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JOURNAL OF THE ITALIAN ARMY FOUNDED IN 1856

MAY

JUNE 1988

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CIRO DI MARTINO The Objectives of the Army for 1988·

ROMANO PRODI Italy's Outlook Within the World Economy

CARLO RUBBIA Infinity: A Physicist's Meditations

CONTENTS . European Military Press Agency

Number three 1988 May-June

The aim of R,vista M,l,tare is 10 broadct and update the tccr r ,cal ar·o vocat,ona training or Army Off cers ano · NCOs. To this eno it functions as a ve n,cle for the oisseminat,on of military think ng and as a fo rLm o' sludy and uebate R,, sta MilitarC' ,s also ,r1enoed tc- be a me ns of inforri ng Jhe ge·1eral p.icl c al)Ot: 11e Arm\ ano mil tary n 1t1ers tnr 1•Jh the 1 .bilca110, u' artic ll ~ of c,,rrc•n: techn , ,, and s ,er·tific "it'rest

/7/UJ RIVlnA

ffllLITARE

BIMESTRALE Supplemento al n. 3 della Rivista Militare Direttore responsabile Pier Giorgio Franzosi

Politics, Economics and Strategy 2 The Objectives of the Army for 1988 (Ciro

o, Martino)

16 Italy's Outlook Within the World Economy (Romano Prod,)

Oirezione e Redazione Voa di S. Maroo, 8 00186 Roma Toi 47357373

30 Military Culture: Traditions , Values, Teachings (Fortunato Pietro Muraro)

Pubblicita A cura della segreteria deb'Utticio RIVISla Mifitare Toi 6794200

40 The Evolution of the Doctrine of Employment (Sergio Onnis)

Stamps ropografia FUSA Editrice S .I I Voa Anastasio II. 95 - 00165 Roma Spedlzlone in abbonamento postale Gruppo IV • 70%. Condizionl di cessione per ff 1988 Un fascioolo: Lit. 4.000 S 4 OMS £3 Un fascicolo arretrato: Lrt. 8 000 S 8 OM 14 £ 6 Abbonamento llalle: Lit. 22.000 estero Lit. 30.000. L'lmpono dove essere versato su c/c postale n. 22521 009 intestato a SME Ulficio RMsta Mii tare • Sezione dl ammlnlstraz,one • Via XX Senembro 123/A • Romo. I resldentl all 'estoro possono versare l'lmpono tramite assegno bancario o vaglia mtemazionale.

Science, Technology and Training 48 Infinity: A Physicist's Meditations (Carlo Rubbia)

60 Infantry Today (Giuseppe Caccamo)

72 Book Review s

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THE OBJECTIVES OF THE ARMY FOR 1988

The efficiency of a many-sided and complex institution as the Army is, cannot in any way exclude the convinced participation of all its members in order to achieve its targets in the various sectors. 2

Hence the decision to issue, at the beginning of this year, this directive that wi ll be a common reference for the Cadres in the course of 1988. I am actually convinced that the prel iminary knowledge of the main objectives of the Army for 1988 will produce a better unity of purpose and a greater discip line of intellects, which will positively influence our cohesion, initiative and read iness. This is al l the more necessary in a period like the present one, when the Army is engaged in a wide activity of structural reorganization and modernization, in order to effectively meet the human, technological and doctrinal challenges of the next century. All this without discursive digressions, in strict comp li ance with the task assigned to us by our country, and confining ourselves within the limits of the available resources. The General Staffs and Headquarters - however involved in the organ ization, set up, supply, support, training and employment of the military instrument - have answered, and stil l answer, remarkably well, showing unq uestionable clairvoyance, capability of planning and a clear idea of the requirements of the uni ts. The latter, for their part - with an exemplary behaviour, confronting with success the not negligeable org anizat ional and environmental difficulties have confirmed the validity of a system which relies upon the constant and intelligent participation of the servicemen, conscripts and volunteers alike, no less than upon the enthusiastic and expert leadership of professional ly well-trained and motivated Cadres. But certainly we have more road to travel and it could not be otherwise. Therefore, through a synthesis of serene and conscious participation, each A. Casanova's Group: The succour of a fallen cavalryman.

one of us should feel cal led to a direct and personal commitment, so that the institutional goals established by law and the operational targets of the structures which we determined by laboriously trying to match them with the tasks entrusted to us - be achieved more and more effectively without overlooking the need to improve as much as possible the standard of living and of service of our personnel. Skipping the subjects that wil l be examined later, I wish to draw the attention on what are, and will remain, the cardinal points of our action: training and security. Each unit should lay the foundations of its reality and credibility on the enhancement of training, a fact which undoubtedly translates into functionality and efficiency. Thi s emphasis on training ensures, moreover, a constant reactivity - understood as a capability to face prompt ly any kind of emergency - and is therefore the chief reason for carrying out with dignity the onerous tasks assigned to us. Training is closely connected wi th security - the former being sim ultaneous ly a prerequisite and a consequence of the latter. The physical safety of the personnel in our care must be safeguarded not only through a scrupulous organization and an accurate control , but also by ensuring that the men have a good knowledge of the weapons, equipment. and materials in use from the standpoint of performance and employment, as well as knowledge of the technical and tactical operational aspects, so that nothing be left to chance and improvisation . I am sure that the Cadres of the Army are sharing without reserve the spirit and goals of this directive as regards participation, consent and generous, coherent commitment of energy and intellect. I feel sure, moreover, that everybody wi ll devote his

utmost diligence and good will to the full achievement of these objectives. FINANCIAL PLANNING Expense policy Lately the Army has been trying to rationalize the expenses with the ultimate purpose of increasing the ratio between investment and working expenses. In 1988 this trend should be confirmed at the central level as well as at the peripheral level , where the working expenses undergo the highest increase. Each Command must feel committed to attain this specific goal through a carefu l planning of its requirements and, at the executive stage, through a meticulous control of the progression of the expenses. Confirmation of the procedures concerning the planning and control of the decentralized expenses. The second edition of Circu lar no. 6000 " Financial Planning and Decentralized Spending of the Funds for Working Expenses" was issued in 1987. The directive, which establishes the procedures and methods of control regard ing the decentralized expenses, shal l have to be fully and scrupulously implemented, in order to achieve a coordination of the financial planning as regards the activities concerning the statement and balance of the budget as well as the determination of a fund ing plan. We should ensure a close connection between all financial bodies involved in these activities at central and peripheral level, in order to harmonize the planning of the appropriations, determine the use o f the reserves for the various items, making a rational use of all the available funds. SIE/16 and Automated Cost System (SAC) The Army General Staff has established an information 3

support element consisting of an automated system for the management of planning information (SIE/16) and an Automated Cost System (SAC). In 1988 the information system will become fully operational in order to improve the entire planning system and to promote and enhance the "culture of planning" among the Cadres.

This entail s a review of the Schools' structures, starting from those charged with the training of personnel for the armoured units. In connection with the Recruit Training Battalions, we shall have to complete the adoption of the new, recently confirmed setup , at all events avoiding supplementary assignments of troops, no more compatible with the reduced availability of resources.

ORGANIZATION Conscription-recruitment Availability of troops

According to the reorganization started in 1986, in 1988 the Army wil l have to reduce its balanced strength by a further 4000 men. This objective will be achieved through: • continued work aimed at streamlin ing the structures at every level and in every sector; • creation of the precond iti ons for the timely implementation of the planned provisions which as is well known - in 1988 concern mostly the logisticadministrative organization. Operational forces

We must continue t he strengthening of the operational structures and of the tacticallogistic support structures as defined by the reo rganization guidelines. Insofar as the availability of personnel allows and together with the introduction of new means and materials, it will also be possible to start introducing by degrees the innovations suggested by the study on the new typology of the Brigades. Training and school organization

Also in this sector, the fundamental objective will be a better employment of resources (especially as regards the Branch and Special ization Schools).

Giovanni Battista Cimaroli: Battle of cavalrymen.

In 1988, a fundamental step in the renovation of this sector will be made, with the implementation of the new recruitment procedures, already experimented in the Northwestern Military Region and in the Military Region of Sardinia, and - upon confirmation of the expected positive results - the extension of the procedure to the other Military Regions. At the same time and in agreement with the General Directorate for Conscription, Militarization , Recruitment, Civilian Mobilization and Auxiliary Corps (which in its turn is on the way of reducing the number of the Conscription Councils) the next objectives will be: • a further improvement of the selective process; • start of automated conscription-selection activities. All the above activities wi ll be carried out within the existent structures, which wi ll be reviewed and gradually adapted to their actual functions and burdens (especially the Selection Groups and the Military Districts). Mobilization

The " mobilization" establishment will be further developed, particularly in the sectors of logistic support, replacemef)t of losses and of emergency training. The operational structures defined in 1987 wil l be put into practice through a mobilization exercise at Brigade level.

EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL Officers and non-commissioned Officers

The process of adjusting the establishment levels to the actual availability allowed by law wi ll continue through 1988. Meanwhile we shall have to pursue the objective of optimizing the employment of the Cadres by envisaging: • for senior officers, a gradual improvement of their employment, giving priority to their service as battalion commanders; • for junior officers, "gravitation " on command assignments at platoon and company/troop level; • for NCOs, service within their specialization, giving high priority to the requirements of the operational units, limiting the changes of specialization only to absolutely necessary cases. Conscript personnel

The correct emp loyment of the conscript personnel is always an indispensable precondition for maintaining at the established levels the operativeness and performance of the Units, Commands and Bodies of the Army. It is an unavoidable necessity, especially considering the envisaged reduction of balanced strength and the population decrease which wi ll occur as from 1990. In this perspective it becomes imperative to scrupu lously comply with the norms which regulate the specific matter. Particularly the "local" variation in the scheduling of the conscript contingents will have to be limited to those indispensable to cope with unpredictable events. In 1988, after experimentation at four elementary Major Units, we plan to assign the military tasks according to the new system of "employment brackets" which, being based on updated personal parameters, will enable the Battalion Commanders to 5

make their action more inc isive and immed iate, by determining which of each soldier's individual characteri stics are more in line with the requirements of the un it at that moment. · Extended-service volunteers

Due to technical and financial reasons, in 1988 the objective permitted by Law no. 958/1 986 wi ll be achieved throug h the incorporat ion of no more than 19,000 vol unteers, to be emp loyed in fif ty spec ialized jobs o f prevailingly technicologistic contents. In order to promote th is new form of recrui t ment, we must intensify the promotion activity already under way, especially w ithin the battalions, making sure that all personnel know the opportunities offered by the extended terms of service. With regard to this, we must not forget that the recruitment of volunteers among the young men already in service could be a spur fo r the rec ruitment of those coming directly from c ivilian life. WELFARE Employment of the financial resources

The use of the funds appropriated for the "welfare" of personne l must be held as one of the chief activities of the command action, because it affects directly the man agement of personne l. It must be aimed at: • strengthen ing the organ izations which promote the aggregation of personnel and are a reference point for the soc ial relations with the c ivi lian sphere; • encou rag ing the soc iorecreational activities and the initiatives which raise the cultural standard. To this end , the employment of the resources avai lable for the financial year 1988 will have the purpose of:

Andrea de' Leone: Battle (detail).

• comp letin g the development prog rammes of the period 1985-1987 concerning the establ ishment of recreational structures for TV, cinema and music, as well as parlours for the reception of fami lies; • start ing speci fic "local " programmes, aimed at setting up centres devoted to physical training and to the development of bas ic and compet it ive sports activities; • intervening with " ad hoe" provisions having the purpose of rais ing all the extrabudgetary organizations to an equal standard of efficiency and performance, through a constant control of the resul ts obtained with the funds employed. Admission of the extended-term volunteers into the working force. The employment Agency.

Law no. 958/1986, as regards the secti on concerning the admiss ion of the mi litary into the working force, will prove its validity provided that the Commands, especially the highest ones, develop a di ffu se and timely informative action addressed to t he interested category. In t his connection, the lin kage w ith the Agency operati ng wit hin the General Staff o f the Army in essent ial. Housing

It is a sector of preem inent social interest, wh ich in the past years has acquired a particular prom inence owing to t he difficu lty to find suitable lodgings at reasonable prices, espec ially in the large towns. This difficu lty and the lack of service housing have an unfavourable impact on the mobi lity of personnel. Therefore, in order to utilize the exist ing avai lability as best as possible and, at the same t ime, fi nd more immediate solutions in addition to the specific leg islative in itiative already in progress, we should: • comply wit h Law no. 497/1978 and the relevant "Reg ulations for the Armed Forces Service Housing " , especially with regard to "Intimat ions of revocation of use for term ination of ent it lement" in order to promote

the " rotation" of the personnel who make use of the fac ilities; • investigate about the possibility to rent apartments at contro lled rates to the military, th roug h accords and arrangements with social security in stitutes wh ich operate in the bu ilding sector; • encou rage the const itution of cooperatives among the mil itary, also through agreements with the local Admin istrations, according to the "protocol of understanding" between military and c ivilian insti tutions for the concession of building areas. Support on the occasion of military ceremonies

Request for support, especial ly as regards military bands and roads transportations, are submitted in great numbers, so much so that a careful work of evaluat ion and selection becomes necessary, in order to prevent t hese act ivities from having an overproportionate weight on the overall act ivities of the units. With in this framework, the Military Regions and Army Corps Commands wil l have to scrupu lously comply w ith the provis ions in force, referring to the eval uation of the appropriate Central Authorities the proposals of participation presented direct ly by Service and Veterans' Assoc iations or by public and private organizations, giving at the same time all necessary inform at ion. Especially at local level, it is necessary to resist the tendency to " promise" without waiting for the examination by t he appropriate Authorit ies, who have t he responsibility to decide the total or partial grant of the requested part ic ipation .

HEALTH PROTECTION AND PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS Enhancement of the psychophysica l screening on incorporation

At the Recru it Training Battalions (BAR) more careful health screenings have been 7

envisaged. These are accomplished through an increase of the medical staff and the supp ly of adequate medical equ ipment. To avoid nullifying the established measures, · the Heads of the Health Services of each Military Region must exercise an in-depth action of control in order to ensure that: • the medical exam in ations are carried out w ith the utmost care, requesting , if necessary, the temporary assistance o f spec ialists from the nearest Military Hospitals; • the repetit ion of the personality tests, wh ich have been carried out experimentally since January 1st, 1988 at 12 "pilot" battalions, is organized in detail and conducted in close cooperation with the medico-legal bodies of the hospital structures in charge of the particular "users' zone". Improvement of the Medical service at unit level

In order to ach ieve the reorganization of the Medical Corps, we should make sure that the Infirmaries of the units are in a position to perform their duties appropriately. Failing this, there would be a perpetuation of the difficulties presently afflicting the hospital structures wh ich are overburdened by work. To this end, the medical equipment has been improved and a Med ical Corps captain in regular service is assigned, upon complet ion of the Academy, to every Brigade, for a compu lsory term of at least two years. This while waiting for t he reorganization of personnel - doctors and medics - provided for by a Bill st ill before Parliament. In this perspective, it is indispensable to ensure: • th e upgrading of the Infirmaries of the units, as regards infrastructure and med ical equipment; • a meticulous action of control by the Commanders and by the medical organs at the next higher level.

Andrea de ' Leone: Battle {detail) .

Bolstering of the medico-legal activities Admission to and treatment within the hospital structures

The new functional configuration of the hospitals is based, inter ali a, on a separat ion of the medico-legal activities from the admiss ion and treatment ones, as well as the enhancement of the speciali stic capabilities of some of the hospitals which have been upgraded to General Hospitals. At the present delicate stage of take-off, in which preexistent structures coexist with others shaped according to the new functional standards, the following becomes indispensable: • strict compliance with the norms regarding the attributions and the areas assigned to each hospital, issued experimentally, awaiting the revision of the Regulat ions on the Territorial Military Health Service; • constant guid in g and controlli ng action by the command and management Authorities of the Medical Service, aimed at ensuring a ful l operativeness of the hospital structures, also through special arrangements with civilian doctors; • increased employment of volunteer nurses of the Ital ian Red Cross and of conscripts already qualified as c ivil ian professional nurses, in order to balance the present lack of Medical NCOs. PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS AND HYGIENE

Measures aimed at reshaping the sector are under way, especially as regards the functional capacity of the organizat ion , regulations and training, to ensure a better protection and prevention in the sphere of the physical and psychophysical health of the military and civilian personnel. Meanwh ile, we should: • encourage the gu idance and control activities; • lay down a programme of

technical and infrastructural interventions as well as a programme dealing with the qualification of personnel and acquisition of specific means and equipment; • promote the training of the personnel destined to the accident-prevent ion organization, by means of the envisaged qualification courses; • upgrade the training of the already qualified personnel through participation in congresses, sympos iums and lectures, also sponsored by private or public organizations. INFORMATION ACTIVITY

In the information sector, the training of the Cadres, (especiall y those who will be operating at the lower organizational levels) wil l have to be developed progressively in order to meet in due time all the operational, methodological and technical requirements deriving from t he employment of the new tech nologies. Therefore, our first goal must be an improvement of the basic training for all officers attending the Application Schoo l, through an in-depth study of the information doctrine, in the li ght of the technolog ical possibi li ties offered by the new operational instrument. Our second goal is a thorough study of these problems at the War College by means of a theoretical-practical handling of the systems under development and at planning stage, with particular reference to the decisional systems. At the latter Institute, especially, the critical study of the threat posed to the national territory ought to permit to: • outline the primary information requi rements of the Army in the "Combat Zone" and in connection w ith the defence of the territory through the employment of automated systems, such as the Transmission and Information Field System (CATRIN) and the Command and Control Automated System (SIACCON); 9

• develop the students' sk ills in evaluation and synthesis and help t hem acquire the characteristics of "i nformat ion managers". Besides developing the SIO (Operational lntelligenc~ Service) traini ng during exercises, different spec ific subjects will be dealt with in conferences and seminars promoted by the two Institutes. OPERATIONAL PLANNING Improvements in the planning concerning Territorial Defence

The plan ning made by the Army General Staff is undergoin g a revision in the light of the doctrinal modificat ions derived from the Service's reorganization. The Military Reg ions ought to complete their planning in order to be able to face, in a framework of inc reased mobility, all of the possible forms of threat and in order to direct the training of the territorial units towards their specific employment. Aspects of the operational planning

The Army General Staff and the SETAF Headquarters wil l have to learn operational lessons from the exerc ises carried out. This knowledge wil l then help defining the manoeuvre outline in the theatre, also consideri ng t he new t ypolog y of supports. Information and television supports of COSME

The inform ative supports of the Operational Centre of the Army General Staff will supply situation data from the peripheral commands and permit to manage any kind of intervention, by "displaying" the vario us situations. Moreover, within this framework, a television connection w ill be established between the Units engaged ifl exercises or in the assistance of popu lations hit by Francesco Monti, "ii Brescianino de/le Battaglie": Battle.

natural c alam iti es. This television link has already been tested during " Display Determination 87" and during the emergency in the Valtel lin a region. Security

The publication "Infrastructure and Aircraft Security, Protection and Safekeeping o f Weapons, Ammun it ion, Explosives, Mines and Transm ission Equ ipment'' will have to be updated, keeping in mind the need to cut down the expenses related to the surveillance services. LOGISTIC SUPPORT Increase in efficiency and productivity of the 1st and 2nd level support organs.

The operativeness and performance of the logistic support organs of the 1st and 2nd level are factors which affect the upkeeping of the veh icles and materials of the Units. With regard to this, specific improving provisions w ill be issued, fol lowi ng the results emerg ing from a survey being carried out. Already at this point we must pay particu lar attention to the: • correct employment o f the quali fied personnel according to their specializations, avoiding to turn them to other jobs. Doing this would produ ce a piling-up of inefficiencies which, if not prompt ly repaired, would requ ire the intervention of the 3rd and 4th level organs w ith their ensuing functional paralysis and prolonged unavailability of the materials; • scrupulous application of the management specifications, especially as regards prevent ive maintenan ce and corrective interventions, avoidi ng repairs not envisaged by the instructions, which often jeopardize the materials' reliability for good; • impl ementat ion of the new form o f logist ic support for the materials with optoelectronic component s based , espec ially at

2nd level, on a Weapons and Optoelectron ics Platoon with its own capabil ity of intervention; • upgrad ing o f the workshops, in order to ensure their f unctionality and compliance with the secu rity standards. Rationalization of the 3rd and 4th level executive organs

The organization of the support logistics will have to assume a more streamlined and f unctional configurat ion based , within each Military Reg ion: • for the maintenance component, on one or two Army Repair Workshops (three in the NW Military Reg ion), in a position to assume t he characters of general-repair un its; • for supplies, on a Multiservice Supply Centre and on one or two Delivery Agencies, capable of supp lying the operation al Units with means and materials pertaining to all services. The measures al ready taken concern at first (1 988-1989) the abolition of some 3rd and 4th level organs of the Transport and Material Branch and, after that, th e implementation of the "Mu lt iservice Supply Centre" . Th is part icu larly delicate moment demands that commanders and directors keep a close watch over the reorgan ization programme, to prevent disfunctions through the entire log isti c system. Moreover, the Military Region Commands oug ht to do t heir best to improve t he precarious conditions of the personnel of the various Army Branches, serving with the exec utive bodies of the Transport and Material Branch, whose levels of effi ciency directly affect th·e performance of the operational Units. Elimination of unserviceable materials

The progressive accu mu lation of considerable amounts of obso lete materials at the 3rd level organs and at the operational Units, has caused congest ions in the depot s and covered areas which impai r the living and san itary conditions of the enlisted men, 11

the efficiency of the vehicle and artillery parks, exposed to atmospheric agents, and t he concrete possibi lities to implement the programme of rationalization of the territorial logistic su pport. In order to solve this problem, the Military Region Commanders and the Unit/Detachment Commanders (battalion included) have been allowed to dispose of certain materials according to the "economy system" , within the respective expense limits and without further authorization from the General Directorates. Moreover, an interservice " Compendium" is being issued which, in deali ng with the disposal of obsolete material s, introduces un ified , simpler and swifter procedures. In connection with the new possibilities provided by the mentioned operation al instruments, it is necessary to speed up the disposals by developing, especially at Unit/Detachment Commander level, a constant and resol ute action of sensi bilization along the chain of command , as well as an action of gui de and control on t he techn icofunctional plane by the Heads of the Logistic Services.

TRANSPORT

The increased mobil ity of the Units, with the growi ng use of transportation - with both military and commercial vehi cles - to meet logistic and train ing requirements, demands accurate control in order to optimize the vehicles' employment. In relation to this situation, to avoid that the considerable inc rease of the needs should negatively affect t he management of the vehicles and therefore the service for the Un its, it is indispensable to improve and update the present working procedu res by: • working out, within the month of October of each year, a Michelangelo Cerquazzi: Battle be tween foot soldiers and cavalrymen.

yearly transportation plan as detailed as poss ible; • adopting, at central and peripheral level, automated programmes which - at central level and in real time - permi t to update and transm it the requ irements, always through automated channels, to the Organizations tasked with the management of the various commercial vehi cles. The Military Region and Corps Commands, in plann ing the trasports for which they are responsible, shoul d adopt the less expensive and safest type of t ransport, according to t he Units' need s and to the conti ngent conditions of traffic and environment. INFRASTRUCTURE

The size of the appropriations for 1988 w ill be practically the same as those for 1987, already cut down as a consequence of the selffinancing enjoined by Law no. 958/1986. This budget lim itation demands choices focu sed on the sectors of primary importance, with a prudent emp loyment of the available resources. Consequently, the selected intervention s shou ld concern: • improvement of the personnel's living conditions (upgrading of housing standards, renovat ion of the technological equipment, sport and recreation structures, etc.); • prevention of accidents, in order to carry out the technicologistical act ivities in a safe environment; • adoption, accord ing to the already issued directives, of security systems capable of reducing the guard burden of the mi litary personnel ; • med ical faci lities, according to a wide programme of fu nctional and infrastructural renovation of the entire sector, coordi nated at central level. To th is end , all Commands should draw up the plann ing schemes of the barracks in a concrete and realistic way. All infrastructural

inverventions should be carried out in accordance w ith the schemes already approved or about to be approved. The Commanders wil l have to pay particular attention to the following: • efficient and constant maintenance of structures and facilities, in full compliance with t he existing strict norms; • employment of the decentralized fu nds according to programmes established at the beginning of the financial year and, in any case, accordi ng to the standards of a shrewd management. AUTOMATED DATA PROCESSING

Our main goals for 1988 are as follows: • Territori al area; - establish integrated Data Banks at the Military Region Commands; - complete the automation of the Conscription , Recruitment, Mobi I ization Directorates, Administrations Directorates, Commissariat Directorates, Pens ion Centres, Zone Military Commands, Mil itary Hospitals, as well as of t he 3rd and 4th level logistic organs; - conti nue the cu rrent experimentation at the Regional and Provincial Military Districts. • Operational area of the Major Units: comp lete the automation at battalion level; • schoo l area: start the computerization systems at the Military Schools and Institutes; • Army ADP sector: - establ ish the national Data Transm ission Network, in order to lin k all the users of the Army Information System; - cont inue the training and specialization programme for the personnel assigned to the Data Processing Sector, to obtain Officers and NCOs expert in the employment of automated systems at all levels. Moreover, we shall have to boost the train ing of personnel in the new technolog ies soon to be introduced in the Army, in view of the realization of the CATRIN and SIACCON projects.

PROMOTIONAL ACTIVITIES The Image

The image-promot ing campaign started in 1987 will continue w ith a view to c learing the mind of public opin ion, within the f irst semester, as regards military problems. This short-term goal will be followed by information and public relat ions activiti es ai med at establishing a lasting , positive image of the Army. In order to attain these targets, special attention must be given to the spheres of institutional activities more liable to crit icism and explo itation or, more generally, likely to rouse the interest of public opinion, such as: • conscription: malfunctions in the selection or in the approaches between the youn g and the Conscription Boards, the Mi litary Hospitals and the Military Districts; • recruitment: delays in t he incorporation, suspens ions of the call-up, short notice of cal lup, problems related to the conscientious objectors issue; • official records: difficulties with certifications; • barracks life: boredom , nasty practical jokes; infections, diseases, accidents, assignments to unsu itable jobs; • traini ng: train ing defi ciencies, shoot ing ranges and military services; • personnel: wages, moral issues, wrongdoings. The communication project just started intends to promote, through appropriate actions involving the media (period ical meetings, diffusion of booklets, etc.), a correct knowledge of t he facts and fair comments on them . As regards the "inside", the "sensitive" issue ment ioned above will be brought to the attention of the Un it commanders and wi ll also be the subj ect of lectures at the War College, at the Courses for Battalion Commanders and for Commanders of Military Districts. Geronimo Cenatiempo: Episode of a battle near the drawbridge of a besieged citadel.

The success of "operat ion image" cannot be produced exclusively by "comm unication " actions, but these wi ll nevertheless improve the necessary relationship with the citizens and, finally, wi ll also have a benefical spin-off on the enlistments , which wi ll be especial ly advertised in the periods of civil-service entrance exams and priority recruitmens.

to keep the present engagements with a better cost/effectiveness ratio. The same cri teria will be adopted vis-a-vis the cooperat ion w ith the sports federations, establish ing fair levels of emp loyment , proportional to t he interest roused by the supported events.

Enlistments

In the hand ful of years that separate us from 2000, the Army has undertaken to do away wi th the deficiencies and delays that still prevent the best employment of men and resources. Our distinct ive goal is to obtain t he best organizat ion of the Service, according to its tasks and to the social and financial environment in which it has to work. This is a comprehensive mosaic made up by many small tesserae, every one of which represents a prec ise objective that must be known and attained, year after year, if we want to see the pattern acquire its accomplished form. The objectives for 1988, pointed out in the direct ive, are undoubtedly wit hin our reach, we on ly need to pursue t hem, as I said in my opening words, with consc ious and determined part icipation. From the clear vision of t he higher interests of an Institution wh ich finds - as ours does - its fun damental motivations in ethical calls that cannot be ignored and in concrete social goals will spring, despite t he diffic ulties and disappointments that sometimes mark its path, the conditions of an increased prestige for the Army with in the State and the national community. In th is sense, I am fu lly confident that the true commitment of each one of us will produce results that in future t imes could be cons idered downright su rprising .

The extended-term enlistments will have first priority. A phase of mass vocational promotion, which will enable the Army to meet the needs for 1987 and the first months of 1988, wi ll be fol lowed by a promotional activity within t he Uni ts, in order to maintain a full operational efficiency with qualitatively irreprehensible personnel. Particular attention will be given to the media and to all possible init iatives involving Military Districts, Recruit Training Battalions and Operat ional Un its. Keeping the volunteers sector in constant good supp ly will have to be, first of all , a qual i fying parameter of the command act ion and t hen the target of our promotion towards the exterior. The advertisement of the entrance exams at the Mi litary Academy and the NCOs Schoo l will strive to keep the present ratio (13:1 ) applications/available spaces. A more targ eted action , espec ially through the adoption of the "direct mailing" methods, will be carried out in relation to the admission to the Joint Medical Academy and Technical Corps. Promotional relations

The relationship with the Schools, traditionally developed through in formation-promot ion channels (students' visits, diaries, calendars, advertis ing materi al) and sports channels (Army-School) w ill be reconsidered with a view to finding new forms enabling us

CONCLUSIONS

~ e,,~ l 11~Gen. Ciro Di Martino Army Chief of Staff

ITALY'S OUTLOOK WITHIN THE WORLD ECONOMY

by Romano Prodi

In my opinion world economy as a whol e is going neither well nor poorly; it has been going moderately well for some years. No new disturbing element has been added to those we had in the past but, of course, the past elements have remained as before; in particular, this prevalence, this expansion of a paper economy, which has always been a

worrying fac t in the sense that the amount of daily financial t ransactions has predominated so much over the underlying econom ic reality that, clearly, the problem of governing and disciplin ing th is type of economy becomes an alarming issue. Nevertheless, as we have seen lately, the tools available to the governments are very different from those of 1929,

therefore those who confine themselves to this comparison are wrong, precisely because the economy of the world has changed. By now the United States has ceased to be the sole industrial pole: there is Europe, whic h has reached a level of industrial weal th very close to the American one. Very often we forget this fact: Europe is an econom ic phenomenon of impressive

Europe is the greatest economic event of the XX century from the point of view of a joining of economies. It is going very well and shaping up as an economic reality comparable to the American one. proportions, it is the greatest economic event of the XX century, considered in the light of a joining of economies; Europe is going very well and is shaping up as an economic reality of proportions comparable to the American one. When I took the chairmanship of IRI, five years ago, Americans and Japanese were the only interlocutors.

In the last three years, new European bonds have been imperatively established which have not become a government act yet, but oftentimes the transformations of a reality occur outside or even against the government acts. Recently, the flourishing of agreements within Europe has become exceptional, i.e. we witness the creation of the so-called European oligopoly and the

emergence of the concerns that will dominate the European market of tomorrow. There are numerous exchanges and agreements and everyone considers especially the aspects that interest him most, but the truth is that we have lived through a generation, that of the European Union, in the first phase of which no multinational European enterprises were born.

Precisely because o f Europe's birth , each country was inclined to strengt hen its home industries, in order to be prepared to f ight in t he international context. This is notewort hy, because otherwise one can not explain why du ring an entire generation of European Commun ity no communitary multinational enterprise was established. Al l the big European mu ltin at ional concern s, Siemens, Uni lever, Michelin, Royal Dutch Shel l and the ot her major companies were born du ring t he Fascist or Nazi times, or even earlier.

The leaders of China are realizing that, as the country's wealth changes, the Institutions must be adjusted to it. Why durin g t he period of the European Commun ity we can count only Agfa-Gevaert? The European Commun ity was born and each country followed a Gaull ist policy, i.e. it reincorporated and reorgan ized

the national forces, in order to counter t he com pet ion. The first ph ase ended three years ago and the second has started, quickly and in real earnest, and fortunately we Italians take part in these

activities. FIAT, the De Benedetti, Berluscon i and Gardini groups, the state concerns: suddenly we all have changed our tune and understood that Italy is a limited market and he who confines himself only t o Italy is finished. This is an important reality, but is a real ity which is chang ing the nature of all enterprises, including the small and medium ones. In the past the families , the industrialists, had their portfolios diversified in three or four sectors; afterwards they realized that, in th is age of sudden global market, one must be strong in one direction, be incisive in that direction , join forces. Here we would also mention the old strategy testbooks about " front breakthrou gh ", because there is a situation of mobility and a situation of risk. Suddenly we see that the world has become a global market with forc es that are not only American; therefore there is on one side the paper economy, as we have seen, the dangerousness of which I have often pointed out in my writings, but on the other side there is an economic structure, much more flexible than the preced ing one. But one must be careful to avoid making the mistakes that are typical of the good-hearted: in life most errors are mot ivated by mali ce but a remarkable number of them are also motivated by a sympathetic heart. We have understimated the importance of the Third World (where new events are d eveloping at last) in the world economy. They are st ill in embryo, we see them taking a faint shape but do not see them real ized; nevertheless I am certain that in a generation's t ime China and India will become an important pole for mankind. Four or fi ve years ago I wou ldn 't have been so su re about that. The leaders of Ch ina are realizing that, as the country's wealth changes, the Institutions must be adjusted to it . This is

India consists of about six hundred million people who have become self-sufficient in food, as can be said for the whole of Asia. a phenomeno n of great shrewdness and . China, at the Chinese Commun ist Party Cong ress, has dealt primari ly with the economic issue; it is a remarkable occu rrence, because we refer to one bil lion peop le, quantitatively twice as much as the popul at ion of Europe and the Un ited States together. India consists of about six hu ndred mil lion people who have become self-suf fici ent in food, as can be said for the whole of Asia. How can this be consistent with the fact that the Indians are starving? It is a question of internal distribution, of man's ill wi ll; but surely the food is sufficient, so much so, that after t hree years of active monsoons that country has not imported food . This means that t he self-suffi ciency revolut ion has been made and won in Asia; won, that is, by two and a half billion people.

We are speaking of half of the enti re world and therefore I am not goin g to say that it we Italians, fifty-six million inhabitants, were to invade China could stay all in one hotel, as the old joke goes, but we have a role proportioned to our number. The sense of the European Community is precisely this: t hree hundred million inhabitants w ith a high standard of development are a different realit y compared w ith fifty-six million. That is why I insist on the importance of Europe; by now it is impossib le to go back, because in the face o f the things necessary for survival the peop les have a very fin e animal insti nct, they know very wel l t hat if t hey were to recede from "Europe", everything wou ld be finished: one criticizes it but this is tar from rejecting it! The other change in the

world is the rushing-in of the new economies. Of course with this we do not want to maintain that everything is well, because there is a good part of Africa, almost all of it, which is practically undergoing a regression. It is a continent below the levels of subsistence, it has numerous deaths due to

malnutrition. Why? We ask, because this continent has a good population-resources ratio; there are less inhabitants on a greater extension of territory. Africa is torn by tribal wars, the sense of the state has never developed, the community-life structures are so strikingly elementary that

prevent the economy from performing even a modest role of development. Just consider the absurdity of the economic collapse of the African countries following the end of colonialism, against all principles of emancipation of the peoples. I think of a recent journey

to Mozambique, a real Garden of Eden: a territory three times Italy's, twelve million inhabitants, rivers, an ideal climate... sti ll , people are starving. Why? Because the various tribes are perel"tn ially fighting each other and the state structure does not all ow any kind of development. Similarly, a num ber of other African countries find themselves in a pol itical tragedy. Some of these s ituations apply also to countries of Latin America, although they are not as serious as in the African continent; many countries, nevertheless, are in worryin g recessive conditions compared with what the ir expectat ions were. Let's not forget that a generation ago Italians emigrated to Argentina, Ch ile and Uruguay because the hopes of development there were better than at home. This gives an idea of how important politics are in the management of world' economy. That is why it is so important to have a sound government, to have managing capabilities, and th is also explains the nervous and disorderly reactions of t he financial markets to dec larations understood in ways that exceeded their meaning: suddendly, people have felt ungoverned. The fact that t he US and German Treasury Ministers disagree makes people th ink t hat serious things are occurring; I wou ld say that this sense of " non government" has been the most important cause of these jolts, because world economy is a blend of peace, technology and government and this is the mixtu re which is at the foundations of progress. Clearly the perception in this picture of sudden tensions, even if only verbal ones, produces serious repercussions and instabi lity. The new Stock tradings envisage an automatic reinsurance by the brokers; they, being accustomed to const ant upt rends are bound to

In Africa, torn by tribal wars, the sense of the state has never developed . sell immediately when a downtrend occurs. The bulk of these reinsurances have been fed immediately int o computers, owing to whic h, on appearance of t he first sign s of sagging, the sell ing wave has broken loose. I am not sayin g that it was t he computer's fault, but certainly these phenomena o f contractual technology must be governed and their employment codified; for t his reason, one of the first measures was to sh ut off the computers and ask for a moment's reflect ion, a sign of common sense before conf irm ing a decision previous ly entrusted only to machines. This is what happened. In this comp licated situation many hierarchies of values have c hanged. A few years ago I was still very worried about the future of Europe, today I speak abo ut it with greater opt imis m. This doesn't mean that Europe can compete with Japan's vigorous and prodigious innovation of these last years as regards productivity, but it has shown

signs of recovery, of pride, of w illingness to create in cooperat ion with the partnercountries. All considered, in this hierarchy one must st ill list first, from the technolog ical point of view, t he United States and Japan , but these are followed by Europe, wh ich is no more a loser by definition; on the contrary, it is much more serious and mo re capable of fac in g the future than it was a few years ago. The situation of our country during t hese past years can be considered odd , because, here also, one can realize how the economy is deeply linked to phenomena of collective psychology and sense of belonging. The Italian economy has not been much from the growth standpoi nt. Our growth-rate has been on the average s imilar to that of the other European cou ntries, nevertheless there is a lot of talk Uustified) about an Italian "revival ". Why is there no contradiction in all this?

Why, despite a s luggish growth and a stil l high level of unemployment, Italy's position is so positively spoken of? Because, in our country, the attitude towards the economy has great ly changed; forgotten is the mentality of the '70s when it was written and said that the economy was an independent variable and anything could be done. Today these th ings are neither written nor said anymore. Suddenly, when we were on the brink of precipice, we developed a collect ive wisdom wh ich made us understand the things that our elders had been teaching us, made people fearful of losing the numerous advantages acquired during the preceding generation: global transformation of t he country, wealth increased five-six times, widespread prosperity - despite the still serious problems of Southern Italy - high level of school attendance. In Italy there have been very sizeable migrations: during one generation, four and a half million people have migrated from the south to northern Italy, to live there permanently. Sixteen mi ll ion Itali ans have left the rural areas and moved to the c it ies: this has created levels of suffering and tragedy and caused a moment of chaos, and the fear to be unable to understand what was happen ing. When a settli ng occurred, people became aware that they could lose the advantages deriving from this great suffering. Then a change of mentality vis-a-vis the economy came about and we became part of the intern ational economy. I don't find it hard anymore to explain before our Parliament that the public concern is dead, finished if it remains confined to Ital y: but what an effort it took to make them understand that for the Italian economy it can be convenient to make an investment in Mun ich or in France, in order to permit indutries in Milan or Catan ia to survive !

At last, today there is the feeling of belonging to a great comm un ity and also our mentality is adjusting to it, although late and with difficu lty, because we were late in attaining the industrial revolu t ion , and abroad this is seen as a rather amazing event. But there are still problems. In the past years the Japanese have invaded Europe en masse but not a sing le yen has landed in Italy, because ou r country sti 11 creates preoccupation. The pers istence of the image formed during the '70s

has worked th ings in such a way that the Japanese people who always act chorall y and need the backing of the entire commun ity before they act - are still hesitant: the community is still perplexed as regards Italy - " the examinations never end " precisely because of thi s long parenthesis of diversity. The Italian miracle of today is that the diversity of the '70s is com in g to an end and in our society, vis-a-vis the problems of economy, there is a strong process of homogenization of

values. There are stil l deep differences which I observe every day. In these days there has been a wide range o f positions regarding the Med iobanca issue but this attitude benefits the physiology of a country; neverthel ess, gone are the wide differences which were present ten years ago and we are in a position to bui ld a future for our productive stru ctures, together with the other European countries. Thi s ju stifies ou r greater optimism in comparison w ith

some years ago, albeit there is still t he great anomaly regardi ng the public expend iture. In t he early '70s much credit was given to a wrong interpretation of the Keynesian t heories. Keynes was a great econom ist to whom we owe if there will not be another "1929". Even if extremely negative things are written today about him, he has actually changed the fac e of the world, wh ile his interpreters have not been very intel ligent. Keynes discovered the role of public expenditure, the great

importance of the state. Some, out of demagogy or convenience, t hought that there could be an unl imited expansion of t he public expenditure w ithout a parallel expansion of the productive reality. In relation to this I often mention the " Starfighter" as an example: born to carry four missiles, at f irst it was loaded with six, then the Germans increased the number to twelve. That is why t he "Starfig hter" was t he aircraft most subject to accidents: s im ply because it had been loaded with more weight than it could carry. Thus the welfare state is the greatest invention that cou ld be made in the XX cent ury; neverthe less it is sheer foll y to t hink that one can produce ten and consume a hundred. This anomaly is still existing in Italy, because it is extremely difficult in a democracy to curb the public expenditure when promises have been made and there are expectations. It is so di fficul t that not even Reagan and Mrs. Thatcher have been able to do it. Comparing the promises made by Reagan after nearly two terms - reduction of taxes, unemployment and government expenditure - with what he has been able to do, it is evident that whil e the first two points have been fulfilled , the t hird is sti ll far from a solut ion. A modern economy lives on " private and publ ic " , on schools, on the Army, the Police, on scientific research , on the Health Service, because if we want all to participate in the process of democracy and in the progress of the country, the State has a very important role: t he problem is to discipline the government expenditure, to regulate it, to use the public money as strictly as the private money. The idea of goi ng back to levels of government intervention equal to those ex isting duri ng the generation that preceded t he second World

A modern economy I ives on "private and public", on schools, on the Army, the Police, on scientific research, on the Health Service. War is neither a righ t nor a wrong idea, it is simply impossible. Italy, in the publi c expenditure, has reached dangerous levels, which can make us lose touch with t he other European countries, while we are getting c loser with t he other fig ures. The next years won't be easy, becau se we have seen how difficult it is to reduce t he public expenditure: one can prevent it f rom growing, but it is difficult to make drastic cuts. One shou ld need a period of higher econom ic growth in order to be able to confirm a certai n level 26

o f publ ic expendi ture having as a basis, as a denominator, a hig her level of economic production. Th is is not easy because Europe, which has a great future because it has become a true comm un ity, is also a satisfied continent, with all the negat ive aspects that t he term " satisfied" implies. The German Chancellor, the British Prime Minister, do not pursue a conservative pol icy because they are sinister characters who hate the people, but simply in order to make sure that their people won't loose the prosperity they have attained: Europe " sat isfied

continent", means therefore Europe with a d angerous ly reduced growth . Europe, for its future, needs a new frontier which is difficult to point out but it certainly cannot be on ly confined within its borders. One of the many choices of action which we deem possible but whi ch does not rest wit h us to make, is an opening of technological and trade exch anges w it h the Eastern cou ntries and the Soviet Un ion. We must pay our utmost attention to the ferments in the East, but without playing all our cards in that direction, because the problems of Gorbachev's evolution are di fficu lt to interpret. Two thi rds of the Western experts on Soviet problems maintain that Gorbachev will succed, whi le one third says the contrary. The ex istence in the East of as many inhabi tants as in the West in need of technology and

Europe, for its future, needs a new frontier which is difficult to point out but it certainly cannot be only confined within its borders.

ready to consume, can permit a leap forward. A further remark must be made at European level: what I call , oversimplifyin g, the "Marshall Plan " for the Mediterranean. Facing us we have countries with enormous economic problems: there is Egypt , which has a formidable political key but a tragic economy; there are Algeria, Tunisia, Syria... 1 believe that the " Marshall Plan " for the Mediterranean could be one of the tools for a potential great development for Europe; but also in this regard t he European politician s should examine the importance of offering peace objectives but also econom ic objectives that would serve as a coagulant for the next generation. Thi s "plan" requires a horizon , requires po litical ability, requ ires ability to thi nk, requires statesmen, who are a rarity in history. Let's hope that in Europe there will be that coagulant which made men li ke Adenauer, De Gasperi, Schuman, visionaries then, men who foresaw Europe, today. I wou ld like to conc lude emphasizing that we must have a vision for the future: that of inserting Italy more and more into Europe, but also that of understanding that Europe, if it really wants to remain alive, needs this sense of mission towards its neighbours and the entire world. I tru ly believe that the fear I have had for many years that we wou ld become a small periphery in the world of the countries where the inhabitants are cou nted by hundreds of millions, or in billions, is a littl e less dramatic: I mean that, albeit in the context of a world so plurali stic, absolutely not centred on Europe, we also can have an important role to play and a dignified mission to accomplish .

From a lecture delivered at Moden a Military Academy on October 23, 1987

MILITARY CULTURE: TRADITIONS, VALUES, TEACHINGS

The theme of military culture, traditions values and teaching is a subject of unquestionable interest, on which a debate - not always exhaustive and objective is now developing, also due to recent events which have turned the attention of public opinion to the problems of the Armed Forces. It is a subject worth tackling, even though the task is not an easy one, since in a society characterized by pluralistic cultural matrices it is difficult even to give a satisfactory definition of the term "culture" in its widest meaning.

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I wi ll gladly leave the disputation on meanings to the phi losophers, sociologists and anthropologists. As far as specific c ultures are concerned, that is to say cultures referring to ind ividual social groups, they can be said to be born and evolve in relationship to the function that each group exercises within t he system of wh ich it is part. For soldiers, this function has remained unchanged across thousands of years of history: to ensure society the possibility of gaining or defending a blessing, with force if necessary. Mi li tary culture is therefore the culture of force, not as an end to itself but as a means of resolution or even only of dissuasion in political controversies. It is, in other words, the science of preparing and maintaining the effic iency of the martial instrument and the art o f using it in war for the purpose of imposing one' s own wil l on the other side. And since war is not on ly the clash of men, arms, means and materiel, but is also and above all a contest of wills, of moral and spiritual forces, alongside the scientific aspect in mi litary culture we also find the ethical aspect, or t he aspect of values. Having thus defined the two fundamental aspects of military culture, we must now sketch out their spheres of interest. In the vast fiel d of military thought, the lead ing place, in terms of the complexity and high level of contents, must no doubt be awarded to the study of the phenomenon of war. The connections with historical and philosoph ical research which this study presupposes and entails are evident. In fact, beside military th in kers, many phi losopers have devoted their attention to the immanence of t he clash of arms in the unfold ing of history, debating both the necessity and ineluctabi lity of war and the permissibility o f resorti ng to violence in order to serve a just cause.

At perhaps a less lofty but more spec ific level we find the stud ies on the phenomenology of war, whose scope is to f ind if eternal principles that govern t he cond uct of war exist, and i f t heir application belon gs to the realm of art or to that of science. Mi litary h istory provides both t hese activities with material for study and also the possibility of verification. This particu lar branch of general history, too, is not the exclusi ve patrimony of military cu lture, and indeed history was long thought of as meaning above all the history of wars. Another field of investigation for mil itary thought, but not for military thought alon e, is that of the connections between war and politics. The subject has increas ing ly drawn the attention of scholars ever since internat ional relations gradual ly began to assume global dimensions. The above regards mi litary culture's conceptual foundations and its connections and interactions w ith other cu ltures and sciences such as philosophy, history, sociology and political science. But the military t rade is essential ly a practical one, and military thought must therefore transfer the theories derived from speculation to t he operat ional field. It must, in other words, elaborate a doctrine that afford s the best use of avai lable human and technological resources in the event of conflict. This is t he field of strategy, tactics, logist ics and organizat ion of armed forces: exclusively military discip lines on whi ch I do not fe el called on to dwell here since they have long been acknowledged and c lass ified as branches of the mili tary art or science. Along with these discip lines, which I wou ld term the arts of the quadrivium, with a suggestive even if improper harking back to t he medieval classification, today more than ever before one must posit three other camps of

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application of military thought. Continuing the analogy, I would call these the arts of the trivium, namely, military sociology, the science of organ ization , and technology. One ought not be surprised by this broadening of the traditional realm of military thought to a terrain that might seem to belong more strictly to the Industrial enterprise. Clausewitz himself observed that "war does not belong to the realm of art or science but rather to that of social I ife" and is sim ilar not only to "politi cs but to commerc ial activity" . In light of the above, we can state first off that military culture is a global cult ure: it embraces nearly all fields of human creativity apart from the artistic fields, to which, however, it has always provided subjects and inspiration . In add ition, given the links and reciprocal influ ences that we have seen it establish and exercise with other t ypes of culture, it does not present itself as a world unto itself but as an integral part of the cu lture of an age and of a people, with consequent traits of unitariness and uniformity. Furthermore, military culture is historic ist culture, for it accepts the lesson of the past and therefore considers reality as history, i.e. as development, rationality and necessity. Finally, military culture is humanistic culture in the etymological sense of the term: it places man at the center of the stage of history; it addresses man, and from man expects resolutive action. This last considerat ion brings us back to the other aspect of military culture, its spiritual patrimony, or patrimony of values. At the risk of appearing cynical , I believe that all value systems are founded upon a uti litarian or at least practical principle. Now, because soldiers are the depos itaries of force, it is necessary that th is force be exercised in accordance with

the wi ll and interests of society. Th is requ ires faithfulness from the mi litary and subordination of the strategic to the political objective - and fait hful ness is one of t he two fundamental values of the military ethic. The other fundamental value is the spirit of sacrifice driven to its extreme consequences; the soldier is asked to consider the good of the Nation as a val ue higher than that which he attributes to his own life. And this, too, is manifestly usefu l and necessary. From these two fundamental values follow all the others: there can be no faithfu lness without loyalty and obedience, no obedience without a sense of honor and respect for rank. Likewise, it is im possible to demand sacrifice from one who lacks courage, nor can one inspire courage in others if not by example. And I could continue, demonstrat ing the chain of consequences of the entire system of values that constitute the military ethic and their common origi n in the two above-mentioned ut ilitarian principles. This interpretation of the origins of the values, wh ic h some may find pessimistic, in no way diminishes their moral weight, for t he military eth ic is not supine acceptance of commands but also critical re flection and, therefore, j udgment concerning comm ands. With this last concept, wh ich leads the spiritual aspect back to the realm of reason , t ranscendi ng the duali sm between t hought and values t hat loomed threatening ly, I have concluded my attempt to c larify and define the term 'mi litary cu lture'. It now remains to be seen how th is mi litary culture is handed down from generation to generation , retaining its specific identity even wit h those mod ifications wh ich attest to its valid ity. Like any other culture, mi litary cu lture is transmitted t hrough trad it ion and teaching. The former tradition is

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based upon the immediate and therefore acritical acceptance of val ues and appeals to man's ancestral instinct by which experience appears as truth. It essentially affects behavior, and its relationship to teach ing is thus the same that, in religion , liturgy has to doctrine. But why appeal to feeling when one can act upon reason? Simply because in difficult moments, in moments of danger and tension, it is impulse, not reason, that dictates behavior. As the believer prays, so the soldier follows the Flag. However, w ithout education and, hence, convinction, tradition wou ld be an empty shell. The soldier must also assimi late an awareness of motivations and practical knowledge; otherwise his generous impulse wou ld be barren of results. Furthermore, teaching is the only vehicle that permits cu lture, w ith the necessary updating, to be transmitted from one generat ion to the next. But what are the characteristics of military teaching? Though it remains specialized teaching, it has a distinctly formative function. It is teaching that achieves the unfication of the two aspects of mi litary culture, thought and values. Secondly, it is non-partisan, although, under dictatorial regimes having a marked ideological coloring, the Armed Forces do not escape political penetration. But the political coloring remains a veneer of paint on the cannon 's steel ; with the first salvo gone astray, the paint dissolves and the laws of ball istics are duly reinstated. He who holds military responsibility is instead well aware that his technical decisions may have political consequences, but it is for him a firm truth that the institutions to which he belongs must stay outside the arena of domestic polit ics. In the th ird place, though at its highest levels it ranges through t he realm of theory,

military teaching nevertheless remains pragmatic teaching. It never loses sight of its purpose: to prepare the men, cadres and troops, for war, for emergency. It could be said t hat the above discussion has exhaust ed my task, which was to suggest an interpretation of " military cu ltu re" th rough an examin at ion of its essential aspects. But in order to sketch out the shape of the army of the fut ure I cannot negl ect to suggest a li ne of development for military cultu re as well. And this entai ls an examination of the "current state of the art" . With regard to the conceptual side of the issue, we can state right off that Italian military c ultu re is defini tely alive and lively in th ree of the fou r arts o f t he quadrivium: tactics, log ist ics and organization. But we must also acknowledge that Italy has not had a military th inker of international stature since the time o f Douhet, that is to say since the Twenties. This is due in part to a rejection of the great themes of strategy, a natu ral consequence of an unfortunate war; but it is due also and espec ial ly to the natural tendency to trust in the strategy of an Alliance whose credibility is fou nded on deterrence without, by our free choice, having our own nucl ear weapons. As to the arts of the trivium, it can be said that in two of them - sc ience of organ ization and technology military c ulture is apace of the analogous development of the corresponding c ivil disciplines. Mi li tary soc iology is a different matter. It is just starting out and must f ill the void that has deve loped in consequence of the general crisis of values found in current society. To date the military world has evinced a certain distrust o f socio logy, wh ic h has wrongly been suspected of being an element disturbing to the system of traditions and values

that is the irreplaceable foundation of the mi litary out look. It is time to clear up this misunderstanding and to use the instruments that sociology makes available for a searching and objective analysis of the mi litary conditi on and for the identification of the correctives to introduce into a system of thoug ht and valu es which in no way must be subverted, but which has to be adjusted to the reality of a continuously and rapidly changing society, a society in w hich fringe groups seem to want to reject or marginalize the military reality. Despite a number of encouraging signs, we have to face the fact that difficu lties o f comprehension between civil society and what has not by happenstance been called the " military planet" do exist and, though episod ically, reach points of incommunicability. We might cite, for example, several recent events involving the military world that, emot ionally - and at t im es instrumentally - played up by the mass media, have disoriented public opinion. But then th is, too, is the ob jective mi litary cu lture must set itsel f: to remove the points of incomprehension and distrust between the c ivil and military components of society. Th is can be achieved only through a recasting of mi litary c ulture, to be promoted both in the sphere of t he Armed Forces and in the wider context of nat ional society. It is an ambit ious project t hat presupposes a convergence of w ill and consensus from various quarters. And I believe t hat, if appropriate efforts are made to make them sensitive to the issues, the political world, the world of culture, the world o f informat ion, cannot but agree on the unescapable necess ity of finally giving our cou ntry a " cu lture of defense". But how can we soldiers prepare ourselves to do our part? It seems evident to me t hat the place to beg in is t he preparation of cadres th rough

an adjustment of the training institutes' programs and through the formation of an organ ic corps of teachers. The training institutes' current programs fol low from a managerial vision of t he mi litary profession, much the vogue in a very recent past, and assign scientific and economic-juridical discip lines priority to the detriment of the more strict ly professional discip lines. It is instead my conviction - and not mine alone, for it is shared by many - t hat an officer must also be a manager but above al l a leader. This different vision must be re flected in the revaluation of what I have termed the fund amental concepts of our profession, giving more room to t he study of t he theory and phenomenology of war, to mi litary history, to strategy and to the other arts of the trivium , all this wh ile laying stress on the cultural and philosophical , historical, political and soc iological context in which military t hought actually is practi ced. Curricu lum revision alone is not enough to ensure a change of cou rse if it is not sustained and enlivened by a corps of masterful , prestigious teachers - military and civilian endowed with reciprocal and indepth knowledge of their fields so as to achieve an integration of curriculum , failin g which it is not possible to give a unitary quality to t eaching. In particu lar, it is necessary to activate between the academic world and t he mi litary environment a cross-fertil izat ion of doctrine and experience o f the kind that has already produced promisi ng results in the fi eld of Military Medical Services. The High Defense Stud ies Center's newly formed Military Center for Strategic Stud ies could be invigorated and strengthened by the contribution o f such a teaching staff. And , in liaison w ith the Armed Forces History Offices and with a Doc umentation Center which cou ld make avai lable to scholars al I the considerable

body of material o f military interest that is being publ ished in Italy, the Mi litary Center for Strategic Studies would be capable of havi ng a deep and concrete impact on the nation 's cultural li fe. It is vital ly important, however, to keep the Center's activity from being limited to internal debates and to the publ ication of documents and offic ial acts whose

circulation is limited and that are addressed to a handful of specialists. The adoption of these measures wou ld, in my opinion, constitut e an excel lent jumpingoff point for the relaunc hing of military cultu re. But for this to become a "culture o f defense" the contribution of the other components of society is indispensable.

many valid retired officers, including them as consu ltants or ex officio members in the world of research, of economics and of culture. With the ties between the " military planet" and the world of culture and information thus established and strengthened , it wi ll be possible for all of us together, without biases but with a spirit of harmony and co llaboration , to rethink the entire system of values that are at the found at ion of the military ethic. And not , certainly, to deal out summary justice, for these values are stil l valid; but to free them from the scoria of a past era when soldiers were seen on ly as t he makers of war, while today they are and want above all to be the sentinels of peace. Fortunato Pietro Muraro

It is necessary to stimu late the demand for a " cu lture of defense", an initiative which, as is true abroad, necessarily involves the universities and which t he mass media can support. A more assiduous and objective and, of cou rse, free information managed by journali sts and competent civilian and military

collaborators is an ind ispensable instrument for reawakening the citizenry's awareness of and interest in the problems of national defense. Especially in view of its psychological impact on public opin ion, one must not, lastly, neg lect the possibility of drawing on the experience, culture and spirit of service of

Lt. Gen. Fortunato Pietro Muraro was commissioned Second Lieutenant of Art ilÂˇ lery after completing the regular courses o f study at the Mi litary Academy. He subsequently attended the Application School. Among his past assignments, he has been Commander o f the 33rd Art i llery Regiment of the "Folgore" Division, CommandÂˇ er of the Artill ery School and Commander of the " Cen tau ro " Armoured Division. Gen. Muraro has been Staff Officer at the Command of the 5th Corps and has served on the Army General Staff as Chief of the Reg ulations Sec tion , Chief of the Training and Regulations Branch and, lastly, Chief of the 3rd Division. He has also served as Director General of Military Motorization and Commander of the North-East Military Region. General Muraro was appointed Commander of the 3rd Corps on October 24,

1987.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE DOCTRINE OF EMPLOYMENT

In order to explain the evolution o f the tactical regulations of the Army it is necessary to illust rate the concepts th rough which, with the passing of ti me, these basic components of the Army have c hanged. The regulations, in fact, show the ways to carry out the various kinds of combats (offensive and defensive) on the part of the Major Units (Army Corps and Brigades} and of the Units (Battalions, Companies, etc.}. These ways tend, in their turn , to obtain the peak efficiency from the personnel, the weapons and the available means. History is ful l of examp les which demonstrate how decisive is t he impact of reg ulation s on the development and the result of combats, batt les or even wars, since several t imes sma ller but better employed forces defeated the bigger ones which fol lowed obsolete concepts. The doctrinal concepts of an Army are connected with definite parameters; some among them (for instance, the geog raphic p latform , the type of govern ment of a nation, the experience derived from previous wars} are characterized by a considerable time-stability whereas some others (in the first place, the strategy of the alliance to which a nat ion belongs and technological development} evolve with a very f ast rhythm. The stablest parameters give t heir contribution to the establishment of a relative continu ity of the mi litary thought. Thi s is a characteristic which greatly helps those who have the responsibi lity of determining the military instrument in terms of systems, training and acquisition of weapons and equipment. On the contrary, the other parameters make the recurren t updating of rules necessary. Therefore, the doctrine is in fl uenced by two contradictory needs: the first is that of preservation which is an indispensabl e condition for any planning , while the second is

renewal , that cannot be ignored if we want to be up-to-date. From the dialectic comparison between these two issues and the predominance of one of them on the other, either new doctrinal conceptions originate or t he existing ones are confirmed and st regthened : this is, basical ly, the reason for the disappearance of the various doctrinal series in our Army, as well as in al l the others. After this short explanation of the reasons that justify the doctrinal evolution, I now come to the main subject, taking into consideration on ly the aspect of defence, which is the most important from the operational po int of view. Since the end of the Second World War, during a period of forty years, there have been five bas ic changes in our doctrine of employment. I wi ll il lustrate them briefly, not because I want to make an erudite historical analys is, but because in the doctrinal field - as in others - it is indispensable to know the past in order to understand the present and , above all, to try to foresee the future with sufficient reliability. In fact, doctrine, as nature, does not proceed by " leaps". The Second World War, in al l its duration, saw the triumph of manoeuvre. Faced by the tank and the ground-attack airplane, the continuous defence, neither very deep nor very reactive, from t he tact ical point of view - inherited, with a few changes, from the First World War - gets in a crisis. The arrangement by indepth echelons of the forces and the renounciation to the continuity of the deployment that are the most characteristic elements of the doctrinal series between 1948 and 1950 originate from these premises. It is clear t hat t he defender, who wants to increase the depth of the active part of his dep loyment without nevertheless having enough forces to garrison everything, is forced to concentrate on the strong points, organ ized in all41

THE DEFENCE ORGANIZATION IN 1948-50 (Publication of the series 3000)

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round systems and set for mutual support. Let me now spend a few words on the "strongpoints" (strongholds in technical terms), since this defensive element form this period on will always be present in our doctrine, albeit with sensible changes in its functions and its internal organization. At this stage of the doctrinal evolution, it is a fortified structure, manned by a battalion , with a all-round capacity of reaction in an area of approximately one square kilometer. In a defensive organization of this kind the infantry strongholds are deployed, chessboard-wise, in two or even three orders and cooperate among themselves, i.e. they are positioned at a distance from each other which allows them

to control with fire the interposed spaces and consequently prevent the concentration of the efforts of the adversary against one of them neg lecting the others. The depth of the defensive position is approximately 7-8 kilometres and the front 8-10 kilometres. After 1950, it became necessary to cope with the effect of nuclear fire on operations. The analysis of the unusual power of the new nuclear weapon led to the conclusion that a historical change had occurred, marking the end of an age and the beginning of a new one with unpredictable developments. After the solution of the problem of the opening of breaches in the defensive positions, it appeared that in

the future the armoured forces cou ld become protagonists of the tactical and strategic success. At the same time, there is a justified concern for the capability of defence to neutralize a massive and sudden concentration of power of this kind . In this framework, in 1956, the so-called "doctrinal series 600" was created . It is the period of the NATO strategy of "massive response" . However, taking into account the high cost of product ion, the still limited availability of weapons and the possibility that the operations be totally or mainly carried out with conventional means or procedures, the authors of the doctrinal series 600 think that it is possible to re ly on bivalent processes, very different from those of the past but valid, whether the atomic weapons are used or not . The requirements that the defence must meet in order to survive and, at the same t ime, to perform its task , are: • drastic red uction of the thickness of the deployment, in order to reduce its vulnerability; • renunciation of the cooperation between contiguous strongholds; • arrangement of the forces in in-depth echelons and utilization of the spaces obtained in order to employ nuclear fire and armoured reserves; • massive use of obstacles to activate the empty spaces. These requirements imply the following defensive organizat ion: • an area where a contact and delay echelon operates (possible); • a batt le area, 100-150 k ilometres deep, inc luding among other things - two defensive positions (each of them 20-30 kilometres deep) where we find again our battalion strongholds. A period of litt le more than 5 years is enough to make the Army Staff consider that the assumptions of the doctrinal series 600 are not valid anymore.

THE DEFENCE ORGANIZATION IN 1956 (Publication of the series 600)

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EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

STRENGTHENING OF THE "CONVENTIONAL"

The basic strateg ic fac ts fo stering th e re view of t he regul ations are the nuclear parity achieved by the Soviet Uni on, t he wide availabilit y of weapons and their miniaturization, which allows their more massive use in the tactical fi eld. Wit h a great number of weapons in t he battlefield , it is not possible anymore to con sider one course val id for all circumstances, but it is necessary to think about differen t procedures, each o f them valid for a specific operational sit uation (unlimited or li mited nuc lear war, conventional war, conventional war in a potential nuc lear environment) and about a polyvalent instrument , i.e. an instrument capable of being used in the most different ways. Thi s is why, in 1963, the series 700 is published. The defensive position is more t han doubled with respec t to the past (80-140 ki lometres compared to 25-30 ki lometres of the series 600) and is divided in three zones: • Security Zone, 10-15 kilomet res deep; • Arrest Zone , 70-130 ki lometres deep, divided in : • Resistance Pos it ion; • Zone of t he Reserves of the Army Corps. The series 700 considers two possible procedures of defence in the Position of Resistance; • t he anchored defence (Resistance Position 20-25 kilomet res deep), stil l based on strongholds (this time at company level), mostly adopted in the mountain and Alpine environments and entrusted to Alpine and Infantry Major Units; • mobile defence (Resistance Position 50-80 kilomet res deep); • based above al l on the resolutive importance of powerful counterattacks; • used in terrains with a high rat io of movement; • conducted by armoured and/or mechan ized Major Units. When necessary, the two procedures o f defence can be combined in depth. 43

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The change of some of the basic assumptions of the series 700 leads once again the Army Staff to study a new doctrinal series (800) which is published at the beginning of the seventi es. The main fact is the adoption within the Western Alliance of the strategy of "flexi ble response" replacing that of " massive response" . This new strategy, which is still valid and will probably be so also in the future, after the rejection of the principle of "everything or nothing" which is scarcely credible in case of minor aggressions, considers reactions proportional to the nature and the extent of the aggression . In this framework, even the use of nuclear fire would be careful ly gradual, i.e. it would be submitted - when its use becomes indispensable - to the criteria of "limitationÂť, as regards the number and power of the weapons, and of "selectivity", as reg ards the particu lar criteria to be adopted

in the selection of targets. These are the conceptual assumptions of the series 800 which marks a return to the past if compared to the series 700, that is to say a return to a limited availability of weapons, similar to the one which had inspired the series 600, with the difference that the limited availability was then a technical and financial fact, while now it is basically a political fact. Consequently, there is a change in the aspect of the defensive position in which the Divisions lead the defence with the abovementioned procedures of anchored defence and mobile defence, not combined in depth anymore, but only along the front, in sectors whose depth is not substantially different, as in the series 700, but practical ly similar. Previously I have mentioned the return, in practice, to the philosophy of the series 600, and now I would like to stress some important aspects of the publication, because they are in

part st ill valid and likely to remain valid also in the future. First of all , the reduction of the depth of the Defensive Position, which changes from the 80-140 kilometres of the series 700 to the 30-40 kilometres of the 800, and the abo lition of the combined defence, made possible by the reduction of the contribution of nuclear fire. This means that more credit is given to terrain rather than to space. I also want to emphasize the revaluation of the conventional forces, which become a basic and decisive element of operations. In fact, the raising and distancing of the nuclear threshold depends on their effectiveness and capability. In 1976, the Army Staff started the restructuring of the Service, a process that, even if incomplete, brought - among other things - to the mechanization of the infantry battalions and to the adoption of weapon systems of a more advanced conception. These innovations could not leave the rules of t he series 800 unchanged . This series, as the previous ones, took into consideration the characterist ics of the instrument of the prerestructuring instrument in terms of capabi liti es and, above all , of limitations. Other evaluations, first of all those concerning the experiences of the Arab-Israeli War of Yorn Kippur, contributed to a very remarkable extent to the creation of a new doctrinal series. In fact, on the one hand, those war events had demonstrated that it was indispensable to have a protective umbrella under which the land forces could operate, sheltered from the attacks of the air forces; on the other the massive emp loyment of the tanks had been partially reappraised, considering the precision and effectiveness of the antitank weapons. These observations had ind uced the Army Staff to reconsider the relevance and the importance of counterattacks and to consider

PUBLICATION

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the tank from a new and different point of view, i.e. as the potential tool for a cau tions and cont inuous attrition of the adversary. In this conceptual framework and with the basic strategic platform unchanged, the creation of a new body of doctrines was started: they were di rected, in particular, rather than to the general structure of the defence (which, therefore, remain s forward -projected) to the procedures of action , trying to make them consistent with the new organizat ional reali ty and with the different operational situations. On this subject, I just want to say that t he series 900 does not inc lude anymore neit her anchored defence nor mobile defence in their aspect of action of whole Major Units, but it cod ifies at a much lower level (namely, the company) the possibi lity to have more or less maneuverability. Within the combat group at battalion level, it is the Commander who must decide - on the basis of the limitations given, for coordination, by the higher Command of the task, of the field and of the nature of the available forces - and who must dose t he appropriate tactical actions, static and dynamic, in order to achieve the results required of him . I have th us outlined synthetically the evolution of the national defensive regu lations from the post-war

period to the present. I have tried, in particular, to poi nt out the elements of continuity and the chang es of each doctrinal series, in order to give a clear interp retation permitting, as I said in the openin g lines, to foresee the fut ure through the past experiences. The fundamental fact emerging from this whole analysi s, which is o f an operational rather than doctrinal natu re, is the strong will to plan , lead and bring to an end the batt le remain ing as c lose as possible to the border. This stems also from the fact that it is wel l known that it is impossible to play the "space" card , given the nature, the characteristics and the decisive economic, political and demographic importance of t he areas which would be involved. I am absolutely convinced that th is fact will not change in the future, also cons istently with the NATO's strategy of "forward defence" , w hich is the product - also in Central Europe - of considerations simi lar to those I have illustrated before. This does not mean, however, that I am th inking about a rigid and fragile deployment, easily "pierced" in the front and outflanked by the airmobile forces. On the cont rary, I' m thinking of a pre-organized defensive belt conveniently deep and where the forces are proj ected forward, determined not to lose ground but

organized to use all the available space vis-a-vis enemy efforts that can not be easily contained otherwise. Behind th is organization , it will be necessary to continue to maintain highly mobile reserve forces capabl e of ti mely intervent ions also against enemy forces operati ng in the th ird dimens ion. Therefore, no prearranged yielding of space, neither at tactical nor, even less, at strategic level. All this probab ly exclud es " a priori" the re turn to spaces and depths si milar to those considered by the series 700 and certain ly the evolution towards rul es based on the socalled " territorial war" or " people's war" of Jugoslav brand, which finds its just ification in historical, political, geog raphic and ideological premises abysmally different from ours. Another element that we can deduce from the study is the credit costantly given to t he strength of terrain which, nevertheless, has been sensibly reduced with the series 900. Clear s ign s of th is are the disappearance of the anchored defence which - faced by a potential enemy who considers fire it s favorite weapon circumscribed the mass forces within t he unequivocal perimeters of the strongho lds and the downgrading of the individ ual stronghold, wh ich once was the static structure for exce llence, and today is (and probably w ill be also in

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WIDTH the future) an extreme solut ion, to be adopted only in particular situat ions and terrains. Consistently with the utilization of materiels and sources of fire of high tactical mobility, the series 900 will emphasize the most f lexible, dynamic and reactive procedures. In particular, with the acquisition of modern antitank and antiaircraft weapons, it is not un likely to think that the tank will gradually regain its original decisive function. A third element emerg ing from the " retrospective study" is the variability of t he importance of the nuclear component. The weapons of massive destruction start to be weighty in the series 600 and become protagon ists with the series 700, where the conventional forces sometimes are nothing more than mere "supports" . With the strategy of flexible response, the panorama changes completely and the conventional forces assume the

fundamental function of bei ng one of the components of the t riad on wh ich deterrence and the defence of Europe are based (the other two components being the strategic nuclear forces and the theatre nuclear forces, incl udi ng the tactical ones). Nowadays, this function is getting more and more important, together with the increasing doubts undermining t he credibility and t he rationality of nuclear excal ation. Among other things and the negotiat ions under way on the elimination of the theatre missi les and of the short-range missiles show, in more and more peremptory term s, the importance of the conventional component wh ich must be absolu tely increased if we want to avoid to compromise a balance t hat till now and for many years has preserved peace. It is clear, in fact, that qualitat ively and quantitatively insuffici ent conventional forces, not supported by low-power

nuclear weapons, would certainly be doomed to disaster and the only alternative wou ld be strategic nuclear apocalypse. In support of the conventional component, and as a premise to its strengthening, the so-called "emerging technologies" are slow ly coming out. In the near future it will be possible t o have extremely effective means for command, observat ion of the battlefield , acquisition of targets and the neutralization in depth of individual or complex targets through the so-called smart ammunition with target-seeking heads. These new technologies will permit, essentially, to take better and more timely decisions and to see, hit and destroy more in depth, thus obtain ing effects simi lar to those o f the tactical nuc lear weapons o f lesser yield. It wi ll therefore be possible, in particu lar: â€˘ to raise considerably the nuclear threshold;

â€˘ to produce more in depth, with the appropriate use of f ire, the attrition and the separation of the enemy forces in order to make it possible for the defender to face them separately, at success ive times, when their capability is appropriately reduced. It is a long and costly way, with some risks, and the present sharp debate with in NATO concern ing the subject o f the "employment of conventional forces" is a proof of all this. But this is the only poss ible way - and here we see its merit - therefore it must be followed with conviction and firm ness. In this strategic, tactical and technological framework, will the present doctrinal series sti ll be valid? Personall y, I am convinced that the 900, which is based on a strategy that does not seem to have any alternatives, and on positive future procedures, wi ll keep on being fully applicable, at least in the short-term. Certainly the introduction of

new and more effective means - with the consequent organizat ional repercussions whose signs can be detected already now - wil l allow to sharp ly improve the efficiency of the present procedu res. This does not mean, however, that we must completely change a conceptual structure that, even if ten years old, still represents an instrument we can and must rely on. Sergio Onnis

Author's note. In writing this article I have extensively availed myself, with the Author's support, of articles on the same subject published by Lt. Gen. Luigi Salatiello in several issues of "Rivista Militare".

Lieutenant Genera l Sergio Onnis, a fo rme r Artillery Officer, has attended the Mil itary Academy, the Application School, the War College and the Center for High Defence Studies. He commanded the 2nd Battal ion, 131st Reg iment " Centauro" Self-propel led heavy field Artillery, the artillery of the "Fol gore" m echan ized Division , the " Legnano" mechanized Brigade and the ApÂˇ plication School. As a General Staff Officer, he has been Chief of the Tactical Re gulations Section o f the Army Staff, of the Tra ining and Regulations Branch of the Army Staff and of the 1st Division of the Defence General Staf f. Lt. Gen. Onni s has been aw ard ed the cross of " Commander of the Order of Merit of the Repub lic of Italy", the " Mauriziana" Medal, the Gold Cross for seniority in service and the Long Command Medal. Lt. Gen. Onnis has been Commander of the War College since October 1, 1987.

INFINITY: A PHYSICIST'S MEDITATIONS by Carlo Rubbia Nobel Prize for Physics

At first sig ht, "infinity", as an abstract mathematical concept, does not have a di rect function in the phys ical world - which in fact is the dominion of experimental researc h - based on the measurements of physical quantities which, because of their nature, have always fixed numerical val ues. Nevertheless, modern sc ience has had to partly adjust its point of view regarding the concept of infinity; this was due to the arrival of quantum mec hanics - and above al l to the indeterm inacy pri ncip le introduced by Werner Heisenberg. Th is principle

not nullify the principles of conservation of energy and momentum but it makes it possible for any breakin g of s uch princip les to go unobserved if it is rectified rather prompt ly. The indeterminacy princip le states that such breakings can be tolerated if they do not last too long and if they do not extend to great distances. Together with the "real" physical processes, one must also consider a whole new world of " vi rtual " processes, the majority of which - as we shall see happen spontaneously all the time. But first of all, what do we

mean by "too" long an "too" far? The answers depend on the entity of the apparent breaking: t he greater the unbalance, in the energy and momentum of the "virtual" process, the faster it has to disappear. Phenomena o f arbitrarily great energy can therefore take place " spontaneous ly", as long as the equi librium is rees tabl ished in a suffi cien tly short time. In more precise terms, the product of the energy-unbalance multipli ed by the operat ing time must not be greater than Planck's constant, which is equ al to 1.054 x 10- 27 erg x sec, a number wh ich is incredibly

small compared to everyday life phenomena, but also very significant for atomic, nuclear and subnuclear processes. The presence of an infinitely large number of possible virtual states, to which nature has continuous access, complicates enormously the structure of the universe. For example, because of the virtual process, vacuum, something wh ich a priori is simple, is not just a space in which there is no matter. Any object can spontaneously appear in any moment from a vacuum, and disappear again in the short time interval allowed by the indeterminacy principle. All types of particles can be created spontaneously, even charged ones: the only condition is that the charged particles have to appear and disappear in couples made up of a particle and an antiparticle. Also in the ephemeral field of virtual partic les there is a principle of conservation which is never broken: the conservation of the electric charge. These processes, for example, have consequences on electromagnetism. Let us consider what happens when a real electron is surrounded by a cloud of virtual couples of electron-positron. The virtual charges are polarized: the negative charges are repel led, while the positive ones are

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attracted to the negative charge of the real electron. The result is that the electron is surrounded by a close cloud of positive charges which partly shield its own charge (fig. 1). From this analysis we discover that the " bare" charge of the electron is much greater than the measured one. If it was possible to measure, at a very short distance, the electron's charge, one would find that it increases as it enters the shield ing layer. An elementary particle - like the electron in its usual description is considered as punct iform , i.e. it is possible to move closer up to an arbitrarily short distance from the center which has infinitesimal sizes. The consequence of this hypothesis

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is that to reach the ''bare" charge, the distance must be zero: the resu lt of this extrapolation is that the bare charge becomes infinite! Then, not only does the " bare" charge resu lt extremely great, but also the electrostatic repulsion to the immediate surroundings of the electron generates a self-energy which is also infinite and which therefore makes the total mass infinite too; with this alone, the electron would be expected to be extremely heavy! For a better understanding of these very interesting effects we have to make a small digression and mention what is meant by quantum field theory. A field is simply a quantity fixed in all the points of a certain region

in space or t ime. For example, this quantity cou ld be the temperature, and the region could be the surface of a frying -pan. In such a case the field is made up of t he t emperature values in all the points of the surface. Temperature is considered a scalar quantity, because it can be represented w ith a posit ion on a straight li ne or scale. The corresponding temperature range is a scalar field and each point on it is assoc iated w ith a s ing le num ber, an absolute magnitude (or module). There are also other types of fields but for our present aim t he most important one is the vector f ield and on each of its points a vector or arrow is drawn (fig. 2). A vector has both an absolute magnitude, represented by the length of the arrow, and a dimens ion, wh ich in th reedimensional space can be defined by two angles: therefore three numbers are needed to be able to state preci sely the value of a vector. An exam ple of a vector field is the speed field in a fluid; in every point of the whole vol ume o f the fluid an arrow can be drawn to ind icate the speed and the direction of movement of t he poi nt itself. In the descript ion of the electrically charged particle it is assumed that t he c harges are t he field 's sou rces. Subseq uently each charge interacts with the totality of the fi eld obtained by add ing th e effects of all the sources. In qu antum mechanics, the particles too can be represented as f ields. For examp le, an electron can be considered as a wave packet with a certain f inite range in space. Vice versa, it is o ften convenient t o represent a quantum mechan ics f ield as if it were a parti cle. The interaction between two particles (fig. 3) through their interpenetrati ng field s can be summarized by saying t hat t he two partic les exchange a th ird one, called "field quan tu m". For example, when two electron s, each surrounded by an electromagnetic field , move cl oser to each other, to t hen

move away, one says t hat they have exchanged a photon, the quantum of an electromagnetic fi eld. The quant um which has been exchanged has only a s hort-lived existence i.e. it is a "virtual" particle, and therefore cannot be disc losed. Once it is emitted, it has to be reabsorbed , either from the same particle or from another one, but still within the time allowed by the indetermi nacy pri ncip le. The greater t he energy, the smal ler the duration of its existence. In fact, a virtual particle borrows or takes possession of a certain quant ity of energy, which it has to give back, so to speak, before t he discovery of its disappearance. The rad ius of action of an interaction is correlated to the

mass of the exchanged quantum. If the fi eld's quantum has a great mass wh ich has to be borrowed in the semblance of energy to guarantee its existence, the restitution must be faster before t he irregu larity can be discovered. So there is a reduction of the distance that the particl e can cover before it is reabsorbed , and therefore the correspond ing force has a short radius of action . In the particular case in wh ich the exchanged quant um has no mass, the rad ius of act ion is inf inite. The number of components in a field corresponds to t he num ber o f quantum mechanical states of the field's quantu m. The number of possible states, is in turn correlated to the Fig. 3 Interaction between two particles

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intrinsic spin of the particle. The spin can only have discrete val ues; when one measures the absolute magnitude of the spin in base units, it is always integer or semi-integer. Moreover, it is not just the spin's absolute magnitude to be quantized, but also its direction or orientation. (To be more prec ise, the spin can be defined by a vector parallel to the spin's axis and the projections, or components, of this vector along any direction in space must have whole or semi-whole values). The number of possible orientations, or spin states, in equal to twice the spin 's absolute magnitude plus 1. So a particle, like the electron, with a spin equal to 1/2, has

two spin states: the spin can be parallel or antiparallel to the particle's direction of movement. A particle with spin 1 has three orientations, i.e. parallel, antiparal lel and transversal. A particle with spin null does not have a spin's ax is; since al l the orientations are equivalent, it is said that it has on ly one spin state. A scalar field with only one component (one absolute magnitude) also has to be represented with a field quantum with one component, or in other terms with a particle with spin nu ll. Therefore such particles are cal led "scalar". In the same way, a threecomponent vector fi eld requires a 1 spin field quantum with three spin states: a vectorial Fig. 4

Feynman diagram

particle. The electromagnetic field is a vector field and the photon, in conformity to such requirements, has a one un it sp in. The gravitational field is a more complex structure called tensor and has ten components; but not al I of them are independent and the field quantum, the graviton, has a two-unit spin, which is usuall y equal to five quantum states. In the case of electromagnetism and gravitation it is necessary to take into account a further complication. Since the photon and the graviton have no mass, they always have to move at the speed of light. Because of their speed they have a property which is not common to particles with finite mass: states with transversal spins do not exist. Though in a kind of formal way the photon does have three spin states and the graviton five, in practical terms only two of the spin states can be detected. The quantum field theory teaches us to consider any process as the sum of individual processes, each represented by a Feynman diagram (fig. 4). Th is useful method of displaying subnuclear events, was created about 25 years ago by Richard P. Feynman, and it allowed to solve the great problem wich had tormented the quantum f ield theory from birth: the problem of inf inites. These problems at the beginning made quantum electrodynamics seem a theory which could not be accepted physically. The initial attempts to calcu late the resu lt of the most simp le electromagnetic interactions were rather discouraging: it was found that the contributions of the more complex processes concerning the exchanges of t he single partic le were usually infinitely great. Intact, the electrostatic repulsion inside a single electron creates infin ite self-energy wh ich man ifests itsel f when a photon is emitted or reabsorbed by the same electron. These infinites are created on ly in the Feynman diagrams with loops and can be drawn in the infinite ways in

which energy and momentum can be transmitted along the loop from one particle to another. As demonstrated above, t he maximum energy of a virtual particle is lim it ed only by t he time needed fo( it to reach its destinatio n. When a virtual photon is emitted and reabsorbed by the same particle, the distance covered and the t ime needed can be reduced to zero and therefore the maxim um energy can be infinite. And this is exactly what seems to have happened with the problem of infinites. Since the Forties, a group of young theoretic ians, who studied independently (Feynman was then at Cornell University, Ju lian Schwinger at Harvard Un iversity, Freeman J. Dyson at the Institute for Advanced Study and Sinitiro Tomonaga was in Japan), found that a certai n limited group of t heories concern ing t he in finite's field, act only as "renormalizations" or corrections of the fundamental parameters of the theory (for examp le masses and charges) and can therefore be eliminated if the renormalized parameters are identified with the measured values listed in the tables of the fundamental constants. For example, the measured mass of the electron is t he sum of its " bare" mass and the mass associated to its electromagnetic self-energy. This seems an absurdity, enough to make one suspicious of th is trick of the renormalization. In any case, a more accurate analysis has demonstrated that all magnitudes with unplausible values cannot be observed, not even in principle. A simple version of t he field theory for the electromagnetic interactions could be renormalized in the sense that the infi nites cou ld be eliminated with a renormalization of the mass and charge of the electron . But that was not all: it allowed to make calcu lations concerning electrodynamics, with an agreement wit h the experiments that had never been seen in the history of physics. So, the theory states that the value of

----

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Fig. 5

Neutron-neu trino diffusion

the electron magnetic moment (in natural units) is 1.0011596553 whi le the observed value is 1.0011596577. The uncertainty of the two numbers is in the nonfigure after the point: 0.0000000030. Even though the met hod 's logic and internal coherence leave some doubts, the theory's best defence is simply its success. Despite this incred ible success, the attempts to create this kind of field theories, for the other interactions concerning elementary particles, have been fo r a long t ime vain. For the strong interactions there were some possible theories that could be renormalized; instead the problem was (and still is) that the interaction's intensity made useless any simple approximation scheme introduced to obtain some forecasts from a given field theory which could be proved experimentally (i n a few words, the probability of exchange of a group of strong interact ion particles in a high energy collision is independent from t he number of exchanged particles, so they must be considered as very complex exchanges). For the gravitational interactions there exists a wellknown field theory, i.e. Einstein's general relativity theory, wh ich works very well for phenomena in t he solar

system scale, but cannot be renormalized and therefore probably needs a few alterations for short-distance phenomena. In this case the problem is the contrary of that of strong interactions: the gravitat ional effects are so weak that to fin d the correct t heory it is not possible to use experimental measures, at least not yet. Weak interactions present an intermediate situat ion: they are intense enough to allow to make approximate calculations. Even if it is said t hat weak interactions are similar to electromagnetic interactions, the theory, as it was up to a few years ago, could not in any case be renormalized. To be more precise, the exchange of couples of intermediate vector bosons in processes such as the neu tron-neutrino diffusion (fig. 5) creates infinites that cannot be eliminated with a renormalization of the theory's parameters. So, even if the intermediate vector bosons' quantum field theory has offered an excellent approximated picture of the observed weak interact ions, it failed as soon as it went slightly further than the lowest approximat ion. What difference is there between photons and intermediate vector bosons to make the el im ination of infinites so hard for the latter? A detailed analysis gives the possibility to attribute such difference t o the fact that the photon's mass is null , whil e the intermediate vector boson has a ponderal mass. A'$ all other particles with mass null, the photon can exist as superposition in up to two pure states, c haracterized by a left or righ t circular polarization , in which the direction of the axis of rotation is either eq ual or opposite to that of movement. On the other hand, as any other heavy particle with an angu lar momentum equal to Planck's constant, the intermediate vector boson can exist in any one of t hree states, characterized by an axis of rotation oriented in the 53

Hexagonal symmetry of a sno wflake

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Geometrical symmetry

Charge symmetry

90 degrees rotation in an internal abstract space

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Neutron

Different types of symm etry

direction of movement, in an opposite direction or in a direction perpendicular to it. It is the exchange of the

Symmetry of an iso top ic spin

intermediate vector bosons whose axis of rotation are perpendicular to the direction of movement which creates the

presence of infinites that cannot be renormalized. But recently the answer to this new and more difficult problem of infinites has been . found, through very important conceptual steps, i.e. with the use of symmetries and the union between electromagnetic and weak forces: such solution represents one of the most significant triumphs in the field of elementary particles. One of the physic ists' oldest ambitions is that of creating a single theory to employ as gu ide, includ ing all known forces. It is thought that this kind of theory could reveal some deep connexions among the various forces, simu ltaneously accounting for their evident difference. Such un ion has not been ach ieved yet , but it is probable that in the last few years some progress has been made. Nowadays, the weak force and electromagnetism can be interpreted in the context of a single theory. Although the two forces remain different, in the theory they appear mathematically interconnected . What in the end might appear as more important is the fact that all four forces are now described through the same theories which have the same general form. So, though the physicists still have to find a single key, right for all known doors, at least all the keys needed can be obtained from the same block. The theories belonging to th is particular group are formally called " Non abelian guage theories with local symmetry". The main aim of this article is to explain what is meant by such a complicated name. For the moment, it wi ll be enough to note that this type of theories connect the forces' properties to nature's symmetries. Since Galileo's and Newton's times, symmetries, and the symmetries which are evident in the laws of nature, have had an important role in the creation of physical theories. The most common symmetries are the spatial and geometrical ones. For example

Global rota tion of an isotopic spin PROTON in a snowflake, at first sight, one can observe the presence of a symmetrical shape (fig. 6). Symmetry can be defined as an invariance in the shape observed as some transformation is applied to it. In the case of the snowflake, the transformation is a rotation of 60 degrees, or of one sixth of a circle. If one notes the initi al position and rotates the snowflake by 60 degrees (or by Local rotation o f an integer multip le of 60 degrees) no change will be detected. The snowflake is invariant for 60 degrees rotations. According to t his principle, a square is invariant for 90-degree rotations, while a circle presents a continuous simmetry because the rotat ion of any angle leaves it unchanged. The concept of symmetry, even though it found its origins in geometry, is rather general to Fig. 8 Global and local rotation of an isotopic inclu de invariances in respect spin to other types of transformations (fig. 7). An charge), the symmetry of the example of non-geometric isotopic spin would be exact, symmetry is electromag netism 's whi le in actual facts it is only symmetry of charge. Let us approximated . suppose t hat a certain number Even though the proton and of electrically charged part icles the neutron appear as different have been set out in a defined particles and even if it is structure and that all the forces difficult to imagine an acting between the couples of particles have been m easured . If intermediate state of matter between them, stil l it is now one changes the polarity observed that the symmetry of of all the charges, the forces the isotopic spin is a remain invaried. continuous one, more like the Another symmetry of the symmetry of a sphere rathernon-geometrical type concerns than like that of a snowflake. the isotopic spin, characteristic wi ll now explain in simple to protons and neutrons and to terms why th is is so (fig . 8). many particles correlated to ' Let us imagine that inside each them, known as hadrons, which particle there is a couple of are particles subject to the crossed arrows, one to strong force. The symmetry is represent the protonic based on the observat ion that component of the particle, and the proton and the neutron are the other to represent the noticeably similar particles. neutron component. If the Their difference in mass is only protonic arrow is directed of one to a thousand and, upwards (the direction meant by apart from their electric charge, "upwards" is not important), the they are identical in al l their particle is a proton , while if the other properties. Therefore it arrow directed upwards is the seems that if we exchange all neut ron one, the particle is a protons and neutrons , the neut ron. The intermed iate strong interactions would be positions correspond to the scarcely mod i fied. If it were quantum mechanic somehow possible to eli minate superpositions of the two the electromagnetic forces states, and then the particle (which depend on the electrical

NEUTR ON

an isotopic spin

(Z) (2)'@)©@ appears sometimes as a proton and sometimes as a neutron . The transformation in the symmetry associated to the isotopic spin makes the internal indicators rotate in all the points of the Un iverse. If the rotation is by exactly 90 degrees, each proton becomes a neutron and each neutron a proton. The symmetry of the isotopic spin , as far as it can be precise, states that no effect of th is transformation can be revealed. And the symmetries we have t alked about until now can be considered as g lobal symmetries, where the term "g lobal" means "that it takes place in every point at the same time". In the description of the symmetry of the isotop ic spin, this condition has been clearly specified: the internal rotation which transforms the protons in neutrons and the neutrons in protons has to take place at the same time in every point of the Un iverse. Apart from the global symmetries, wh ich are nearly always present in a physical theory, it is also poss ible to have a "local" symmetry in which it is possible to decide an independent convention for every point in space and for

every moment in time (fig. 9). The term "local" could make one thin k of a more modest domain rather than of a global symmetry, but in actual facts the requirement of local symmetry fixes a much stricter constraint to the creation of a theory. A global symmetry declares that some physical laws remain invariant when the same transformation is simultaneously applied to any point. To be able to observe a local symmetry, the physical laws must keep their validity even when a different transformation takes place in every point in space and time. Maxwell's theory on electromagnetism is a classic theory, i.e. it is not quantummechanical, but a symmetry correlated to it can be

Original sphere

its negative maximum, the phase is of 180 degrees. Generally the imaginary part is shi fted by 90 degrees compared to the real part, so that when one of the present parts shows a maximum value, the other one is null. It is clear that the on ly way of eliminating the phase of an electronic field is by separating the contributions of the real and imaginary parts of the amp litude. This is impossible, even in principle. We can know the sum of the squares of the real and imag inary parts, but in any point or at any time there is no

demonstrated in the quantum theory of the electromagnetic interactions. In such theory, to describe the electron as a wave or as a field, there is the need for a convention which in quantum mechanics can be used for any material particle. It seems that in the electron's quantum theory a variation in the electric potential implies a phase shift of the electron wave. It is important to underline that this field is not the electron's electric field, but it is a material field. It would exist even if the electron had no charge. What is defined by the field, is the probability to find an electron in a certain spin state in a given point and at a given moment. The probability is given by the sum of the squares of the real and

Global symmetry transformation

way of knowing beforehand which fraction wi ll derive from the real part and which from the imaginary part. Intact, an exact symmetry of the t heory implies that the two contributions are indistingu ishable. One can measure the field 's differences of phase in two points or in two moments, but not the absolute phase. The discovery that the phase of an electronic wave is inaccessible to measurement, has a consequence: the phase can have no effect on the results of any experiment. If it could,

imaginary parts of the field. In the absence of electromagnetic fields, the frequency of the oscillations in the electronic field is proportional to the electron's energy, while the oscillations' wave length is inversely proportional to the momentum. For a complete definition of the oscillations, it is necessary to know a further magnitude: the phase. The phase measures the movements of the wave from some point used as an arbitrary reference, and it is usually expressed as an angle. If in a certain point the real part of the oscillation has, for example, its maximum positive amplitude, the value given to the phase at that point would be nu ll (0 degrees). In the point where the real part is annuled, the phase is of 90 degrees, while where it reaches

Local symfT/e/ry transforma tion

Fig. 9 Global and local transformation of a sphere

such experiment could be used to determine the phase. So the electronic field shows a symmetry compared to the arbitrary variations of phase. To the electronic field, one can add or subtract any phase angle without changing the results of al l the experiments. This principle can be explained with an example: the experiment of the electron diffraction from two cracks, which is the best known

demonstration of the undulatory nature of matter. In this experiment a beam of electrons crosses two narrow cracks in a faceplate and then one counts the number of electrons wh ich reach the second faceptate. The distribution of electrons on the surface of the second faceplate forms a diffraction pattern of alternating peaks and valleys. The quantum mechanical interpretation of such experiment is that the electron wave separates itself in two parts when it hits the first faceplate and the two diffracted waves then interfere one with the other. When t he waves are in phase, the interference is constructive and on the second faceplate many electrons are recorded, while when the waves are in opposition of phase the destructive interference lowers the calculation . Evidently it is only the difference in phase which determines the pattern formed. If both waves of th e same entity were to shift, the difference of phase in every point would not change and

one wou ld observe the same pattern of constru ctive and destructive interference . Symmetries of this kind, in which it is possible to adjust the phase of a quantum field, are called "gauge symmetries" . Even if the absolute value of t he phase is irrelevant for the experiment's results, to create a theory of electrons it is still necessary to specify the phase. The choice of a particu lar val ue for the phase is what is defined as " gauge convention". The gauge symmet ry is not a very meaningful term for such invariance, but this term has a Ion story and cannot be ignored. It was introduced around 1920 by Herman Weyl who, in those days, was trying to formulate a theory to combine electromagnet ism with the general relativity theory. Weyl su ggested a theory which wou ld remain invariant to arbitrary di latat ions or contractions of space. In this theory it was necessary to adopt a separate standard of length and time in every point of space-time. He compared the

choice of the scale convention with the choice of the blocks (gauge), blocks of refined steel used by mechanics as length standards. The theory was nearly perfect, with the on ly need of substituting the " length scales" with " phase ang les". Writi ng in German, Weyl spoke of " Eic h lnvarianz", initi ally trans lated with "calibration invariance", but from then on , in ordinary language, with the al ternat ive translation of " gauge" . The symmetry of a material electronic f iel d described above, is a global symmetry: the field of the same ent iti es must shift simultaneously in any point. It is easy to demonstrate that a theory of only electron ic fields, without other forms of matter or radiat ion, is not invariant compared to a correspondin g local gauge transformation. Let us consider once again the experiment of the electron diffract ion from two cracks. We carry out an experiment like the one already described, and we record t he electronic diffraction pattern; then the experiment is

repeated, but the crack is substituted w ith a 180 degree phase shifter. The result is that where the interference was construct ive in the first experiment, now it is destructive and vice versa. The diffraction pattern observed wi l I be different , with peaks and valleys in exchanged positions. Suppose we would want to make the theory coherent with a local gauge symmetry. For this purpose it is necessary to add an additional field able to compensate the variations of t he electronic phase. The resu lt is that t he field requ ired is a vector field , and corresponds to a unitary spin. Moreover, the field must have an in fi nite radius of action, since there is no limit to the distance at which t he phases of the electronic fields coul d be rearranged. The need for the properties of a field which is already familiar to us: the electromagnetic field. In a few words, the propagation of a material electron wave can be adequately described only if one specifies the electric and magnetic potential in which it propagates. Back to the experience of the crack, the effect of the shifting of the crack can be compensated by a magnetic field. From the resulting pattern, it is impossible to say which of the two processes is in action; it is possible to demonstrate that the argument can be reserved: from the gauge invariance one can derive the existance of electro-magnetism. So both electrodynamics and general relativity owe thei r elegance to the existance of a corresponding local gauge symmetry: their success has long inspired theoretical physicists. Not long ago, the corresponding justification tor the other types of forces was much less satisfactory. The first step was made in 1954 in a theory put forward by Frank Yang and Robert Mills in the United States, and independently by R. Shaw at Cambridge. The symmetry of the Yang-Mil ls theory is that of the isotopic spin, the rule 58

which says that the matter's strong interaction remain unchanged when protons and neutrons change their ident ity. The local gauge symmetry gives total freedom in the point by point choice of the identity of the nuclear particle. As in the other cases of transformation of a global symmetry in a local one, the invariance can be preserved on ly it something else is added to the theory, and in th is case much more. The laws of physics remain invariant only with the addition of six new f ields. They are al l vector fields and they all have an infin ite radius of action; but they have a positive and negative charge. This has extraordinary consequences: to give an example, two photons wit h opposite charges cou ld join, creating an "atom" of light. Another improvement was made in 1963 with Feynman 's idea of a "phantom" particle, i.e. particles added to the theory during the calculat ion, but which disappear at the end of it. It is known beforeh and that the particle is fictitious, but its use is justified if it never appears in the final state. For this aim it is necessarry to make sure that the total probabi lity of producing such a " phantom" particle is always null. A further step was made at Cern, by Veltman and Bell who, using the properties of the phantom particles, made it possible for the positive and negative infinites to be completely eliminated in the case of one-loop diagrams. By the end of 1970 the situation was clear: with the increase in the complexity of the diagrams there still were some infinite terms which had not been cancell ed. In the meantime, a new mechanism, to provide mass to the Yang-Mil ls field , was invented by the Scottish physicist Peter Higgs. The idea is that of introducing a new f ield, with the peculiar property of not disappearing in a vacuum. The majority of fields have minimum energy when the field is eliminated. The Higgs

field is unusual , reducing it to zero needs a waste of energy: the minimum value corresponds to a uniform valu e greater than zero. How can the Higgs f ield give mass to the Yang-Mills field? Every Yang-Mills quantu m joins together with a Higgs particle, w ith the resu lt that the Y-M particle acquires mass and the transversal spin states, while the Higgs particle disappears. A picturesque description has been suggested by Abdus Salam: the Y-M particles with mass, "eat up" the Higgs particles so that they acquire weight and the Higgs particles, once swallowed, become phantoms. The Y-M theory, with the addition of the Higgs field, can be renormal ized , i.e. it has no infinites. This was discovered thanks to the Dutch physicist t 'Hootf. Quoting his words: "The results of the test were ready in July 1971: the output of the program was an endless series of zeros. Each infinite annuled itself completely". In 1967 Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam had applied the Y-M model with the Higgs mechanism to the weak interactions. They hypothesized the renormalization finally proved by t'Hootf. Intact, the WS-G model includes both the weak force and electromagnetism: for this purpose four fields are introduced , instead of the three of the Y-M theories. The recent discoveries carried out at Cern have shown, with great precision, the validity of such theory. Again, even it aesthetical ly it is unacceptable, the strength of the theory is the fantastic possibi I ity to predict the experiments. Finally, as it usually happens when paradoxes are created in science, the problem of infinites presents its pros and cons: the latter because it prevents us from setting out the calculations as we would wish, and the former because, when the solution is found, it is adaptable only to a limited type of theories, among wh ich there is hope to f ind the right one.

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The questions on infantry formulated in the previous page, could no doubt appear as paradoxical. But, the rhetorical picture fades away leaving the real shadow of doubt, when the incredible progress made in all the high ly technological sectors is considered: from rocketry to cybernetics, from atronautics to telecommunications, and we stop here only for a question of space. Compared to them, man, thrown alone w ith his courage on the battlefield , appears strangely small and pathetically

vulnerable, but above all extraordinari ly identical to the man of 40 or 70 years ago! So, is it really useless? Examining the more recent conflicts, from Vietnam to the Middle East, from the Falklands to Afghanistan, the answer seems to be no. But this st ill isn 't an answer. If we do not manage to find the basic reasons, the fact may become fortu itous and contingent and therefore be of no use for a concrete answer to the initial question. So let us try to analyze it more deeply. We will then find

that: if we take a brave and trained man, we arm him properly and place him in a good position, improved by the right reinforcement measures, that man becomes an extremely problematic objective even for the most powerful arms. If we now take many of these men and we conveniently place them all around, we have an area which is practically impassable unless ... Unless we take other men, just as brave and trained, and we take them to attack that position, to drive out those brave defenders. And one could now say that here is infantry, risen again from its ashes. But it is too soon to say it. Why don't we try to drive them out using even more sophisticated weapons? Maybe we could, but if the defence is conveniently spread out, where w ill we find an arm so precise and selective to be able to hit every point? At the moment it does not exist. The so-called intell igent arms stand a good chance in the practically empty infin ite air space, on the never ending expanse of the sea, which is all flat and uniform, but on the ground their "intelligence" is obstructed by woods, hills, houses, mountains, cu ltivated land, where our defender disappears and, young Antaeus, finds his defence, his protection and his strength in the ground. One could then try with stronger measures, to destroy everything , to annihilate every living form on a large area. The operation is technically possible; but in the end, after having created an apocalypse, who can assure us that from that whole, our brave enemy, wounded but alive , won't come out to fight for that strip of land which had been assigned to him? At this point the initial question in answered: in fantry still has a reason to exist. It is therefore unnecessary to bring about more arguments, among which the more evident one would be that regard ing the particu lar forms of fight ing, first in line the guerrilla warfare,

where the in fantry dominates the field because of its original and innate attitude. But, once we have solved the first point, there is immediately another one, of at least the same importance: which infantry? How w ill it have to be armed and equipped? How wi ll it have to fight? How w ill it have to be trained? The question opens for us such a vast and complex field that we w ill have to proceed along a main li ne, without being led astray by secondary or extra problems. Above all, it is necessary to pick out the more sign ifican t phenomena from the useless ones, even if they seem more convincing. It is not an easy task, but we shall try to do it. We will therefore start by defining the basic needs to wh ich the "weapon system" of the infantry must absolutely answer to be able to operate with the maximum efficiency: • min imum vulnerability; • high mobility and reactivity; • maximum capacities of resistance and interdiction; • maxim um capac ities of attack and penetration. But before continuing with our close examination, it is absolutely necessary to make at least a brief analysis of the scenary in which the action is destined to develop: the battlefield of t he near future. This is in fact the ground on which the opposing forces wi ll have to fight, on wh ich the arms and vehicles will have to confirm their potential efficacy and finally, the arena in which the new ideas will be able to measure themselves with all these real ities. The battlefield of the near future, i.e. an attempt at prediction At this point, there are many reasons to avoid a detailed description of th e future battlefield, but we will only mention the most obvious one: the fact that we are trying to determine the characterist ics of one of its principal component s. We shall therefore limit ourselves to the indication

and, when possible, evaluation, of fac ts which are known or doubtlessly predictable, destined above all to show their importance in the use of the infantry. First of all, the exceptional fire saturation determi ned by the increase in power of all arms, from the rocket to the individual equipment. This situat ion raises immediately another quest ion: what amount of wear would the actions in mass, so frequent in the First and also in the Second World War, have to stand (1)? Even if no certain mathematical answer can be given, it is right to think that it would be very high . This bri ngs up some logical deductions wh ich can hard ly be confutable: the firs t priority need to maintain always t he maximum spacing out compatible with t he need to concentrate the efforts in the desired point' and at the desired time; the need to use every form of protection offered by the natural environment; rejection of fron tal attacks unless they are imposed by the situation. Secondly, the connecting possibilities have increased sensibly. Th is means that there is the nearly total certainty to receive immediately not only information, reports and orders, but also any type of available fire support compatible with the safety distances. Anyhow the poi nt does not end only with the good sides; on the whole system of t ransmiss ion there is the threat of the electronic war and of its effects: from a simp le in convenience to a total black-out. Therefore it is necessary for the commanders, at every level, to be perfectly able, on t he one hand to use correctly the enormous possibi I it ies offered by an integ rated and extended transmitting system, and on the other to solve the situations by themselves, operating on the basis of the orders received and of t he aim

of the action (2) whenever communications should fall. At the third point we cou ld place the reduction of the deployment, consequent to the change in the ratio employed forces/sector of action. Such reduction has as a direct consequence the abnormal dilatation of the empty spaces, in which finds its space that dynamic action which is far too hard to be carried out frontally. But the consequences of this situation do not stop here; the empty spaces cannot be considered res nullius, they have to be watched over, hit by fire, partially garrisoned when necessary; in one word they have to be controlled and dominated with no faults. At the fourth point we can consider the high mobility and the strong increase in the operational speed consequent to the motorization and to the integ ral mechanization as well as to the passage to the third dimension. The combination of these factors with the preceding one,

(with particular reference to the possibility of rapidly passing any land obstacle with the transport by helicopter) gives rise to a dual concept destined to change the idea itself of a contact or front line, as it had been devised up to today. In short, it wi ll not be possible to talk of line of contact, bu t, more precisely of area or strip of contact, in which the actions will be characterized by a high level of manoeuvre, marked by maximum mobil ity and reactivity. In this area, the units will operate on the basis of simpl e tasks, with large autonomy and remarkable initiative, in a game of actions and reactions based on the trinomial: surprise, quickness and power. At the fifth point we must place the duel armour/antitank weapons. The balance at this point still exists, but its parameters have radically changed. In effect: nowadays the antitank weapons are much smaller, lighter, easier to move and extremely more numerous

compared to those of the last World War. But , they are characterized by the initial slow speed which is inevitably linked to the use of the hollow charge. The armoured uni ts have had to take measures, and there are in production some armour-platings capable of withstanding the effects of the hollow charge. The conclusion that can be obtained from this situation is quite obvious; on ly t he well protected vehicles will be able to operate when in contact with the enemy antitank arms; the others will have to stop at a reasonable distance or face a very high risk of destruction. Finally, at the sixth and last point we have to examine the log istical implications, with particular attention to what concerns the problem of the provisions for the forward units, above all fuel and munitions. Among other things, modern arms are characteristic for their shooting quickness which, transformed in logistical terms,

means high levels of consumption. At this point the problem becomes more complicated: how can there be a development of the logistical support to the units scattered in large empty areas controlled with fire by both sides? And how will the provisions reach small islands of resistance or units in sudden transfer? Of course, even this problem can be solved by using, when necessary, armoured vehicles and helicopters. But obviously it is a very expensive and hazardous solution, to be integrated with the maximum use of long range fire, which, because of the position of its sources (which are further back) presents less dramatic provision problems. The greater the integration, the greater the saving of ammunitions of t he advanced units and therefore the reduction of the logistical burden . With the analysis of this sixth point we may say that we have described, at least in its essential elements, the scenary of the future battlefield, taking into account the most relevant elements which condition the employment of the forces. Criteria of employment

Having recreated the general picture, we are now able to place in it the various blocks, accurately selecting the most appropriate ones. First of all this infantry will have to be able to operate successfully on any terrain, with the only exception of the vast areas with absolutely no obstacles, in which the action will be mainly conducted by armoured units, even if not by these alone. But it will not be able to operate alone. The close cooperation of all the other Branches will be essential. Spacing out, quick concentration, great flexibility and maximum reactivity wil l have to be constant rules of action. Therefore an extremely high level of mobility and promptness wi ll be absolutely

necessary, which by itself will guarantee the full capacity of taking advantage of the favourable situations or of stopping the sudden threats, typical of the open battles. Surprise wi ll have to be looked for in every c ircumstance. Infiltration will be a procedure to be applied whenever possible. Short range exploration and safety, to be carried out with the intensive and widespread employment of surveillance patrols and vehicles, will have to guarantee the control of the empty spaces without solution of continuity. The protection from observation will have to be sistematically looked for in the natural environment and in camouflage; protection from fire will be found in the armourplatings or in the ground , including therefore the inhabited areas. The deployment fronts wil l have to take into account the increasing firepower of the individual arms and be spread

out to the same degree. Even the minor units will have to operate at a higher level of autonomy, without fear of isolation, and will have to get used to facing the enemy from every part, from the sides, from the back or from the air. Finally, a greater speed of action and reaction will have to guarantee the possibility of anticipating the enemy in every circumstance. Having briefly described the general picture which will have to characterize the employment of the infantry units, we now only have to analyze more deeply some of the more relevant details, at least because they underline a break with the trends and methods used in the last few years by many armies: â€˘ first of all we can state that, in nearly all the cases, not on ly will infantry fight on foot, but it will dismount at a reasonable distance from the enemy. This is so not only for the armoured, paratrooper, or Alpine un its but also for the mechanized ones.

A vehicle that can only take a min imum advantage from the protection of the ground , represents a very desirable target for short range antitank weapons which literally swarm on the battlefield; they are not very effective against the strong armour-platings of the tanks, but they are still capable of piercing the weaker ones of the infantry combat vehicles. A solution to the problem cou ld be found by making the veh icl es resistent to the fire of the lighter antitank weapons. Th is would mean increasing their armour-plating and weight, i.e. transform them into tanks, which possibly cou ld move closer to the positions wh ich have to be attacked. But, when motorized infantry has to fight, it is usually to open the way to the tanks which have been stopped by the enemy fire; in these cond itions, will the infantry combat vehicles be able to move beyond the line of the tanks? This time the question leaves no al ternative;

â€˘ when attacking, the last 200-250 metres are the ones on which the final and most critical phase of the fighting takes place. Its weight falls total ly on the units which are direct ly employed, because here fire support is largely cond itioned by the safety bonds. To facilitate the passing of these last metres, the minor units tend to be equipped with an ever greater number of effective offensive and defensive weapons. Even though it is justified, this tendency ends up by heavi ly loadi ng the individual men (3), even if the most modern armament (which among other things "eats up" mun itions at a very high speed) offers a partial remedy with the reduction of calibres and therefore of weight. But to take the best advantage of the ground, to move and hide quickly, to face the enemy at close distance, the fighter must carry the least weight possible. So let's give the assau lter

all that is essential for a close f ight, and noth ing else. But, let's put him in the condition of receiving, from arms of different type and effectiveness, a fire support even at very short distances. For this purpose there is the need of immediate and direct connections, and naturally of precise and flexible arms for high- and low-angle fire, that can operate at various ranges with the maximum possible safety. But, above all, infantry will have to be accostumed and trained to push it self to the li mit of the safet y distances, and when necessary to pass them. Taking advantage of the backing up and covering fire "by the mil limetre", the assaulter will no doubt run a risk, which in any case is inferior to the one t o which he would have had to expose himself if he had to open his way by himself alone; another point has to be analized , stil l concerning the attack. In the past, also recent ly, the contin uity and strength of the

defensive structures excluded the manoeuvre of the minor units, leaving it to the higher levels. Nowadays, such limitation has no reason to exist. The reduced size of the defensive structures and the empty areas in which the action finds its natural space allow the manouvre at every level. Consequently, whenever possible, the attack must develop and combine itself according to a precise plan, capable of exploiting to the maximum space, time, fire, terrain, mobility, surprise and cooperation. Certainly, th is will produce more economical, art iculated and fluid actions and, above all, it will allow to take advantage of the units' highest training level and the commanders' higher capacity of conduct; • similar considerations can equally be made for defence. Nowadays the word "outflanking" still conjures up images of ineluctable catastrophe. Saying it in front of a group of young soldiers, it is easy to see a look of dismay in their eyes. Well , this attitude must change. In battle, without continuous fronts, being overtaken by the enemy is a fact that must be taken as a normal event, to be faced with great decision but without excessive worries. The opposite alternative, i.e. the withdrawal after a simp le threat of encirclement, is like leaving a litt le at a time the whole sector which had been assigned to us, without fighting. It is essential, though, that the encircled units be not left alone; their resistance will be exploited to guide and wear out the enemy progression, but still in the context of a dynamic organization of the defensive action ; • of exceptional importance is the patrolling of the empty areas, to report any attempt of infiltration on the enemy's part, to inflict a first pause, to acquire some time for countermanoeuvre; in a few words, to maintain the control of the non-occupied areas. This action must never be transformed in a sterile dispersion of forces, but rather

rely on the great mobil ity and reactivity of the few patrols engaged, on the possibility of timely support of the action and on the effect ive employment of the surveillance measures. At this point it is clear that we are facing a new type of patrol, with complementary exp loration, safety, liaison, combat and observat ion tasks. It is therefore an activity which requires a staff with a very high level of preparation; • as for the general conduct, it is clear that , on a battlefield like the one we have described, the units have to operate in a very individual way, but ready to quickly join together, to a concentration of forces and fire capable of obtaining a degree of superiority over the enemy in the desired point and at the desired time. Great effort and capacity will be asked of the commanders at the lower levels, who will have to operate with audacity, initiative, high professionalism, ascendancy on their men , promptness in taking decisions. Today, without these qualities, it is impossible to operate and survive, and it is even more impossible to guide a unit in combat; • this statement allows us to focus on the last problem, training. On this subject we do not need a lot of observations, since one is more than enough: only a perfectly trained infantry will be capable of carrying out the tasks and applying the methods we have indicated. When facing the strong forces acting on the future battlefield, all those who are not tough enough are fatally destined to succumb. CONCLUSION

In the last World War, the infantry of all armies has withstood the greatest weight of the fight s. A testimony to this are the percentages of the losses, but also, and above all, the long list of units wi ch we find in the reports of all major battles.

More or less simi lar to t his, is the picture of the conflicts in the last forty years. Anyhow, it is possible that, in future, "star wars" will change the war's parameters to such an extent that they will determine its final end. But this moment and this hypothesis belong to such a distant future that it is impossible to make any real forecast based on rationality and logic. Today, infantry is needed and will be needed in the near future, but it has to live side by side with the high technology which is a characteristic of the modern battlefield. The new weapons and the new equ ipment, which have not changed its role, force us to use certain methods of employment, and the penalty for not doing so is the impossibility of accomplishing the assigned task. Every effort must be made in this direction, predicting reality's developments and connecting our choices to them. It is not an easy task, because the experiences and ideas of the past are a great burden, and there is no laboratory available to test the new ones. But it is necessary to do it, facing with full awareness even the fact of making some mistakes, because no doubt this will be preferable to starting tomorrow's war from the last day of yesterday's war. Lt. Gen (ret.) Giuseppe Caccamo

NOTES

(1 ) To give a banal example: a platoon attacking a squad in defence will not have to face an automatic weapon and eight ordinary rifles as was the case in WWII, but nine automatic weapons, alla capable of hitting, with a suitable amount of fire, the area in front of the defensive position. (2) As is known, the attainment of the aim indicated by the higher level is the goal which every commander must pursue when finding himself in a position that makes it impossible for him to carry out his task. (3) To speak of a by now classic weapon, one minute of th eoretical fire o f a MG42/59 means th e consumption of 800 rounds, wh ich is equal to 20 kg in we ight.

BOOK REV IEWS

Loris Rizzi: "Clausewitz - L'arte militare - L'eta nucleare" (The Art of War - The Nuclear Age), Rizzoli, Milan 1987, 304 pages, 24,000 Lire. Starting from the ' 70s a number o f scholars have " rediscovered" the theories expounded by von Clausewitz and concluded that t hey sti ll maintain a perfec t freshness and vitality also in the nuclear age. In the immediate post-war period the teachings of the Prussian general had been crit icized. Some believed that Clausewitz was "dead" and that the advent of nuclear weapons had comp letely modified - if not overturned - th e relation between policy and war and so deeply tran sformed the inte rna l mechanichs of the war phenomenon as to make the previous theorizations completely useless and out of date. At the same time it was believed that the techno logica l side of strategy wou ld overshadow all it s other aspects, particu larly th e social, historical, political and geographical on es, wh ich up to then had preva iled in th e mi li ta ry stu d i es. The "rediscovery" of Clausewi tz is largely derived from the realizati on that the nuclear weapons did not abolish war. They have only changed its ro le an d it s executive methods as well as the usefulness and acceptability of military strengh as a means for attaining political objectives in an international system which in its conflictual subs tance has remained as it was in the pas t. Th e weal th a nd validi ty of the Clausewitzian tho ught emerges with all its strength from Loris Rizzi's interesting study. The volu me is divided into th ree sections. In the first, the author ve ry conveniently sketc hes a profi le of the Prussian general and desc ribes his times and the cu ltural and professional experiences wh ich have had a d irect influence on his thoug ht.

The second part is devoted to a scrutiny of Clausewitz's writings, with an exhaustive comparison of the con tents of his main work, "On War", - whose interpretation is often difficult and much disputed, also because If was left unfinished and in need of a review in many of its parts - with his minor writings. The resu lt is a complete picture of the theory re lated to the war phenomenon and the internal mechanisms which govern it. Of particular interest are the parts that criticize the exi stence, the validity or the use fulness (which is all the same, in substance) of the so-called principles of the Art of War, for the greatest part tautological little rules which are valid only fo r those who, in ord er to ac t, need to be backed by truth and do not realize that in action, especially In a competitive action influenced by aleatory event s, reality is created rather than known. The last part deals w ith war and nuclear weapons. In our opinion, this is the less sound part of th is nevertheless exÂˇ cel lent work. The nuclear weapons have undoubtedly caused a discontinuity in the war phenomenon. The so-cal l ed n uclear strategy, which is not a real strategy - it is in fact a " non -strategy" - has in itself fundamental paradoxes which, in a sense, have brought the armed conflict between nuclear nations back to the pre-Clausewitz times, or indeed t o pre-Napoleonic condition s. Th ese wars were extreme ly limited, because the dynastic armies represented a wealth difficult to rebu ild in a short ti me, and could not be squandered in batt le, since they were the cornerstone of th e internal political power held by the European absolute monarchs. The French Revolution, nationalism and industrialization had entirely transformed thi s situation, by radicalizing and transforming limited war into global confl ic t. The nuclear weapons have had the opposite effect. Nuclear deterrence, which is a bilateral defensive conflictual position, is noth ing but a comple te minimizat ion of the war violence, based on the potential non actual employm ent of nuclear weapons. Neverthel ess deterren ce fa l Is withi n, or can be considered within, the organi c rationa lity of C lausewitz's war theory. In a deterrence environment, it is perfect ly acceptable that weapons sh ould play only a negative role, without losing, nevertheless, their subordinate and instrumental character vis-a-vis the political goals. The attempts to erode deterrence from above, through the research on antimissile shields, or from below with the "conventionalization" of defence and the measures of armaments control, su ch as the " zero opt ion " , have no meaning in themselves, but become rational within the framew ork of political ca lculations and goals. Without relating the logics of policy to the military grammar, it is impossible to comp letely undestand the latter. At least, one risks the inversion of ends and mean s, transforming the latter in to autonomous objectives proceed ing, outside any form of contro l, accord ing to the ir internal evoluÂˇ tionary mechanics. The revival of a war theory, updated o f course according t o the

modern cond itions, makes us aware of reality, enables us to guide its development instead of being guided by it, and permit us to place the vio lence of pa ssions and the autonomous evolution of tec hnology under control of politica l reason . Th is is in substance what th is book, which we warmly recommend, proposes to remind to all its readers.

LA POLITICA ESTERA ITALIANA DEL DOPOGUEAAA

Pietro Pastorelli: "La politica estera italiana del dopoguerra" (The Italian Postwar Foreign Policy), II Mulino, Bologna 1987, 269 pages, 26,000 Lire. This volume contains a collection of essays written by one of the most prominent scholars of the Italian postwar international policy and is furnische with very interesti ng and exhaustive bibliographic notes. It is a precious con tri bution to the understanding of one of the most crucial times of our national history, the period after WWII, in which Italy made the fundamental choices regarding its international position, its foreign policy, its securi ty and defence. We consid er of particular interest the essay o n Italy's adhesion to the Ata lntic Treaty. This essay must be related to the one concern ing the crisis that affected the ltalo-Ameri can relations in March 1948, i.e. before the historical "turn " brought about by the April election. The Italian halfhearted request for admission to the European Union, urged by the United States, as well as De Gasperi 's refusal to accept arms from the United States before the election, were considered by Washington a sign of the duplicity or, at least, of insecurity of the Italian government. This is what made Trum an and Bevin oppose Italy's entrance into the Atl antic Alliance. An opposition which was removed only afte r a firm French intervention, which derived from France's interest to include Algeria w ithin the territorial boundaries of the North Atlan tic Treaty having its

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status acknowledged as a metropolitan territory and not a co lony - as we ll as to anchor Ital y to the West, in order to increase the security of the French southern borders. It is very interesting to note the connections between Italy's internal and intern ational problems, as well as t he

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possibilities and limitations deriving from its state of inferiority which · was due to the defeat and to the oppressive cond itions dictated by the peace treaty. It is equally interesting to notice how in those c ruc ial years Italy's politica l class and diplomacy managed - in a most brilliant way - to overturn the country's state of international

in feri ority, considerably improving its position, paving the way for its reentry into the international community and laying the fo undations fo r a framework of external securi ty which, having favourable reflections also on the interior, made the national postwar reconstruction possible. Carlo Bess

equipment and references to their uniforms. The second part consists of 92 plates with about 800 scale drawin gs of weapons with the relevant details, markings, etc. The text, very detailed as regards technical and historical data, is placed on the page faci ng the plate. Moreover, the work is enriched by over 200 official regu lations concern ing the subjects considered, as well as by a bibliography, listing reg ulations and official sources. With th eir joint work, Bartocci and Salvatici have, inter alia, also fixed a clear and precise nomenclature of the Italian individual firearms and sidearm s of the period considered. To sum it all up, this text is of considerable interest, not only for amateurs, collectors, an tiquar i ans and studen ts of uni forms but, above all, fo r scholars and museum indexers.

by this volu me. It was unavoidable that the Paris revo lution of 1830, that led to the fall of Charles X of Bourbon - the King restored after the decline of Napoleon's star - and the accession to the throne of Louis Phil ippe d'Orl eans, had repercussions also in Piedmont. The new French Government had proclai med the principle of " non in tervention" when Belgium had freed itself from the Dutch domination. Th is position was soon interpreted as a "go-ahead" by the independence movements of many national commun ities and resu lted in the uprising against the Czar in Warsaw, the insurrection in Modena and the rebell ion in the Pontiff's State. These latter were put down by the intervention of the Austrian arms. In Apri l 1831, Carlo Felice died in Turin, and Carlo Alberto acceded to the throne. The King , worried by the re stlessness spreading throughout his kingdom, made a secret military agreemen t with Austria, with a vi ew to having its backing and help in case of need. Carlo Alberto, despite his former sympathy for the insurgents of 1820, was not a liberal monarch. But it is undeniable that he carried out sound reforming activities In many fields of his administration. He was moreover very suspicious of the m ilitary caste, as evidenced by the harsh rep re ssion in 1833 of the penetration of Mazzini's ideas in the Army, especially among the lower ranks. The present work, like the mentioned preceding one, is divided into three part s devoted to the structures of the Army, to cloth ing, equipment and armament, and to illustrations. The first part, 8 chapters, describes the reforms in the Army organization which, started by the King already in 1831, are ti ed to the name of the War and Navy Secretary, Marchese Emanuele Pes d i Vill amari na who was appointed in 1832 and held his position for fifteen years. The author examines the new structures concern ing both combat units and services, as well as the special corps and bodies; descri bes the activities of schools and academies; deals with conscription, promotions, discipline, training, administrations (one for war in general and another for artillery, constructions and fortificat ions). He outlines moreover, the activity of the medical corps, of the remounting service and of military justice. The second part, wh ich opens with an introduction by the author, presents a scrupulous treatise on the mentioned subjects of clothing, equipment and armament. The treati se ex tends from chapter nine to c hapter seventeen, with a precision

Gianrodolfo Rotasso

Allrirdo 11:uiat-d

L'ARMATA SARDA E LE RIFORJvlE ALBERTINE A. Bartocci - L. Salvatici: "Armamento lndividuale dell'Esercito Piemontese ed Italiano 1814-1 914" (The Individual Armament in the Piedmontese· Army and in the Italian Army 1814-1914), volume II, 85,000 Lire (25% discount to military personnel). Since the appearance of the first part of this complex work by Alfredo Bartocci and Luciano Salvatici on th e armament of the mounted Corps, the lovers of this genre have been waiting for years for the appearance of the second volume. After nine yea rs, the eagerly-awaited book has been published at last. It has twice as many pages (the format is the same: 34.5 x 24.5) and deals with the armament of infantry, artillery, engineers, General Staff, fortresses and administrative services. The volume has been edited with accuracy and meticulousness, so much so that we hope that the th ird and last book of the series, whic h deals with the Carabi nieri, Treasury Police and National Guard, is published soon. The first part of the volume illustrates the history of the Corps and includes about 60 period photographs and a number of drawings. There is a description of the Royal African Troops and Colonial Troops, with their

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Stefano Ales: "L'Armata Sarda e le Riforme Albertine - (The Sardinian Army and Carlo Alberto's Reforms)", History Office of the Army General Staff, Rome 1987, IV + 384 pages, illustrated, 30,000 Lire. This book is a continuation of the one edited by the same author on the Sardinian Army during the Restoration. If significant m ilitary reforms were carried out then, the same occurred during the period considered

BOOK REVIEWS

showing that the author can master very well thi s complicated matter. The third part assembles 93 plates, bichrome or f ull col our, ex ecu ted by Massimo Brandani, a wel l-known illustrator of military subjects. The work is com pleted by a list o f bibliographic sources. Paolo Riccion i

a journ alist take n by his profession t o the front of almost all the wars and local conflicts wh ich occurred in the past decade, who tells about the Iran- Iraq war from both sides of the line, who goes from one faction to th e other in conflict-torn Northern Ireland, who travels, undercover, seven hundred ki lometres in Afg hanistan invaded by the Soviets, who roams the Sahara with the Moroccan soldiers and the Polisari o guerrillas, who is in the Horn of Africa with the Somali and in the batt le areas of th e Vietnamese and Khmer Ro uge in Cambodia, who boats acro ss the Mekong and gets in touch wi th the Laotian resistance, who stays in Lebanon for a long period, who goes to Chad, who clandestine ly enters Eritrea, who spends two months in Angola, witnessing the tough intervention of the Cuban troops and the battle of Mavinga... Lami, a serious and objective professional, tells what his eyes see, spurred by the willingness to violate " the bonded areas of in formation", to experience in person the intenti onally " forgotten" wars, to rip the cover of the scenarios wh ich even the parties involved would like to conceal. And his ability " to see the upheavals of the world from a front-row seat" enables him to captivate the reader and take him to the places he describes " lending him his eyes and, sometimes, his heart". Massimiliano Angelini

Lami: "Giorni di guerra. Un inviato nelle zone calde del mondo" (War days. A Correspondent in the Hot Areas of the World), Mondadori, Milan 1987, 295 pages, 22,000 Lire. Lucio Lam i started its journa listic activity as a very you ng man, bet ween the fifties and the sixti es, contributed to important periodicals and joined " II Giornale" in 1974, birth date of the daily edited by Montanelli. Well known as a special corresponden t and contributor to the literary page, and especially for his series of reportages as war correspondent in the hot zones of the worl d during the last decade, Lucio Lami has written books on history, and essays for wh ich he has rece ived many awards. Introducing "War Days" Lami tri es to give the reader a picture of the difficult relatio nship j ourna list/news/public opinion, underl ining how, in the late '60 s, the newspaper report became a sociological byproduct in which statistic data prevailed over direc t evidence, problems became more important th an man and news-processing preeminent over the new s itse lf. It was the birth of " journalese", described by Lami as " a way of writing di ffe rent from that of literature, impersonal and homogenized, uniform in the poorness of its jargon" . And this is why Lam i, one of th e very few old-style reporters of those difficult yea rs, has decided to collec t his co rrespondences - all publi shed by " II Giornale" in a book, hoping that they will serve as alternative reference and future memory. " War Days" is in fact the testimony of

ANITA GARIBALDI

LADONNA DEL GENERALE

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Anita Garibaldi: " La Donna del Generale" (The General's Woman), Rusconi, Milan 1987, 227 pages, 23,000 Lire. It is a novel const ructed on imaginary letters writt en by the woman loved by Garibaldi; a book wh ich has the features of

literary invention and is history at th e same time because, throu gh information never published before, it shows Anita as wi fe, mother and fighter at the Hero's side. The Author, wh o is Anita 's grea t granddaughter and bears her name, has transformed herself into a contemporary of her ancestress, presenting letters based on historical truth (some are authentic) without letting the weight of mith unduly influence her work. There are not many figures in our Risorgimento who, like An ita, can transmit a message to the modern woman and to day's fem inism. Suffice it to recall that in the name of her love for Garibaldi, An ita left La guna, a li tt le tow n on B razil's southern coast where she was born in 1821, to follow her " Jose". From that day she devoted her short, intense life to Garibaldi. She foug ht at his side like a man. With him she experienced happiness and sorrow. She felt that her tem peramental inclination was to be the woman of his destiny and the companion who shared his revolutionary ideals. She evolved with him into a person aware of the political and social developmen ts of the times. She bore him four children: Menotti, Rosita, Teresita and Ricciotti. When she died, still very young, she was again wit h child. The Author describes with special emotion An ita's last days: the brief stay in San Marino, the embarkation at Cesenatico, th e fl ight through the Va lleys of Cornacchio, chased by the Austrians, until her death in th e marshes of Magnavacca on the fourth of August 1849. Besides being a vivid portrait of An ita, done with passionate but vigi lant participaÂˇ l ion, " La Donna del Generale" offers also an importan t co ntribution toward s the reconstruction of a chapter of Italian history and, through a series of new informati on, does away with inaccuracies and commonplaces on Anita Garibaldi's personalit y and on her story. Not only does the book make Anita more familiar to us but it does the same with Garibaldi himsel f, who is seen through the eyes of his wo man. The Author has had the ability to blend the historical and psychological trut h with a surpri sing insight into the mind of the heroine, sh owing a typically feminine sensitiveness in the letters' form and in her ability to reconstruct the events with great efficacy. A few short notes to outline her personali ty: Mrs. Garibaldi has lived, studied and worked in Italy, France, En gland, United States a nd Me xi co. In Eng l and she graduated in Economy and Political Science and worked as a teacher. She speaks five languages. For years she has been carrying out cu ltural and sociologic research activities for th e European Community and for private organizations. Some pieces of her historical research carried out in Mexico, Brazil and Uruguay have been used by the Italian TV, where she is currently in charge of a week ly programme. Italian represen tative at the European Cultural Foundation, Mrs. Garibaldi supervises it s programmes regard ing th e envi ronment, the elderly and the vocational training schools.

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BOOK REVIEWS

I//./ SPOSTAMENTI DI POPOLAZlONE E DEPORTAZIONI IN EUROPA 1939-194.S

"Spostamenti di popolazione e deportazioni in Europa 1939-1945" (Population Displacements and Deportations in Europe 1939-1945), Cappelli, S. Lazzaro di Savena (Bologna) 1987, 506 pages, 32,000 Lire. The essay relates on a number of co nÂˇ tributions of thought emerged at the inlerna-

ti onal meeting on " Population displacements and deportations in Europe during WWII" which was held at Carpi on 4-5 October 1987. Besides underlining the aspects of deportation concern ing individuals and communities - aspects which, in any case have been studied exhaustively and are well alive in the common civil conscience - the main objective has been to verify the longerterm repercussio ns produced by these phenomena of col lective and programmed viol ence in the process of global evolution lived by the European society from the beginning of WWII to this day. In the scholars' perspective, the attention is not focused on deportation in the strict sense of the world, which identifies with the horrors of the system of the extermination camps, the most evident expression of wh ich were the ghettoization, first, and then the extermi nation of the Jews, especially in Central and Eastern Europe. Light Is shed, also, on the form of forced displacement caused by huge transfers of ethnic communities such as the Slavic populations or the Gypsy communities which, according to the policy planned and practiced by the Nazis - not without inconsistency and contradictions - should have abandoned their land, or outright disappear, in order to give way to an expansion process destined to strengthen, both rac ially and socially, the leadership of the German element.

Furthermore, ample space is devoted to the often neglected phenomenon of the forced transfer of m il lions of foreign workers to the Third Re ich, wh ich was due not only to wa r needs, but was part of a programme aimed at impoverishing the national societies stormed by the Nazi aggression and at changing the ro les, with the u l timate purpose of exalt ing , above everything, the leading role of the German element, s ubordinating all productive energies to the war and post-war needs of the Nazi Reich. Nothing could be more wrong and misleading than to consider th e Nazi persecutions as the results of the personal ini tiative and excessive zeal of some fanatics, or a completely accidental, casual and unforeseeable even t which, therefore, cou ld absolutely not occur again. Thus one would forget or underestimate the fundaÂˇ ments themselves of the ideology wh ich had wanted war as a means of extermination. It is right therefore to remember, in order to investigate the causes which cou ld produce Auschwitz and Buchenwal d, and to find ways to prevent their reoccurrence. Then we ought to remember, certain ly not out of hatred, but to reacquire the values of human dignity and equality without difference of race, ideology or religious faith as well as the ideals of peace and brotherhood among the peoples of the world. Ferdinando Schettino

BOOK REVIEWS

COMITATO NAZIONALI;. • BUR SC181S,

C'ERA UNA VOLTA u•• l~ATTAGI..IONt u-.1vu1~1TAMIO · CUAl ATO'.'l f MONI ANAltA•

Comitato Nazionale "Bur Scibis": "C'era una volta. II battaglione universitario "Curtatone e Montanara" (Once upon a time... The Students' Battalion "Curtatone e Montanara"), edited by Beppe Rebuffa, Litografia Chicca, Tivoli 1985, 254 pages, 25,000 Lire. The name of the unit was chosen in remembrance of other volunteer-students of the Universities of Pisa and Siena, who enlisted in 1848 to take part in the first war for the independence of Italy and had their baptism of fire in the Mantua plains, between Curtatone and Montanara, fighti ng against the overwhelming and well-trained forces of Marshal Radetzki. The book deals with another historical recurrence, less fortunate, perhaps, but marked, nevertheless, by many similar acts of heroism. In 1935, eight hundred un iversi ty students from every part of Italy, chosen among as many as th ree thousand applications, c hose to go t o East Africa as enlisted men. They were trained in Somalia, at a desert site called Bur Scibis. Heat, dust, toug h and constan t drills cou ld not damp the battalion's en thusiasm. Bur Scibis was the Initial training ground of many heroic deeds started in Somalia and subsequently cont inued in Spain, Africa, Ru ssia, Albania, the Balkans, Greece, prison camps, on the Italian front. In victory and in defeat, the Italian legionaries gave the best of themselves. To drop the books and sling on their carbines was for th em an act of extreme coherence and often of great sacrifice. Famous names can be fo und among the volunteers: Gianni Granzotto, Cesare Zappulli, Gaetano Falzone. Useless to discuss today if the choice

was right or, in th e light of history , wrong. What prevai led then was th e wish to participate and be involved in an action in which the young believed with enthusiasm and selfdenial. The book inc ludes excerpts from journals, posthumous reflections, posterior memories. It is neither a military treatise nor a war story, bu t the accurate reco llection of those wh o got out alive from an imperialist, reputedly "not felt" war, leaving behind many who had been comrades in good and bad fortune. Significantly the book has been printed at the " Vill a dei Greci" in Tivoli, where fiftythree years ago the students gathered to offer their vo luntary holocaust and where today the printing firm "Chicca" carries o ut its activ ities. The 250 pages of the book are adorned by many illustrations and drawings by legionary Cleto Capponi and, besides list ing the legionaries, carry the name of 102 fallen in operations and war events. More than 30 per cent were decorated for military va lour. Those interested in the book can request it directly to Gen. Giuseppe Rebu ff a, Comitato Nazionale " Bur Scibi s", via F. Pinelli 13, 00136 Rom a. Ferdinando Schettino

Cll/JAIE U"11.A)IIDREI

BDITGMl.LlOtlaPIA

Cesare Calamandrei: "Armi Bianche Militari ltaliane 1814-1950" (Italian Military Sidearms 1814-1950), Olimpia Printing House, Florence, 68,000 Lire. Lovers and students of the history of arms consider Cesare Calamandrei's latest

work as a proper encyclopedlc textbook: we cannot but agree with their opinion, being aware that an authority in the science of sidearms could only produce an interesting work like thi s one, despite the very short tim e in which it was accomplished: o nly six months, without shirking his daily duty of editor-in-chief of the specialized review " Diana Armi ". The multifarious activities of this journalist, painter, designer of arms, military subjects and uni forms, maker of models, historian, are well known; his work on military sidearms can bear comparison with similar French, German and Anglo-American publications. The large-format volume, through its 360 pages, illustrates seven hundred arms and is furnished with drawings by the author, period photographs and prints tor a total of over 1100 illustrations; several are taken from official handbooks and regulations, a part of wh ich is unknown even to the most pedantic researchers. The author has nevertheless stressed the informative approach, preferring it to verbose technical explanations, so as to supply the read er with a remarkable amount of facts, presented in an exhaustive and synthetic manner. The text itself is preceded by a com prehensive Introduction on sidearms; then the author outlines the history of their evolution within the military institutions, from the days of the Kingdom of Sardinia to the present time. The sector taken into consideration is therefore very large: it goes from the arms of th e eighteenth century to the modern regulation models, from the swords of the orders of knighthood to the daggers of the " Public Italian Police" . Calamandrei does not forget the armament of the various Italian States prior to Italy's unification (Modena, Parma, Lucca, Toscana, Pontiff's State, Kingdom of Sicily) and adds a great quantity of information to th e scarce data published up to now, also giving the appropriate importance to bayonets. The only flaw in this work - which the announced second edition will take care of, w e hope i s th e ra ther "Spartan " typographical makeup which , besides reproducing watercolours and coats of arms in black and white, has not been able to rep rod uce the photographs with th e necessary clearness. All the same, despite th is tech nical drawback, Calamandrei 's book is of real help for scholars, museum indexers and antiquarians and is, moreover, a source of information, inspiration and entertai nment for the many who are fond of military history, makers of models and collectors, who hitherto have had to move among many difficulties for lack of c lear and exhaustive works like the present one.

Gianrodolfo Rotasso

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