JOURNAL OF ITALIAN ARMY 1989 N.2 "RIVISTA MILITARE" by Biblioteca Militare

JOURNAL OF THE ITALIAN ARMY FOUNDED IN 1856

MARCH APRIL

1989

:tE 4,000

CIRO DI MARTINO Tecnology, man and .the problems of defence in the year 2000

Tae Pervue (Tasea riscossa) Roma • Italy ·

GAETANO BONICEUI The Church among military men

· BENEDETTO ROCCA The employment of Cossaks in Italy

Sped. in abb. post. gr. IV/70%

CONTENTS

Number two 1989 March-April

Rivis:a tvlilitare a·ms at broacening anc' updaling the toctm·cal ancl vocational training of Officers and '-JCOs. It is thus a means of propagarng the mirtary way of t1iMing and a forum of study and del)ate Through the publicaiion of arrcles of techn cal and scientific interest. Ri,/s:a 1v'ilicare also ai,ns a, informing the genera l pub lic on the Army and on military issues .

...,

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Science, Technology and Training

Joint training of departments of memb er Countries of the Alliance combine to keep alive the spirit of co-operation which forms the basis of Nato.

2 Tecnology, man and the problems of defence in the year 2000. (Giro Di Martinoj

8 NATO after the INF treaty. (Piero Baroni)

Politics, Economics and Strategy 14 Vegetation, cultivated land, field of sight in the plains.

BIMONTHLY 3upplement to number two )f Rivista Militare Italian Edition

=ditor in Chief: ,.:iier Giorgio Franzosi Management an d Editorial Office 8. Via di S. Marco · i.'°1 86 Roma ·: al. 47357373

.dvertising <:are of the Secretariat of o,ivista Militare i el. 6794200.

·Printer Tipografia FUSA Editrice s.r.l. Via Anastasio 11, 95 • 00165 Roma Subscription and forwarding By mail Gruppo IV - 70%. Conditions for 1989 One issue: Lit 4,000 One back issue: Lit. 8.000 Subscription rates: Italy 22.000 Abroad: lit. 30,000 Payment mu& be made on postal account No. 22521009 in the name oi SME Uffocio Rivista Militate • Administrative Department • 1/ia XX Settembre 123iA · Rome. Residents abroad may remit payment through bank cheque or international postal order. Authorized by the Court of Rome under No. 944 of the Registry by decrett 7-6- 194S.

(Mario Buscemi)

20 Command and Control . 28 The mechanized and armoured minor complex. Logistics. 34 International military sports. (Renato Agostini)

Sociology and Staff Problems 40 The Church among military men. (Gaetano Bonicelli)

History 44 The war in the mountains. (Rudyard Kip ling)

51 The employment of Cossaks in Italy. (Benedetto Rocca)

Militaria 63 Adolfo Menzel. {Alessandro Gasparinetti)

66 Military artists and artist military men. (Ferdinando Schettino)

Issue edited by: Augusto Ma&rofini

70 Glossary 79 Book Reviews

'·:1e·--ber ol USP

Jnicne S~a-ipa Periooica Ualiana

Instructions for c ontributors: Anyone may contribute. To garantee the i1ig hes: objectivity of information. R vista Militare leaves contributors c onsiderable freeoom. though , does not necessarily share their opinions. The Au thor 's thus solely respon sible for the articles whicl1, p ublist1ed unedited ar10 v,/thou t editorial ties. e).(clusively reflec t 1,-s personal id eas. Articles must be orig inal ·n thought ar:c: st1ould not exceeo ten typewritten pages. Once th e Author is p aid 'or his article. he lose s all exclusive rights. Rivista IVlilitare may iheri pass the anicle o n to other pub lications and EtvlPA (European Military Press Ag ency) periooicals. Arfcles should be accompanied by su·tabte photographs. ·11ustrations and explanalory tables. A pt1oiograpn of the AJ thor. together with a brief '·cur(culum vitae·· a no a 10 line typewritten summary of the article 111oulo be mucl1 apprec ated . Rivista Militare claims the righ'. to change the iille o f ar1icles ,.;nd choose the type face ,jeemed most suiiable.

The tumultuous development of the technological progress and the even more futuristic prospects which can already be perceived, lead us co believe that the level of the available technologies should be considered as a fundamental power factor to which one should refer when planning and defining the military strategy of defence, and not only that. If we were to define with a concise expression the present state of the East-West relations and confrontation, after having spoken in the past of an era of "cold war" and of "peaceful coexistence", we could now definitely speak of an era of "technological war" or, less dramatically, of "technological challenge". As a matter of fact, today's reality indicates scientific research and technological innovations as the principal field where, in an updated picture of indirect strategy, the potentialities and capabilities of influence of the two blocs are weighed and compared. If this is true for what concerns the global level of the challenge, it is equally true, and in a determining way, for the conventional armaments, this being a field which concerns each individual nation of the Atlantic Alliance. Besides, NATO has always tried to make up for its quantitative inferiority, as compared to the conventional forces of the Warsaw Pact, by mainta111111g a certain technological superiority. This basic choice was able both to contain within acceptable limits the imbalance existing in Europe and to derive from the military expenses a spin-off of economic productivity - and therefore social productivity - unknown to the Socialist countries. On the other hand, the progressive increase of the expenses for research and the cost of armaments compel all NA TO countries to retrench their forces, to a lesser or greater extent, in relation to the generation-leap of the main weapon systems. It is the phenomenon labelled 3

On the threshold of the coming millennium it is man - or better still his conscience and his will - who gives rise to the most serious challenge. Western Europe has long overcome the stage of an economy of survival: in our society man has almost no ÂŤphysical and moral rusticityÂť left and will have even less as time goes by. "str uctural disarmament", linked to die fau d ial die:: l:!,ruw in l:!, technological sophistication translates into an inverse proportionality of the quality/ quantity ratio and therefore into a progressive replacement of men by machines; this trend is already widespread throughout t he industrial and tertiary sectors. T he unbearable costs and the substitution of man will eventually lead to a science-fiction "push-button war" or, follow ing successive re4

t rench ments, to t he introductio n of very few, very expensive and highly sophisticated weapon systems which, due to their insufficient number, would be devoid of any operational significance. T his hypothesis is form ulat ed by those who, on the basis of the current figures regarding the increase of the costs of a battle tank in its transition from one generation to the next foresee , not without reason, that around the middle of the next century an army will be able to af-

fo rd to have only a few of them. Seriously speaking, the significant problem remains to attain the optimum balance between quality and quantity, based on the actual operational requirements, considering that, as in the perception of the world that surrounds us man is the measure of all things, so must the measure of the threat guide us in the organizatio n of a credible military instrument. Hence the hope that the current moment of "deteme" between the Superpowers will allow us to lower our guard and reduce the commitments, including the economic one, which are unavoidable at the moment. Be chat as it may, the West appears to be faced by a difficult choice: either maintain unaltered the minimum necessary number of conventional weapon systems abstaining (partially at least, given the growing costs) fro m keeping pace with t he technological advancements, or t ry to preserve unchanged t he overall operational capabilit y of the military instruments, taking advantage of every option offered by the new technologies, optimizing as best as possible the employment of the weapon systems that are in shorter supply but are characterized by a higher performance. Q uietly, the West is already meeting this challenge, turning its attention to the sector traditionally considered more wanting in all the Armed Forces of the world: "Command, Coordination, Control, Information" (C3I). This is confirmed, as regards Italy, by the firm decision to start the "Integrated Field Transmission" programme (CAT RIN). But, in concomitance with these initiatives, to accelerate the times of th is transformation two substantial i mp ulses have come from the United States. First: the proposal co develop " emerging technologies" within the framework of new operational doctrines ("Air Land Battle" - "Rogers Plan" - "Strike deep", "FOFA", ere.) which aim at optimizing operational effectiveness. Second: the Strategic Defence Jni-

)

t1at1Ve (SDI) which, although promoting research in the field of "space weapon~" intends to devel?p a large quantity ~f tec~nolog1es which in the short or m~d1um term will find full application in conventional armaments. The research programmes activated by this group of initiatives '.rnd requirements are extremely vaned and detailed. Suffice it tO mention: • the technology of optical fibres which, having already made its appearance in the telephone field, could be applied also tO air and sea navigation (optical fibre gyroscopes) or to antisubmarine (hydrophones) and anti-intrusion defence, through special sensors for the protection of ports and other areas of military interest; • the laser - already employed in some sectors of medicine and about tO represent in space the mythical "death ray" with an antimissile function - which will possibly find revolutionary applications in flight control and in navigation, as well as in perfecting the land combat vehicles and launchers; • the so-called smart munitions, capable of tracking and hitting particular targets. Thus it will be possible to envisage, for instance, the development of systems capable of carrying out an effective defence on both land and sea - ·against any threat, including cruise missiles, high-precision guided projectiles. and air attacks. · In short, the current research act!vities will have important reflect10ns not only on C3I systems, but a_lso on a large number of conven-· t1onal sectors of all three Services, which will thus be able to improve a_great deal their operational effectiveness. We have given a quick glance into a not-too-distant future, where the new technologies will delineate a battlefield completely. • different from any present or past example. ~evertheless we are already witnessmg_ deep and irreversible changes, which have a considerable impact on th e conduct of .operations.

If on the one hand the problem of quality in view of the year 2000 leads us to believe that the technological challenge as regards armaments should have a well-defined cost limit, certainly, on the other hand the «human» factor must not be neglected since the employment of armaments and materials depends on man's will and determination. In particular, 1 refer

to:

but also combat, to the enemy rear

• conditions of night combat and

lines, which have become more and

scarce visibility which today, thanks tO the intensification of light and radiation devices, are very similar to those of combat in clear weather; • ability to permanently see, locate and identify the enemy formations in depth (spy satellites, drones, etc.); • possibility of delivering fire at a greater depth and with more precision than in the past; • ability tO bring not only fire,

more vulnerable; • techniques of command, control and data display, with an appreciable reduction of the reception and processing times of information as well as of the issuing of orders. Everything concurs in creating an environment where mobility, continuity of combat (by day and by night), command and control in real time, destruction power, are greatly emphasized, putting materials and 5

their user - man - in a constant condition of stress. Therefore, if on the one hand the quality problem projected towards the year 2000 leads us to believe that the technological challenge in the field of armaments should find its definite limit in the costs which would require heavier and heavier - and less and less bearable - financial sacrifices from society, on the other hand one cannot ignore the " man" factor, on whose will and determination the employment of such armaments and materials depends. It follows that in one way one should refuse t he technological paroxysm which leads to accept innovations for innovation's sake, independent of any significant "added value" in terms of efficacy within an acceptable cost-effectiveness ratio, and with the indispensable balance between economic management and global performance. 6

On the other hand, one should pay more attention to man: he, in fact, remains the protagonist of every scenario and his technical and spiritual education is equally - if not more - important than the availability of technologically advanced weapons and equipment. On the threshold of the coming millennium it is precisely from man - or better, from his conscience and his wiU - that the most serious challenge stems. Western Europe has long overcome the stage of the economy of survival: the man in our societies has very little, and will have less and less, "physical and moral rusticity". The education and training received as a youngster, as well as the facilitations of modern life, do not prepare him to face the oppressive and traumatizing situations of the future battlefield. At the same time, this young man

will be familiar with the new technologies, particularly data processing and its multifarious applications, and will have, therefore, a greater inclination also for the employment of compl ex technologies. Considering this, the selection of personnel will have to be very careful and the recruiting standards will probably have to take into account, besides the physical and intellectual qualities, also the qualities of character. A future and hypothetical land combat will be in fact more and more fragmented and decentralized, and will require of the personnel a strong motivation, spirit of initiative, marked adaptability and physical endurance as well as an exceptional resistance to psychological fatigue. Therefore, more than professional training, perhaps made easier by the young's increasing habit to live symbiotically with technology, the spiritual preparation of the individual is going to need our utmost attention; a spiritual preparation which should translate into a staunch support of the institutions and the fundamental values that must be preserved and defended. These are the problems that the future ruling classes, both civilian and mi litary, will have to tackle and, from the efforts chat the family, the school and the Institutions shall be able and shall want to make in order to create a more and more responsible and conscious citizen, will spring even more solid foundations for security, and therefore for development and peace. T urning o ur look towards t he year 2000 it can be said once more, am1 Lherc is no denying ic, chacjn the partnership man-machine the supremacy will always belong to man: there cannot be, in fact, any kind of technological progress chat co uld compensate t he possib le psychological, moral and ideological faults of t he fighter; of the man, that is, who must employ the we~pons and the equipment in order to defend something in w hich he firmly believes.

Ciro Di Martino

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~~~---------------------==~v NATO AFTER 1: I

i â€˘

lIE

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INF

TREATY

NATO and European defence after the USA-USSR Treaty on the elimination of theatre missiles.

NATO's credibility, efficiency and prospects. These the subjects discussed during several meetings held at the NA TO Headquarters near Diegem, in the suburbs of the Belgium capital and previously in Germany, France, Holland and Belgium. This study - conducted also on behalf of RAI and broadcast in four reports during the 8 o'clock N ews between 24 and 28 April - was no longer based on peace in security but rather on the secur iL y of peace. The IN F treaty suggests new strategical balances in consideration of the Warsaw Pact overwhelming conventional superiority. It is pointed out in NATO circles that the USSR's natural, basic, politicomilitary goal is the neutralization of the Atlantic Alliance. The tactics used consists of a proposal chat has enticing psychological effects both on the various political circles and on public opinion: the elimination of the two opposing alliances. For Western Europe, the threat is implicit in the nature of the two political systems. NATO, in fact, is a voluntary alliance. After following a tough policy for decades, the Kremlin has now radically changed its tactics and the first effects have already been felt. Relaxation of tensions, dialogue, the new Soviet diplomatic profile, the image of the new leadership and constant persuasive activities have strengthened the centrifugal tendencies in some NA TO countries. When the potential threat weakens (even apparently) beyond a certain level, the cohesive force diminishes, solidarity links loosen, and uncertainties, anxiety and doubts arise. In this connection, the most recent sign has been given by Denmark, which objected to the presence in its ports of N ATO ships armed with nuclear weapons. The evident wish of a number of Danes is the creation of a denuclearized area in northern Europe.

A Grumman E-2 Hawkeye returns on the aircraft-carrier after a mission

And it is here that the concept of the security of peace is based. Attempts at modifying the relations with the West have been noted in Moscow for some time. Within N ATO it is pointed out that there is undoubtedly a certain good faith and determination to follow new paths on the part of the new leadership; reservations and caution are expressed on the strength of the new leadership vis-a-vis the opposition within the Soviet government; on the risk that this process may be sudden! y stopped or reversed; on the need for more credible evidence and, above all, concrete steps towards a gradual conventional disarmament. It is necessary to remember that the threat is not only of a politicomilitary nature. Increasingly lower defence spending, within the framework of a balanced disarmament in which the Warsaw Pact has taken a first significant step, is undoubtedly advisable and should be pursued on the basis of well defined and essential guarantees, among which verifications should have top 10

priority. And we should not forget that Europe cannot afford to renounce the political and military support of the United States. A common European defence is for the moment only a possibility: to become an efficient, effective, credible and operational reality it will need, first of all, a common political basis; therefore, many years shall have to elapse and, in any case, it could constitute only a valid element of the Atlantic defence, it could certainly not replace it. N or should we forget that Europe has no defensive nuclear weapons. NA TO foresees that the disarmament process will last from twenty to thirty years. In the meantime, the existing organization will continue tO guarantee the security of Europe. On the scene of global strategy there is now, as a permanent and increasingly important element, psychological warfare. The Soviets are skillfully exploiting the proposed disarmament through a massive propaganda campaign, taking advantage of direct and indirect support.

Allied motorized patrol in action.

In the meantime, the United States is urg(~g the Allied governments tO increase their defence burden-sharing and, in this connection, we cannot ignore the American pressures for a gradual disengagement (or a reduced commitment) in Europe and for a sharp turn towards the Pacific, in order to reach trade agreements with China and other Asian countries, a huge market indeed, and to redress its trade balance with Japan. On these prerequisites and general considerations, which should be evaluated on the basis of an extremely unsettled situation, rests NATO's essence. We asked General Wolfgang Altenburg, Chairman of N ATO Military Committee, if the Alliance is still credible, if it represents a guarantee of peace or if now, in view of a possible disarmament, it might be considered obsolete. This is his answer: "I do not think that NA TO is obsolete, on the contrary, it has never

Operations on the deck of an aircraft carrier.

been so credible. It is extremely important that the NATO countries work out an arms control strategy enabling us to keep armaments at · a lower level". T his reply suggested the following question: "In the last forty years, has peace been ensured more by the deterrence of military instruments or by NATO solidarity and political cohesion?" General Altenburg replied as follows: . '1 believe that both factors are essential: first, a political stand and an alliance showing solidarity and accord, then a military structure, as a means for possible action. Therefore, the political idea is essential but also solidarity and military force are necessary to realize this idea". qen.eral Altenburg' s words clearly md1cate that defence is crucial for our future security. Furthermore,

within NATO it is pointed out at responsible level, that if the conventional inferiority of the Western Alliance continues, we shall have to accept the idea of suffering a first strike. An analysis, although limited to intents, cannot disregard three elements which, in any case, should be taken into account: • the Warsaw Pact evident superiority in conventional armaments, with an overall ratio of 2.5-3 to 1; • to dismantle the Atlantic Alliance's nuclear arsenal without renouncing security and in the presence of the current conventional force ratios, it is indispensable to strengthen the conventional forces; • public opinion in NA TO Europe must realize that, for the time being, the Warsaw Pact strategy has changed only for tactical reasons. There are also other considerations. In the delicate relations between East and West, the scientific and technological aspects are

outstanding. Their repercussions on political orientations are not negligible . This is proved, were it necessary, by the many espionage actions recently discovered in Germany, Switzerland and France. The press, with its sophisticated and powerful means, rarely dwells on this kind of news unless there are sensational and spectacular aspects, while it neglects or overlooks the more real, political, economic and industrial aspects which cause enormous damage. The success of an operation aimed at acquiring the plans of a new combat aircraft or a new surveillance radar is equivalent to save at least ten years' studies, research and tests and to fill, at no cost, the so-called technological gap, which conditions the political conduct. It is pointed out in NATO that the first important psychological battle in the duel of the high-technology nuclear systems was won by the Soviet Union when it convinced the Europeans to give up the neutron bomb, a weapon that the USSR did not IJ

Marching

allied

dismounted

have at that time (second half of the seventies) and that now, instead, is part of its nuclear arsenal. In the West, according to NATO, there are two psychological factors which are apparently conflicting but, at the same time, strongly united: â€˘ the fear of uncontrolled reactions on the part of public opinion, which is increasingly influenced by the pacifist propaganda of t he new Soviet leadership; â€˘ the lack of an international police capable of preventing wars and averting or opposing the different types of terrorism and subversion. Moreover, it is pointed out that the destabilizing effects cannot be felt and evaluated immediately. Their danger can be sensed, but only w ith time it is possible to see those changes in the orientations and decisions which imply and determine choices. From this viewpoint, the West is vulnerable and essentially exposed. This is the price of freedom and dernocracy, but since this system provides no guarantees, except for the great constitutional principles, it is almost impossible to identify the spaces where barriers which are essential for the defence of democracy should be erected. The depth of these spaces depends essentially on the extremely unstable political balances, which can be easily influenced. As concerns the relations among NATO countries, we asked General Altenburg whether .in Europe there is more cohesion among the military or among politicians. Here is his answer: "This is an alliance of sixteen sovereign nations, an alli.ance reaching the other side of the Atlantic. I believe that we are all fully interested in the maintenance of peace and freedom. Of course, in realizing our ideas we may sometimes have conflicting opinions, but this does not mean that there is no solidarity, just the opposite. It is precisely the possibility of expressing different opinions which indicates 12

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unit.

that the allies are sovereign countries. As concerns the military aspect, as Chairman of a Military Committee of sixteen nations, l have the opportunity to witness every day remarkable manifestations of solidarity on the part of all". As for the current and future role of Italy and her Armed Forces within the Alliance, the Chairman of the Military Committee said: "Since the establishment of this Alliance, ltaly has always been a very reliable partner. In this connection, her importance as a stabilizing factor in the Mediterranean is essential. I have been in Italy many times and I think that ltaly is indispensable for the defence of the Alliance". In this context, it is necessary to remember that Italy's contribution to the Alliance amounts to 8% but her strategic role is far greater. It is also appropriate to point out psychological and political factors as

well as the still missing inmat1ves. Among the latter it is noted in NATO that a more courageous information on the realities in which the civilian society lives, works and develops is essential. First of all, there should be a greater awareness of what is being done to ensure the security of peace. le would be far more cost-effective to devote a portion of t he resources currently allocated to defence to non-military initiatives; however, we must objectively realize that the global situation does not yet allow it and there are still risks, also and above all on account of the difficult dialogue between the two superpowers on nuclear strategical disarmament. The difficulties encountered in the U.S. Congress for the ratification of- the lNF Treaty, and those concerning controls, as regards the intercontinental ballistic missiles discussed in the new USA-USSR negotiat ions,

to increase her commitment tO com-

... ,;""' . .

reconfirm the need for negotiating firmly without, however, renouncing the concept of a strong defence and deterrence. Apart from choices, we must acknowledge the obscure work of all the members of the Armed Forces of the various Western countries, who ensure our security and peace. One of the questions which should be discussed more openly is the problem of chemical weapons. As for the production of these weapons, the Warsaw Pact is in the v_an, both qualitatively and quantitatively, and is ready for this type of conflict, which is more dangerous than a nuclear war. Many western countries are afraid to discuss this subject, even at politico-strategical level. Some nations, such as France, Great Britain, Holland, Belgium and even Switzerland, are more aware, and are modernizing. Among the accepted criteria, there is adequate in-

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formation, to make people realize that not even potential risks must be underestimated, since security depends essentially on the defensive capability and, therefore, on an effective response. Strategical confrontation involves also a duel of capabilities, intentions, risks as well as the determination to face those risks and co assume responsibility for them. It has been ascertained that a feigned recourse to chemical warfare on the part of the Warsaw Pact would reduce by 50% the initial operational defensive capabilities of many allied armies. Finally, we must consider our complex relations with the United States. The Americans point out that in the last 25-30 vears Western Europe (W. Germany, above all) has become a great economic power under the strategic protection of the U nired States. Faced with the need

mon defence the FRG seems to have difficulties tackling the issue of the defensive-deterrent nuclear weapons indispensable in a situation of evident and unquestionable conventional superiority of the Warsaw Pact. However, the German government cannot agree on the deployment of defensive tactical nuclear weapons on its territory without implicitly accepting to consider its soil as a potential battlefield, a concept chat has always been rejected by West Germans. Furthermore, the recent espionage cases have revealed that the Kremlin has always known in advance all orientations and decisions of the German government, and indirectly of NATO, for the last twenty years at least. And no one can reasonably affirm that the flow of information from the FRG to the East has been stopped. Disarmament negotiations and a new image yes, within certain limits, but without renouncing the guarantees of the constant, penetrating and effective offensive of a mighty intelligence service, the most powerful and organized ever. These are facts whose risks and implications we must realistically accept, while continuing our work without illusions and easy enthusiasm, and waiting for a profound and verifiable transformation.

Piero Baroni Piere Baroni, a professional journalist and member of the editorial staff of the RAI News Service, is a free-lance contributor to the History Office of the Army General Staff.

NATO AFTER THE

INF

TREATY 13

VEGETATION, CULTIVATED LAND,FIELD OF SIGHT IN THE PLAINS SUGGESTIONS FOR TRAINING AND EMPLOYMENT

Among the areas of major operational interest on the Italian territory, we must consider the flatland belt, where substantial penetrations hy the attacking forces could take place during the dynamic phases resulting from the possible crossing of the hilly border-area.

As is known, most of this land, although furrowed by ~ome ~at~~ways (which may constitute s1grnf1cant obstacles) and d_ptted with small villages, can be crossed by tracked vehicles. {Fig. 1) Its peculiarities are the total lack of even low hills an d, above all, the many cultivated fie lds and a lot of vegetation (vineyards, maize fields, hedges etc.) limiting almost everywhere the depth of the field of sight to a few hundred metres, or even less, according to the season. The impossibility of exercisingtroops and equipment on this k ind of land - which, as we said before, is extensive! y cultivated - has led some units to seek for training concepts ensuring a deeper study of procedures more adequate to this particular environment. In t his context, after many " conduct" and "on the spot" exercises, which were not fullv exhaustive because the relevant ev~luations and consequent decisions could not be tested on the field, the recourse to

two-sided exercises on relief maps, according to a very simplified war game pattern limited to small lmits only, enabled us to coilect a nu mber

of data and to learn lessons that we consider extremely interesting. Here is the description of t he exercise and the relevant comments.

THE ATTACK T he attacker (an armoured combat group whose task was to proceed as fast as possible in depth) was faced with the impossibility of "seeing" at a distance and collecting satisfactory information on the situation and deployment of the defence before making contact. H ence, the need to proceed rather "gropingly", deciding to act according to the features of t he terrain rather than on a real knowledge of the enemy situation. Close reconnaissance also was scarcely effective, since it was subject to repeated fire act ions always conducted from diffe rent positions and causiing considerable losses. Therefore artillery and mortar fire, equally constrained by the inadequate observation (the defender, among other things, had protected himself by destroy in g all bell towers), was almost exclusively interdiction fire, with direct actions

on targets where the enemy was only presumably located . The dispersal of the defender's vehicles and the fact that. the personnel remained on their armoured vehicles until the imminence of the encounter considerablv limited both che effects of fire and the enemy losses. However, some more significant results were obtained through concentrations of fire on the buildings that, due to their size and position, could be better utilized bv the defence as observation poses ~r antitank missile emplacements. After adopting an initial formation covering the whole fro nt, once contact had been established, the realizat ion of strong concentrat ions (for instance: a column of armoured co mpanies with platoons in line) on limited stretches was particularly effective. Taking for granted the loss of the forward forces, the subseque11t "waves" actually succeded in storming the defenders on many occasions and, under the cover of vegetation, in realizing immediate and deep penetrations t hat the defence which was also operating mostly " in the dark" , co uld not always counter 111 tune.

MODEL ROUGHLY REPRESENTING THE TERRAIN ENVISAGED

Fig. 1

I Kilometre Fi- -

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TURF PLOUGHED AREAS I BUILDINGS

c=:J. MAIZE C=:JROADS ~ VINEYARDS

FOREST TREES

PLAN OF A TWO-SIDED EXERCISE ON A RELIEF MAP After choosing a stretch of land representing an average sample of the environment considered, a large scale relief map is realized utilizing also serial photographs; in the model all the details (vegetation, inhabited areas, etc.) are repr oduced, permitting an immediate evaluation of the depth of the fields of sight.

On this model the Directing Staff locates, in compliance with the orders issued by the exercising Commanders following an initial illustration of the situation, the miniature models of all the vehicles of the two units as well as the appropriate symbols of the antitank weapons and mine obstacles. The Commanders of the two sides and their respective Command Posts are in premises different from that of the relief map and avail themselves of a sufficiently enlarged map of the terrain, so that they can mark on it the location of their own means, as well as the enemy's, when they are informed about them. The exercise is conducted by reports; the two Commanders, in turn, inform the Directing Staff of their "moves" on different telephone lines. The Directing Staff: • moves the miniature models according to the indications received; • acts as a Lower Activation Group informing - as soon as the mutual position and the possibility of direct vision between the opposing sides permit - the

presence and the attitude of the enemy; • acts as an Umpire establishing, after the appropriate evaluations, the outcome of each action. Artillery and mortar fire is represented by transparent discs of the same size as the selected "typical targets" placed on the relief map by the Directing Staff, in the area where the exercising Commander indicates that the action has been conducted. The Directing Staff: • evaluates the losses of the units included in the area covered by the disc; • gives the relevant information; • takes them into account in the evaluation. On the basis of the information received, the exercising Commanders make their subsequent decisions (continuation of movement, withdrawal, reinforcements, use of fire, etc.), which lead to new evaluations on the part of the Directing Staff and to the development of the action. Simulation times are inevitably longer than real times, on account of the delays in the various communications and the alternation of the "moves". However, the average duration of a tactical action - never exceeds three hours.

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f _ •,r-_ • ""_ _I _ _ __ ·-...

On the contrary, the decision of having the mechanized component conduct the operation on foot was scarcely rewarding because the slower pace of the action almost always enabled the defender to disengage without losses.

THE DEFENCE The defenders (a small mechanized unit tasked with wearing and possibly stopping the advancing enemy by operating in depth for 4-5 km) could not control the assigned front by means of antitank missiles, on account of the reduced fields of fire. It followed that the antitank had to rely, above all, on the short-range weapons of the rifle platoons, having recourse to mobile tank-hunter deployments. Due to the presence of vegetation, these deployments had to be almost always arranged in a line and side 16

by side, without gaps (as a rule, a squad every ten metres) to avoid infiltrations in the intervals, susceptible of permitting (it actually happened sometimes) the irruption of armoured units, even up to company level. Being impossible tO ensure the control of the free spaces in a different way, the need to fill the whole front imposed a reduction of the sector assigned to the mechanized complex, even though its three forward rifle platoons were deployed at a distance of no more than 1,000-1,200 metres. As concerns the action of the individual rifle squads, it was deemed appropriate to deploy the combat vehicles under cover, in rear positions - even a few metres - with respect to the weapon emplacements which had already been prepared along the edge of the various fields and were to be manned only on the imminence of the action. Staying as

long as possible in their vehicles, the men had a more effective protection from the artillery fire. As soon as the attacking armour were in the open, at the short distance imposed by the limited visibility, the surprise antitank fire of all weapons in a position to participate in the action (Fig. 2) was very effective against the closest vehicles. The subsequent immediate return of the squads to their respective combat vehicles, for withdrawal to a backward alignment, almost always enabled the clefenders to avoid being swept away by the attacking formations or being a target for the artillery, on positions by then identified by the enemy. Although real minefields were not laid, the validity of scattering some mines on the terrain was confirmed, to further delay the progression of the attack. In this context, the choice of the deployment locations was essential-

Fig. 2

--- ...-...

/I- -

_,.

__.... ...

ly conditioned by the availability of covered routes of withdrawal rather than by t he possibility o f dominating the terrain in front. (This remark is of particular interest because it is rarely considered in the normal t raining practice). In fact, the withdrawal to bare areas proved particularly critical inasmuch as, while in motion, the defenders' vehicles were exposed to the fire of the advancing enemy. However, when open stretches had to be crossed, the use of antitank missiles proved very effective; since t he beginning of the action, these weapons had been positioned on emplacements more to the rear with respect to the riflemen, and contributed considerably in making their withdrawal easier. The missiles, however, particularly exposed to artillery fire because they are necessarily positioned in high unprotected and easily identifiable

..... . :, ~

~ - . --

â€˘.

emplacements (buildings), could be utilized only for short actions. T heir withdrawal, however, was relatively easy, thanks to their longer distance from the attacker. Actually, the function of these expensive weapon systems was complementary to that of t he shortrange rocket launchers. In some cases, also the presence of a tank platoon within the unit was taken into consideration. Initially kept in reserve, it further contributed to fill possible breaches, by providing mobile deployments in support of the riflemen. The typical posture of the mechanized complex, resulting from the implementation of the outlined pattern, is shown in figure 3.

CONSIDERATIONS First of all, it is important to

....

Âˇ.

stress that the short-range antitank rocket launchers, despite their limitations proved extremely effective in this type of combat, where encounters at short distances are imposed by the very nature of the terrain. However, considering the number of the enemy armoured vehicles opposing the defender (as a rule, a tank or mechanized platoon on a front just over 100 metres long), it appeared <~sse.ntial to have at least three rocket launchers in every rifle squad. Hence, the need to considerably increase the equipment in question. Practical tests conducted on the APCs allowed to ascertain the possibility of carrying up to six expendable rocket launchers which are being acquired to replace bazookas - having recourse to the expedient of placing outside a portion of the individual equipment, as other armies have already been do17

TYPICAL FORMATION OF THE MECHANIZED MINOR COMPLEX

Fig. 3

Subsequent anti-tank missile deployments /

, , I \ ',.._ I \ ', I \ ',

;

,, / ,-1 I

1 Kilometre

,,' / I

&36-36-i&aF-3

/ I

............

\ \

Subsequent riflemen deployments

Short-distance encounters become necessary due to the very nature of the terrain. In the photo: Panzerfaust 3 short range anti-tank rocket launcher.

ing for a long time. This solution, if adopted, would ensure a good selfsufficiency of the squad for at least two subsequent deployments, with the possibility of eliminating +5 armoured vehicles, thus imposing on the attacker a considerable attrition rate. In principle, it is estimated that the result of the outlined encounters could lead, in the depth considered, to the exhaustion of the mutual operational capability of the two opposing units (attacking armoured combat group; defending mechanized minor complex). This is an element chat, in principle, should be considered acceptable. On the contrary, there are still many uncertainties in the issue of coordination, deriving, above all, from the impossibility on the part of minor commanders tO control visually their platoons, squads or even individual weapons. In fa~t, the practical difficulties to be expected could not be fully evaluated by having only recourse to simulation on a relief map.

Ri ht

A}!,tas

anti-tank rocket launcher

Below

A VCC moves out of sight covered by the vegetation

The ter:rain, lacking distinctive features, the course o~ roads and small waterways often different from the routes of withdrawal, the difficulty to define reference lines which are easy to identify, are all elements susceptible of seriously affecting the conduct of such a dynamic defence, requiri_ng a close integration of the vanous components (riflemen, antitank missiles, tanks, artillery and mortar observers, minelaying etc.). Hence the need of a preliminary accurate organization of the assigned sector on the part of the defender (detailed reconnaissance of the various deployments and routes of withdrawal, set-up of obstacles, definition of the respective sectors, linkup points etc.). All this seems to be in contrast with the marked fluency and rapidity ~f the basic conduct. Essentially, we should become familiar with procedures that, far from being improvised, must be based on a specific training, on the awareness of the many problems to solve and on repeated tests to be conducted not only on relief maps but also in training activities (even, for instance, with wheeled vehicles only). Finally, it should be borne in mind that not all the aspects of the problem have been dealt with in this article. In fact, even repeated and accurate simulations have their limit in that they cannot consider the human component, a factor that is very important, especially in close combat. If, on the one hand, it is very difficult that a tank company continues to proceed expeditiously after losing half of two thirds of its vehicles in a number of ambushes (in this connection, mention is made of virtual attrition which should be carefully considered, in addition to the mere calculation of the losses), on the other hand, it is very difficult for the rifle platoons to face the enemy vehicles at a short distance, hit

them, return to their combat vehicles, get away under the pressure of other incoming vehicles, reorganize the forces remaining after the inevitable losses, and redeploy to a new position to reiterate the same type of action after a short time. In this respect, it seems that the only alternative is to improve the training, making the lower cadres more aware of the difficulties to overcome, and preparing the troops to operate in this particular environment which might be determinant for operational purposes. Iu fact, some outstanding phases of the action (engagement of the enemy at a short distance and subse-

quent withdrawal) can be split up and reproduced during the training cycle, at squad and platoon level, even in small areas, having recourse to fire simulators (MILES): concrete, even if not very spectacular results should not be lacking. But, above all, it is necessary to acquire a specific mentality and be convinced that more static types of defence - although easier to carry out - are destined to have a limited success on the terrain and with the forces considered above.

Maj. Gen. Mario Buscemi

VEGETATION, CULTIVATED LAND, FIELDS OF SIGHT IN THE PLAINS 19

Volume IV of publication 900/A "Report on the employment of Major Units - Command and Control", is the last of the basic volumes of the doctrinal series and the second of series 900/A, after the distribution of the publication on "Defensive Operations" which was revised following the elimination of the division level. The second and the third volumes dealing with "Offensive Operations" and "Logistics", respective\y, are being revised.

The volume on "Command and Control" is the result of intensive studies and tests conducted in recent years in collaboration with che War College, Inspectorates and Local High Commands in order to realize, within the Major Units, a command and control organization in line with the current operational requirements. At first, these tests concerned essentially Division and Brigade Headquarters, whose combat organization in Main Command Post, Tactical Command Post and Rear Zone Command had been established by Circular no. 60/163.30 of 1978. Practical experience, however, had not given fully satisfactory results under the aspects of assignment of tasks, collaboration of some key elements and employment of personnel and means whose cost, although reduced with respect to the past, was still too high. Hence, the advisability of modifying the outlined co mmand structure, while continuing to adhere to the following guiding princi pies which were still considered valid: • shorter response times, to ensure rapid decisions vis-a-vis the fast pace of the operations; • reliability of the system, to guarantee the functional continuity of command·, • mobility, to prevent the capability, on the part of the enemy, of target acquisition and action, also in depth. Therefore, a new organization (Cir~. no. 1789/101.30 of 1984) was outlined, with che following main features:

• at Army Corps level: two Command Poses, the MAIN tasked with conducting, above all, tactical activities and the REAR mainly concerned with logistics; however, the possibility of mutual replacement, was maintained, if necessary, through the presence of special logistical bodies and tactical organs in the MAIN and t he REAR, respectively; • at Elementary Major Unit: only one Command Post, divided into two sections (main and alternate). The main section was based on the Operations Center. Jn addition to the organs indirectly involved in the operational activity, the alternate section included off duty personnel as well as reserve equipment, which would constitute a "replacement cell". This organization was tested during Command Post Exercises with essentially favourable results. Thus, the Army Staff decided to adopt it with a few improvements suggested by experience, initiating t he preparation of volume IV of the series 900/ A, "Command and Control".

VOLUME IV OF PUBLICATION 900/A The volume outlines a command and control organization which, already in peacetime, meets battlefield requirements and, consequently, can react timely to unforeseeable situations and continue to work even in case of serious operational difficulties. Considering that the prerequisite

for the efficiency of this organization is represented by an active and convinced participation of all its components, this publication intends to be a practical guide for Commanders and Staffs co accomplish their command and control function correctly without, however, compelling them co follow rigid procedures. To this end, guiding principles and structures as well as their general functions, necessary for planning and carrying out the various activities, have been specified therein, together wit h the basic documents necessary for procedural support. The publication contains some copies of the documents more frequently used in connection with Staff and Major Unit act ivities, and it takes into account the requirements for the future realization of an automated command and control system, although relying on the possibilities of the structures presently available. Actually, development and feasib ilitv studies are under wav on the "Field Communication and Information System" (CATRIN) and the "Automated Command and Control System" (SIACCON), respectively. These studies represent the "launching platform" for many complex initiatives concerning command, control, communications and information (C 3 I). The completion of these studies and the consequent introduction of fully automated systems will be a decisive qualitative improvement in C 3 I, both in peacetime and on emergency. As concerns the format, the publication consists of a Text - subdivided into four Parts with many tables - and Enclosures.

PART ONE This part of the volume describes the Commander's tasks and responsibilities, the principles on which a correct command and control action must be based and the co1nmand and control structure permitting such an action. In particular, it confirms that the command and control function originates from the authority and 21

Fig. 1

MAIN

)( X

r----------Âˇ TCP : ~----------J

stitute, as a whole, the command and control organization whose structure is adequate to the requirements of the different organizational levels (Army Corps and Brigade).

MAIN - -: ~C_D_R_S_E_C-J

' OPERATIONS CENTRE

/I -I ~I

TACTICAL MANOEUVRE

,--~----, ~i _JI

1..------F-IR_E_ _

I I

OPS

LOG LAND FIRE

SUPPORT CENTRE

COM CENTRE

GEN SVCS

DEFENCE SECURITY

THIRD DIMENSION

1<1 "--1

LIGHT AVN CORPS ARTY AIR-GROUND

I I I

MOBILITY COUNTERMOBILITY

EWCOM

REAR MONITOR

/ CORRESPONDENCE RE~RODUCTION

the responsibility given to any Commanding Officer for training and employing subordinate units, harmonizing their actions and verifying the validity of his orders in relation to the situation. In this context, command can be identified with all those activities by which the Commander directs and coordinates the forces under his control for the accomplishment of the tasks and the attainment of the goals set by a higher command; it is never detached from control, which can be identified with all the activities allowing to ascertain, at all levels, the dynamic adjustment of management and coordination to the current situation. All Commanders at the various

hierarchical levels, linked by authority and responsibilities, constitute the

chain of command. The criteria governing the relations between the different Commanders are: a precise definition of their respective area of responsibility; the assignment of the tasks and the realization, among the various areas of the same level, of a horizontal liaison called "cooperation link" permitting the maintenance of a minimum operational capability, should the vertical link along the chain of command be temporarily cut. On the basis of these principles, the Commander and the system enabling him to accomplish the command and control function, con-

PART TWO ARMY CORPS COMMAND AND CONTROL ORGANIZATION Together with "Part Three", relevant to Brigade Command and Control Organization, this section is the core of the Publication. In fact, it describes an organization in line with the principles outlined in "Part One", whose activity develops according to the content of "Part Four" which deals with the functioning of the Headquarters. It describes the organization and the deployment of the Army Corps Command Post in operations. In particular, it sanctions the latter's subdivision into two Command Posts, the MAIN and the REAR, accomplishing different functions: the MAIN plans and implements tactical and information activities while the REAR is concerned with planning and conducting logistical and administrative activities as well as personnel management. Furthermore, the MAIN can set up a very streamlined, mobile Tactical Command Post with the aim of enabling the Commander to accomplish his tasks in a timely way and to take into account the development of the situation. To ensure the continuity of command in case of neutralization or transfer of either the MAIN or the REAR, a cell monitoring the main activities is set up in each of them. Moreover, to meet the requirements associated with the activities conducted in the Communication Zone, the Army Corps Hqs. avails itself of a predetermined Military Territorial Command which; on emergency, acts as a Communica-

tion Zone Command. The MAIN and the REAR include t he Commander Section

(Deputy Commander in the REAR), the Operation Centre and the Support Centre. In t urn, the Operation Centre and the Support Centre are-divided into various cells and some of them are particularly important for their functions. As concerns the Operation Centre of the MAIN (fig. 1), mention should be made of the Tactical Manoeuver Cell, Fire Cell and Third Dimension Cell (which constitutes a real innovation compared to previous organizations) and the abovementioned Monitoring Cell in the REAR. The Tactical Manoeuver Cell controlled by the Chief, Operations and Training Office (G3) and, in turn, divided into Operations Team, Information Team and Logistics Team, is concerned with planning and implementing all tactical, information and logisticaloperational activities; therefore, it has all the qualifications to become the real Decision-making Centre of the MAIN in the future automated command and contro l system (SIACCON). The Fire Cell, controlled by an officer of the Corps Artillery Command, is divided into Tearns (Land Fire, Special Weapons Employment, NBC Defence) and contributes to solve the operational problem, within its province, while directing and coordinating also NBC activities. The Third Dimension Cell, commanded by an officer designated by the Corps Chief of Staff, chosen among the commanders of the Cell 1:eams (Light Aviation, Corps Artillery, Air-ground cooperation) is charged with the employment of weapons and systems operating in the third dimension and coordinates the relevant activities. The REAR Monitoring Cell, headed by an Officer designated by the Deputy Chief of Staff for ~ogistics, can constantly follow the situation in the REAR and ensures the accomplishment of its tasks, should the REAR be neutralized or moved. As concerns the cells of the REAR Operation Centre (Fig. 2),

Fig. 2

REAR C

xxx

REAR

NU. V. C'fE I

-I

I OPS CENTRE

I ~I

-I

LOG MANOEUVRE ]

s:::'

COCIM

-I

PERSONNEL

-I

ADMIN

MAIN MONITOR

CORRESPONDENCE REPRODUCTION

I APV SUPPLY REC. SGD. MAINT

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TRANS

I SUPPORT CENTRE

I-

COM CENTRE

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I r

GEN SVCS

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DEFENCE SECURITY

I-

I I I I I

particular importance is attached to the Logistical Manoeuver Cell, in addition to the Monitoring Cell of the MAIN. The Logistical Manocuver Cell, controlled by the Chief of the Staff Section, Logistics Office, is divided into functional teams (one for each logistical activity) and is responsible for the planning and implementation of the logistical manoeuvre. Finally, as concerns the deployment of Command Posts (Fig. 3) in Defcnsive Operations, the MAIN is deployed near the forward edge of the Army Corps Communication Zone, while the REAR is located in a rear area, at a safe distance from the MAIN (15-20 km). In Offensive Operations (Fig. 4), the MAIN is deployed behind the

areas where the Brigades were initially located as a reserve and the REAR is behind the MAIN at a distance of about 10-5 km. To conclude, mention is made of the procedures for changing deployments. In particular, the two conflicting needs conditioning the frequency of movements are pointed out, namely the need to avoid Command Posts being attacked by the enemy (EW actions, in particular) by having recourse to frequent redeployments and, at the same time, the need to give the Staffs a certain "stability" for their correct functio ning. In this context, only the development of the operations will indicate when the movements must be made 23

Fig. 3

INITIAL DEPLOYMENT OF COMMAND POSTS OF AN ARMY CORPS (DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS)

VARIABLE

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10-15 km

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------xxx------and, in any case, they shall have to be planned so as to allow the continuity of command.

PART THREE BRIGADE COMMAND AND CONTROL ORGANIZATION While Part Two deals with the Corps level, Part T hree describes the tasks, functioning and organization 24

of the Brigade Command Post. In substance, the operational functions accomplished at Brigade level arc not different from those at Corps level; a difference is that the organizational and executive activities predominate over the planning ones. Hence, the need to have, as soon as possible, all the data necessary tO make rapid and coordinated decisions.

Operators within ri Command Post on a tracked vehicle

Therefore, during the operations, t he Brigade Hqs (Fig. 5) establishes only one Command Post, divided into two sections - Main and Alternate - which plan and execute operational and administrative activities as well as personnel management; in case of neutralization or movement of the Main Section, the Brigade can guarantee the continuity of command through a replacement cell located in the Alternate Section. T he core of the whole Command Post is the Operations Centre of the Main Section, which is responsible for tactical, logistical and information activities. Within SIACCON, it will constitute the Decisionmaking Centre of the Brigade Command Post, while the Officers charged with Tactical Supports will set up the Information, Analysis and Selection Centre (CASI) within t he same system. As concerns its deployment, the Command Post will be placed, in Defensive Operations, behind

Fig. 4

INITIAL DEF>.LOYMENT OF COMMAND POSTS OF AN ARMY CORPS (OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS)

~ ~ ~ X

lc:>I

1st Ech

X X X

2nd Ech

Ill

the Brigade temporary defense position, near the reserve combat group; both sections must be deployed at such a distance (3 km) to avoid being involved in enemy actions. As concerns the procedures for making changes in deployments, the same remarks made about the Army Corps are valid for t he Brigade, .even though the latter shall have to be redeployed more frequently.

101

This part includes many enclosures and describes how the Command of a Major Unit, or equivalent, functions, examining in detail - as if it were a handbook - work procedures and documentation. It contains work stages, types of communication, work too.ls and all documents such as letters, messages, summaries, notes, reports and so on, prepared within a General Staff.

ENCLOSURES As mentioned before, attached to this publication are several enclosures giving, above all, practical

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Reserve

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T 10.15 km

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PART FOUR FUNCTIONING OF COMMANDS

COM ZONEI

Corps Com Zone

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examples of how to prepare the documents more freguently used in General Staff work. Among these, particular importance is given to the Operations Order which is dealt with exhaustively and illustrated with a graph. Moreover, in the first two enclosures the hierarchical-functional military Structure and the Method for the solution of military problems are fully described.

CONCLUSION Within the framework of the renewal of the doctrine begun with the overall review of series 900, Volume IV of series 900/ A represents a further and significant step towards the completion of Army regulations. These new regulations would provide the Service with a frame more and more adequate to a credible, modern and flex25

Fig. 5

BRIGADE COMMAND POST

X MAIN ,___C_D_R_S_E_C_

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ALT

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ADMIN CORRESPONDENCE REPRODUCTION

CORRESPONDENCE REPRODUCTION

COM CENTRE

DEFENCE SECURITY

DEFENCE SECURITY GEN SVCS

ible military posture. Actually, an advanced, effective and flexible organization, capable of utilizing all innovations in the field of the information technology, in order to realize an automated command and control system, is an essential prerequisite for the achievement of the outlined military posture. In fact, we must realize that the activities associated with the C3I sector and all modern operational concepts are increasingly affected by the rapid technological progress. The weapons and equipment. which arc being introduced are extremely sophisticated and their performance is higher and higher. The operational scenarios are rapidly changing and concern increasingly large territ0ries. In this framework, each commander shall have to make, in the future , more and more rapid and significant decisions requiring the immediate availability of a large fl ow of information and the communication of orders in real time. Therefore, it will be necessary to have tools ensuring a rapid and effective decision-making process; the Co mmands of Maj or Units, or equivalent described in Part Three and Part Four of this Publication, are divided into cells representing the structure of the future SIACCON that the Army Staff is intensively studying and testing in view of its introduction; this system will certainly allow us to meet our requirements. In conclusion, it is a publication linked to the present and, at the same time, projected towards the future, but it is also a practical handbook for all those who work in a General Staff.

Observation post on a M113 tracked ·vehicle

ARMAMENTO: 4 CANNONI IOERLIKON' KBA AUTOMATICI DA 25 mm • SISTEMA DI PUNTAMENTO OPTRONICO DIURNO E NOTTURNO RITMO DI FUOCO: 2400 COLPI/MIN

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M 113 ARMATO CON TOR RETTA SIDAM 25 PROGETTATA E COSTRUITA PER L' ESERCITO ITALIANO

SISTEMA INTEGRATO MOBILE

DIFESA C/AEREA 4x2S mm

SISTEMI CONTRAEREI SEMOVENTI OTO CARRO C/A

"OTOMATIC' DA 76/62 ..

SISTEMA C/A AUTONOMO DA 76/62 - RITMO DI FUOCO: 120 COLPI/MIN RICERCA E INSEGUIMENTO RADAR E OPTRONICO SISTEMA DI CONTROLLO DEL TIRO STABILIZZATO GFUPI':)

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THE MECHANIZED AND ARMOURED MINOR COMPLEX

LOGISTICS

In general, the minor complex is fully supported by the combat group to w hich it belongs. Only exceptionally, if it has to conduct an eccentric action or if it is located in proximity of a Logistic Centre, the minor complex can accomplish the tasks of " first link of the logistic chain" and constitutes an efficient logistic organization ensuring its support through its own bodies and means as well as through additional equipment.

In consideration of its organizational level and limited needs, the minor complex which must carry out the functions of first level, has a very simple and reduced structure. As a rule, it is supported directly by the second level, as in the case of the battalion. Considering the limited logistic organization of the minor complex, the second organizational level shall have to envisage numerous interventions on the spot. The logistic organization must aim at guaranteeing full and immediate mobility and also making up for the limited self-sufficiency with a high sustainability. Command, managing and executive bodies are listed at table but, in practice, the Commander of the minor complex directs and controls all services. T he logistic means of which the minor complex can avail itself are represented by the units' equipment and the relevant means of transportation if, of course, the minor complex has not such equipment. In particular: • basic loads: they include individual equipment allotted on a permanent basis and in a fixed amount, co ensure the basic logistic self-sufficiency; • additional equipment: allotted each time with the relevant means of transportation to increase the basic self-sufficiency according to the specific task to be accomplished. The additional equipment must be such as not to make the minor complex heavy and sometimes, in relation to the planned basic tactical actions, it is positioned in proximity of the areas where the unit will deploy. The executive bodies and the logistical equipment of a minor complex exerting first level functions - except for the First Aid Station, generally placed in the combat group service area - are located in a minor complex service area which must afford good possibilities of dispersal, cover, internal roads, natural protection and water resources. The logistic activities usually conducted by the logistic bodies of the 30

COMMAND, MANAGING AND EXECUTIVE BODIES OF A MINOR COMPLEX REPRESENTING THE FIRST LINK OF THE LOGISTIC FUNCTIONAL CHAIN Organs

Sectors of intervention Comma nd bodies

Managing bodies

Combat group Medical officer

Medical Services

Executive bodies

•

First aid station

• Personnel Servi ces

•

Commander of the minor complex

• •

Quartermaster

•

Post and Telegraph

Equipment and

Command and services platoon leader

transport services

•

Weapons

•

Motorization

•

Transport

Kitchen team Command & Services Platoon Command cell

•

Command & Services Post specialists

•

Command & Services Platoon specialists

•

Medium & Light trucks of the Command & Services Platoon

EXECUTIVE BODIES OF THE SERVICES AT THE DISPOSAL OF A MINOR COMPLEX REPRESENTING THE FIRST LINK OF THE LOGISTIC FUNCTIONAL CHAIN Executive body

Working capabilities

Means of transportation

First Aid Station

40-50 interventions per day (0 )

1 APC (of the Aid Station stretcher· bearer team)

Stretcher-bearer Team

40-50 wounded per day

1 APC

Food stores

200 rations/meal

1 medium truck (for towing)

(considering the availability of a wheeled kitchen). Engineer materials and ammunition supply post

Possibility of moving 10-20 tons per day, ( 00) increasable by rising labour and

Medium & Light trucks of the Command & services Platoon and Anti· tank Platoon and possible additional means

Ready to move in: 15,30 minutes

immediately

S (00 )-30 minutes

5 ( 00),30 minutes

eyuii,Jl utml.

Refuelling post Possibility of moving 10·20 tons per day, 000 ( ) increasable by rising labour and equipment.

Medium & Light trucks of the Command & services Platoon and possible additional means

5 (00)·30 minutes

(•) First t reatmen t interven ti ons 00 ( ) All materials are wheeled. Time necessary to get the means ready (hooking of trai lers. removal of camouflage and tracks etc.). 000 ( ) Each man (artifi cer, vari ous services etc .) can ensu re t he movement.

combat group and, exceptionally, by the minor complex are the fo llowing:

PROCEDURES FOR SUPPLIES (General chart Functioning)

(

Managing bodies

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(

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Flow of emergency supp lies

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Request for materials; it serves also as a delivery voucher.

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Request for materials which must be authori zed in advance by the manag ing bodies

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Request (and final executive o rder) for emergency supplies

(

)

supply; recovery and evacuation; maintenance; medical activities, limitedly to

first aid, collection and fi rst treatment of the wounded;

• transport. The supplies aimed at either

• -

Service Area of the combat group · or exeptionally of I the complex I

i - ....·' .......

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. Command body

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FLOW

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Special c ircumstances (non-centralization of the "A" echelons of the complexes) suggest the reversal of the flow

restoring or completing the equipment, according t o the circumstances, are divided mto: • ordinary supplies: to replace normal consumption; • preventive supplies: to meet special p lanned requirements with materials stockpiled in the service areas of t he minor units; • emergency supplies: to face crises caused by sudden changes in the tactical situation (counterattacks, pursuance of in-depth efforts or changes of gravitation) or in the logistic situation (massive destruction of equipment, critical reduction of transport capability); these supplies are delivered on the spot. T he equipment is kept in wheeled vehicles as long as possible to ensure the logistical bodies a full and immediate mobility. T hese means guarantee t he delivery of the equipment on the spot on request of the minor units. Once empty; the vehicles are loaded again at the brigade service area and go back to the Service Area of the combat group. Unserviceable or u nusable materials as well as booties are recovered and moved by the minor unit to the service area of either the combat group or the major unit supporting thP. mi nor r.omplex by utilizing, as much as possible, the unloaded vehicles previously used for carrying the supplies. Otherwise, this operation is conducted by the special equipment of the Light Workshop recover y team.

Dismounting of assaulting squad from com· bat vehicle

Tankmen tmining on M/60 tank

MECHANIZED OR TANK COMPANY General subdivision of the vehicles in the "F" and "A" Echelons Vehicles type motorcycle recce vehicles

"F" Echelon no. 1 9

employment Company Hqs. Co. Commander

Anti-tank post

"A" Echelon (00 ) no.

employment

no.

1 (0)

(with trailer) medium trucks

Anti-tank platoon (ammunition)

Services Comm. 1 Platoon (with

miscellaneous equipment Victuals team

VCC (armoured combat vehicle)

Riflemen Platoon ( (

0 ) 00

1 12

As an alternative to VCC The vehicles carrying materials not immediately requ ired fo r combat purposes can be located in the supporting service area, thus constitu ting the possible "B" echelon.

)

Considering the limited technical possibilities of the logistic organization of the minor complex and the essential need not to overload the minor units, maintenance is limited to: • individual routine maintenan32

(with kitchen)

Co. Command 13

trailer)

ce: cleaning, lubrication and verification of the efficiency of weapons, vehicles and equipment; • first degree specialized maintenance: verification of the efficiency of weapons, vehicles and equipment after the overall cleaning

and lubrication of their components. T his operation is carried out periodically under the responsibility of the specialized personnel of the Command and Services platoon. The medical activities concern: • first aid: given by all personnel utilizing materials issued to the individual men ad to the units (medication box, first aid kits for tracked or armoured vehicles etc.); • collection of the wounded and the ill: made by stretcher-bearers who can avail themselves of a specially equipped combat vehicle capable of moving on any terrain, even very near the line of contact; • initial treatment: given by a medical officer at the first aid station: it is an emergency treatment enabling th e wounded to be evacuated to the field hospital of the rear service area. Transport allows the carrying out of command, combat and logistic activities and is ensured by the minor complex vehicles, divided into two

1st LEVEL LOGISTIC ORGANIZATION

...OFFENSIVE . ACTIONS MINOR COMPLEXESI----+

DEFENSIVE ACTIONS

MAINTAINED LIGHT AND MOBILE

UNDETERMINED TIME DEFENCE

Always at t he domicilie

SUPPLIES

CONSISTENT ADDITIONAL SCALE ISSUES

MINOR COMPLEX

greater possibility of iso lation

greater use of ammunition

SCALE ISSUE INCREMENT FOR: MECHANIZED SQUADS ON VTC MINEFIELD FORCING

DECENTRALIZED ORGANISM: DRESSING STATION STRETCHER-BEARER GROUP KITCHEN GROUP manoeuvred and managed by the minor

5.nr'.h :is n ot In Pv<:AA<I

comp1ex t.;ommander

organic transport capaci· ties. that is an addi1ional me,:ms of trar, sporl

TEMPORARY POSITION DEFENCE

ABANDONMENT OF INEFFICIENT VEHICLES AND MATERIALS

DYNAMIC OPPOSITION

LOGISTIC TRANSPORT ACTIVITIES

A FEW ADDITIONAL SCALE ISSUES LOGISTIC ORGANISM IF NECESSARY

MATERI ALS ALONG THE ROUTE IF TH E CASE

HeU!r..mSport or· "rnanoeuvm··

of the medical organisms (leapfroggiog, resel'VCS)

MEDICAL ACTIVITIES

,..

!DYNAMIC REACTION~

TANK COMPANY Vehicles

"A" Echelon

"F" Echelon no.

no.

use

Company Hqs. Co. Comm. (0 )

1 1 (0)

medium trucks

various equipment

medium trucks

victuals team

Company Hqs Tank platoons

recovery tank

0 ( ) 00 ( )

16 1

recovery, rescue, works

(with kitchen)

As an alternative to the tank The vehicles carrying materials not immediately required for combat purposes can be located in the supporting service area, thus constituting the possible " B" echelon.

echelons: • "F" echelon (transport tle): vehicles necessary for and command; • "A" echelon (resupply): for carrying the equipment

for batcombat vehicles and or-

materials which are not immediately required, can be located in the supporting Service Area and make up the "B" echelon (other supporting transport).

no.

motorcycle recce vehicles

tanks

Except what c.:iin be put oo the vehicles

MAXIMUM DEMAND OF SUPPORT BY THE SECOND LEVEL

General subdivision of the vehicles in the " F" and "A" Echelons

type

NO SCALE ISSUE

dinary supplies. As a rule, the "A" echelon is located in the combat group Service Area and, only exceptionally, in the minor complex Service Area. The vehicles destined to carry

THE MECHANIZED AND ARMOURED MINOR COMPLEX

LOGISTICS 33

INTERNATIONAL MILITARY SPORTS

At the end of the Second World War, the Chief Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe, Gen. Joseph McNarney, felt the peed to merge his million men together in some mutual interest; he thus sought a means having nothing to do with war which would overcome language and cultural barriers and concentrate this considerable mosaic of troops into mutual peaceful ideals. A few months after the end of t he War he decided to engage the above soldiers in some activity having a different spirit from the traditional one, connected with guns and tanks, though respectful of the flag and uniform of each Nation. He thus turned to the Sports Board for the Allied Forces (CSFA) which had been established in the early 20s after the First World War by the American General John Pershing when the C hief Commander had been faced with a similar problem. General McNarney did his best to bring the past to life once more. The CSFA was given n ew input and the Allied Forces of 12 nations of Eastern and Western Europe met on the grounds of the game in perfect harmuuy. Special mention must be made of the Hanover, Bruxelles, Ostend and Berlin competitions; in fact, it was in this last city that the Czechoslovak Emile Zatopek made himself known in the field of international sports running 5,000 metres in 14'32" .

In 1947, however, clouds of a political nature gathered on the horizon and Russia together with other Eastern countries withdrew from the scene. Unfortunately, Great Britain and America soon followed their example and CSFA quickly disintegrated. A handful of Nations, however, clearly understood the influence sports could have in uniting the Armed Forces of the world in an atmosphere of friendship and mutual assistance and refused to let the original idea die away. The French Armed Forces thus organized a historic meeting in Nice in February 1948 tO establish a standing international association for military sports. During this important meeting the statutes and regulations necessary for the establishment of a world-wide organization were decided and ratified. The Military Sports International 36

Board (CISM) organized in a modern manner and fully aware of its peaceful aims began working with the co-operation of just five Nations and reached a membership of 87 countries during its 40 years' existence.

THE ORGANIZATION According to the statute, the Delegations of member Nations take part every year in the General Assembly organized and directed by the Executive Committee (on an elective basis) formed by a Chairman, three Deputy-Chairmen and seven members. The last Assembly {42nd) was held in Lisbon last April under the Chairmanship of Gen eral Jean Duguet (France). The supporting bodies are the Standing General Secretariat (directed by Col. Roland Kesteloot, Belgium,

CISM swimming, water-polo and diving Championships, 291h Edition.

Bruxelles, rue Jacques Jordaens 26) and the 13 peripheric liaison Offices located in the various continents: N o. 2 in Europe (South and North), No. 3 in America (South, N orth and Centre), one in the Middle East and one in the Far . East. English, French, Arabic and Spanish are the official languages. The CISM flag is white with a light blue border; at the centre there is the coat-of-arms of CISM with five red circles around the inscription CoNSF.TL lNTERNA'l'lONAL DU SPORT MTLITATRE in white letters. CISM also has its march, composed by Lt. Commander L.S. Lawton of the American Navy and its anthem, written by an Italiani Mrs. Carla Foniutti. The aims it pursues arc the following: â€˘ plan agonistic activities and en-

trust the organization tO the different member countries, according to criteria of rotation and mutual exchanges; • establish and keep alive the relations among Armed Forces with the aim of developing research and study in the various fields of sports and sports medicine; • · promote collateral activities (round tables, polls, exchanges of visits at the Summit, etc.) co strengthen understanding, mutual respect, solidarity and friendship among nations; • carry out effective actions, from a financial point of view as well, as regards the less favoured member countries (Central Africa and South America).

AGONISTIC ACTIVITY AND ITALIAN PARTICIPATION The sporting disciplines accounted

for by the CISM statute are 26, chosen among the most popular (football, basket ball, volley ball, etc.) and including those most suited to military training (pentathlon, riding, fencing, parachute-dropping, shooting, bearings, etc.). Italy joined the "founder" Nations and became a member of CISM on July 1st, 1949. Our Nation gave a valid contribution to the success of CISM throughout the world both athletically speaking and from an organizational point of view. In fact, an Italian, Admiral Aldo Massarini, occupied for nine years (1970-1979) the Chairmanship, while another Italian, General Basilio Crisione was head of the Liaison Office for Southern Europe from 1978 to 1982. Colonel Renato Agostino has been occupying this post since May 1st, 1986. In the last decades the participation of military representatives drawn from the sport Units of the three Armed Forces (Army, Navy

Military Football Championships: lTALYGERlvl.ANY, Vialli in action.

and Air Force), the Carabinieri Headquarters, the Guardia di Finanza Headquarters ("Fiamme Gialle" (Yellow Streamers)), and the State Police ("Fiamme d'Oro" (Gold Streamers)) - always obtained consent and success. As regards technical results, the list of athletes is endless. Believing in the forgiveness of all those who will remain in the shadow of the files, I must mention those who distinguished themselves with the results known to all Italians such as Corazziere Tosi in the discus throw, Finanziere Chiesa and Aircraftman Lievere in the javelin throw, private Burruni in boxing and Morale, Frinolli and Ottolina in athletics, Dennerlein in swimming, Mazzinghi in boxing, Maffei in fencing, Morresi in pentathlon, the D'Inzeo brothers in riding, Thoeni in skiing, Vivian, Faccenda, Grasselli and Romano in boat-racing. Not to 37

The Army Chief of Staff gives prizes 10 1he members of the football team which took part in the 1987 CISM championship.

speak of the athletes of our days such as Mennea in the 200 metres, Fava in the 3,000 hurdles and Numa in fencing. From the date of its establishment to t0day CISM has organized 494 C hampionships; Italy participated honourably 304 times and faced the burden of organizing 40 C hampionships. As regards team sports, in the 33 editions disputed, the CISM basket Championship graduated "champion'' 23 times the very well-trained United States team, while Italy reached the highest platform on eight occasions. The last gold medal was awarded to our representative at the 34th Championship held in Syria last August. As far as athletics is concerned, Italy has already organized five Championships: 1951 and 1959 in Rome, 1970 in Viareggio, 1973 in Florence and 1986 in Ostia. The latter, the 32nd of the CISM series, was "piloted" by the Guardia di F inanza with the participation of 367 athletes belonging to 19 mernber Countries. On these occasions the Italians wearing stars obtained a record number of medals, 27 against t he 19 achieved in Algiers in 1979. Before concluding, mention must be made of the financial issue. Though the costs of competitions are met by the organizing and hosting Country, the working expenditure of the "CISM centre apparatus" (General Secretariat and organization of Assemblies) is covered by the general budget, the income of which is ensured by an "annual quota" paid by each member Nation.

STUDY ACTIVITY In 1957 the CISM Academy (formed by Medical officers too) was established. It is designed to assure a rational and coherent development of study activities and research in close connection with requirements 38

of a sporttng nature. Conceived as a technical-cultural Body, the Academy has carried out detailed enquiries into the different doctrines of training and sport medicine, thus giving representatives of member countries useful elements of comparison. The relative organization accounts for a Directing Committee and 3 study departments (Documentation, Training and Sports Science) having normal working relations with International Sports Federations. For a correct updating on the

development of the techniques concerned, contacts are frequently held with similar organizations and the working production of the Academy consists of publications (an average of 4 8 year), much appreciated especially as regards the scientific aspect and research.

CONCLUSIONS The headlines of the last months all spoke of the brilliant success of the Italian military representatives in the CISM judo, football, swimming

~ ~t

) I

> I

- --

i___...-

-1 'C"" Âˇ~

BntsSon. Biathlon contest.

and water-polo Championships. In San Diego, California, the military national team of judokas formed by athletes from the Carabinieri and Finanzieri, won the world championship and entered the finals of South Korea. For the first time in the history of CISM and after a 14 years' wait, Italy won, on the grounds of Arezzo, the world football gold medal scoring 2-0 against Germany in the final game. In the beautiful polysports grounds of Chianciano T erme where the 29th edition of the CISM swimming, water-polo and diving world Championships were held, Italy was awarded 11 gold, 2 silver and 2 bronze medals and the world title in water-polo. The Italian National skiing team o~ the Army honoured its flag winnmg with great advantage the French and German National teams (~lassified second and third respect~vely) the trophy of the XXX edition of the military ski world Championship held in Valle d'Aosta in the first decade of March. A performance which saw the "leading characters of the snow" in the lime-light: Alberto Tomba was absent because engaged in the world Championship, but Passler,

ATOMIC

I/Ill// ATOMfC ///I/I I

-'- -------~ ;Âˇ

_ATOMIC

Zingerle, Palhuber, Klem, Albarello, Vanzetta and... many more triumphed. These are proofs of willpower, engagement and ability. The motto which animates athletes and representatives of the Delegations of the four continents and which one enjoys hearing is: "CISM REPLACES THE

BATTLEFIELD

WITH

SPOR-

TGROUNDS".

The member Countries of this valid Organization feel responsible for their committment and with the enthusiasm of true sportsmen they show they can go in the right direction, fully convinced that they are working for the safeguard of peace and freedom throughout the world.

Renato Agostini

Colonel Renato Agostini attended the 90th Superior General Staff Course and worked for the Central Boards (Arm y General Staff and Defence General Staff) in charge of "staff", "financial planning" and "sports". He was Deputy Commander of the "Cremona" motorized Brigade and at present occupies the post of Head of the Liaison Office CONI-ARMED FORCES.

INTERNATIONAL MILITARY SPORTS 39

THE CHURCH AMONG MILITARY MEN

The controversy on the presence of clergymen a,nong soldiers is nothing new: who has forgotten Don Milani's attitude on the ;matter and the relative trial? Nowadays, too, the situation is everything but quiet. Following are the reasons for this presence given by the Bishop of military men together with an outline of the attempts made to suit it to the needs of men in uniform and their families. When some months ago the list of the Italian dioceses restored after the concordat agreements of 1984 was published, the "Military bishopric in Italy" was put down under No. 228. The apostolic constitution "Spiritual Militum Curae" of April 21 st, 1986 had, in fact, raised the vicarships in ordinary to t he forces throughout the world to "particular churches comparable to dioceses. Obviously, the consequences of this were drawn in Italy as well. This is the fact in its elementary juridical enunciation. Undoubtedly, something has changed in the traditional forms of spiritual assistance to soldiers. The new discipline started officially when the apostolic Nuncio handed in the Statutes for Italy in November 1987 and on this occasion a booklet was published entitled "The Church among Military men" outlining certain standpoints and quoting the documents. It may be useful to go back on the above outline. T he mentioned apostolic Constitution is brief. It describes the new canonical image of the Military Bishopric and learnedly draws out characteristics and novelties: assimilation to dioceses, broadening of the number of church-goers, cumulativity of jurisdiction with local bishops, participation of the bishop to the Episcopal Conference, own permanent presbitery, summoning of laymen to take up their responsibilities for the growth of this church. The apostolic Constitution is a kind of law and the Statutes are designed to root principles in the reality of the different countries. This is something new for canonical regulations.

One may rightly wonder what improvements this last document can have brought. Actually, it is not only a juridic improvement of the apostolic Constitution, but a necessary addition. \Y/e may say that the value of the Statutes is equal to the above Constitution as regards both origin and authority. Furthermore, the Statutes allow the principles of the Constitution to become incarnate, as we used to say, in the different situations. Military chaplains, the side bodies of spiritual assistance, traditions and requirements vary from country to country. In most cases the Military Bishop is also the head of the chaplains as far as organization is concerned. O n the contrary, in some other cases the canonical figure is separated from the civilianmilitary one and the p erson is also different . T hus, the organization is varied and so is the setting of this operational field within the pastoral sector of the nation. Hence the importance of the national Statutes. The Holy See has taken into account what it has been negotiating with the Italian government since 1926. It has also put into the regulations what it has learned through more than 70 years' experience. With all the caution and the determination required by the issue, we must aim at making all church goers feel part of the church and all Catholic soldiers be responsible for building up their church. It is not a matter of relieving responsibility, but on the contrary of multiplying it. The validity of many rules and structures stated in the Statutes will be estimated on the basis of the above requirement. Though not pedantic and detail41

This polychrome and giJded wooden group represents Saint peorge and the dragon (Stockholm, church of Saint / .Jicholas). ll is a work of arl by Bemadotke one of the most original interpreters of the late German Gothic. In Germany and in the other coimlries of Central Europe, sculptors remained faithful to medieval schemes /or a lonr; time and insisted on detailed realism in the auitude of the figures.

ed, the Statutes nevert heless m ake definit e cho ices fo r Ital y: no seminary for military chaplains and no hinging to Italian churches. Another qualifying position is given by the different bodies of communion for presbyteries and laymen. An important novelty is the establishment of a fund, on a voluntary basis, to support chose activities which may not be relinquished from a pastoral point of view even though they m ay not be covered by the military institution: vocations, training of lay and religious hospital staff, diocesan pastoral offices, etc. The third document registered in the booklet is for med by the pastoral three-year plan for 1987-90 fixed by the Military Bishopric. A plan requires an overall analysis and prioritarian choices. The above is based on the valo rization of laymen. The nature of the church requires the active participation of all God's people. In uncertain and subordinate conditions such as in the previous structure, the presence of the church was reduced to the generous and often vanguard activity of chaplains. It must also be remembered that layme~ never failed to give their cooperation. And so? An improvement in quality is an entirely different matter. It will always be necessary to think together and together decide on the best way to organize the cult and the spiritual assistance within the army and, nowadays, am o ng the families, especially in the so-called "blue vill ages" or "military to:"nsh ips", wh o m ay require assistance. The pastoral Councils which are already underway on three levels - local, area and central will certainly fi nd abundant space and incentives. But there is more which cannot escape whoever pays attention to today's and romorrow's pastoral requirements. It is the "new evangelization" as the Pope p ut it. . I am often asked what will change m th~ Ministry. My reply is provocat~ve: nothing and everything. Nothing if we co nsider the daily chores of a good chaplain, always att~mive and available for any requirement. Churches, chapels, visits

to isolated units, catechesis for confirmation and m arriage, sacred and profane choirs, spare time activity, support equipes for people with psychological disorders. Sowing with no chance of reap ing in the immediate fut ure. One co uld call chaplains men of hope. The new point of view, however, aims at favouring the community, smalJ though it may be, with a deeper and more dynamic ecclesiastic presence. Just w ords? To say the truth it might be just that. However, what is the meaning of new evangeliLation if no t putting the present military situation in Italy, in IATO and in the world face to face with the needs and, above all, the i ncentives of the gospel? Indeed, problems arc many: from the situation of the young when they first come in to uch with military life, from the re-organizatio n of the Armed Forces co the great issues which regard all of us personally such as disarmament, enlistment, peace. Could it be true that Christ ians have nothing co say or, better still, nothing to add to the current strategic analyses? When we say that we are waiting for the church to have its say, are we thinking only of the Pope? And what about the local communities,

those responsible for and bearers of some kind of experience as soldiers and as men of faith ? Is all this worth nothing at all? Is not the fact that we are moving in this direction a pastoral engagement? Someone has dared to write chat the Military Bishopric proves chat the church is 40 years behind. I have been told that I should be ashamed of the stars on my uniform. And w hat about the other six hundred thousand men who are wearing them? Should they also be ashamed of the honoured service they render the community? And what about the Carabinieri who die co defend my freedom? Are they also killers or fools? Maximalisms are evident in many milieux, but fundamentalists, in all fields, are respectable but dangerous people. They create voids which are immediately filled by the very people we would like to exorcise. An obv ious example is the Greens' disengagement in Europe after that in Germany. We know only too well who filled that void. And what if the church were ahead of events because it sees fu rther away? It is on this from o f the ecclesiastic conscience that all men of faith, clergy and laymen alike, are putting at stake the fut ure of the service of spiritual assistance to soldiers, just as the law of the State provides for and promotes in Italy. T he church, o ur church as well, is open to anyone, to those who go cowards it and, in other ways, to those who apparently reject it. But we cannot expect a state, rightly lay, to be responsible for spiritual and religious issues when no one considers himself involved and demanrls the development of such issues as expression of his own freedom. T he building of a church by involving military men and privates, their families and civilians connected with the military world, permanent operators, is something more and better than a p roject. It is the safest means to be faithfu l to God and to men.

Monsignor Gaetano Bonicelli Military Bishop to Italy

THE WAR IN THE MOUNTAINS

by RUDYARD KIPLING 1917

PODGORA

: - - :- "

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'We have fi nished with srones for a little', said the o fficer. ' We are going lO a mountain of m ud. It is dry now, but this winter it never stayed qu iet'. An acre or so of the climbing roadside was still uneasy, and had slid face-down Ill a splatter of earth and t ree-roots wh ich me n were shovelling off. ' It's rather a fresh road. Altogether we have about four thousand miles of new roads - and old roads improved - on a front of about six hundred kilometres. But you sec, our kilomet res are not ilat'. The landscape, picked out in all the greens of spring, was t hat of early Italian holy pictures - the same isolated, scarred hum mocks rising from enamelled meadows or drifts of bloom into t he same elaborate entablatures of rock, crowned by a campanile or tu fted with dark trees. O n the white roads beneath us t he lines of motors and mule transport strung out evenly co their various dumps. At one time we must have commanded twenty full miles, all working at once, but never could we spy a breakdown. T he Italian transport system has been tried out by w ar long ago. The more che road sunk to the plains, the more one realised the height of the mountains dominating us all round. Podgora, t he mountain of mud, is a liule Gibraltar about eight hundred feet high, al most sheer on one side, overlooking the town of Gorizia, which, in civil life, used to be a sort of stuffy Cheltenham fo r ret ired Austrian officers. Anywhere else, Podgora h ill might be noticeable, but you could set down half-adozen Gibraltars among this upheaval of hills, and in a mont h t he smooch Jcalian roads would overrun them as vine ten drils overrun rubbish-heaps. T he lords of the military situation round Gorizia are the four - and five-cho usand - foot mo un tai ns, crowded one behind the other, every angle, upland and valley of each offering o r maskmg death. T he mou n t ains are vile gro und ior aeroplane work, because there is nowhere to al ight in comfort, but none the less the machines beat over them from both sides, and the anti-aircrah guns which are not imp~essive in the open plains fi ll t he gorges with multipled cough ings more resembling a lion's roar than thunder. T he ene my fly · high, over the mountains, and show agai nst the blue like bits of whirling ash off a bonfire. They drop their bombs generously, and the rest is with fate - either the blind crack on blank rock and the long harmless whirr of slivered stone, or that ripe crash which

. --

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~ -

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,~..-

-- ....

tells that timber, men and mules have caught it fu ll this t ime. If all the setti ng were not so lovely, if t he lights, the leafage, the blosso m, and the butterflies mating on the grassy lips of old trenches were not allowed to insult t he livi ng workmen of death, their wor k wo uld be easier to describe without digressions. \X'hen we had cl imbed o n foot up and up and into the bowels of the mo untain of mud, through galleries, and cross-galleries, co a discreetly veiled observation-point, Goriz.ia, pink, white, and bluish, lay, to all appearance, asleep beneach us amid her fu ll flowering chestnut-trees by the talking Jsonw . She was in Italian hands - won after furious iights - but the enemy guns from t he mountains coul d still shell her at pleasure, and the next move, said our officer, would be to clear certain heights - 'Can you see our trenches creeping up lO them?'

- from thei r menace. There and the re, he pointed, the Italian troops wo uld climb an d crawl, while t hus and th us would the fire of our guns cover them, t ill they came to t hat bare down and must make their rush - wh ich is really a climb - alone. If that rush failed, t hen they must dig in among t he rocks. And lie out under the bitter skyline, for th is was war among t he mountains where the valleys were death-traps and only heights coun ted. T hen we turned to the captured hills beh ind us t hat had lived so unconsidered since they were made, but now, because of the price paid for them, would stand forth memorable as long as Italy was remembered. T he heat hen mountains in front had yet to be baptized and entered o n the roll of ho nour, and one coul d not say at that moment which one of them would be most honourable, o r what cluster of herdsmen's

near Gori7.ia - has just telephoned t.hat he has been promoted to Aspirant - SubLieutenant, don't you say? He - have to climb up here to the artillery Mess tonight and stand drinks on his promotion.' 'l bet he'll come', some one said. T here were no takers. So you see, youth is always immortally the same.

GORIZIA

huts would carry the name of a month's battle through the ages. The studied repose that heralds a big push cloaked both lines. No one, except a few pieces who were finishing some private work, was saying anything. The Austrians had their own last couches to put in too. They were ranging on a convent up a hillside - one deliberate shell at a time. A big gun beneath us came lazily into the game on our side, shaking the whole mountain of

mud, and then asking questions of its observi ng officer across the valley. Suddenly a boy's voice, chat had been taking corrections, spoke quite unofficially at t he receiver in the gloom under our feet. 'Oh! Congratulations!' it cried. 'Then you dine with us co-night, and )'Ou'll pay for the wine'. Every one laughed. 'Rather a long walk', said our guide and friend. 'The observing officer - he is down

We dropped from Podgora into Gorizia by a road a little more miraculous than any we had yet found, it was in the nature of a wboggan-run, but so perfectly banked at the corners that the traffic could have slid down by imlf if it had been allowed. As we entered the wwn, men were mending the bridge across the river - for a reason. They do a geat deal of mending in Gorizia. Austrians use heavy pieces on the place - twelve-inch stuff sometimes - dealt methodically and slowly from far back, out of the high hills. I tried to find a house that did not carry t hat monotonous stippling of shrapnel, but it was difficult. The guns reach everywhere. There was no air in the still hollow where the place lay - hardly a whisper among the domed horse-chestnuts. T roops were marching through co their trenches far up the hillside beyond, and the sound of their feet ec:hoed between the high garden-walls w here the service wires were looped among pendants of wistaria in full flower. There are several h undred civilians in the city who have not yet cared co move, for the Italian is as stubborn in these things as the Frenchman. In the main square where the house-fronts are most battered and the big elec:tric-light standard bows itself to the earth, I saw a girl bargaining for some buttons on a card at a shop-door - hands, eyes, and gesture, all extravagantly employed, and the seller as intently absorbed as she. It must be less distracting than one t hinks to live under the knowledge one is always being watched from above - breathed upon in the nape of the neck, so to speak, by invisible mouths. A little later I was being rold confidentially by some English woman among a garden of irises, who owned a radiographic installation and a couple of shrapnel-dusted cars, that they had been promised, when the p ush came, chat they and their apparatus might go into Gorizia itself, to a nice underground room, reasonably free from shells which disconcert the wounded and jar the radiograph, and 'wasn't it kind of the authorities?'

THE RIDGE OF THE WAITING GUNS The amazing motor-lorries were thicker on

the more amazing road than they ha<l been. Our companion apologised for chem. 'You see, we have been taking a few things up co the Front in this wai in the last few days', he said. â€˘ 'Are all Italians born driving motors?' I demanded, as a procession of high-hooded cars flopped <lown the curve we were breasting, pivoted on its outside e<lge, thei r bonnets poincing over a four-hu ndred-foot drop, and slid past us with a three-inch clearance between hub and hub. 'No', he replied. 'But we, too, have been at the game a long time. I expect all the bad chauffeurs have been killed'. 'And bad m ules?' One of them was having hysterics on what I thought - till I had climbed a few thousand higher - was the edge of a precipice. 'Oh, you can't kill a mule', and sure enough, when the beast had registered its protest, it returned to the dignity of its sires. The muleteer said not a word. We bored up and into the hills by roads not yet mapped, but solid as lavish labour can make chem against the rolling load of the lorries, and the sharp hoofs of the mule, as well as the wear and tear of winter, who is the real enemy. Our route ran along the folded skirts of a range not more th an three or four thousand feet hi gh, more or less parallel with the Isonzo in its way from the north. Rivers chat had roared level beside us dropped and shrunk to blue threads half visible through the forest. Mountains put forward hard shaly knees round w hich we climbed in a tho usand loops that confused every sense of direction. Then, because the enemy seven miles off, could see, sc reeches of the crowded road were blinded wi th reed mats while torn holes above or below us proved that he had searched closely. After that, the colossal lap of a m~umain alive with dripping waters would hide us in greenery and moisture, till the sight of a cautious ash-tree still in bud - her sister ten minmes ago had been clothed from head to foot - told us we had risen again co the heights of the naked ridge. And here were batteries upon batteries of the heaviest pieces, so variously disposed and hidden that finding one gave you no clue t0 the next. Elevens, eights, fours - sixes, and elevens again, on caterpillar wheels, on navy mountings adapted for land work, disconnected from their separate tractors, or balanced and buttressed on their own high speed motors, were repeated for mile after mile, with their ammunition caves, their shops, and the necessary barracks for their thousand servants studded or strung out on Lhe steep drop behind them. Obscure pits and hollows hid them pointing t0 heaven, and how t hey had been brought up to be lowered there passed imagination as they peeped out of the merest slits in green sod. They stood back under ledges and eaves of the ground where no light could outline them, or became one

with a dung-heap behind a stable. They stalled themselves in chick forest growth, like elephants at noon, or, as it were, crawled squat on their bellies to the very bows of crests overlooking seas of mountains, they, like the others down the line, were waiting for the hour and the order. Not half-a-dozen out of a m ultitude opened their lips. When we had climbed to a place appointed, the shutter of an observation-pose opened upon the world below. We saw the Isonzo almost vertically beneath us, and on the far side were the Italian trenches that painfully climbed to the crest of the bare ridges where the infantry live, who must be fed under cover of night until the Austrians are driven out of their heights above. 'It is just like fighting a burglar across housewps', said the officer. You can spot him from a fact0ry chimney, bur he can spot you from the spire of the cathedral - and so on'.

'Who sees t hose men down yonder in the trenches?' I asked. 'Everybody on both sides, but our guns cover them. That is the way in our war. Height is everything'. He said nothing of che terrific labour of it all, before a man or a gun can come into position - nothing of the battle that was fought in the gorge below when the Isonzo was crossed and the Italian trenches clawed and sawed their red way up the hillside, and very little of the blood-drenched snout of the height called the Sabotino that was carried, lost and recarried most gloriously in the old days of the War, and now lay out below as innocent-seeming as a mouncain pasture. T hey are a hard people, these Latins, who have had to fight the mountains and all that is in them, metre by metre, and arc thankful when their battlefields do not slope at more than forty-five degrees.

A PASS, A KING, AND A MOUNTAIN A falcon swooped off the hill-top and hung below us searching the valley at the head of the pass, which was a broad grassy fun nel dipping out into space, exactly like the Munianee behind Simla. The usual ro ughly pave<l caravan track led over it between hu mmocks of board, rock, and earth, whence ic seemed only right that Hillmen would presencly come out with brick-tea. But it was a gunner with kindly offers of coffee - a weather-worn commander whose eyes were set to views oi very distant horizons. He and his guns lived up there all the year, and on t he highest grazinggrounds on either side of his lair were black shell-holes by the score, where the enemy had hunted for him. The snow had just gone, neatly turning in the winter-killed grass-stems around the edge of the older shell-holes as it melted away. This Commandant, like the others, controlled an observation post. When he clicked back its sutter, we looked down as the falcons do, imo an Austrian town with a broken bridge over a river, and lines of Italian trenches, crawling towards it across river flats - all laid out mapwise, three thousand feet below. The town waits - as Gorizia waits - while decisions of which it knows nothing are beign taken overhead, whether it shall live or die. Meanwhile, the Commandant pointed out its beauties, for it was his possession, you see, by right of eminent domain, and he dispensed the high, the low, and the middle justice over it. When we were at coffee, a subaltern came wi th word that the Austrians, ten thousand metres away, were shifting some-thing that looked like a gun. (Guns take all sons of shapes when they have to be moved}. The Commandant excused himself, and the telephones called up observers laid out somewhere among the tangled steeps and hanging woods below. 'No', he said presently, shaking his head, ' it's only a cart - not worth a shot just now'.

There was much · bigger game afoot elsewhere, and I fancy chat the orders were not to flush it too soon. T he keen wind whooped over the grass and drummed on the boards oi rhe huts. A soldier at a bench fiued nails into his boot, and crooned to himself as he tapped. A blast or two exploded somewhere down the newmade screened road along which we had come, and the echoes clamoured through the valley. Then a motor-horn with a distinctive note rang fierce and piercing. ' That 's the King's bugle', some o ne said. 'He may be coming here. Listen. No ... he's going on to look at some of t he new batteries. You never know where he'll turn up, but he's always somewhere along the line,

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and he never leaves anything unseen'. The remark was not addressed to the private with the boot, but he grinned as men do at the name of a popular general. Many pleasant tales are current in his armies concerning the King of Italy. The gist of them all is that he is very much of a man as well as a statesman. Kings and ammunition-<lumps are fair targets for aeroplanes, but, if the tale be true, and it squares with all the others, there is one King at least who shoots back and shoots straight. No fear or circumstance dislinguish him irorn any other general in field kit, down to the single ribbon t hat testifies to a year's war service. He moves temperate, loyal, keen, in stark simplicity among his men and full hazards of war. All that day a triangular snow peak had risen like a master wave, now to one side, now to the other, of our road. On the steepest slopes of its topmost snows it carri ed a broad, open V, mi les long on either

11 ~

---- -

limit, which appeared in the changing lights like a faint cattle-brand, or giant ski-tracks, or those dim canals of Schiapparelli which mark the face of the red planet Mars. That was Monte Nero, and the mark was the line of the Italian trenches on it. They are cut through snow that melts, into packed snow that never melts, rnto packed snow th at never softens; and where the snow cannot lie on the sheer rocks, they are blasted in and out among the frost-ridden rubbish of the mountain crest. Up there, men fight with field-guns, machine-guns, and rifles, and more deadly shoots of stones heaped together and sent sliding down at the proper time. Up there, if a man is wounded and bleeds only a little before he is found, the cqld kills him in minutes, not hours. Whole companies can be frostbitten and crippled even while they lie taking cover in the pauses of a rush, and the wandering mountain gusts take sentries from under the Ice of their rock as they

others had been goaded out of their known life to achieve the incredible. They had left the faculty of wonder at home with the pictures and the wallpapers and the unfit.

Armies and avalanches

stand up co be relieved, and flick chem inco space. The mountain draws its own supplies and troops for miles and miles back, over new roads chat break off from the main arteries of traffic and split into mule-trai ls and mantracks, emerging, at last, against the bare rocks, as thin and threadlike as the exposed roots of a botanical diagram to illustrate capillary attraction. There has never been a greater work of invention, preparation, and

endurance among fantastic horrors than the winn ing and holding of th is one pose. And it has passed almost un noticed by nati ons, each absorbed in iL~ own hell. 'We climbed! We climbed! \Vie carried the approaches. Now we are up there, and the Austrians arc a little co the right just above that sinking cloud under that cliff. When they arc dislodged we get full co mm and of that height, etc., ccc. T he officer spoke without emotion. He and a few million

'But if you make a road, you m ust make a road', the officer insisted. ' Admicred. But can all these tremendous works be necessary?'. 'Believe me, we do not lay one stone more rhan we have to. You are seeing the roads in spring. We make t hem for wi nter in t he mou11tai11:;. They must be roads to st11nd everything' . They clung to the hillside on hanging arches of concrete, t hey were riveted and sheathed thirty or forty feet down wi th poi nted masonry; protected above by stonewallings thar grew out of the rock itsel f, and above that again, by wing walls to part and divert uneasy snow-slides or hopping stones a quarter of a mile uphill. T hey were pierced by solid bridges and culverts at every turn where drainage might gather, or flanked with long aprons of pitched stone, where some mountain's soaked side slid down in broad fans of stony trash which, when the snows melt, delivers sudden blasts of racing pebbles and water . Every few hundred yards on the road were the faithful old man and the boy, the sconeheap and the spade, and the cwenty-milc-anhour lorries rolled as smoothly over the nawless surface as they had in the plains. We pa.~sed a Touring Club notice, of peace tim es, bidding people ' pay attention' to .1valanches. /1. tangle of pines, snapped like straws underneath one drunken boulder about the size of a house, unde rlining the warmng. 'Yes, before the War, people used to whisper and hold their breath when they passed some of these corners in wincer. And now! Hear what a noise that string of cars makes in these gorges! Imagine it in winter! Why, a single motor-bus someti mes would start an avalanche! We've lost many men that way. But transport can't stop for snow'. It did not. We ran, as the lorries ran, into patches of melting snow, fringed with gentian clumps, heath, and crocus! These patches thickened co sheets, till at the head of a pass we found ten foot of packed snow, all newly shovelled back fro m the dry, perfecdy graded road-bed. It trailed after us brokenly, through villages whose gutters danced wirh brigh t water, and closed up abreast of us in sheets once more when we reached Cortina. T his was an ex-health and pleasure resort, which of hm belonged to the /1.uscrians, who filled it with 'new-art' hotels, each more villainous in design than its neighbour. Today, as the troops and transport come and go, the jigsaw and coloured-glass atrocities

look like bedizened ladies, standing disrraCLed in the middle o i a police raid. The e ne my do not shell the hotels m uch, because they are owned by A ustrian hcyducs who ho pe LO come back and resume i he ir illustrio us trade? In the o ld days, w hole novels were written about Cortina. T he little-used mounta ins round made an impressive background for lovc-rales and climbing advencures. Love has gone o ut oi this huge basin of Lhe Dolomites no w, and the mountaineering is done by platoons in order Lo kill men, nor by ind ividuals w ho read papers befo re A lpine C lubs. O n most of the other Fronts war is waged in hoe comact with all man's wo rk and possessions. The slayer and t he slai n keep each other company at least in a wo rld that thev themselves c reated. Bur here one faces the, imme nse scorn of che hills preoccu pied wi th Lheir own affairs; for between frost, snow, and under min in g waters, the hills are always busy. Men, m ules, and moto rs are busy rno! T he roads arc alive with them. They inhabit cities inside dirn forests of pine whose service paths are cur through stale snow and whose aisles ring wi th mac hinery! They march our, marshal, and disrribuLe themselves among t he snowfields above, by whole regiments and arsenals at a time. Take your eye off them for an istant, and they a re swallowed u p in the vastness of things long before they reach the u pthrusring rock walls where the mountains and the fighting begin. T here is no scale to lay hold on. T he largest sheJls 111ake a smudge no bigger chan a midge in a corner of a fold of a swell on the edge of a snowfield's bank. A barracks for cwo h undred men is a swall ow's nest plastered beneath the overhanging eaves, o nly visible w hen the light is good - the same light that reveals the gla ncing spider-we b of checks, as well as palaces fu ll of k hakied steel wire strung across the abysses, wh ic h c le r ks ini t ialling bits of pape r 111 is the aerial rai lway feeding that pose. Sorne quadruplicate. Âˇ of these lines work only by night when 'Oh, but we hav e forms and pa per travell ing cradles char han g fro m the wires enough', they protested. ' i\ny amount oi cannot be s h rapne lled. Others spin and for ms. You 'll find che m in the cicies. They whisper busily all day, against rifLs and don't grow well in the snow he re' . chimneys oi the roe~, wic h their loads of 'T hac sounds reasonable', I rep li ed, ' but ic bui lding material, food, am munition, and the is the infinite labour im posed on you by blessed !f.'ttcr from hom e, or a still burden your mere surroundi ng~ that imprc.sscs me of wounded, two at a time, slung down after most of all. Everything you handle see ms some fight on the very crest itself. r-rom the to end in a two-hundred-pound package wire rope and its cradle, co the mule who taken up the side of a house, and yet you carries two h undred pounds, to the five-ton have heavy artillery on the edge of glaciers. lorry or the cart, to the ra il-head, is the way It's a new convention '. of it for every ounce of weig ht that travels 'True. BuL these arc our surroundings, and up or dow n this battle-from. Except the big o ur people arc used to them. T hey ar,~ used guns. T hey arri ve at their proper place by lCJ getting load up a nd do w n hill; used to the same means that Ro me was built . handling th ings and scraps and gears and Men explained an d re-explained th eir harness and beasts rmd stones all chei r lives; transport to me, giving weights, sizes, besides, we've been ac it for two years. T hat distances, and average allowance per head of is why the process ion moves'. troops. Their system is no t like ours. It Yet I came on one ghastly break in it, see ms to lack our abu ndance of fonns and nevertheless.

There had been a bacte ry with gu ns, mules, barracks, and stables complete, escablished on a mountain side, till it had seemed good to the mountain to brush them away as a woman brushes off s now from her s kirc. 'N inety are down below in the vall ey with the m ules and the rest. Those we shall never find . How did it happen ? .A very little thing starts a n avalanche when the snow is ripe for it. Perh aps ,l riflc-shnt. And y.:l,' 111:: added grimly, 'we musr go on and shake all this atmosphe re w ith our guns. Listen! ' . T here was nothin~ doing, at che moment, on t his front an y more than the others only a hidden piece here or there answering its opponenL. Sometimes the discharge sounded like a triumphant whoop across the s nows! T hen li ke the fall of trees far off in the thic k woods! But it was most awful w he n it d ied do wn to a d umbed beat no louder than the pulse of blood in one's cars after a climb, or that him which a mountainslide might give before it c hose rn move into action on its own accou nL.

There are many events wbich concerned our territory during the second World War: the echo of some of these has spread far and wide: others are still little known, but deserve mention for the decisive influence they had on facts and local situations. Among the latter, the employment of atypical forces, used by German High Headquarters to carry out counter-guerilla warfare and the surveillance of particularly sensitive areas.

An important example is given by the cooperationist Units, of Russian origin, sent to northern Friuli and Carnia in the summer of 1944 and operating there to the end of the war. Militarily speaking, historians have not given much importance to the fact and the specific documemation is incomplete and fragmentary. We are grateful, therefore, LO those journalists and scholars w ho, through careful surveys and analyses, have spotted om the salient aspects of the problem and brought them to the attention of public opinion. Our gratitude must also go to the following: • the heroic combatants of the Resistance who through their reporcs have given us a realistic picture of the situation; • the village parish priests who wrote on the pages of their little diaries unheard of particulars of chat strange occupation as well as the dramatic consequences which the population had to undergo; • aJI those who lived that terrible period intensely and whose testimonies informed on facts and episodes of the utmost interest. A survey on the employment of Russian collaborationist Higher Units (formed mainly by Cossacks) in the north eastern Italian sector when the war was almost at an end was carried out on the above elements.

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT The lack of specific datum-points makes the definition ·of the area concerned rather hazardous. Moreover, the location. of Headquarters and Cossack units in Italy followed rather vague schemes, ofcen conditioned more by personnel survival requirements than by the need of dividing the territory. This in the initial srage at least. Later, when more precise tasks were defined and criteria of employment which will be dealt with further on were adopted, deployments underwent further changes and a more or less definite asset was reached. Given the above, it seems better to consider only those areas which were more involved and w hich are t he following: • Northern Friuli. that is the flat country north of Udine - from the pass of Ven,,one to all the morainal amphitheatre of the Tagliamento - as well as the southern ramifications of the Julian PreAlps (the Torre and Cornappo Valleys};

Right Two officers: one is wearing the German uniform and the other the traditional Cossack full dress uniform.

• the Carnie PreAlps, with particular reference to the Cellina, Meduna and Arzina valleys and their outlets in the plain of Friuli; • the basin of the northern part of the Tagliamento, that is the whole of Carnia. Morphologically speaking, the area is characterised for at least 3/4 by its vastness, the presence of impervious and rough terrain where narrow, bending valleys follow one another. These arc covered by thick forests where viability is scarce. Militarily speaking, it is quite suitable for guerilla warfare, but rather difficult to cont rol. Moreover, it must be mentioned that at that time:

• the network of roads for vehicles was not very developed; • excluding the Venice-Udine-VillachVienna railway line and the Osoppo air-field (only partially used) there were no mil itary objectives of any importance. The industrial plants, so numerous today, were then almost inexistent; • the number of inahbitancs was definitely higher than at present and the built up areas had almost reached the highest receptivity due to the evacuees from the big cities of the plain where air bombings had made conditions of life very precarious; • natural resources consisted only in agricultural products and those derived from cattle reared according to fam i Iy management. On the contrary, the following routes of communication were of the utmost importance: • state road No. 13 "Pontebbana" and the above mentioned railway line which, through the Coccau pass (near Tarv isio) reached Austria. At that time, the above, excluding the Brenncro line, formed the most important supply and clearing axis between the Italian terrirory and Central Europe; • state road No. 52 also called "Carnica" which, through the Mount Croce Carnico pass doubled it (though its capacity was far lower); • state road No. 52 "Carnica" and the provincial road of the Degano Valley which, respectively, through the Mauria and the Cima Sappada passes formed the main links between Carnia and Cadore.

THE SITUATION In Autumn 1943 the above area was englobed in the Adriatisches Kustenland (Adriatic coast), that is in the Operational Sector which German Higher Headquarters had established LO have complete jurisdiction over the provinces of Udine, Gorizia, Trieste, Pola, Fiume, Lubiana and Quarnaro. Here, following standards already adopted in other occupied areas, the protection of the main inhabited areas and the static defence of militarily interesti ng objectives was assigned to units of the Wehrmacht, supported by

elements of the Italian Social Republic. TIH task of repressing acts of sabotage and intervening within short and medium range, was encrusted to parties kept constantl y under control and formed mainly by SS. While months went by, however, the par tisan movement became more and more im portam and the armed nuclei whom the German General Staff did not consider verv dangerous, changed into ruthless formation~. Hundreds of patriots, gathered in the "Osoppio" and "Garibaldi" Brigades, started making their presence known am.: created a series of proble ms to the Na, i Authorities of the Adriatic Coast. Attacks on barracks and deposits, sabotages to communication lines, sporadi c actions designed to create a climate of constant insecurity, followed endlessly everywheredespite the harsh and ruthless reprisals car ried out in various places. In such a situation, even the state road "Pontebbana" and t he nearby railway net.work, headquarters of the main troop and strategic material movements, soon became scarcely reliable. The Allies themselves, aware of t he contribution the guerrilla ·warfare gave to the general development of operations, began supplying the combatants of the Resistance by air drops. The movement, which according to reliable data involved about 6000 men, reached the peak of success in August 1944 with the establishment of the "Free area of Carnia and Friuli". The above Area, totally under partisan control, included: • most of che Carnie PreAlps, from

Mount Rest co Mount Cavallo; • the whole of Carnia, with the exception of the Tolmezzo valley (t hat is also the eastern extension to where the Tagliamento river joins the Fella riverj which was strongly occupied by the Germans;• the Sappadino in northern Cadore. When the sicuation precipitated the Germans had to study new measures to solve the followi ng problems as quickly as possible: • obtain once more t he control and freedom of action on the whole area before a further development of the partisan formations (which, besides increasing the hovering threat, feared a union with T ito's Slovenians - operating on the East - and the resulting establish me nt of a dangerous "southern front " in correspondence to the border line); • occupy, in close succession of time, all the main inhabited areas and have them garrisoned by suitable forces. This wich che obvious aim of preventing the re-birth oi the insurreccionary movement. It was thus decided to carry out a complex mopping up action, brief but decisive. This operation was assigned to the above mentioned manoeuvre parties adequately strengthened by units of various origi ns and with the support of units and means granted temporarily by other operational sectors. In this way the first problem could be solved. The second problem, conditioned by the availability of consistent forces, presented a cercain amount of difficulties (it must be remembered that at the time the 111 Reich was carrying out its last, precarious resistance on various fronts}. It was thus decided to employ collaborationist Units which would satisfy the particular requ irement even though they were not reliable enough to be directly opposed to the Anglo-American-Russian offensive. On the basis of the above, the Ataman Operation was taken imo serious consideration. T his consisted in a Plan , elaborated in 1943, to move the Cossack and Caucasian Divisions from Eastern Prussia and Poland to the Adriatic Coast.

THE LEADING CHARACTERS The image of the Cossack has always fascinated the people's imagination. It reminds us of the feat ures of ~ fierce warrior who crosses the Steppe at full gallop m a halo of glory, the leading character of a thousand legendary adventures. Here, ?owever, we have tO adapt the Cossack's identity to the event considered. In fact, the Cossack of the Don, the Kuba, the Terck and other places (main ly Christian-Orthodox) and the No rthern Caucasians (of Moslem faith) who came to Italy in the summer of 1944, t hough heirs to that mythical race celebrated by history books and well-known novels, are only an

episode of the collaborationism which in more or less apparent forms concerned all the countries occupied by the III Reich. It is enough to think of the number of Russians within the German military apparatus, which may be reckoned in over a million (this at least is the figure supplied by reliable sources). Such a big formation consisted of the following:

• thousands of exiles, among which many Officers of the Czar who had found refuge in other Countries after the revolution (particularly in F ranee}; • hundreds of thousands of war prisoners whose choice had not come so much from political reasons, but from the wish to get our of the concentration camps where life was unbearable and hunger reigned. At first, this wish had urged chem to work for Hitler

drei Andreievitch Vlassov (heroic combatant of the Soviet Army who, after bei ng captured prisoner, had decided to espouse the Nazi cause). Actually, Vlassov's amb itio us plan was not folly fulfi lled. Most of the troops, equipped, armed and trained accor'ding LO the German pattern, were employed (generall y as battalions) in counter-guerilla warfare and in subsidiary activities in the most disparate places and always at the orders oi German Commanders; (nowadays, in the valleys of Piedmom and Veneto, memories or'Mongolians within the SS format ions carrying out dramatic moppi ng up actions are still alive). The remai ni ng party had different features. In fact, though it respected so me kind of mili rary organization, t he groups rhat for med it could be compared more to tribes than to organized uni ts. There was a chain of comm.and, no doubt, the regiments were formed by faithful custodians Âˇ of legendary traditions, but a heterogenous crowd of relatives, priests, artisans and traders always followed the combatants; indeed, all those who belonged to the respective communities, p roud of thei r choice and aware that their survival was closely bound to rhat of the braves t men . The above com m uni t ies together had given rise to th e H igher Cossack and Northern Caucasian Units which, after having been so mehow reorganised, had been placed in the chosen areas of Europe awaiting fu ture, appropriate employment. T he above units had been guaranteed protection and various ack nowledgements. They had also been ass ured that at the end of the war and after Germany's victo ry (in which the Cossacks firm ly believed) they would return co thei r lands of origin with a large amo unt of self-sufficiency. W hile the general situation worsened, initial agreements underwent changes and adjourneme nts. The Ataman Operation, studied in all its details, was officially co mmunicated to the party concerned w ith the announcement of a high-sounding proclamation which, amo ng other things, stated the following: " IF T H E VIClSSITUOES OF WAR SHOULD MAKE YOUR

RET URN

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YO U R

ANCESTOJ\S T EMPORARILY IMPOSSIBLE, WE SHALL GIVE RISE TO YOUR LIFE AS COSSACKS JN OT HER PAJ\TS OF EUROPE, UNDER THE fUH J\ER's PROTECTION, AND MAKE THE L.\ND AND EVERYTHING NECESSARY fOR A SELF-SUFl'JClENT LIFE 1\VMl..ABLE TO YOU " .

and later had convinced them to take up arms in the latter's favour; â€˘ me mbers of enti re communities hostile to Bolschevism who, since 194 1, had welco med the Germans as liberators and, though operating in their land of origin, had become the Germans' close co-operators. Late r, the Red Army's counter-offensive had made them emigrate across the border and further to the West. Their seriously com-

p romised position offered no other alternative. In the presence of such a considerable num ber of people (and, in a certain se nse, co nsiderable quality too) the introduction of Russian units within the Wehrmacht soon became a realitv. T he highest p~n:entage of the above un its was designed to give birth to the ROA (Russian Liberation Army) under General An-

This was soon followed by a change in r:he location of forces. The first concingenr (which may be defined "Balcan") (1) was senr to Yugoslav terrirory to face Tiro's formations which represe nted an ever increasing threat; for the seco nd (which will, be dealt with in th is article) an order was issued according to which it was moved to Italy and more precisely co northern Friuli. Here, accordi ng to agreements and promises, the ass igned area wo ul d have been called

Kosakenland in Nord ltalien {The Cossack's land in N orthern Italy}.

ORGANIZATION The lack of official documents docs not permit an a~curace dcfinicion of the nu mbe r and organizational asset of this unusual Occupation Force wh ich occupied our territory. However, on the basis of research carried out so far, we have reached t he fo llowin g considerations: • though a first estimate speaks of 18,000 Cossacks and 4,000 Northern Caucasians, in the Spring oi 1945, the presence of R ussian exiles in the area amounted to about 30,000 people. T he incre ment is justified by the subsequent thro ngi ng of isolated units, family nuclei and refugee of various origin ; • the w ho le of t he forces formed the Cossack Army, term w hich, as we shall see lacer on, was more suited to the rank of Commanders than to the existence of a true and proper Co mp lex Higher U nit; • it is likely that the following were located in the area: • • a Cossack Division; • • a Caucasian Division; • • a Reserve of Cossack Cavalry (comparable to a Brigade}; •• a Georgian legio n or regiment (which had come later on and w hich was assigned permanently as a reinforce}; • • a special self-sufficient unit {squad ron sized) for the safety of the H igh Commander in charge. Under the jurisdiction of Headquarters (directed by a Ce neral Officer whic h in modern terms may be defined " Terricorial") there were more~ver: · • a Higher War Institute for the professional updating oi Cad res; • the Cossack Cadets School (com parable to the Mili tary Academy for the training of young subalterns); • a Military Court; • a Military Bank, for the payment of funds to the staff. T he above Bank was periodi cally funded by th e Cerman Authorities of the Adriat ic Coast with high grams of currency {that is lire); • a Body respomible for all acriviries of Information and Propaganda. T he above Body also published and circulated a weekly paper in Cyrillic print; • an undefined number of logistic units for supp li es of various kinds; • an undefi ned number of Refugee Centres to assist Russian civi lians w ho, though not belonging to officially acknowledged communities, had followed the troops along their exodus. In conclusion it must be mencioned that the soldiers' relatives and all those who were somehow part of the community, formed the civilian component of the unics and we re thus organised wit hin che m. As regards the division within the Higher

Units there arc still doubts and confusion. Differen t custo ms, the aty pical origin of t he units, the spli tting up which took place w hen the various inhabited cencres were occ up ied, arc all eleme nts w h ich ma ke umlerstanding ve ry difficu lt . However, we have been ab le to clea r the following: • the Divisions englobed regimen ts (co mmanded by Colo nels and having from 800 to 1100 soldiers) num bered in progression and marked by the name of rhe regio n o f o rigin (2); • in the ·, Cossack regiments, notoriously Cavalry, the lowest o rg~n izat io nal level w,;s represented by squadrons (called, according to tradition, cemury} while in the C aucasi an regiments, which also incl uded Infantry units, there were battalions and detac hments {the latte r comparable to com panies). T he above informatio n describes w hat m ight have been the mosL probable organizational asset, bm it is generally believed t hat, wh en necessary, cask units were em ployed (patrols and, as o ne would call them today, caccical groups). T hese would be headed by very importam O fficers, endowed wiLh charism in t he eyes of subalterns. Particular mention m ust be made oi the Officers, the t rue backbone oi the whole organizacio n. T hey represented borh the "gentleman of olden times" and the "head of a company of soldiers". H aughty and unco ncerned w hen commanding in the garriso n, dignified in th eir contacts with civilian life, brutal and fascinating in che performa nce of military operat.io ns, most of t hem k new Cerman well enough and rn any of them we re fluent in French. Within t he units the chain of command was carefully followed. Particular respect was rese rved to Generals and Higher O fficers. A mong the latter, many came from the Cadres oi the C%:arist A rmy and, after over twem y years' exile they enjoyed the power

Camels in a Carnie village during the Cossack occupation.

given to them by the re-gained position. Ccncrally speakin g, they were rather old (so me of the m were 80 years old) but, by virtue of rhe experience o btained in so many vicissitudes, they were entitled to a ki nd of pre-em ption r ight during the most important meetings held by t he Higher Headquarters. Respect became al most reverem ial as regards the Atamans who were o f noble urigin and it was believed that t heir dynasty was somehow linked to the Imperial Court oi the Czars. T hey occupied the hi ghest ranks of the chai n of command or posts of vical importance. Though it lived and worked under co nditions of apparent self-sufficiency, the so-called Cossack Army was always subject lO controls by the German Authorities by means of the following: • Liaison parties, supported by Higher Unit Headquarters. T he former, led by junio r offi cers of t he Wehrmacht (and this did not. please the above mentioned senior officers) carefully foll owed every activicy and had a lar11,e power oi decisio n; • Units of t he SS, located in some inhabi ted centre where chcir presence was dee med necessary for particular police operations.

EQUIPMENT-WEAPONS ANO VEHICLES

The above mentioned atypical character of che Cossack formations, is iurther confi rmed by the analysis of certain elements designed to define the t rue image of our " leading characters " . The first cle ment concerns the appea rance, that is t he uniforms worn by mi litary per-

sonnd which, due to their dissimilarity, could hardly be considered " uniforms". It must not be forgotten that the warlike soldiers on issue had been living in a state of sem i-captivity and that their reorganization into units had not been carried out with a particular care of details. The Germans had allotted them "second choice" equipmem or equipment coming from the booty of enemy armies. The German uniforms had not been renewed and, in time, outfits were integrated by objects recovered from other uniforms. The result was that soldiers wore rather odd uniforms and to see someone wearing a German coat over Russian trousers (or Polish, Norwegian, etc.) was not the exception, but the rule. Besides the rank, usuall y worn on the epaulettes, the Eagle of the Ill Reich (sewn on the right breast pocket of the coat) stood out on these uniforms, which may somehow be compared to tod ay's "battle dress". The headgear deserves mention. In fact, though it was considered normal to use service and peaked caps belonging co German or Russian police, many soldiers wore the busby made oi lambswool. That of the Cossacks was high and stately while the Caucasians' bushy was smaller. On che higher part of the busby and on the trousei bands, trimmings were embellished by the traditiona l colou rs of the regiments. Moreover, almost everyone wore dark leather boots. The Cossacks' full dress uniform, made of heavy dark cloth with leather trimmings, cartridge-belts and gold and silver embroidery, was worn on particular occasions and during Corps festivities by Officers and senior elements of the rroop. Weapons too were affected by che above mentioned conditions. German and Czechoslovakian made rifles, machine pistols and Parabellum, light machine guns and machine guns already employed by half of Europe's armies, formed the main armament of the units. Artillery was limited to a small number and, in any case, was of small calibre or antitank. A small number of light and medium mortars completed the allotted equipment. There were ma ny daggers and sabres, threateningly displayed as instrumems of war bur, according to tribal customs, used chiefly for practical purposes such as cattle slaughtering, the preparation of fodder for the Âˇ horses and rhe cutting of fire wood. As regards vehicles, the situation showed rather unusual aspects. In fact, a ve1y modest vehicle depot formed chiefly by old German cars and tanks coming from the requisition (some were gas generated), was opposed by an enormous quantity of horses. Recem data confirm the presence in the area of no less t han 6,000 horses of which: two thirds mounted by those belonging co the various U nits, the remainder employed to draw wagons which carried both materials and

personnel of the various auxiliary categories (civilians included). "Pack" transport was guaranteed by an undefined number of mules and by about fifty camels allocced to a unit coming from the Astrakhan region.

LOGISTICS

It would be rather utopian to speak of a logistic organization as conceived nowadays. The Germans had granted full powers to the Cossacks, aware of their position as "hosts" and immediately took advantage of this guaranteeing their survival with methods based on acavic customs. T he problem of billeting personnel and giving shelter co horses was solved rather hastily. Buildings which were suitable as regards capacity and functionality were rotally occupied after having cleared them of their legal inhabitants and sometimes the families living there were forced co live with parties of soldiers (followed, of course, by their relatives). This permitted a capillary settlement and no inhabited area was spared. Supplies followed similar criteria. Local resources were exploited without much discrimination by means of requisition or confiscation of everything necessary to sustain personnel and horses. The burden on local population (whose conditions of life were already very poor) was extremely heavy. To realize the proportions of the plight, it is enough to remember that in Carnia, in the period examined, more than 1,000 head of live stock were lose rogether with 1,500 tons of hay. Only towards the last months of the occupation were supply Centres established for materials which could not be found on the spot and which came from the plain of Friuli by intercession of the Quartermaster of the Adriatic Coast. T he above provisions, however, did not bring about great changes in the described situation.

THE OCCUPATION The presence of Cossacks in Italy (generally meaning also people belonging ro other communities and considering that they formed three quarters of the whole contingent), concerned a period of about ten months subdivided into two different stages:

RUSSIA Corporal of t he Siberian Cossacks in the SecuriLy Police, 1944.

Uniform: the German uniform was worn with the m,ditionai blue peaked cap with coloured borders and b,md. The <JtJ01:e Cossa.ck corporal wears the SS ntttional emblem on the higher part of the left slerr,)c. Equipment: Russum sca.ndard troop belt. Weapons: Cossack .1abre of Soviet Russia M 1935.

• the first, marked by the thronging of people and their initial settlement (from aboul August co November 1944 approximately); • the second, characterized by the occupation m1e and proper (which lasted until May 1945).

FIRST STAGE Besides isolated parties which appeared in 1944, the main contingent of Russian col-

laborationists arrived only later on. lr :ipp~:ir.~, in foct, rhm in rhc. fi rsr. rlec.adc~ of A ugust aboul fifty convoys coming from Central Europe, reached the stations of northern Fri uli. T he Lrnop-trains, formed mainly by transport convoys and platforms of various kinds unloaded that gipsyish multitude in an atmosphere of undescribable confusion. T housan ds of people (including the old, women and children) tried by the lon g trip, poured with their wagons onto the plains situated north of the morenial amphitheatre of the T agliamenco, seeding in improvised camps. Deprived of means of sustenance and of any kind of assistance, the C ossacks decided to cake care by themselves of all vital necessities. Under the awestruck and surprised look of the local inhabitants, mounted uni ts started searching the countryside and spoil all that was required for their survival. Patrols went as far as the valleys of the Natisone and the southern ramifications of the Carnie PreAlps where, though sometimes faced by partisan actions, they sowed terror among the people. Episodes of viole nce and abuse carried out in the regions of Tarwnte and Gemona and in the mu nicipalities of Buia and Osoppo (to mention the most famous) were endless and this situation went on throughout the month of September. Despite the many difficulties, the Atarnan Operation was completed and the so-called Cossack Army reached the initial locations. Thus, according to rheir plan, the German Authorities decided to attac k the free Arca of Carnia and Friuli. T his plan was carried out in the early days of October wit h a remarkable deployment of forces and means. The battle was fought ruthlessly for over

RUSSIA Lieutenant Colonel, commander of the 5th Cavalry regiment of t be Cossacks of the Don, Yugoslavia, 1944.

Unifor m: Komonov is weari11g Germ,m mnk bt1dg«s which, though auchorised in 1943, were seldom used by Co.~.11,ck offi~·,m who preferred those of Czarist Russia. Weapons: Cossack sa/,re or .1:iska, model 1935, C,1,risc or Soviet, worn on the left hip hanging from the lcttther belt.

Zollner H6he !9»

• Zll)

Polemk

11e._Turlon

..,,,

:'t- S. Ylm:tnio Im

• 13:IG

Zuc di Saritins

Mte. Chiam o .;9 !::;:10"3.

___,.- S,lli fGrodcr

Mte.

Mte, Randelino

CiaurJee

,a-:o

Ml. R I t . au . 2025

Casasola Poffabrq

Pi~ d. MCric

)

LEGEND O,ientative borderline of the "Kosakenland in ltalien" ,c,c

!cos!

Location of the Cossack Divi· sion Headquarters Location ofthe Caucasian Division Headquarters

'" i l9eo.

Location of the Georgian Legion Headquarters Locar.ion of the Cadet School Headquarters of the Great A taman General

(r->·7-->-- _ ,"' 58

..,~

~f~~ ~ ,,.F:isanco r

Routes followed by the Cossack Units during the flight to Austria (may 1945}

' .. 11

.,,..

duno ; - - -

}..'?~ ,Jl}So~t~~onle

7J6

two months and the defence conducted by the partisans was valiant and heroic but, despite the casualities, the Germans managed w restore co mplete control of the situation. The fi m Cossack Cavalry un its took part in the imposing mopping up action, tho ugh only with subsidiary tasks designed co exp loit che success and eliminate the remaining resistance. T he eve nt was an important stage towards the settlement of new corners. Soon enough, the bulk of the Cossack and Caucasian units broke into Carnia and, gradually, spread in all directions. Within a few weeks, all che main centres of the Tagliamento and But valleys, Degano and Chiarzo were reached and occupied and 44 "stanitse" were established (that is garrisons formed by boch soldiers and civilians). In close succession of time, the action was extended to the Arzino and Cellina valleys, in more or less the same way.

By early December, all the aims set by the Nazi Authorities of the Adriatic Coast were reached. In fact: • the organization established by the insurrcctionary movement was defeated and t he partisan parties, which had escaped retaliatio n, withdrew LO the norchernmosr part oi the region, t hat is at a remarkable distance from t he usua l interven ti o n sect o rs . Moreover, their reduced operational capacity did not allow an immediate renewal of the guerilla warfare; • the main routes of communication were un der close surveillance; • the massive presence of collaborationist units assured the possession of Kosakenland (meaning Carnia and the nearby valleys) as well as of several other places in the valley, north of Udinc (e.g. Artegna, Oso ppo, etc.), where the Cossacks had stopped before and where they had left st ro ng surveillance detachments.

... ............... -............

....,__

LEGEND

Area of the initial location of the cossack Iligher Units Clf ter their arrival in Italy (s1m1mer 1944}. Orientacive definition of the "Kosakcnland in !talien ".

••••

Areas occupied pennarwntl)•

SECOND STAGE By now the oc-c upation of Carnia was an accomplished fact an<l the Cossacks made this quice clear by accing as the mosc arrogant of masters. There were end.less scenes of violence and brutality and che inhabitants of the area, already burdened by a very precarious economic situation, had LO meet the requirements of the new comers: from housing to foodstuff, f1x111g up the refugees and sheltering and feeding the horses. During the first weeks, abuse reigned together with the most coercive methods. Later, when the ravaging vehemence dwindled, a period of relative peace followed and the forced co-habi tation between the population and the occupiers became quite bearable. This, however, did not exclude vandalism and retaliation by uncontrolled groups. Once settled in, it became necessary to divide the territory and define, orientativcly at least, the jurisdictional areas of each Unit. Following are the essential data regarding the above:

• Cossack D ivision: - Com mander: "Ataman" G en eral Timofei I vanovic Domanov. - Command Headquarters: T olmez.zo. - Area of jurisdic.1:ion: southern Carnia (including the entire no rthe rn Tagliamen to valley) and the PreAlpine valleys. U nits of the above mentioned Higher Unit also occupied some villages in the plain (north of Udine) together with Units of the Wehrmacht; • Caucasian Division: - Commander: General Sultan Ghirci Klitsch. - Command Headquarters: Paluzza. - Area of jurisdiccion: northern Carnia, incl uding the But valley, C hi arz<'i , Calda, Pesari na and Oegano. A Georgian legion, assigned as reinforcement, also operated in the latter locality. • The Cossack Cavalry Reserve with abouc 3,000 men and most likely com manded by General Andrei G rigorievich Shure (one of the most famous characters, both for his excellent soldierly qualities and his ac-

Areas occupied and controlled from time to time. Cent.res of .the places where Cossack det,rchmems of the plains acted togethc'I' with Wehnnachc units for logistic requiremerus.

nvmcs during the war) acted as manoem•re party; • T he main bodies of support were deployed in a central position. f-or instance: - Higher War institute (commanded by General S.K. Borodin): Tolmezzo; - Cadet School (com manded by General M . Salamakin): Villa Santina; - a " Refugee Centre": Lake Cavazw area. Gradually, che organizational asset of the "civilian component" also bec:1mc normal. An Elementary School for about one hundred Cossack children was opened. Several rooms were turned imo onho<lox churches where religious ceremonies were celebrated periodically. Some craftsmen, such as farriers and saddlers, were given all t hat was needed to meet the requirements of their specific activity. As the days went by, however, the partisan movement, having overcome the harsh blows suffered, began showi ng clear signs of revival. Between Ja nuary and April 1945, there were endless hostilities between Russian uni ts and partisan parties and many

17 May, 1943 AGENDA OF THE MILITARY CLUB OF THE KUBAN AND DON UNITS 0.B. We, Cossacks of the Kuban and the Don, operating in the ranks of the Italian Army within the "Savoia" Cossack Division met today in this club to commemorate the native land and the ancient glory of free Cossacks! The military vah.,e of Cossacks has been suffocated in the last twenty four years by the communist oppressor and our land drenched with the blood of Cossacks! On September 25th, 1942, on the Don, in the neighbourhood of the city of Millerove, under the patronage of the command of the 8th ltali:m Arroy, the 1st "sotnia" of Cossack volunteers was established and on April 1st, 1943 the sotnia gave rise to the Cossack division "Savoia". The Cossack Division "Savoia" (later) served as headstone for the further establishment of other Cossack units! Of this we are grateful to Italian Headquarters. This fact permitted the Cossack revival and the achievement of Russia's liberation from the communist oppressor. An officer of the Italian Army, Giorgio Stavro Santarosa worked with zeal and energy for the organization of the Cossack division. This name will be written down in the future history of the Russian Army! On behalf of all the Cossacks, for the untiring work of Captain Giorgio Stavro San· tarosa, the Cossack Army. DECREES "ITALIAN ARMY CAJlTAIN GIORGIO STAVRO SANTAROSA IS NO MINATED HONORARY COSSACK OF THE KAMISCEV STANITSA, OF THE KUBAN REGION AND OF THE JEJSK SECTION". The Chairman of the Cossack club during the meeting held O.B. Colonel signed (Colovko) The Secretary of the Cossack club / Captain of the Cossacks signed (Malighin) ,'

casualties on both sides. Actions and reactions fo llowed one another, but no episode was important enough to modify t he situation . In February a very famous person reached Carnia. Not only was he a glorious combarnnr of the White Army but the author of a book of fame (From the Imperial Eagle to the Red Flag) which he had written while in exile in the 30s. It was the Great Ataman Gene ral l'iotr Nicolaevic Kras nov, w ho settled in Verzegnis accompanied by a small court and always protected by a special squadron of "bodyguards". The arrival of the eigh ty year old (but actually still efficient) Charismatic Chief of all Cossacks, beyond all considerations on the influences of a functional type., officially sane· tioned the birth of KosakenJand and was celebrated by those belonging to the various communities in an atmosphere of contained optimism (lack of information on the general situation of the co nflict and an unrealistic view regarding the UI Reich's chances of

recovery contributed to the above state of things). The month of April was marked by in· creasing acts of sabotage and more incisive actions by the parcisans. /\s regards that period, mention must be made of a sym bolic event: the desertion of almost all the Georgian contingent which passed, with armaments and equipments, into the ranks of the Resistance. For the sake of hisrory, it must be mentioned that this phen~menon never concerned the Cossack U nits, except for some isolated cases.

THE EXODUS That last, iatal decade of April 1945 was thus reached and, while the allied advance guard were about to enter Friuli, the time arrived for Carnia to be liberated. \Vithdrawing German columns ran day and night along the main routes towards the border passes, bur the Cossack Army remained on its positions. Obviously, the Rus·

North Caucasian officer.

sian exiles had reached the final stage of their adventure which was becoming more and more worrying. All illusions had faded away, promises had come to nothing and che nightmare of persecution by the Soviet Government which looked to them as traitors, arose once more. In a situation marked by general uncertainty, the adoption of adequate provisions was of the utmost importance. The Atamans, responsible for all decisions, were now faced with the choice of one of the following course of action: • surrender the weapons to the partisans or the allies on the Italian t.erriwry; • withdraw together with t.he Germans on Austrian territory and there continue t.he fight to the bitter end or, as last resort, wait for the arrival of t.he Anglo-American forces and negotiate the surrender. The second solution was chosen and ir was decided to move to Austria where the Cossack Higher Units whic h had been operating in the Balcans were gathering together with similar intentions. After a briefing, orders were issued and all t.he personnel got ready to leave (ex· eluding a few detachments · on rhe plain which were cut out from che events and which later surrendered to the partisans and to the British units). The soldiers, as usual accompanied by their relatives, were echeloned in two consistent columns designed to go along the following routes: • Villa Santina - Ovaro · Comeglians · Ravasclett.o · Paluzza · Mount Croce Car· nico Pass - Gail Valley;

• Tolmezzo - Arta - Paluzza - Mount Croce Carnico Pass - Gail Valley. The first march units, rngether with the wagons, started moving on the evening of April 29ch. T he order was f.O reach the high valley of the Drava, in Carinchia. T he transfer, made difficult hv adverse weather conditions, was marked 6y a last, very serious event which cook place on l sc and 2nd May al o ng the first route. In fact, in the neighbourhood of the municipality of Ovaro (in the Degano valley) squadrons of Cossacks, after engaging in violent fights with partisa n formations, let themselves go to acts of retaliation against the pop11brion. On the whole, cas ualties were very high. Over 60 people, becween soldiers and civilians, lost their lives. Many were inj ured, and houses were severely damaged. On the night of May 5th, 1945, the last convoy crossed the Mount C roce Carnico pass. This concluded t he Cossacks' flight from the Carnia valleys.

CONCLUSIONS The face of the Cossacks, after the end of the war, has bee n the object of research and enquiries carried out by various people who, sometimes, have given different information according to different motivations. Objectively speaking, it seems quite certain thac: • after having concentrated in C arinrhia, the Cossacks surrendered, w ichout opposing any res istance, co a British Brigade (probably hoping to get special conditions from the British and, maybe, be assigned, as a community, to some far away former colony); • the British Authorities, on the basis of previous international agreeme nts, handed them over to the Soviet Military Amhorities located in A ustri a; • only a small number of Cossacks managed to escape and setcle in some other N ation. This ends the survey of a war event wh ich, though little known; is worthy of interest because of some anomalous and sometimes extraordinary aspects which do nOl seem co belong to our modern history bm, with the due adjustrne ms, to very distant times.

Lieutenant General (aux) .l::Senedetto Kocca RUSSJ.A Cossack of the Army of General Krasnov wiLli fun,;tions of Auxiliary Police "Sch utzmann" in lhc amipartisan warfare - Carnia 1944-45. Uniform: it is the dark grey on.e of che SS Wa/Jen with astrakhan "papaca", SS cr,l/ar badges ,md che national emblem OJI the left slee".Je. Equipment: cra~licional!y speakinf{, Cossacks did not 11se spurs, bul a 11;·hip or "nagaik~t )). Accessories for the horse: typical Cossr1ck s,uldle (with wooden scruclt,re and leather cushion} which kept the horsemen in a charncteristic position high on the horse. Weapons: British nwdc ,·ifle Sten Mark ll Vmm used by lt"lian prirtiStms, but captured mid used also by 1he safety forces o/ the Axis.

NOTES (1) The 15th Cossack Cavalry Corps was pan of che conLingent together with an undefined number of self-sufficiem Units. The former was under the command of the German General Helmut von Pannwitz, famous for having rc-organi:ced the Cossack Units in Germany. Elcmcms of the abo,ve contingent operated, from time to Lime, in Lhe piiovinces of Trie.ste and Gorizia. (2) According to rel iable information, the in.ilia! organi:cation of the Cossack Division was as follows: • General Staff • a secu rity Unit called Sentry Unit; • 1st and 2nd Don regiments; • 3rd Kuban regiment; • 4th Terek regiment. The following must be added 10 the above Units: • 8th and 10th light Cavalry regim.ents (which came in a second stage).

BIBLIOGRAPHY Flavio Fabbroni: " L'occupazione della Carnia c dell'alw Friu]i" (15th i:ssue: Storia comemporanea in Friuli - Year 1984). Published by the Institute of Friuli for the Hiswry of the Liberation Movement). Michele Gortani: "II martirio della Carnia" 2nd Edition by the Carnia Graphic Works - Tohneuo. Arrigo Pier Carnier: "Lo sterminio mancaLO - La dominazione nazista nel Veneto Oricntale (1943-1945)" published by Mursia. Arrigo Pier Carnier: "L'Armata Cosacca in halia (1944-1945)" Published by G. De Vecchi s.a.s. · Milan. Giuliano Dccrignis: " Villa Santina · In villino · Memorie di un anno di guerra (Maggio 1944-Maggio 194.5)" published by Lithographic Works II Segno · Villa Santina. Marina Di Ronco: "Pagine di vim Cosac~a nella Carnia occupata (ouobre 1944-aprile 1945). "Sot la Nape" issue published by the Philologic Sociecy of Friuli. Francesco Nuga: "La zona libcra di Carnia e l'occupazione Cosacca". Galliano Fogar: "Sotto l'occupazionc nazista ndlc province oriemali", published by Del Rianco · Udine.

GERMANY Division of the Cossacks of the Don· Non commissioned Office.r , 1944. During 1.he 2nd World War numy were on service as volunteers in 1he army. While other vo/11meers were generally sa.tisfted 10 wear a shield with the n,uional colours on the sleeoe of 1he nonnal smi/orm ofthe tJrmed forces, the Cossacks wanted to preser-,;e their 011.m characteristic fetJt11res. Together with the German field shirl, t.h,7 wore the characu:ristic fur cap ('papaca ") and dark blu trousers with normrJ/ bands. The cockade on the cap was ofthe same colours fl5 the badge on 1he slee-ve and 1he band on the cap, the same colour as the trouser bands. Siberian Co.t<acks wore badges like t.hc C',aucasian ones on Cossack uniforms.

ADOLFO MENZEL A NINETEENTH CENTURY GERMAN PAINTER

............, \

Adolph Friedrich Erdmann Menzel was born at Breslaw on 8 December 1815. In 1830, that is, at the age of 15, he moved with his family to Rerlin, where his father opened a lithographic workshop. In Berlin the young man entered the Fine Arts Academy, but in 1832 he wok over the management of his father's workshop. The beginning of his career was somewhat difficult and marked with disappointments and sacrifices. Very quickly, however, he succeeded in establishing a reputation for himself as a quality lithographer, above all as one with a special innovative style. Practically self taught, very short and cercaily not robust, with a small round beard framing his face and two small but sparkling eyes, Menzel displayed a singular determination and tenaciousness in his will tO succeed which seemed out of character with his misanthropic nature and his life as an inveterate bachelor. This luck really changed in 1840 when he was commissioned to produce a series of plates illustrating Franz Kugler's (1808-1858) Geschichte Friedrichs des Grossen (History of Frederick the Great). This book was published in 1842 and contained 200 illustrations by Menzel which were very well received. Having thus established himself, he went on and perfected his skill as a lithographer, ultimately becoming not just an expert but indeed a master craftsman. The period 1845-1851 marks what can be considered his best work in the field of uniforms and was the one which gained him the greatest satisfaction from all points of view. His was the Die A rmee Friedrichs Des Grossen in ihrer Uniforrnierung 63

gezeichnet und erlautet von Adolph Men7.el (The Army of Frederick the Great in its uniforms drawn and illustrated by Adolph Menzel) which is still widely known today not only by scholars but by bookl overs in general. The book, published m Berlin, bears no date, but it 1s almost certainly 1851. Only 30 copies were printed of the fin,t edition. In his plates Menzel succeeded not only in presenting all the Regiments of the King of Prussia and the related Services with the maximum fidelity, without any alteration or in vention, but also depicting typical military fi gures of the time in an extremely attractive way. The book is composed of 436 plates, almost all of which, in addition to the central figure, are accompanied by drawings of details referring to the various types of headdress or accessories of the uniform depicted (1). In the same year, 1851, Menzel made the xylographs fo r Karl Friedrich Lange's book «Die alte Preussichen Armee» (The Old Pruss1an Army).

Perhaps because of the peculiar for m of illustration with which his success had begun, but also because he was a typical German, he had a great admiration for Frederick the Great. So in 1851 he produced eight large plates dedicated to the life of this king. Included among them was

"Friedrichs A nsprache an seine Generate von der Schlag bei Leuthen (1757)" (Speech by Prederick the Great co his generals before the battle of Leuthen). This was the speech in which the king pronounced the well-kn own phrase "We either defeat the enemy, or we shall be buried by his batteries!". Another was "Friedrich der Grosse empjangt Joseph II in Neisse" (1769) (Frederick the Great receives Joseph II at Neisse).

Above. A. Menzel: «Dinner after the ball», 1870 Left. Kurssel Fusilier of Frederic the Great 's A rmy

Even more famous, however, are the plates entitled "Flotenkonzert in Sanssouci" (Flute concert at Sans Souci) and "Die Tafelrunde von Sans Souci" (The round table at Sans Souci). The first of these shows Frederick the Great, who was a flute maestro, play ing this instrument to the accompaniment of an orchestra in a room of the famous villa built by him at Potsdam: In the second the king is depicted at table with several important persons, including t he famou s F rench philosopher Franrois Mane Arouet de

Voltaire, a much welcomed guest of his who is portrayed in Menzel's plate in a way that is both a good likeness and extremely vivacious. Menzel himself, in a previous wo od carving, had ·depicted Frederick ·wilhelm' s "s mokers' room". Because of the obviously uncontrolled and coarse gaiety of the various subjects, this plate is in complete contrast with the calm and restful atmosphere of the "round table" of his son. Menzel was also called th e "Painter of the Hohenzollern ", as he had portrayed scenes fro m the life of Wilhelm 1 and his court, including "Coronation of Wilhelm at Konigsberg in 1861 ", "Departure of Academy of Fine Arts of Berlin. He King Wilhelm for the A rmy on 31 was awarded medals at the follo wJuly 1870", "Supper after the dance" ing ex hi bit io ns: Berli n, 1857, (1870) and "Jn the White Room" Munich, 1879, Vienna, 1883 and 1888, Chicago in 1893 and Antwerp (1888). He travelled to Paris in 1855, 1867 in 1894. He died in Berlin on 9 February and 1868, where he met several French artists, in particular, the 1905. A bout forty of his paintings and painter Gustave Courbet, the leader several thousands of his drawings are of the "realist" school. These conon display at the National Gallery tacts were responsible for several difof Berlin. The almost complete colferent kinds of works, including the 1875 "Rolling mill". This work caus- lection of his en_gravings is contained quite a sensation at the time. In ed in the Print Cabinet of the same it the author endeavours to extol the museum. O ther works of his are to be beauty and fascination of the industrial world which was being born found in the M useums of Stuttgart, Moscow and Weimar. at the time. Some idea of the value of his Menzel became a member of the Berlin Academy in 1853, of those w~i-ks is shown by the fact that, in of Vienna, Munich, Dresden and an auction held in Paris at the Kurtz Bruxelles in 1857, and in 1875 he H eim in 1898, his pai nti ng was elected to the Senate of the "Frederick the Great and the 'Bar-

barina"' (2) was sold for the sum of Frs 18,875. Alessandro Gasparinetti NOTES (1 ) A seco nd ed ition of th e book was publish ed in early 1900 by the publisher Martin Oldembourg of Berlin "by order of H is Imperial Majesty" and was edited by Prof. F. Skarbina and the Capta in of State Major Jani. Another, smaller-sized edition co ntaining a reduced number of plates was publi sh ed around 1980?? by the Schuler Verlag of Stuttgart. (2) The "Barbarina" w as in fac t th e beau tiful singer Barbara Campanini of Parma who, in 1744 was in Venice. As she had refused to sing in Berlin even though she had signed a contract, Frederick had her escorted to Berlin where sh e was obliged to perform and obtained a tr iumph on the stage. It appears that th e ki ng was not insensitive t o her charms and it is a fact th at he accorded her a stipend amounting to t hree tim es w hat he gave on e of his ministers.

Above left Stechow Dragoon Regiment Above right. infantry Regiment -v·on Kleisc Left. Plettenberg Dragoon Regiment

To the side. Portrait of Frederic the Great of Prussia

... the exhibition may be proud of having gathered such important names and as far as criticism an d artistic value are concerned, it certainly overcomes the limi ts of any m unicipal exhibition and reaches the superior levels at which both rank and uniform disappear and we all feel close to one another, like true m en. Camillo Sem enzano

The suggestion to set up an art exhibition with works by discharged military men and men on active service of the antiaircraft Artillery of the Army, was at first met with some puzzlement. Not because of a preconceived distrust of the Armed Forces, but because of an understandable and, in some way justified, surprise at such an unusual, though stimulatin g, request. In fact, as regards figurative arts and art criticism, not enough attention is

Le ft

Giovanfrancesco Gonzaga «Memories of a parade•, 60 x 80 (private collection) Below

Giovanfrancesco Gonzaga «Lancers on the coast», 110 x 55, oil on canvas

paid to the links which have always existed between the world of art and a p ani<.:ulai, atypical environment such as the m ilitary one. Yet, love of culture and an interest in figurative arts are no novelty for the military institution which has always given the world of art suggestions, characters and subjects of great significance as regards aesthetics both in ancient art and in the intermediate and modern period. National artistic tradition is fu ll of examples from Mantegna to Paolo Uccello, from Michelangelo to Leonardo (who engaged with admirable inventive power in conceiving war m achines and instruments), to the Macchiaioli of later times, almost all taking par t in the vicissitudes of the Risorgimento, evoked so nobly by the art of Fattori. We must also remember the varied and suggestive sketches on

military life by Quinto Cenni to w hich the "Military Journal" dedicated articles and w hole books when presenting its "Code" which is a work of historic and documentary research depicting uniforms in detail as if they were fragments of a mosaic allowing the reconstruction of the military world as a whole and in its minute particulars. The bonds between artists and the m ilita ry world were further strengthened during the First World War. In fact, from 1915 to 1918 a great number of artists met and got to know each other during the m ilitary service: Savinio, Soffici, Morandi, De Pisis and the two enlisted youths De Chirico and Carra who, in Ferrara, left a basic mark on the metaphysic issue. T he futurist movement deserves a different and more detailed analysis and this because of its ideological aspects too. This movement involved almost all its followers in the vicissitudes of war, starting from second-lieutenant Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and Sant'Elia to gunner Umberto Boccioni who died during training at the age of 33, after kindly refusing to work in an office to live and work... in a battery. In the early post-war period and in the twenty years of Fascism, col-

onial conquests and the vicissitudes art Exhibition of the antiaircraft Arof war were depicted by the illustra- tillery of the Army was establishtions of Beltrame, Pisani and others; ed. Long-lasting (sixteen editions), of thus, in the Spring of 1942, at the . high quality and with a great height of the conflict, the Propagan- number of exhibitors, it proves that da Office of Army General Staff the Armed Forces, deep set in the organised a "First Exhibition of spirit of modern society, are aware Italian Artists at arms" setting it up that military service must be a forin the Palazzo delle Esposizioni in mative gymnasium also as regards Rome. culture. About a quarter of a century later, The Exhibition, started in 1972, in 1965, again in Rome in the takes place once a year and gathers rooms of the officers' club of the in sections covering the entire secArmed Forces, an exhibition of tor of the figurative arts (painting, figurative art was held. It was en- drawings and graphic, sculpture and titled "The Italian soldier" and was both contemporary and retrospective. Since then, art exhibitions It is desirable that all those started flourishing all over the Arwho have a deep interest in the my units. They were rather modest arts will, in the future, pay and mainly designed for a better use lasting attention to many of the of the enlisted soldier's free time, artists taking part in the exthus anticipating by many years the hibition. "Rules and Principles concerning The exhibition is marked by Military Discipline" (law 382/79) in quality and prestige. It is an which it is stated that "the State acknowledgement to the compromotes the cultural growth ... " of mittment of all those involved. soldiers. Carlo Munari It is for the above reasons that the

Domenico Esposito ÂŤThat day the fishermen", 70 canvas, 1984

50, oil on

artistic craftsmanship, photography), works by soldiers of all order and rank on active service in the antiaircraft speciality. The first editions had a rather modest start: low participation, scarce artistic claims and meetings organised in the barracks with paintings exhibited in the corridors, parlours and gymnasiums. Then, as the initiative became more and more interesting, as its value increased and the staff started paying it more attention, someone was hit by the idea of involving civilian society. Thus, in 1981, at its tenth edition, the exhibition was set up in the beautiful Villa Simes-Contarini in Piazzola sul Brenta and was considered very successful by critics and public alike: the following year it

Giovanfrancesco Gonzaga . The Savoia escort, (Russian Campa,_gn) The legendary unit in which the painter's tower limbs began to freeze, 110 x 110, 011 on canvas. â€˘

wok place in Mantua, at Palazzo TeÂˇ in 1983 in Ferrara, in the Casof the Ducal family of Este, with symbolic recolle:tions ?f two soldiers - extraordmary artists who had spent there their most beautiful artistic season: Giorgio De Chirico and Carlo Carra; in 1984 the show again wok place at Villa Contarini; the following year the exhibition was held at the Loggetta Lombardesca in Ra venna and in 1986 again in Ferrara in the church of San Romano. Its presence this year at the Museo Civico of the Eremitani, in an almost physical contact with Giotto and Mantegna, was for the antiaircraft Artillery on the 25th anniversary of its establishment, a point of arrival and a legitimate reason of pride. The 16th edition gathered together military artists on active service and the winners of past editions as well as those belonging to the branch in the S0s and 60s; among the latter Valverde, Schifano, Sartori and Zanellati deserve special mention. Among the winners of the previous editions mention must be made of the sculptors Vanni, Aloisi and Cavina; the painters Lazzari, Mazza, Ochs, Verani, Cappelli and Buso; the graphics Baldacci and Guidetti. A "gift" by Giorgio Segato was dedicated to the sponsor of the exhibition, Gianfrancesco Gonzaga, in acknowledgement of his heroic past as a soldier during the Russian campaign and of his fondness for military subjects. As in the past editions, the artistic Committee was formed by famous names such as the already mentioned Giorgio Segato, Carlo Munari for paintings, Silvana W eiller Romain Jacur for drawings and graphic, Fulvio Roiter for photography. The name given to the Exhibition "Military Artists and Artist Military

tle'

Men" and participants with and without a rank in turns, formed a fortunate union among those who still live and work within antiaircrafr Artillery and those who worked there in recent or remote years. The possibility of exchanging the terms "artist" and "military" which are not at all antithetic was underlined together with an artistic and human synthesis among soldiers and former soldiers, united in a formerly unheard of esprit de corps. Ferdinando Schettino

... The great interest in the improvement of the quality of life linked to the huge development of the arts affects the life of soldiers too where there already existed a strong tradition due to music. Giorgio Segato (ll Mattino, D ecember 3rd, 1981)

Cavalry Major, Ferdinando Schettino, attended the courses at the Military Academy and the Branch School as well as the 108th General Staff course at the Higher War Institute. He commanded the platoon, the recce squadron and the tank squadron of the 19th Cavalleggeri Guide Squadron Group; the tank company at the Armoured Troop School of Caserta. He occupied the posts of UAMEC and OA officer. He took part in the rescue operations during the earthquakes in Friuli and lrpinia. At present he is Assistant manager of the Rivista Militare (Military Journal).

ITALIAN

ENGLISH

GLOSSARY

back, s. background, s.

b. radiat ion to back, v.t.i. to back up .badge, s. to baffle,

v.t.

to b. the enemy bag, s. sand b.

sleeping b. baggage, s. bail, s. to bail, v.t.i. to bail out balaclava helmet balance, s. b. of power

b. of terror to balance, v.t. i. balanced, ag. b. collective forces ball, s. b. cartridge

retroguardia sfondo radioattivita naturale rinforzare, sostenere, spalleggiare salire d'appoggio (alpinismo) gallone, distintivo, freg io, insegna ingannare, confondere, sconcertare confondere ii nemico borsa, sacca, sacchetto sacchetto di terra (per zavorra o usato come arma) sacco a pelo, sacco da bivacco salmeria, bagaglio bastione, palizzata alzare le mani in segno di resa lanciarsi col paracadute passamontagna equ il ibrio equi librio di forze equilibrio del terrore bilanciare, mantenere l'equ ilibrio equilibrate forza equi librata palla, sfera, proiett ile cartuccia a pallottole

ball-proof cannon b.

fire b. ballast, s. to ballast, v.t. ballista, s. pl. bal listae ballistic, ag.

b. correction of the moment b. dens ity b. measurement equipment

b. missile defence centre b. missile defence

emergency action report b. missile defence miss ile battalion b. missile defence operations b. missile defence system

b. b. b. b.

missile launcher winds missile trajectory

ballistics, s. balloon, s.

pilot b. sounding b. balloonist, s.

a prova di proiettile palla di cannone sfera di fuoco zavorra zavorrare balista balistica, di bal ist ica correzione balistica sul memento densit a balistica equipaggiamento per la misurazione bal istica centre di difesa contra i missili balistici rapporto sulle misure di emergenza per la difesa da missili balistic i battaglione missili per la difesa da missili balistici operazion i per la difesa da missili balistici sistema di difesa da missil i balist ici lancia missil i balistici venti balistici missile balistico traiet toria balist ica balistica aerostato pallone pilota pallone sonda aeronauta

band,

brass b. frequency b. rotating b. single side b. bandage, s. bandoleer, s. bandolier, s. bandsman, s. to banish, v.t. the enemy was ban ished from the territory banishment, s. bank, s. b. of a river

b. of clouds b. of fog b. of ice banner, s.

bannered, ag. bannerman, s. bar, s. (arald.) barbarian, ag. barbaric, ag. barbarically, av. barbarism, s. barbed, ag. b. wire b. wire fence b. wire net barbican, s. (arch ., mil.) to bard, v.t. barded, ag . to bare, v. t. to b. the sabre barehanded, ag . barge, s.

unloading b. barrack, s. gener. pl. b. master-at-arms to barrack, v.t.i. barrage,

b. bal loon b. fire b. plan anti-aircraft b. artillery b. creeping b. linear b. mortar b. supersonic b. barrel,

spare b. barrelled, ag. sing le b. gun

double b. gun barricade, s. barrier, s.

banda (musica), banda (rad io), banda (gruppo) fanfara banda d i frequenza corona di forzamento (di proiettile) banda laterale un ica benda, fascia bandoliera bando liera band ist a esiliare, cacciare

b. plan to barrier, v.t. bascule bridge, s. ba.se, s. b. line advanced b.

ii nem ico tu cacciato dal territorio esilio argine, sponda, banco argine di un fiume banco di nuvole banco di nebbia banco di ghiaccio vessillo, stendardo, band iera imband ierato portaband iera sbarra, banda (su scudo) barbaro, stran iero, selvaggio barbarico barbaramente barbarie dentato, uncinato, spinato fil o spinato siepe di filo spinato rete di fil o spinato barbacane bardare bardato (di cavallo) sfoderare, sguainare sguainare la sciabola a mano nuda, senz'armi chiatta, scialuppa, lancia di parata ch iatta da sbarco caserma commissario di caserma accasermare sbarramento pallone di sbarramento ti ro, fuoco di sbarramento piano di sbarramento sbarramento ant iaereo sbarramento di artiglieria cortina mobile cortina a percussione sbarramento di mortai sbarramento ultrasonico canna, tamburo (di arma) canna di ricambio provvisto di canna (arm i) fucile a una canna fucile a due canne barricata, barriera ostaco lo, barriera

b. development plan

air b. b. command b. development

b. area commandant b. ammunition depot

piano degli ostacoli ch iudere con una barriera ponte levatoio base base di approvigionamento base avanzata base aerea comando delle bas i gestione di una base comandante di zona della base deposito munizioni della base piano di sviluppo della base

land b. logistic b. b. map b. map symbo l naval b. b. quartermaster b. remount depot b. symbol baseline performance

base terrestre base logistica carta di base simbolo di carta di base base navale commissario della base depos ito riforn imento cavall i della base simbolo di base criteri esecutivi di base

criteria basic, ag .

b. allowance for quarters

b. allowance for subsistance b. air speed b. air temperature b. daily food al lowance b. intelligence b. load b. planning

b. training b. undertakings bastille, s. bastion, s. bath, s. field b. mobile b. batman, s. battalion, s. airborne b.

anti tank b. artillery b. b. beachhead b. ground survei llance

section b. group

infantry b. logistic support b.

basico, di base, fondamentale indennita di base per l'al logg io indennita di base per la sussistenza velocita di volo di base temperat ura base dell'aria razione viveri di base giornal iera documentazione di base dotazione di prima linea programmazione di base addestramento di base azione fondamentale fortezza, prigione bastione bagno bagno campale bagno campale mobile ord inanza, attendente (generalmente di ufficiale d i cavalleria) battag lione bat t aglione aviotrasportato battaglione controcarri gruppo di artiglieria testa di sbarco di battag lione setto.re di battag lione per la sorveglianza del terreno gruppo tattico a livel lo battaglione battag lione di fanteria battagl ione logistico 71

b. orderly corporal

b. orderly sergeant b. operations centre

rifle b. tank b. to batter, v.t.i. (artigl.) battering,

b. charge

b. piece battery, s. (artigl.) b. aiming point b. acqu isit ion radar b. control area Âˇ

b. control central b. contro l officer b. command post

b. display unit b . quartermaster sergeant

antiaircraft b. artillery b. coast b. dry b. f ield artillery b. horse b. trench mortar b. battle, s. b. area surveillance and integrated communications b. casualties b. cruiser b. damage assessment

b. dress b. efficiency prize b. practice target b. reconnaissance

battlefield b. estimate b. field illumination b. information centre

caporale di giornata del battag lione sergente di giornata di battagl ione centro operativo di battag lione battaglione fuci lieri battag lione carri battere, battere in breccia, atterrare ii cannoneggiare, ii battere in breccia car ica completa da cannone cannone di grosso calibro batteria, accumulatore, pila punto di mira di batteria radar per l'acquisizione di batteria zona di controllo della batteria centrale di controllo del tiro di batteria ufficiale di control lo del la batteria posto di comando della batteria unita d i spiegamento della batteria sergente di fureria della batteria batteria contraerea batteria di artiglieria batteria costiera pila a secco batteria di artig lieria da campagna batteria a cavallo batteria da mortaio battaglia, combattimento sorvegl ianza della zona di battaglia e comunicazioni integrate perdite umane in combatt imento incroc iatore da battaglia assestamento dei danni da combattimento uniforme da campo prem io per l'efficienza in battaglia bersaglio di esercitazione per la battaglia ricogn izione della battag lia campo di battaglia valutazione del campo di battag lia illuminazione del campo di battaglia centro informazioni sul campo di battaglia

b. identi fication system study

b. survei llance b. fleet b. plane b. position air b. counteroffensive b. dec isive b. defensive b. land/air b. offensive b. order of b. pitched b. sham b. to battle, v.t.i . battlement, s. battleship, s. battleworthiness,

bay, s. to carry off the bays bayonet, s. b. scabbard b. th rust sword b. to fix b. to unfix b. bayonets, s. pl. to bayonet, v.t. beach, s. beach group b. master b. minefield b. reserves b. width landing b. beachhead, s. beaching, s. hasty b. bead, s. to beam, v.t.i. to beam a message bearer, s. ammunition b. litter b. litter b. team standard b. bearing, s. compass b. grid b. magnetic b. the bearing on the coat of arms beaver, s. bed,

studio di un sistema per l'identificazione del campo di battaglia sorveglianza del campo di battagl ia f lotta da battaglia aereo da combattimento posizione di resistenza combattimento aereo battaglia controffensiva battaglia dec isiva battaglia difensiva battaglia aereoterrestre battag lia offensiva ordine di battaglia battagl ia campale finta battaglia combattere, battersi, battagl iare merlo, bast ione corazzata, nave da guerra idoneita a cont inuare la battaglia alloro riportare la vittoria, l'alloro baionetta fodero per baionetta baionettata sciabola innestare la baionetta levare la baionetta soldati armati di baionette colpire con la baionetta sp iaggia gruppo di spiaggia ufficiale che sorveg lia lo sbarco di truppe cam po di mine antisbarco riserve di sp iaggia amp iezza di spiaggia spiaggia di sbarco testa di sbarco sbarco marittimo sbarco rap ido mirino (d i fuc ile) individuare a mezzo radar trasmettere un messaggio per onde comandate portatore port am u n izion i portaferiti nucleo portaferiti porta stendardo rilevamento, (arald.) arme rilevamento con bussola rilevamento cartografico rilevament o magnetico arme su llo stemma Âˇ parte inferiore della visiera di un elmo letto

camp b. field b. folding b. river b. before, prep. b. flight inspection belated; ag. the enemy was b. to belay, v.t. belch,

.,,

bellicose, ag. bellicosity, s. belligerency, s . belligerent, ag. s. belt, s. carrier b. life b. metalic link b.

mine b. mobile defence b. bench, s. testing b. bend, s. (arald.) bengal light, s. bengalore torpedo, s. to beset, v.t. to b. the enemy besetment, s. to besiege, v.t. besieger, s. to betray, v.t. betrayal, s. betrayer, s. bilateral, ag. b. infrastructure bill, s.

b. of health billet,

billeting, s. b. accomodation to billet, v. t. to b. troops binding, s. binoculars, s. pl. biological, ag . b. agent b. ammunition b. defence b. operation b. warfare b. weapon to bite, v.t.i. bitter end, s. to fight to the bitter end bivouac, s . to bivouac, v.i.

branda letto da campo branda letto di un fiume prima, avanti preparazione al volo sorpreso dall'oscurita ii nemico fu sorpreso dall 'oscu rita (a lpinismo) assicurare una corda scoppio (di f iamme , cannone) bel licoso, guerresco bellicosita bel I igeranza bel Iigerante cinturone, fascia, nastro nast ro trasportatore salvagente nastro per munizioni (per mit rag liatrice) fascia minata fascia di logoramento banco banco di prova banda bengala bengalore circondare, assediare assediare ii nemico assedio, agg iramento assediare, accerchiare, assalire assediante tradire tradimento tradit ore bilaterale infrastruttura bi laterale progetto di legge, biglietto di banca, certificato certificato sanitario alloggio, accantonamento di mi l itari in case private, buono d'alloggio alloggiament o sistemazione in allogg io allogg iare (soldati) allogg iare le truppe attacco da sc i binocolo biologico, batteriologico aggressivo batteriologico munizione batteriolog ica difesa batteriologica operazione b iologica guerra batteriologica arma batteriologica ferire (di spada) oltranza combattere a oltranza bivacco bivaccare

blackout, s. to blackout, v.t.i. blade, s.

folded b. unfolded b. blank, ag. b. cartridge blast, s. air b. atomic b. b. hole to blast, v. t. blaze,

the town was in a blaze blazon, s. (arald .) blazonry, s. blind, ag. b. app roach landing system b. bombing zone

b. f ire direction b. f light b. shell b. side to blind, v. t.i. blindage, s. blinker, s blister, s . b. agent blitz, s . to blitz,

v. t.

blitzkrieg, s. bloated, ag. b. armaments bloc, s . the Western b. block, s.

b. house b. point road b. blockade,

to raise the b. to run the b. to blockade, v.t. blockhouse, s. blocking, s. ag. b. action

b. eche lon

oscuramento, schermatu ra oscurare, schermare lama, spad a, pala di elicottero pala ripiegata pala non ripiegata in bianco, vuoto cartuccia a salve raffica, colpo, scoppio, esplos ione scopp io aereo esplosione atomica fornello di mina fare esplodere, far saltare (con esplosivi) f iamma, f iammata, vampata la c itta era in f iamme b lasone, stemma araldica c ieco sistema di atterraggio per volo cieco zona di bombardamento senza restrizion i di rezione del fuoco cieca volo cieco granata inesplosa lato non protetto accecare, abbagliare , blindare, corazzare blindaggio lampegg iatore vescica aggress ivo vescicante attacco i m p rovv iso , guerra lampo distruggere (specialmente con attacco aereo) guerra lampo sovrabbondante armament i eccessivi b locco (di partiti, nazioni) ii b locco Occidentale, !'Occidente un ito blocco, fabbricato, isolato casamat ta, for ti no in calcestruzzo posto di blocco blocco stradale, posto di sbarramento post o di sbarramento, blocco, assedio tog liere ii blocco forzare ii blocco bloccare, assed iare fortino, casamatta arresto azione di resistenza e arresto scaglione di arresto 73

b. position b. line b. zone temporary b. to block-up, v.t. to block-up the enemy advance blood, s. b. agent

b. bank b. supply unit b. t ransfusion service bloodletting, s. bloodshed, s.

bloody, ag.

b. fight blot, s. blue, ag.

b. forces b. commander to blow up, v.t.i. board, s.

b. and lodging air transport allocation b.

on b. selection b. boat, s. b. lane

assault b. vedette b. bob,

light b. body, s.

main b. public b. bodyguard, s. bolt, s. bomb, s. b. aimer b. assembly spares

~- carrier b. damage repair kit

b. damage survey b. disposal squad b. disposal unit b. hole b. proof b. release point b. sight

posizione di arresto linea di arresto zona di arresto arresto temporaneo fermare, arrestare, sbarrare arrestare l'avanzata del nemico sangue tossico del sangue banca del sangue unita per l'approvigionamento di sangue servizio trasfusioni spargimento di sangue massacro, spargimento di sangue cruento, sangu inoso conflitto sanguinoso punto debole in strategia blu forze azzurre comandante delle forze azzurre far saltare per aria bordo, mensa, consiglio, comitato, organo vitto e alloggio organo per l'assegnazione del trasporto aereo a bordo (aereo, nave) gruppo selettori battello corridoio di sbarco battello d'assalto nave vedetta soldato di fanteria soldato di fanteria leggera corpo, parte sostanziale di qualcosa, ente grosso (di una formazione) ente pubblico guardia del corpo otturatore (di armi da fuoco) bomba puntatore di bombe parti di ricambio per bombe aereo da bombardamento corredo per riparare i dann i delle bombe sopralluogo dei danni da bombe squadra lancia bombe unita lancia bombe cratere a prova di bomba punto di lancio di bombe dispositivo di puntamento

b. store officer b. testing device b. thrower armour piercing b. atom, atomic b. azon b. fragmentation b.

c. b.

fire b. H b. remote control b. smoke b. submarine b. time b. unexploded b. to bomb, v.t. to b. out to b. up to bombard, v.t. bombardment, s.

air b. dive b. high altitude b. level b. low altitude b. naval b. pattern b. bomber,

all weather strategic b. attack b. fighter b. jet b. jet boosted b. heavy b. light b. medium b. night fighter b. piston engined b. strategic b. tactical b. twin engined b. universal b. variable sweep b.

b. defence missile torpedo b.

uffic iale addetto all'immagazzinaggio di bombe dispositivo per ii col laudo delle bombe lanciabombe bomba perforante bomba atomica bomba radioguidata bomba dirompente bomba al cobalto bomba incendiaria bomba all'idrogeno bomba contro l lata a distanza bomba nebbiogena bomba sottomarina bomba ad orologeria bomba inesplosa bombard are costri ngere ad abbandonare casa con bombardamento aereo fare ii carico di bombe bombardare bombardamento bombardamento aereo bombardamento aereo in picchiata bombardamento ad alta quota bombardamento aereo in quota bombardamento a bassa quota bombardamento navale bombardamento a tappeto bombardiere aereo da bombardamento strategico bombardiere da attacco cacciabombardiere bombardiere a reazione bombardiere a reazione aereo da bombardamento pesante aereo da bombardamento leggero aereo da bombardamento media aereo da bombardamento per attacchi notturni aereo a pistone aereo da bombardamento strategico aereo da bombardamento tattico aereo da bombardamento a due motori aereo da bombardamento universale aereo da bombardamento a raggio variabile missil e anti bombardiere aerosilurante

bombing, s. b. aviation

b. plane b. report dive b. bombshell, s. bonfire, s. bonus, s. long service b. booby, s.

b. trap book, s. order b.

sick b. signals b. b. keep ing booster, s . boot, s. isothermal b. mountain b. riding b. ski b. border, s.

b. guard b. land b. line b. patrol borderer, s. bordure, s. (arald.) bore, s . rifled b. smooth b. bound, s. gener. pl. out of bounds within bounds boundary, s. b. line unit b. bounty, s. bourrelet, s. bow, s. box, s. packing b. sentry b. bracket, s. (artigl.) to bracket, v.t.i. braid, s. to braid,. v.t. branch, s. brass, ag . b. band b. hat (s1.) brave, ag. bravery, s .

bombardamento aviazione da bombardamento aereo da bombardamento si t uazione bombardamento bombardamento in picch iata granata falo premio, gratifica premio di anzianita ordigno esplosivo dall'apparenza innocua trappola libro registro degli ordini impartiti registro degl i ammalat i codice dei seg nali contabili ta detonatore stivale, calzatura, scarpa scarpone isotermico scarpone da montagna stivale da cavallo scarpone da sci confine, frontiera, demarcazione guard ia di confine zona di confine linea di demarcazione pattuglia di confine abi tante di confine bordura an ima (d i canna), calibro anima rigata (di arma) anima liscia (di arma) confine, limite fuori dai limiti entro i limiti lim ite, front iera, term ine, confine frontiera limite di settore premio di arruolamento fascia di centramento (proiettile) prua di nave

breach,

b. of disc ipline bÂˇ.' of duty b. of the peace

to seal a b. to breach, v.t.i. to b. the defences to break, v.t.i. to b. ranks to b. the step to b. out, v.t.i. to b. out from encirclement war broke out breakdown, s.

the b. of negot iations breaking, s. b. of contact b. o f engagement

b. of pursuit breakthrough, breastplate,

breech, s. b. block b. loader b. well brevet, s. to brevet, v.t. bricole, s . bridge, s. b. classification b. company b. head b. head line b. train

scatola, cassa

cassetta per munizioni garitta per sentinella forcella di cannone fare forcella gallone guarnire (di gallone) branca, (arma e servizio del l'Esercito) di ottone fanfara ufficiale superiore prode, audace, coraggioso coraggio, audacia, valore

b. unit air b. bascu le b. foot b. pontoon b. portable steel b. snow b. suspension b. three spanned b. to bridge, v.t. bridoon, s. brief, s .

breccia, infrazion e, violazione infrazione disc iplinare ven ir meno al dovere v iolazione all'ordine pubblico chiudere una breccia apri re una breccia aprire una breccia nella difesa rompere, infrangere rompere le file rompere ii passo scoppiare, prorompere

uscire da un accerch iamento in iziarono le osti l ita, scoppio la guerra disgregazione, rottura, interruzione, divis ione in parti, insuccesso l'insuccesso dei negoziati rottura rottura del contatto rottura (sospensione) del combattimento abbandono del l'in seguimento penetrazione (nelle linee nemiche) corazza, pettorale (di cavallo) culatta (di cannone) otturatore (di cannone) arma a retrocarica allogg io dell'otturatore brevetto, nomina, promozione consegnare ii brevetto, conferire una promozione onoraria a un ufficiale briccola, sopraspalla ponte classificazione dei ponti compagn ia pontieri testa di ponte limite di testa di ponte compagn ia di genieri, con materiale per la posa di un ponte unita pontieri ponte aereo ponte levatoio passerella ponte di ch iatte ponte metallico scomponibile ponte di neve ponte girevole ponte a tre campate costru ire un ponte sopra bridone istruzioni sommarie 75

f:) to brief,

v. t.

briefing, s.

b. room operational b. brigade, s. b. administrative area

alpine b. armoured b. fi re b. b. headquarters b. land ing team b. routine order to brigate, v.t. brigadier-genera l, s. b. General Staff brigantine, s. brinkmanship, s .

broadcast, ag. b. co ntrolled ai r in-

terception broadcasting,

b. station to broadcast, v.t. brother, s. b. in arms buckshee, s. (s l.) budget, s. Budget and Finance Division buffa lo, s. buffer, s. b. distance b. State b. zone nuclear b. distance bugle, s . to bugle, v.t. i. buglemaster, s. bugl er, s. building, s. built, ag . b. up area combat in b. up area b. up t ime bulk, S.

riassumere per som mi capi , in quadrare, dare ist ruzioni espos izio ne (d i s it uazione), ii dare istruzioni, rapporto breve, i nquad ramento sala rapporto inquadramento operativo brigata zona sotto l'am ministrazione della Brigata brigata alp ina brigata corazzat a (corpo dei) pompi eri q uartier ge nera le di brigata squadra di sbarco della brigata ord ini di routine unire in brigata generale di brigata Stato Maggiore di Brigat a briganti no lo spingersi, nell'azione polit ica, fi no all'est remo risch io di guerra radiodiffuso inte rcettazion e ae rea basata su c o mmento radiodiffuso radiodiffusione st azion e radiot ras m it tente, em ittente trasmettere per radio fratello commilitone razione supplementare, paga supplementare bilancio preventive Ufficio Bilancio e Finanza mezzo corazzata anfibio resp ingente, paracolpi, t ampone margine di sicurezza Stato cuscinetto zona cuscin etto margine d i sicu rezza nuc leare tromba suon a re la tro mba , ch iamare a raccol ta a suon di t romba capo trombettiere trombettiere edificio, cost ruzione costruito zona abitata com battimento nell 'abltato tempo di mobilitazione massa, grande quantita

b. dispatch

b. loaded the b. of t he army bull's eye, s. bulldog, s. bulldozer, s. bullet, s. b. proof

armour piercing b. armour pierc ing incend iary b. dummy b. exp losive b. incend iary b. bulletin,

war b. bulwark, s. bump, s . bunker, s. burial, s. b. of the dead b. and graves

registration emergency war b. burg, s. burn, s. burned, ag. to burn, v.t.i. to b. down, v.t.i. burner, s. burnout, s. b. velocity burst, s.

b. of gun fi re b. of mach ine gun cen tre of b.

high air b. low air b. nuclear air b. nuclear sub-s11 rface b. nuclear surface b. nuclear underground b. nuclear underwater b. thermonuclear b. butt, s. butts, s . buttress, by, prep. stand by

spedizione di materiale in grande quantita caricato alla rinfusa ii grosso dell 'esercito centro di bersag lio grossa rivoltell a apripista pallottola, proiett ile blindat o, a prova di proietti le pall ottola perforante pallottola perforante incendiaria proiettile a salve pallottola esplosiva pall ottola incend iaria bollettino, comunicato comun icato di guerra bastione, spalto, baluardo gobba (di terreno), protuberanza fort ino, rifugio sotterraneo, opera d ifensiva permanente sepolt ura sepo ltura caduti reg istrazione t ombe e sepolture sepoltura d'emergenza fortezza, citta forti f icata bruciatura, ustione ustionato bruciare rad ere al suol o con un incendio bruciatore fine della combustione vel oc ita di f in e combu sti one scoppio, esplosio ne, raffica raffica di f ucileria raff ica di mitragliatrice pun to di scopp io (di ordigno nucleare) scoppio aereo alto scopp io aereo basso espl osion e nuc leare in aria esplosione nucleare sotto

la superficie esp losione nucleare in su perficie esplosione nucleare sotterranea esp los io ne nuc leare subacq uea esplosione termonucleare calcio (di arma) poligono di tiro contrafforte vicino tenersi pronto per una azione

BOOK REVIEWS

Salvatore Scarpino· "lndietro Savoia! Briganti nel Sud", ("Go Backwards Savoia! Brigands in the South"), published by Camunia, Lire

28,000. Camunia has just published an essay by Salvatore Scarpino: "lndietro Savoia!" subtitle ''Briganti nel Sud".

The book awakes the reader's curiosity and makes him wish to go into the details of the various events. The language is fluent and the style engaging while the form is that or a historic novel. On May 22, 1859 Ferdinand II of the Two Siciles died and his twentythree year old son, Francis II succeeded him to the throne. Less than two years later, on March 17, 1861, the Unity of Italy was proclaimed. During the ce lebrations, in several areas of the South such as the Sila, the regions of Potenza, Sannio, Molise and Abruzzo, bands of tattered. angry reactionists qot toqether and gave rise to the we ll-known phenomenon of brigandage. This was formed by land workers, raiders, soldiers of the dissolved Bourbon army and followers of Garibaldi. Their aim seemed the restoration of Francis II (who, after the surrender of Gaeta on 13 February, 1861, had gone into exile in the Papal States}, but in fact their scopes were multifarious and diversified. Both in the North and under the Bourbons, t he law on compu lsory military service was unfair and based on "replacement" which put all the weight of conscription on the peasants and the destitute. When the Garibaldi army was d issolved, many of his fol lowers resorted to brigandage to avoid conscription under the Piedmontese regime. The book speaks of Carmine Crocco Donatelli, general of the peasants and command er of the tattered army, of women such as the Calabrian

"Ciccilla" Ol iverio "mistress of brigands" mentioned also by Alexander Dumas, reporter of Garibaldi's expedition. Scarpino writes in an engaging manner about the conflict of two worlds, the barbarity, the summary executions, the decapitations and public exhibitions of corpses, the spol iations of entire vi llages, the pillages, rapes and personal feudes, the burnt houses and plundered churches which were present with horrible equity on both sides. "The reactionary blaze was thus due to mil ita ry, political, economic and social reasons . Regrets and deceived hopes also did their part. People were hungry, upset and exhausted by inflation and the increased fiscal pressure and the clergy, fearing the liberal aggressiveness and directly concerned by the laws on the estate, sowed the seed of discontent'', The bri gands turned to reaction, violence and unrest which split up in many different m ilitary episodes without ever becoming a well-coordinat ed movement capable of turning the single reactions into a strateg ic mi li tary event. In conclusion, the main characters of a drama on the scenes of history represent sad and inglorious aspects of post-unitarian Italy and the author's analyses, at the end of the essay, on the single protagonists (Bourbon regime, brigands, Savoia reg ime) are sharp and inappelable as well as objective and understandable.

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BOOK REVIEWS

"Brigands could not but be defeated, their enemies however could have done better. From that tragic decade of the Evil unit we have inherited misunderstandings and poisons which are difficult to eliminate". These are the trenchant expressions, both exhaustive and admonitory, with which the author ends his book. Raffaele Pugliese

during the Kingdom of Italy, Imperial Military College and Imperial College for Cadets during the Austrian domination). During the first war of independence the building also contained an Artillery and Engineers School. After the annexion of Lombardy to the Piedmontese Kingdom of Sardinia, the building became the seat of the Military College and, in the late XIX century, it was transformed into barracks. In 1935 it underwent a rad ical change and became a Mi li tary School. Th is remained until the second World War when it became the "Tcu lie" Barracks, now seat of the Military Area Headquarters. The book contains an important set of reproductions of documents of various periods illustrating the architectural changes of the building and the most salient events regard ing the various Institutions. As far as uniforms are concerned, the pictures of the people belonging to the d ifferent military organizations staying, through the centuries, at the Teulie barracks are particularly in teres ting.

electronics and te lematics. In brief, this book, with its rich iconography, will spurr the reader, especially the young reader, who will realize that, as stated by General Di Martino in his introduction to the book, "A hundred years of history of the School are in fact a hundred years of history of the entire Arm.History to be known and be proud of and from which to draw certainty for a future which - recalling the motto of Artillery - should be "always and everywhere at the service of the Motherland".

Claudio Magris

L' ESERCITO ITALIANO storia di uomini e armi M. Grasso. R. ,Nicolai, photographs by G.E. Stern, "La Caserma Teulie di Milano" (The Teulie Barracks in Milan), 3rd Army Corps Headquarters, Milan, 1985, 109 pages. This book comes out together with other initiatives by Army General Staff designed to enhance military buildings of historic and artistic interest and to which the 3rd Army Corps Headquarters has already contributed with the monographs on Palazzo Cusano and the Library of the Military Garrison, both situated in Milan. The "Teu lie" Barracks, the oldest building in the chief city of Lombardy occupied by a m il itary Body, represents the close relationship between the city of Milan and the military institutions since, from the Middle Ages onwards, the building has always been used for public functions such as philantropic works and army schools and institutions. Until 1671, the present "Teulie" Barracks contained a hospital which, in the XVth century, specialized in the treatment of children and in the XVIII century became a School of Arts. After a few years it became a monastery and some time later General Pietro Teulie (minister of war during the Cisalpine Republic, he carried the first Italian flag in battle at Arcole) turned it into a home for veterans, disabled and orphans. In the nineteenth century the former monastery became a military college under names which changed according to t he various regimes (Mili tary Home for Orphans during the Italian and Cisalpine Republic, Royal Boarding House for Military Orphans

f:DITAI.IA

AA.VV. "L'Esercito italiano, storia di uomini e armi", ("The Italian Army, a history of men and arms", Editalia, Rome, 1988, 303 pages.

M. Prato: "I cento anni della Scuola di Artiglieria" (A Hundred Years of the Artillery School), Rome, 1988, 294 pages. 1888-1988, two dates which contain a hundred years of intense, rich and pregnant history. For its hundredth anniversary, the Artillery School has Just published a book which guides the reader through a century of military and national history. The book underlines how the vocational and didactic activity has had to adapt to new techniques and procedures driven by a rythm of development which has weighed heavily on commanders and instructors. It also gives the reader a concise image of the Institute and its activity both in times of peace and in war. The book spans from the past, worthy of mention, to the present, rich in efficiency and looks to the future of Artillery based on

"L'Esercito italiano, storia di uomini e di armi'', reconstructs the history of the Army, from the first eighteenth century formati ons . to our days, giving a global view of facts and developments as well as an accurate hist oric analysis. The book, third of a series, comes after one concern ing Aviation and another regard ing the Navy and is designed to bri ng to the knowledge of the reader the great problems connected with the very existence of a military organization in the wake of the traditions on which our modus vivend i is based. The Army, a social organization tightly linked to the ve ry tissue of the n:;itinn, must necessarily consider man as the centra l element of its structure in a relation ship which, through conscription, is cont inually chang ing and developing at a speed not easily found in other organizations. The book underlines quite clearly the present main lines of a modern Army , its technologic development and t i1 e programmes designed for ever more engaging tasks. "L'Esercito italiano. storia di uomini e t!i armi", is, in fact, a book which offers readers an accurate and concise picture and is the starting point for a critical examination a,Âˇ,d an analysis of such a vast and comp lf)X subject.

UN UOMO PAOLO -C ACCIA DOMINIONI