direttore del reparto fucilieri direttore generale dell'addestramento militare direttore generale del person ale
d. general of transportation dirigible, s. dirk, s. to dirk, v.t. disability, s. d. pension to disable, v.t. a d. soldier disadvantage, s. to take the enemy at a d.
to disally, v.t.
to disanchor, v.t. to disarm, v.t. to d. a soldier of his rifle disarmament, s. disarray, s. the troops were in d. to disarray, v.t. to disband, v.t.i.
the army was d. disbandment, s. to disburse, v.t. disbursing officer discharge, s.
d. d. d. to
nozzle f rom the army for unfitness discharge, v.t.i.
he d. all his duties perfectly dischargeable, ag. dischargee, s. disciplinal, ag. disciplinarian, s. disciplinary, ag. d. punishment discipline, s. fire d. march d. military d. road d. to enforce perfect d. discretion, s.
to surrender at d. to discrown, v.t.
direttore generale dei trasporti dirig ibile, aeronave pugnal e (degli Scozzesi e degli aspiranti di marina) pug nalare infermita, invalidita pensione d'invalid ita mutilare soldato invalido, mutilato svantaggio, perdita cog liere ii nemico alla sprovvista, in un momenta sfavorevole sciogliere, rompere un 'alleanza disancorare disarmare, disarmarsi togliere ii fucile a un sol dato d isarmo disordine, scompiglio c'era scompiglio tra le t ruppe disorganizzare, scompigliare sbandarsi, essere congedato l'esercito tu sbandato dispersione, sbandamento, congedo sborsare, pagare ufficiale pagatore scarica, congedo, ri forma, scarica di artiglieria ugello di scarico congedo dall 'esercito riforma per inidoneita riformare, scaricare, congedare, com piere un dovere egli ha compiuto tutti i suoi doveri perfettamente congedabile, riformabile soldato congedato, riformato disciplinare chi sa imporre la disciplina discipli nare punizione disciplinare disciplina disciplina del fuoco disciplina di marcia discipli na m ilitare disciplina stradale imporre una perfetta discipli na discrezione, arbitrio, discernimento, liberta di azione arrendersi a discrezione detronizzare, deporre 7l
despoiler, s. despoilment, s. destination, s.
d. port to destroy, v.t. destroyer,
s.
d. escort
guided missile d. tank d. d. tender destruction,
s.
d. fire
d. radius long range d. mass d. weapon piecemeal d. to detach, v.t. detached, ag.
d. artillery d. post d. unit detachment,
s.
on d. air photo interpretation d. delaying d. flank d. motorized d. scouting d.
d. left in contact security d. detail,
s.
in d. war of d. to detail, v.t.
to d. the facts to d. someone for a duty detailed, ag.
d. report to detain, v.t.
to d. the authority detainee, 72
s.
sacchegg iatore spoliazione, depredazione dest inazione porto di destinazione distruggere, sterminare, demolire d istruttore, cacciatorpediniere cacciatorpedin ie re di scorta¡ cacciatorped iniere lancia missile cacciacarri nave appoggio per cacciatorpediniere distruzione, demolizione, annientamento tiro di demolizione raggio di distruzione d istruzione a grande distanza arma di distruzione di massa distruzione graduale distaccare distaccato, decentrato, isolato. artiglieria decentrata posto distaccato reparto distaccato, dato in rinforzo ad altre unita distaccamento di staccato distaccamento per l' interpretazione di fotografie aeree distaccamento di contrasto dinamico distaccamento fiancheggiante distaccamento motorizzato distaccamento di esplorazione distaccamento lasciato in contatto col nemico scaglione di sicurezza particolare, dettaglio, piecola azione dettagliatamente guerriglia esporre minuziosamente, distaccare descrivere minutamente i fatti distaccare qualcuno per un servizio particolareggiato, dettagliato rapporto dettagliato trattenere, detenere, custodire detenere l'autorita confinato
detainer, s. detainment, s. detection, s.
radio d. and ranging radioactivity d. detector,
s.
mine d. radio d.
s.
detention,
d. barracks d. allowance d. camp deterrent,
s.
d. operation d. patrolling d. phase nuclear d. to detonate, v.t.i. detonating, s., ag.
d. cord d. mixture detonation, s. detonator, s.
v. t.i.
to detrain,
to devastate, v.t.
the war d. the whole of Europe devastation, s. development, s.
d. plan deviation, device, s.
s.
firing d. safety d. diagram, s.
communication d. flight d. radio net d. telephone traffic d. dial,
s.
sun d. d. sight to dial, v.t. to dictate, v.t.i. to d. terms to the enemy to die, v.i.
detenzione di persona o oggetto, ordine di incarcerazione detenzione scoperta, rivelazione rad iolocal izzazione rilevamento di radiazion i rivelatore, misuratore cercamine rivelatore radio detenzione, prigionia, arresto prigione militare indennita giornaliera campo di internamento deterrente, azione che trattiene, che dissuade operazione deterrente pattugliamento deterrente fase deterrente deterrente nucleare detonare, fare esplodere detonante cordone detonante miscela detonante detonazione, esplosione detonatore (di proiettile, bomba) far scendere dal treno (truppe) devastare, rovinare la guerra devasto !'Europa intera devastazione, rovina sviluppo piano di sviluppo scarto mezzo, espediente, stratagemma, congegno, disposit ivo, meccanismo, (arald.) divisa, emblema, stemma congegno di sparo congegno di sicurezza diagramma, grafico, schema grafico delle trasmissioni diagramma di volo grafico delle trasmissioni radio grafico delle trasm issioni telefoniche quadrante, scala parlante, rosa dei venti, bussola meridian a cannocchiale panoramico comporre un numero telefonico, (rad.) cercare una stazione ¡ dettare, imporre condizioni imporre condizioni al nemico morire
J
disease,
l
s.
endemic d. epidemic d. tropical d. contagious d. venereal d. to disembark, v.t.i. disembarkation, s. d. port
d. schedule disembodiment, s. to disembody, v.t. disengagement, s.
disengaging, s.
d. movement disk, s. d. brake
d. identity dislocation,
s.
d. allowance to dislodge, v.t.i. dislodgement, s. to dismantle, v.t. dismantlement,
s.
to dismast, v.t. to dismember, v.t. dismemberment, s . dismiss, s. to dismiss, v.t.
to d. someone from the service to d. troops to be d. from the service dismiss! dismissal,
s.
dismissible, ag.
dismount, s. to dismount, v.t.i.
to d. the cavalry to d. a gun dismounted, ag. d. cavalry dismounting, s. to disobey, v.t. to d. an order to d. the law disord6r,
s.
malattia, affezione, morbo, infermita malattia endemica malattia epidemica malattia tropicale malattia contagiosa malattia venerea sbarcare sbarco porto di sbarco orario di sbarco congedo (di truppe) congedare (truppe) libcrnzionc, svincolamento, sganciamento, disponibilita sganciamento manovra di sganciamento disco freno a disco piastrina d'identita dislocazione, dislocamento indennita di trasferta sloggiare (ii nemico) lo scacciare; sloggiamento smantellare, demolire, spogliare, disarmare smantellamento, demolizione, disarmo disalberare (una nave) smembrare smembramento segnale di rompere le file, le righe congedare, licenziare, destituire, dimettere radiare qualcuno dai ranghi mandare in congedo le truppe essere esonerato dal servizio militare rompete le tile! congedo, licenziamento, destituzione, radiazione (da ruolo) congedabile, licenziabile, che si puo destituire discesa (da cavallo, da mezzo corazzato) scendere, smontare, appiedare appiedare la cavalleria smontare, rendere inservibile un cannone appiedato cavalleria appiedata discesa da cavallo, smontagg io (di una macchina) disubbidire, trasgredire disubbidire un ordine trasgreciire la legge disordine, confusione
the enemy fled in d.
d. spread throughout the country nervous d. disorganization, dispatch, s.
s.
bulk d. d. rider
mention in d. d. box
d. case to dispatch, v.t.
to d. a convoy dispersion,
s.
d. error d. pattern
d. plan displaced, ag.
d. person displacement,
s.
to display, v.t.
to d. the flag to d. a notice d. controller disposal, s.
bomb d. unit to dispose, v.t.i.
the commander d. his troops very well disposition, s .
to dispute, v.t.i. to disrupt, v.t.
overrunning and d. action disruptive, ag.
d. pattern disruption,
s.
ii nemico fuggi disordinatamente ii disordine si diffuse in tutto ii paese disturbo nervoso disorganizzazione invio, spedizione, dispaccio, messaggio spedizione di materiali in grande quantita motociclista che porta dispacci citazione all 'ordine del giorno valigia diplomatica busta per custodire dispacci, documenti sped ire, inviare, far partire (un corriere, un telegramma) mettere in moto un convoglio dispersione, diradamento scarto di dispersione schema di dispersione, rosa di tiro piano di diradamento rimosso, destituito profugo, rifugiato politico, deportato spostamento, dislocamento mostrare, mettere in mostra, esporre, manifestare esporre la bandiera esporre un avviso controllore responsabile di una dimostrazione aerea disposizione, collocamento (di truppe) gruppo addetto al disinnescamento delle bombe disporre, combinare, distribuire, mettere in ordine ii comandante distribui le sue truppe molto bene disposizione, assestamento, ordine, schieramento (di truppe) disputare, contrastare, contendere disgregare, disarticolare, smembrare (un esercito, un impero, uno stato) azione dirompente e di disarticolazione che smembra, che disorganizza sagoma di mascheramento rottura, spaccatura, smembramento, scisma, separazione 73
to disseminate, v.t. dissemination, s.
intelligence d. distance, s.
buffer d. minimum safe d. nuclear buffer d. total stopping d. of a vehicle vehicle d. distinctive, ag.
d. number distress, s. ship in d.
d. call d. signal d. gun d. rocket distribution,
s.
d. li st d. point fire d. district,
s.
disturbance,
s.
civi l d. mental d. ditch,
s.
antitank d. dive,
s.
d. bomber d. bombing d. brakes to dive, v.t. diver, s. diversion,
s.
diversionary, ag.
d. attack d. land ing diving, s.
d. helmet d. suit division,
s.
airborne d. armoured d. infantry d. mechanized d. motorized d. triangular d. d. rear area
74
diffondere, divulgare diffusione, divulgazione diffusione di informazioni distanza margine di sicurezza distanza di sicurezza nucleare margine di sicurezza nucleare spazio -di frenata
d. rapid reaction force
distanza interveicolare distintivo, atto a dist inguere, caratteristico numero di identificazione pericolo, difficolta nave in pericolo S.O.S., segnale di soccorso S.O.S., segnale di soccorso, di pericolo cannone per chiamare soccorso razzo per chiamare soccorso d istribuzione elenco di distribuzione centro di distribuzione distribuzione del fuoco distretto, (mar.) dipartimento disordine, disturbo disordine civile disturbo mentale fossato, trincea fosso anticarro tuffo, immersione, picchiata bombardiere in picchiata bombardamento in picchiata deflettori di picchiata tuffarsi, immergersi, lanciarsi in picchiata tuffatore, palombaro, veivolo in picchiata diversione, deviazione (d i strada) diversivo, sussidiario attacco diversivo, sussidiario sbarco di diversione ii tuffarsi, tuffo, immersione, picchiata casco da palombaro scafandro divisione, reparto, sezione divisione aviotrasportata divisione corazzata divisione di fanteria divisione meccanizzata divisione motorizzata divisione ternaria retroguard ia d i divisione
d. headquarters
d. restructuring study divisional, ag. d. artillery d. rest d. quartermaster d. ordinance officer
d. signals dixy, s. dock, s. to docket, v.t. dockyard, s. naval d. doctrine, s. tactical d. document, s. captu red d.
classified d. confidential d. documentation, s. d. office
military geographic d. to dodge, v.t.i.
to d. mi litary service dog-fight, s. dolman, s. domestic, ag. d. war dominance, s. to dominate, v.t. i. to d. over a people dominator, s. dominion, s. dope, s. dormitory, s. dormant, ag. dose, s.
absorbed radiation d. exposure d. lethal d. maximum permissible d. medium lethal d. radiation d. radiation d. rate reference d. dosimeter, s. individual d.
gruppo di divisione pronto ad una rapida reazione studio per la riorganizzazione della divisione di divisione, divisionale artig lieria di divisione turno di riposo nelle retrovie di una divisione commissario di divisione uffic iale di divisione addetto ai materiali quartier generale di divisione segnali divisionali (sl. mil.) pentola di ferro bacino, molo, porto classificare carte, documenti arsenale, cantiere porto mi litare dottrina, teoria dottrina tattica documento documento catturato al nemico documento classificato documento riservato documentazione ufficio di documentazione documentazione geografica mi litare scartare, scansare, scansarsi, deviare tarsi riformare combattimento accan ito (generalmente tra caccia) dolman (cappa da ufficiale) domestico guerra intestina predominio dominare, prevalere dominare un popolo dominatore dominio, impero, ascendente, autorita materiale assorbente per esplosivi dormitorio, camerata inattivo (di mina) dose dose di radiazione assorbita dose di esposizione dose letale dose massima accettabile dose letale media dose di radiazione intensita di dose rad ioattiva dose di riferimento dosimetro dosimetro individuale
--
tactical reading d. dosimetry, s. residual d.
dossier,
s.
target d. to double, v. t. i. d.-barelled d.-breasted d.-march d.-march! d.-q uick d.-cross to d.-cross, v.t. to down, v.t. down, av. to shoot d. an ai rcraft motion d. for to-day downcome, s. the d. of the army after the war downfall, s. the d. of the empire to downgrade, v.t. draft,
s.
to draft, v.t. draftee, s. drafter, s.
draftsman, drag, s.
s.
d. boat to drag, v.t.i. dragon, s. dragoon, s. draught, V. draft to draw, v.t.i. to d. one's swo rd to d. rations drawback, s.
the fog was a d. for the advancement of the troops drawbridge, s. dreadnought, s.
dosimetro a lettura diretta dosimetria doslmetria dell a radiazione residua doss ier, in cartamen to, compendia compendia degli obiettivi doppiare, raddoppiare, marciare a passo di carica a doppia canna a doppio petto (di giacca) passo di corsa di corsa ! a passo di carica doppio giuoco (sl.) fare ii doppio giuoco, ingannare abbattere, buttare a terra giu abbattere un aereo mozione portata all 'ordi· ne del giorno sfacelo, disastro lo sfacelo dell'esercito dopo la guerra caduta, rovina, distruzione la caduta dell'impero abbassare la cl assifica di segretezza bozza, schema, progetto, di staccamento, contingente, membro di un di· staccamento, membro di un contingente, leva, co· scrizione abbozzare, stendere la pri· ma copia, redigere, distaccare (truppe) m ili tare di leva chi stende (documento), chi abbozza (progetti), re· dattore diseg natore (di progetti) (aer.) resistenza aerodina· mica battello draga dragare, rastrellare, nettare (fiume, porto) t rattore dragone t irare, trarre, estrarre sguainare la spada ritirare le razioni inconveniente, svantag· gio, ostacolo la nebbia era un ostacolo all 'avanzamento delle truppe ponte levatoio (mar.) " dreadnought", corazzata, giaccone di pesante lana impermeabilizzata
dredge, s. d. boat floati ng d. to dredge, v.t.i. dredger, s.
mine d. to dress, v.t.i.
d. reg ul ations to d. a ship to d. a wound dressing, s. drift, s.
d. angle d. ice to drift, v.t.i. drifting m ine driftage, s. drifter, drill,
s.
s.
d. ammunition d. cartridge
d. ground d. mine d. purpose only d. regulations d. sergeant close order d. d. instructor to drill, v. t. drilling, s. d. ring to drive, v.t.i.
to d. out to d. the enemy out driver, s. t ruck d. dremong, drone, drop,
s.
s.
s.
ai r d. d. altitude d. height
draga galleggiante per dragare draga galleggiante dragare, scavare con la draga draga, battello usato per drag are dragamine vestire, medicare, decorare, allinearsi, allineare (le file) regolam e nti r iguardo l'uniforme pavesare una nave mec.l icare una ferita all ineamento deriva, movimento progressivo, velocita (di corrente) angolo di deriva ghiaccio alla deriva andare alla deriva, lasciarsi trasportare mina alla deriva l'andare alla deriva, deri· va, deviazione (dalla rotta) motopesc hereccio, dragamine esercitazione, addestramento, esercizio, istruzione munizionamento da eserc itazione cartu ccia da esercitazione campo da esercitazioni, piazza d 'armi mina finta da esercitazione solo a fini di esercitazione regolamenti per l'esercitazione sergente istruttore ord ine serrato istruttore dell'esercitazione esercitare, add est rare, fare esercitazioni esercitazione sonda andare in veicolo, guid are, portare (in veicolo) cacciare fuori scacciare ii nemico autista, condutt ore di automezzi conduttore di autocarri (st.) dromone (veloce nave da guerra) veicolo di terra, mare, aria senza pi Iota (tel eguidato) caduta, salto, lancio col paracadute aviolancio alt itudine di lancio (col paracadute) quota di lancio 75
(i) d. master d. message d. zone free d. parachute d. supply d. to droop, v.t.i. to d. the colours to drop, v.t.i. drop! drum,
s.
d. major to drum, v.t.i . drumfire, s. drumhead, s. d. court-martial drummer, s.
dry, ag.
d. battery d. dock d. gap bridge
dual, ag. d. purpose manoeuvring unit to dub, v.t.
to d. someone a knight duck, s. dud, s. due, ag.
the ship is d. tomorrow the drill is d. tomorrow due,
s.
annual d. duel, s. to fight a d. to duel, v.i. dueller, s. duelling, s. duellist, s.
76
direttore di lancio (materiali) messaggio lanciato da un velivolo zona di lancio lancio a caduta libera lancio con paracadute lancio di rifornimenti abbassare salutare abbassando la bandiera sganciare bombe da un aereo comando "accorciare ii tiro!" tamburo, bidone, fusto di combustibile tamburo maggiore suonare ii tamburo fuoco tambureggiante di sbarramento pelle di tamburo carte marziale (all'aperto) intorno ad un tamburo rovesciato tamburino, suonatore di tamburo secco, asciutto, arido, a salve, senza munizioni batteria a secco bacino di carenaggio ponte lanciato sopra una breccia secca (cratere, fossati anticarro) doppio, duplice unita di manovra a duplice scopo (arc.) nominare, creare (cavaliere) nominare qualcuno cavaliere veicolo anfibio proiettile, bomba, razzo inesploso dovuto, atteso, programmato la nave e attesa per domani l'esercitazione e programmata per domani ii dovuto, ii debito, ii giusto, tributo, pl. quota sociale (da pagarsi ad un circolo) quote annuali duello battersi a duello fare un duello, battersi a duello duel Iante ii duellare duel I ante
dugout,
s.
dumdum, s. dummy, ag.
d. bomber d. cartridge d. message d. minfield d. position dump, s.
artillery ammunition d.
d. truck small arms ammunition d. dumper, s. to dump, v.t.
dungeon, s. Dunkerque, Dunkirk, no. pr. duration, s. d. of movement duress, s.
to act under d. dust, s. radioactive d. duty, s.
d. free d. corporal d. officer d. paid soldierly d. temporary d. to be on d. to come off d. to fulfill one' s d. the commander told the soldier what his d. were dynamitard, s. dynamite, s. to dynamite, v.t. dynamiter, s.
canoa (ricavata da un tronco d'albero), rifugio, ricovero sotterraneo, trincea coperta, (sl. mil.) uff iciale in pensione richiamato pallottola esplosiva dumdum falso, finto, simulato; s. fantoccio, sagoma sagoma di bombardiere cartuccia a salve messaggio fittizio campo di mine fittizio posizione simulata deposito di munizioni , scarico di materiali alla rinfusa, deposito temporaneo al fron te deposito munizioni di artiglieria autocarro con cassone ribaltabi le deposito munizioni per armi portatili autoribaltabile scaricare (macerie, detriti), formare una riserva, un deposito (di viveri, munizioni) cella, prigione sotterranea (fig.) Dunkerque ritirata sotto bombardamento nemico durata durata del movimento prigionia, arresto, costrizione, violenza cedere alla forza polvere polvere radioattiva ubbidienza, rispetto, dovere, funzione, mansione, servizio, imposta, tassa esente da imposta caporale di giornata ufficiale di servizio franco dogana dovere militare servizio isolato, in foglio di viaggio essere di servizio smontare di servizio compiere ii proprio dovere ii comandante disse al soldato quali erano le sue incombenze dinamitardo dinamite far saltare con la dinam'ite dinamitardo
BOOK REVIEWS
CARLO MA~IA SAWORO
L' ITALIA E IL MEDITERRANEO
("Italy and t he Mediterranean. Matters of foreign policy"), Franco Angeli, Milan, 1988, pages 233, L 22,000
QUESTION Ill POUTICA es·c~A
Carlo Maria Santoro: " L' Italia e i1 Mediterraneo. Qucstioni di politica cstcra",
The general aspects of Italian foreign policy, and in particular the Mediterranean and Middle-Eastern, and the change of the Icalian political picture during the '80s, are the subject of the auchor's analysis. The volume contains eight essays and studies on this subject. The&<' :ire che resu lts of r PSl'~rch and Studies carried out by some Italian universities in collaboration with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and coordinated by the University of Bologna. The reasons for the "revival" of the Italian foreign policy and the following change of the international picture of ltaly are analyzed and form ulated in a series of interpretative hypotheses. These hypotheses are based on the quantification of four "external" and "internal" independent variables, among which the redistribution o f roles between the hegemonic ally - the United States - and the minor partners of the Alliance, and the increased Italian vul nerability to any possi-
ble external menace, as shown by the Libyan missiles against Lampedusa. Italy that for its strategic position, has always acted as "bridge" between two worlds - the European and the Arabian N orthAfrican - , and that weaved a net of political and economic links in the Mediterranean area, found itself being the most vulnerable country of the Atlantic Alliance and, above all, according to Handel's classification, started playing the role of " medium power" in comparison with the "sub-system" of the J::ast-Wesc blocs. The military ini tiatives Italy was involved in during the last few years are only one of the aspects of the national foreign policy within its new role. But how can the Italian foreign policy expand and, at the same time, improve and adapt itself, in particular in the Mediterranean area, "a place geographically nonhomogeneous, made up by different subregional areas where trims and unexpected volte-faces are very common?". Which arc the bonds of the new policy and through which instruments of reforms will it be able to meet future needs? In this connection very important is che preparation and the role played by the Italian
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BOOK REVIEWS diplomats, above all as decision makers, in order co avoid for the Italian foreign policy, worn away by intergovern mental conflicts, to be established, above all in the }.-Iediterranca n area, according to four different political lines. ·
Antonio Liuzzi
'.IINIS I Ht•> DI I LA Il l! I'\ \ ~ 1 :, t tl ;\l:\(:t , Jll lH· D H t ·1·,l· IW )h 1
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The Italian Army in the Great War (1915-1918) vol. V - tome II: "The events from July 1918 to the start of the Peace Conference", Rome 1988. T he History Office of the Army General Staff has recently published the last volume of the Official Report on the operations of the Italian Army in World War I, started in 1927. On the occasion of the 70th Anniversary of the Vittorio Veneco battle an d thanks ro t he pl urennial commitment of its author, General Alberto Rovighi, former teacher of Military History ac th~ War training School in Civicavecchi a, this volume completes the well-documented exposition of the big effort made by the lralian Nation and by its Army in those years. Also this tome, like t he previous ones, is made up by three books: Text, Documents and Enclosure, Maps. T he text is divided into three parts. The first is dedicated to the situation and events of the summertime, following the successful defensive battle on the Mount Grappa and on the Piave. After the description of t he
80
general situation, and above all of the Italian and enemy ones, it closely examines the various reasons that stopped our Supreme Command from caking offensive initiatives. While the combat activity came to a stand still, a deep quali tative strenghtening of our Army took place, in sight of che final effort, fixed among che allied Countri es for the Spring of 19]9. T he second part is dedicated co the Vittorio Veneto battle and closely examines the events and r easons that led t(J rake ~u<.:b au importanc iniciative, in an already late season, according to met hods and in sectors differenc from those previously established. So it considers: genesis and evolution of the plans of the Supreme Command, organizing aspects, opposing forces. The exami nation of t he events is preceded by their synthesis, that also represents the reason of the rather unusual division of the battle inco fou r phases, and that for 14 days, saw all units of our Army fighting on a 340 kilometer long from and engaged in complex opera· tions of breaking, penetration, completion and utilization of the success achieved. After examing closely some historically concroversial aspects of the armistice negotiat ions, this part ends with some political and military comments concerning the battle. The thi rd part is dedicated to a generally overlooked period, during which our Units were nor engaged in figh ting, bm chat saw a big reorganizatio n of our Army (Command, staff, operative and logistic structures). T he period from N ovember 5th, 1918 to January 18th, 1919 (starting of che Peace C()nfere nce) saw our Units engaged: in the execution of the armistice clauses; in the advance and occupation of che freed territories as far as the Alpine ridge while the logistic apparatus was still West of the Piave; in administrative, political and economic incervencions in favour of the population; in the effort to put the carriage and railway communications back in operation and to restore acceptable life conditions in a large area; in political-administrative interventions in those areas inhabited by populations speaking a different language. All this cook place while che demobili7..ation was starting and the Country was naturally reducing its p revious engagement and was affected by the first difficulties: political difficulties concerning the post-war international and economic order because of the standscill. One of the last chapters of the Report, contains some poli tical and military co mments abom many, sometimes controversial, aspects of t he activity of our Army and its soldiers during the war; abom the effo rts made to win; about the meaning of this vie-
tory at that time, but also nowadays. 669 documents enclosed and the reprod u<:tion of 47 maps and panoramic views of that time, enrich a work that the Chief of th.: Army General Staff was glad to p resenc officially to che President of che Rep ublic last 27 October, on che occasion of this 70ch Anniversary, and that the Historical Office i, very pleased to present to the Count ry.
Mario Rizza: "I nostri battaglioni alpini", ("Our Alpine battalions"), Manfrini, Calliano (TN), 1987, pages 190. The Alpine marshal! Mario Rizza, lover of mil itary history, recalls, through this book, the events of all Alpine battallio ns, from 1882, having the name of a mou nt, wwn or valley. T his work issued on the occasion of the 60th Nat io nal Gathering of the Alpine Troops in Trento, is a valid support co the knowledge of these troops and will contri bute to vu lgarize the story of the still existing batcallions and of chose dissolved. T he Author intends to supply the readers a schematic picture of all Alpine units summarizing the most important and meaningful episodes. For each unit he describes the decorations awarded to the War Flag and the individual ones. Ferdinando Schett ino
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