WINNERS WINNERS2025 2025
YUVAN YUVANRAJA RAJA ORIS ORIS
JOE JOEMILLAR MILLAR ILA ILASTEM STEM
OSCAR OSCARFORD FORD ILA ILAARTS/ ARTS/ HUMANITIES HUMANITIES
FROM THE
HEADMASTER
It is my pleasure to introduce this year’s edition of The Journal. The Journal is testament to the intellectual curiosity, dedication, and ambition of RGS students. It has been conceived not merely as a record of achievement, but as a platform for rigorous inquiry, thoughtful debate, and original contributions to knowledge. The work presented here reflects the culmination of sustained research, critical analysis, and a commitment to academic integrity: qualities that lie at the very heart of our ethos. Across its pages, it is the breadth of perspectives and methodologies which impresses: each shaped by the distinctive voices and emerging expertise which the Independent Learning Assignments and Original Research in Science projects have encouraged. More than just an academic exercise, The Journal represents the vibrant culture of learning which is embedded in our school community: one that – right from the very beginning of each student’s time at the School – encourages questioning, values evidence, and celebrates intellectual risk-taking. It is our hope that these contributions will inspire all those who read this, and will affirm the ability of even our younger students to participate meaningfully in disciplines that extend far beyond the classroom. In bringing The Journal to publication, we recognise not only the contributors themselves, but also the hard work of our Head of Scholarship, Mrs Tarasewicz, Mrs Webb for her design expertise, and the teachers who have guided our students so diligently. Together, they exemplify the spirit of scholarship we strive to nurture at the RGS: reflective, resilient, and always reaching toward deeper understanding. Congratulations to everyone involved.
Dr JM Cox Headmaster
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'SCHOLARSHIP FOR ALL'
With thanks to:
Mr Dunscombe, Mr Lau, Mrs Farthing and all of the ILA supervisors for their support with the ILA and ORIS programmes.
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FROM THE
HEAD OF SCHOLARSHIP
Preparing The Journal for publication is always one of the highlights of my academic year. It offers a wonderful opportunity to pause, reflect, and celebrate the remarkable achievements of our older students as they approach the end of their time with us. This year has been no exception. During their visit in January 2025, the ISI inspectors identified our students’ “breadth of knowledge and enthusiasm for scholarship” as a Significant Strength of the school. I hope that you will agree that the work showcased in the following pages provides rich and compelling evidence of this. Each year our Lower Sixth Form students are invited to take part in our bespoke ILA (Independent Learning Assignment) and ORIS (Original Research in Science) programmes. The strongest projects in each category are shortlisted for presentation at the annual ILA/ORIS Celebration Evening. The calibre of both the presentations and the underlying research this year was truly exceptional. Full copies of all shortlisted projects are included here for you to enjoy. I am also delighted to include Marcus Perkin's award winning essay, Does Free Speech Build or Break a Community? Marcus was awarded first place in the prestigious Karen Becher Essay Award, run by the National Holocaust Museum. This accolade adds to his already impressive achievements, including winning two separate Exeter University essay competitions and a runner up placing in the Peter Cane Legal Reasoning Competition. Marcus is not the only senior student to have achieved remarkable academic success this year. Yuvan Raja, winner of the ORIS award at the ILA/ ORIS Celebration Evening, also represented the UK in the International Astrophysics and Astronomy Olympiad in Mumbai, placing third out of 288 competitors—the highest ranking ever achieved by a UK student. To borrow another phrase from the inspectors, our “strong academic culture” is undoubtedly flourishing. I hope you enjoy exploring a snapshot of it in the pages that follow.
Mrs H Tarasewicz Head of Scholarship www.rgsg.co.uk
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ORIS
YUVAN RAJA WINNER OF THE ORIS CATEGORY FOR HIS RESEARCH ON MODELLING ACOUSTIC SCATTERING.
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CONTENTS 3 5 9 17 29 35 45 57 62 71 79 87
FROM THE HEADMASTER FROM THE HEAD OF SCHOLARSHIP
STEM
DENNIS DIMOV
WILL AI TAKE OVER THE ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF DOCTORS IN THE NEXT 50 YEARS?
MAX LERCHSTER
EXPLORING LOW-COORDINATE MANGANESE(II) COMPLEXES.
JOE MILLAR
HOW ALTRUISM AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR CAN BE EXPLAINED FROM AN EVOLUTIONARY, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL PERSPECTIVE.
WILL MORROW
TEMPORAL DISCRIMINATION IN BOMBUS TERRESTRIS (BUMBLEBEES).
YUVAN RAJA
MODELLING ACOUSTIC SCATTERING VIA FRACTAL MESH DECOMPOSITION.
ARTS & HUMANITIES CAMERON BROWN
TO WHAT EXTENT DO JD VANCE'S VIEWS ON IMMIGRATION FOLLOW THE PRINCIPLES OF ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO?
WILL GOSSAGE
MYTH TO MOVIE: THE REIMAGINING OF CLASSICAL THEMES IN FILM NOIR.
OSCAR FORD
BEL CANTO - TO WHAT EXTENT IS THE GERMANIC SCHOOL OF SINGING TECHNIQUE THE OPPOSITE OF THE GARCIAN SCHOOL OF SINGING?
ANGUS SCOTT
FROM MUSE TO MONSTER: DID ROMAN LOVE POETS LIBERATE OR INCARCERATE WOMEN IN THEIR POETRY?
NATIONAL ESSAY COMPETITION MARCUS PERKIN
DOES FREE SPEECH BUILD OR BREAK A COMMUNITY?
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STEM SCIENCE T E C H N O LO G Y ENGINEERING M AT H E M AT I C S
JOE MILLAR WINNER IN THE ILA STEM CATEGORY FOR HIS DISCUSSION OF ALTRUISM AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR FROM EVOLUTIONARY, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL PERSPECTIVES.
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WILL AI TAKE OVER THE ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF DOCTORS IN THE NEXT
STEM
DENNIS DIMOV
50 YEARS?
This Independent Learning Assignment (ILA) was short-listed for the ILA/ORIS Celebration Evening.
INTRODUCTION In recent decades, artificial intelligence (AI) has
benefit the healthcare sector but is also limited
rapidly advanced, revolutionising many industries
in its abilities to fulfil certain roles that require
from the financial sector to transportation. But,
human decision-making and qualities. AI-powered
will it also take over the healthcare sector and,
systems are already diagnosing diseases, assisting
if so, what will be the impacts it has? If you ask
in treatment planning, analysing medical images
ChatGPT (an AI software) itself it comes to the
and aiding in the workload of many specialists
conclusion of: ‘AI is likely to transform many
of doctors (as I saw myself on my placement
aspects of healthcare over the next 50 years,
in a mental health hospital). Therefore, this
but it's very unlikely to fully replace doctors’ .
growing presence raises the critical question:
This highlights how AI acknowledges how it may
Will AI fully take over the roles of doctors in the
1
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next 50 years? While some envision a future
To the most recent forms of development and research
where machines can outperform humans in all
1978 First test-tube baby is born and the First
aspects of medicine, others may argue that the
vaccine developed for meningitis; 1980 Smallpox
“human touch” is irreplaceable in patient care
is eradicated; 1981 First vaccine developed for
and is essential in maintaining the consistency
hepatitis B; 1983 HIV, the virus that causes
of reliable care to those who are unwell. This
AIDS, is identified; 1984 Alec Jeffreys devises a
essay explores the potential of AI in medicine,
genetic fingerprinting method; 1985 Willem J. Kolff
its limitations and draws upon the conclusion of
invented the artificial kidney dialysis machine;
whether it will only complement or completely
1992 First vaccine developed for hepatitis A; 1996
replace human doctors in the next few decades.
Dolly the sheep becomes the first clone; 2006 First vaccine to target a cause of cancer and
AI’S POTENTIAL TO REVOLUTIONISE MEDICINE
now the consistent clinical trials for new drugs in pharmaceutical companies and gene editing.2
Medicine is continually developing and has been improving for the last decade, emphasising how
Based on what I witnessed first-hand within the
the healthcare sector is always finding innovative
hospital, AI could most likely take over four distinct
ways to ensure the safety and wellbeing of
roles. The first being diagnostics (for general,
people. But the real question is whether AI use
typical conditions). It is nice to think that in the
is the next innovative step towards this goal in
future, you could simply walk into your local GP
the timeline of medicinal practice. From the very
or hospital and undergo a simple consultation in
beginning of the exploration of medicine: 460
front of a machine without the worry of having to
BC Birth of Hippocrates, the Greek father of
disclose personal information to another human
medicine begins the scientific study of medicine
or waiting days for a 15 minute appointment- and
and prescribes a form of aspirin; 300 BC Diocles
perhaps with AI this could be possible. AI chatbots
wrote the first known anatomy book; 280 BC
and tools can guide patients through symptom
Herophilus studies the nervous system; 130 AD
checking, directing them to care more efficiently.
Birth of Galen. Greek physician to gladiators
AI already outperforms humans in some imaging
and Roman emperors; c60 AD Pedanius
tasks (detecting certain cancers in X-rays or
Dioscorides writes De Materia Medica; 910
MRIs) as well as being able to store an extremely
Persian physician Rhazes identifies smallpox.
large and accurate bank of knowledge that can
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recognise symptoms of a typical illness and give a
a consultant psychiatrist (who informed me of
full diagnosis in seconds. This makes it possible to
how his longest shift the first year out of university
get an accurate diagnosis in just minutes as well
was close to 40 hours- a considerable portion
as allowing time and energy for doctors to focus
doing administrative work) within a mental health
on more serious and complex illnesses. Therefore,
hospital where he used an AI tool (“ambient AI
we can conclude that certain diagnostics is a
scribe”) that listens in to the conversation he
role that AI can play in. The second role is data
has with his patients and writes up a transcript
analysis. AI can analyse massive datasets faster
with all the relevant information that has taken
than humans, identifying patterns in genetic,
place during the conversation (filtering all filler/
clinical and lifestyle data. It is important to note
irrelevant words). Despite this use of AI having
however that AI doesn’t “understand” illnesses
some specific problems with certain patients with
like a human does. It detects statistical likelihoods
certain conditions (which I will come back to later
based on data and final decisions still require
in this essay), the software saves the consultant an
human clinical judgement. Examples of this data
abundance of time that is focused on other tasks
analysis may be: Medical images (X-rays, CT scans,
that require more serious and precise thought
MRIs), electronic health records (EHRs), lab test
and also records the conversation to a much more
results, patient-reported symptoms, wearable
accurate extent due to not relying on the doctors
device data (heart rate, glucose levels, etc.). This
memory when hand-writing the report at the end of
again not only saves a lot of time that would be
the consultation. Similarly, AI can aid in scheduling,
spent identifying patterns and trends in data, but
note-taking, billing and managing patient records.
also does so with impressive accuracy and can
A final role AI could take over is similar to the
eliminate the chances of human error when doing
second, pattern recognition via 'Machine Learning'.
so. Thirdly, AI can be used as an administrative
AI- especially using machine learning and deep
tool. I witnessed this first hand while shadowing
learning can learn from millions of prior cases,
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recognise patterns that correlate with specific
to even the smallest detail in the patient’s health
diseases/ abnormalities and identify subtle
or condition (analysing trends is not completely
features a human might overlook (early signs
reliable). The arguments against AI sway towards
of cancer in imaging). For instance, radiology AI
the other side of medicine that consists of ethics,
can detect lung nodes or brain haemorrhages on
decision-making and dilemmas that doctors are
scans faster and sometimes more accurately than
often faced with and require human emotions to
radiologists and dermatology AI can classify skin
deal with- not everything in medicine is strictly
lesions with accuracy comparable to experienced
analytical like in finance as you are dealing with
dermatologists. As well as this, 'predictive
real people. First of all, clinical judgement is still
modelling' allows AI to predict disease risk
required by experienced, knowledgeable doctors
(diabetes, heart disease) years before symptoms
who need to piece together different symptoms
arise by using algorithms trained on longitudinal
much like a jigsaw puzzle in complex, ambiguous,
data in order to forecast disease progressions.
rare cases where data is limited or conflicting. A distinct example is the very rare case of
Ultimately, it is evident that AI is already
auto-brewery syndrome. There are people who
improving efficiency in healthcare and allowing
experience intoxication and hangovers without
overworked doctors to focus their medical
drinking a significant amount of alcohol, or without
expertise on more pressing and important
ingesting alcohol at all. These individuals share
matters than simple, time-consuming tasks.
a rare condition called auto-brewery syndrome or gut fermentation syndrome, where ethanol
EXAMPLES OF AI TOOLS ALREADY USED IN DIAGNOSIS ● ● ● ● ●
is produced in a person’s gut after they have eaten carbohydrate-rich foods. An excess of
IBM Watson Health- suggested cancer
'Saccharomyces cerevisiae' - a type of yeast- in
treatments based on literature
the gut is the main culprit, which leads to the
DeepMind’s AlphaFold- predicted
fermentation process that produces ethanol. This
protein folding for drug discovery
condition varies greatly despite already being very
PathAI- aided pathologists in
rare, from very minor to very severe cases where
diagnosing diseases from slides
the worst symptoms present as belching, chronic
Aidoc, Zebra Medical Vision- read radiology
fatigue syndrome, dizziness, disorientation,
8
images for early signs of disease
hangovers and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) as
Limitations of AI within medicine
well as also having further impacts on a person’s mental health3. The point remaining, will AI really
Contrastingly, there are still many hindrances to
be able to diagnose cases like these that are
the uses and benefits of AI outlined previously in
so rare and can vary so much in their nature?
this essay as medicine is complex and conditions can vary immensely from person to person and
The next limitation to emphasise is the need for
diagnosis/ treatment can completely change due
human connection within medicine. Individuals
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will always want to turn to another human when
leads onto the final bulk of why doctors will
feeling most vulnerable. Human emotions
still be the core of healthcare for centuries to
such as empathy, trust and communication are
come- ethical decision making. Ethical dilemmas
core to care and are essential in medicine as
in medicine are complex where there can be
they provide a foundation of compassionate,
conflicting moral principles or values meaning
patient-centred care. Emotions allow doctors/
that careful consideration and decision making
healthcare professionals to connect with patients
is key. The most prevalent areas being on patient
in a way that is beyond clinical symptoms as
autonomy, resource allocation, confidentiality and
they can recognise them as individuals with
end of life care4. There are many academic journals
unique experiences, fears and hopes for the
that focus on this field, including the 'Journal of
future- each patient varies greatly and a broad
Medical Ethics' and 'BMC Medical Ethics' each
emotional intelligence allows doctors to adjust
exploring different moral conflicts within medicine
their language, behaviour and approach towards
and the most ethical resolution from which we
diagnosis. Eventually this fosters for trust between
will draw examples to combat why medicine still
the doctor and patient which is vital to long
requires human contact/ decision-making that
term care and effective diagnosis- something
AI cannot provide. Common ethical dilemmas in
that many people may struggle to do so with
medicine are: Informed consent (ensuring patients
AI. For instance, a patient who is embarrassed
understand the risks and benefit of treatment
or ashamed of their condition could be more
options before making decisions); Confidentiality
willing to share crucial information if they feel
(protecting patient privacy and sensitive
heard and respected, allowing for more accurate
information); Resource allocation (deciding how
diagnose and better overall treatment. Moreover,
to distribute limited resources such as ventilators
emotions are essential in ethical-decision
or beds fairly); End of life decisions (addressing
making (an instrumental factor in the practice of
issues like palliative care, withdrawal of treatment
medicine as it is not all about accurate diagnosis).
and euthanasia)- if you have an illness that cannot
Medical dilemmas are complex and require more
be cured, palliative care makes you as comfortable
than simply god knowledge but rather require
as possible by managing your pain and other
sensitivity to suffering, awareness of human
distressing symptoms5. As well as, professional
values and moral judgement in order to navigate
responsibility (balancing obligations to patients,
complexities with integrity and humanity. This
colleagues and the broader community);
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conflicts of interest (navigating situations where personal interests might influence professional judgement); Medical errors (dealing with mistakes and ensuring patient safety); Access to care (addressing disparities in healthcare due to socioeconomic status, geographic location etc.). Journal of Medical Ethics (JME) features articles on ethical aspects of health care relevant to health care professionals, members of clinical ethics committees, medical ethics professionals, researchers and bio scientists, policy makers and patients. It also publishes an associated forum. We can draw an example from here: ‘ The medical decision-making process is currently in flux. Decisions are no longer made entirely at the physician's discretion: patients are becoming more and more involved in the process. There is a great deal of discussion about the ideal of ‘informed consent’, that is that diagnostic and therapeutic decisions should be made based on an interaction between physician and patient. This means that patients are informed about the advantages and disadvantages of a treatment as well as alternatives to the treatment; then, based on this information they can decide whether or not they want to undergo the treatment. However, recent studies show that the realisation of the ideal of ‘shared decision-making’ faces a number of difficulties related to the fact that patients are not provided with complete and accurate information. Using the example of breast cancer screening, this article examines the question of whether, in light of these difficulties, the ideal of informed decision-making is only an illusion or whether concrete steps can be taken towards the realisation of this ideal.’6. This article/ journal then continues to draw on key examples such as breast cancer screening where moral and emotional intelligence is required from human doctors in order for people to be given the most effective care possible by allowing them to make their own decisions based on the information provided. The question remaining: will AI have the capacity to understand the human emotions experienced in difficult situations and adjust its approach towards treatment and care? Even if it were possible to 14
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program into AI, 'The four ethical principles' it is still not certain that AI has the same emotional intelligence as humans to influence different decisions in different scenarios. The four ethical principles are: Autonomy, Beneficence, Non-maleficence and Justice/ Equity (as well as the right to confidentiality - 'the fifth element'7. These are all key in every situation for a doctor (both serious and unserious) and are integrated into medical school prep from the very beginning which begs the next concern of whether use of AI risks deskilling doctors. Overreliance on AI and incorporating AI to university courses could lead to dependence on it and doctors not being as skilled as in the past, or if AI takes
Medicine isn’t just about the diagnosis and treatment of patients/ those who are sick but has the power to influence beliefs and affect many individuals (family and friends of those sick) so human judgement, empathy and patient communication remain essential.
over diagnostics then many doctors may not be trained in this which again deskills them. A final factor closely related to everything said is an interesting example I experienced first hand of whether people trust AI as much as a doctor. Within mental health care, diagnosis varies greatly
of an AI tool within their consultation as it caused
and some people have conditions that may make
them to be anxious especially with the concern that
them more susceptible to not trusting AI. The
it could trigger or exacerbate their delusions- hence
most striking example of this is those diagnosed
AI could most likely never take over this segment of
with schizophrenia who experience delusions
medicine. Therefore, AI still interferes in many ways
(outside of cultural context- key in its diagnosis)
and we must wonder whether people fully trust
even when on the appropriate medication such as
AI with their life- and in the worse cases whether
quetiapine. Many of the patients (all but one) with
it is the doctor or the AI at fault if there were an
this condition did not entertain the idea of the use
error in diagnosis that led to a patient death.
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CONCLUSION Ultimately, AI has the potential to transform and improve healthcare diagnostics and efficiency by being implemented carefully and appropriately into certain roles but, in my opinion, will never fully take over the roles or responsibilities of doctors due to its inability to function as a human does. Medicine isn’t just about the diagnosis and treatment of patients/ those who are sick but has the power to influence beliefs and affect many individuals (family and friends of those sick) so human judgement, empathy and patient communication remain essential. AI will likely reshape and support many aspects of medicine but rather than replacing doctors, it will act as a powerful assistant- enhancing rather than eliminating the human role in healthcare.
REFERENCES 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. 8.
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OpenAI (2025) ChatGPT [online AI language model], conversation with user, 15 June. Available at: https://chatgpt.com/c/684ecd42-29a0-8000be9f-100a68308831 [Accessed: 15 June 2025]. Hajar, R., 2015. History of medicine timeline. Heart Views, 16(1), pp. 43–45. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC4379645/ [Accessed 12 June 2025]. Eske, J., 2020. Auto-brewery syndrome: definition, symptoms and more. Medical News Today, 4 February. Available at: https://www. medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323395#Autobrewery-syndrome [Accessed 12 June 2025]. Ahuja, D., Batra, P., Bhatia, O. & Singh, A.K. (2024) ‘Ethical Dilemmas and Conventionalism in Healthcare: A Scoping Review’, Cureus, 16(9), e69693. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC11490275/ [Accessed: 15 June 2025]. NHS (2025) ‘What end of life care involves’, NHS – Tests and Treatments, 6 April. Available at: https://www.nhs. uk/tests-and-treatments/end-of-life-care/what-itinvolves-and-when-it-starts/ [Accessed: 15 June 2025]. Hope, T. (2010) ‘Virtue, objectivity and the foundations of clinical ethics’, Journal of Medical Ethics, 36(6), pp. 349–352. Available at: https://jme.bmj.com/ content/36/6/349 [Accessed: 15 June 2025]. Picard, O. and Lee, G. (2013) Medical school interviews: a practical guide to help you get that place at medical school. 2nd edn. London: ISC Medical. pp. 64–65. Koncz, A. (2024) ‘4 exciting examples of AI diagnostics already in use’, The Medical Futurist, 30 May. Available at: https://medicalfuturist.com/4-exciting-examples-of-aidiagnostics-already-in-use/ [Accessed: 15 June 2025].
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EXPLORING
LOW-COORDINATE MANGANESE(II)
COMPLEXES
STEM
MAX LERCHSTER
This Original Research in Science (ORIS) project was short-listed for the ILA/ ORIS Celebration Evening.
INTRODUCTION As part of this project I worked on creating and
helps solve the economic and environmental
evaluating catalysts for organic transformations
issues associated with catalysis. This project's
based on manganese with Dr Uzelac’s group
long-term objective was to contribute to more
from the University of Bath. Because it is
sustainable and environmentally friendly chemical
affordable, abundant on Earth, and significantly
processes by synthesising, characterising, and
less poisonous than more conventional precious
assessing manganese complexes' catalytic
metals like palladium or platinum, manganese.
activity. However, there is still a long way
By substituting a more sustainable metal
to go due to the air sensitive nature of this
for rare and dangerous ones, manganese
chemistry making it not yet viable for industry.
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WHY MANGANESE
scale) allows for polar metal–ligand bonds
Manganese is the twelfth most abundant element
and makes Mn–alkyl or Mn–hydrides more
in the Earth’s crust, composing approximately
nucleophilic. This makes Mn(II) organometallic
0.1% by mass. Its abundance, low cost, and
complexes highly reactive toward electrophiles,
relatively small environmental impact make it
including carbonyls, halides, and hydroxides.
a highly attractive and sustainable choice for modern inorganic and organometallic chemistry,
MANGANESE VS MAGNESIUM
particularly in the context of replacing scarce,
Magnesium is a common reagent in chemistry,
expensive, and toxic late transition metals such
often seen in the form of Grignard reagents and
as palladium, platinum, or iridium. Despite
sometimes other organomagnesium complexes,
its abundance, manganese has historically
due to its abundance, low toxicity, and ability
been underutilised in synthetic chemistry, in
to form strong σ-bonds to donor atoms. Its
part because its redox chemistry and bonding
single accessible oxidation state (+2), low
behaviour are more complex than many of the
electronegativity (1.31 pauling), and lack of d orbitals
more “traditional” late transition metals.
results in reactivity that is mostly polarisation effects and ionic bonding
The Mn(II) oxidation state is
rather than covalent or π-back
particularly of interest. With a
bonding interactions.
3d⁵ electronic configuration, Mn²⁺ possesses a half-filled
Manganese (II), while also
d-shell that has good
abundant and sustainable,
thermodynamic stability due to
occupies a unique position
exchange energy maximisation.
between magnesium-like
This half-filled configuration
main group behaviour and
gives Mn(II) a resistance to
the richer reactivity spectrum
changes in oxidation state, it
of transition metals. Like
is therefore less likely to take
Magnesium, Manganese has
part in uncontrolled redox
a pretty low electronegativity
reactions in comparison to
and a stable +2 oxidation
softer, more easily oxidised transition metals.
state, making it able to coordinate nucleophilic
Unlike alkaline earth metals such as magnesium,
alkyl, amide, and hydride ligands. However,
which lack d orbitals, Mn(II) can still preform redox
Mn(II) has a half-filled 3d5 configuration unlike
reactions and π-backbonding when coordinated
magnesium. This allows for limited yet accessible
to suitable ligands. This combination allows Mn(II)
participation of d orbitals in bonding, allowing
to show trends in reactivity similar to alkaline
weak π-backbonding and many coordination
earth metals, while still enabling transition-metal-
geometries that are unavailable to magnesium.
specific pathways such as activation of π-systems. These d orbitals also allow Mn(II) to participate Mn²⁺ has a relatively small ionic radius (97
in redox chemistry, less readily than softer
pm in high-spin configuration), which allows
late transition metals. This means Mn(II)
for tight coordination geometries and better
complexes can potentially change oxidation
orbital overlap with donor atoms. Manganese’s
states during catalysis while still retaining
low electronegativity (1.55 on the Pauling
aspects of main-group-like polar reactivity.
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In essence, magnesium provides a predictable
and unique electronic properties. Their high
platform for polar bond formation but is
basicity, combined with their steric encumbrance,
chemically limited to one redox-inactive mode of
makes them highly effective non-nucleophilic
reactivity, whereas manganese can access both
bases: they readily deprotonate substrates
polar and redox pathways. This dual capability
while avoiding unwanted side reactions.
opens the door to catalytic transformations that are inaccessible to purely main-group
When coordinated to transition metals, amide
systems, while still benefiting from the same
ligands profoundly influence reactivity. This arises
abundance and sustainability arguments that
from their σ-donating and π-donating abilities,
make magnesium chemistry so attractive.
which can both stabilise electron-deficient centres and increase reactivity at the metal. In
LIGAND DESIGN
particular, with Lewis-acidic transition metals, the
The properties of Mn(II) impose strict
ionic contribution to the M–N bond is enhanced,
requirements on ligand design to achieve stable,
strengthening the basicity of the amide and
well-defined complexes. As a hard Lewis acid,
increasing its utility as a reactive ligand.
Mn²⁺ preferentially coordinates to hard Lewis bases, such as amide, and alkyl anion donors.
Low coordination numbers increase the metal’s
Manganese is therefore very oxophilicity, which
Lewis acidity, improving substrate activation
makes Mn(II) species highly susceptible to
and enabling reactions that centres with more
oxidation or ligand exchange in the presence of
coordinated ligands may not be able to preform.
even trace amounts of reactive oxygen species
However, such electron-deficient species require
or water. Therefore careful consideration of
stabilisation to avoid rapid decomposition or
ligand design must be taken to avoid unwanted
oxidation. This stabilisation is normally done
oxidation of the Mn(II) metal centre. Bulky
by using bulky, polydentate ligands, which both
ligands such as In addition, synthesis and
shield the reactive centre sterically and force
handling of Mn(II) complexes requires thorough
conformational rigidity. Importantly, ligand
inert-atmosphere techniques, such as the
systems must balance synthetic accessibility with
glovebox and Schlenk-lines, to prevent hydrolysis
functionality, many uncommon or unique ligands
or oxidative degradation of the target species.
can be expensive or require long syntheses.
These challenges mean that ligand frameworks
A particularly successful design solution
for Mn(II) must not only provide sufficient
is the β-diketiminate (NacNac) ligand, an
electronic donation to stabilise the metal centre
inexpensive, modular, and conformationally
but also offer steric protection against oxidative
stable scaffold. NacNac ligands readily stabilise
degradation. Strongly donating, rigid ligand
low-coordinate, electron-deficient complexes,
scaffolds, particularly those with chelating
allowing access to unusual coordination
amide functionalities, are especially valuable
geometries and oxidation states. Their tunable
for promoting both stability and well-defined
steric and electronic properties (through
reactivity in Mn(II) organometallic chemistry.
variation of the N-substituents) make them highly adaptable to different metal systems.
Bulky amides have long been central to organometallic chemistry because of their straightforward synthesis, predictable reactivity, Synthesis of DippNacNac ligand
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By combining the polar, strongly basic M–N
Lithium has a small ionic radius and high charge
bonds derived from bulky amides with the
density, leading to strongly bound, compact
electron-accepting ability of low-coordinate
coordination geometries with tight ion pairing.
centres, it is possible to design new
This can rigidify the Mn coordination sphere,
biphilic complexes that can interact with
enhance σ-donor interactions from ligands, and
both electrophiles and nucleophiles. This
often increase reactivity toward polar substrates.
dual reactivity increases the number of transformations available to the metal centre.
Sodium and potassium are larger and less polarising, which can loosen metal–metal
BIMETALLIC MANGANESE-ALKALI COMPLEXES
interactions and open up coordination sites
While monometallic Mn(II) complexes
for ligand exchange, increase substrate
already offer a blend of main-group-like and
accessibility, and stabilise more weakly
transition-metal-like reactivity, an even greater
bound donor ligands or intermediates.
on the manganese centre. This can allow
variety of chemical behaviour can be explored when manganese is paired with an alkali metal
The choice of alkali metal also influences the
centre in a well-defined bimetallic architecture. In
aggregation state of the complex in solution
such complexes, the Mn(II) centre typically carries
and the solid state. For example, small alkali
the catalytically active organometallic fragment,
metals often promote dimeric or oligomeric
often alkyl, or amide, while the alkali metal acts as
assemblies via bridging ligands, whereas
a Lewis acidic partner, a counterion, and in many
larger cations more readily form monomeric
cases an active participant in substrate activation.
species. These structural differences can drastically change reactivity profiles, product
The identity of the alkali metal profoundly
selectivity, and catalytic turnover rates.
influences the physical and chemical properties of the bimetallic complex. Alkali metals differ
From a mechanistic perspective, the alkali metal
in ionic radius, polarising power, solvation
can adjust the electron density at the Mn(II)
behaviour, and Lewis acidity, which in turn
centre through electrostatic and inductive
affects the structure, stability, and reactivity
effects, subtly tuning the redox potential and
of the manganese site. For example:
bond activation abilities. Moreover, in some cooperative systems, the alkali metal plays a direct role in substrate activation - such as polarising carbonyl groups or halides prior to Mn-mediated bond formation - thus enabling dual-site catalysis in which both metals actively participate in the reaction coordinate. These features make Mn–alkali metal bimetallic complexes an interesting platform for research on sustainable catalysis. By rationally selecting the alkali metal, change reactivity without changing the core Mn coordination environment, allowing for research of how cation size, hardness, and solvation affect catalytic cycles.
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EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
General Considerations for Air- and Moisture-Sensitive Chemistry All chemistry with manganese complexes needs to be performed using rigorous inert-atmosphere techniques, due to the extreme oxygen- and moisture-sensitivity of Mn(II) precursors and products. Reactions were carried out under an atmosphere of dry argon using a double-manifold Schlenk line or in an glovebox (O₂ and H₂O < 0.1 ppm). Solvents including hexane, diethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran (THF), and dichloromethane were pre-dried over sodium/benzophenone ketyl or calcium hydride and distilled prior to use, then stored under nitrogen. All glassware was left overnight in a base bath and then washed and put into an acid bath after which it was washed with acetone and isopropyl alcohol and left to dry in air before
spectroscopic techniques such as single-crystal
being put in an oven at 150°C to remove
X-ray diffraction (SCXRD) was essential.
any remaining chemicals that could destroy
However, this comes with other problems, as
the sensitive complexes that we make.
suitable crystals had to be grown under inert conditions and preserved until data collection.
Manganese(II) salts are easily oxidised, and small traces of O₂ or H₂O can create high-valent
Crystal Growth
manganese oxides or hydroxides. Similarly,
The growth of single crystals of good enough
NacNac-type ligands are strong bases and
quality for diffraction analysis required careful
are vulnerable to protonolysis by trace water.
solvent removal, often taking several days
Therefore we need a lack of any air and moisture
under inert conditions in the glovebox freezer.
throughout all handling, transfers, and storage.
Once formed, crystals of Mn(II) complexes were easily oxidised upon exposure to air. To
Challenges with Characterisation
mitigate this, crystals were mounted as quickly
Characterisation of manganese(II) complexes has
as possible onto the XRD machine under a
its challenges compared to diamagnetic transition
protective layer of perfluoropolyether (Paratone
metals. The high-spin d⁵ electron configuration
N) oil. The oil layer provided a physical barrier
of Mn(II) results in five unpaired electrons, which
against O₂ and H₂O, preventing degradation
means strong paramagnetism with an effective
during transfer to the diffractometer.
spin quantum number of S = 5/2. This significantly shortens nuclear spin relaxation times (T₁),
Even under this protection, decomposition during
leading to broadened and shifted resonances.
mounting was an issue. Some crystals rapidly
As a result, conventional ¹H and ¹³C NMR
darkened, indicating partial oxidation of the Mn(II)
spectroscopy is not informative for paramagnetic
complexes to higher oxidation states or collapse of
Mn(II) complexes, as signals are broadened
the lattice. Only carefully selected, intact crystals
beyond recognition. Instead, alternative
preserved in oil could be successfully measured.
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INSTRUMENTATION
XRD Machine
X-ray diffraction (XRD): Single-crystal XRD
which generates an intense, monochromatic
was performed on a Rigaku Oxford Diffraction
beam, directed through collimating optics
machine (Mo-Kα radiation, λ = 0.71073 Å).
toward the crystal. As the crystal is rotated,
Crystals were mounted in Paratone N oil
the ordered lattice planes diffract the incident
on. Data was collected at low temperature
radiation according to Bragg’s law, producing
(110 K) to minimise thermal motion.
a series of diffraction spots captured by a sensitive hybrid photon-counting detector.
Single-crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD) was
These diffraction patterns are then indexed and
performed on a Rigaku Oxford Diffraction
integrated by the instrument software to yield a
machine. Suitable crystals were selected under
three-dimensional map of the crystal’s lattice.
a polarising microscope using small loops, which mounted the crystal on a metal pin
The structural refinement process proceeds by
you must ensure secure attachment without
Fourier transformation of the diffraction data
introducing strain or fractures. The pin was then
to generate an initial electron density map.
mounted into the XRD machine, and the crystal
Peaks of high electron density correspond
was visually centred using an on-axis camera
to the positions of atoms within the unit cell,
microscope so that the crystal point of the X-ray
with heavier elements appearing as higher
beam and the instrument’s rotation axes.
numbers. The computer assigns atomic positions based on these peaks, taking into
Once mounted, the goniometer head was aligned
account expected connectivity, chemical
such that the crystal remained in the beam as
composition, and bonding distances. Then the
it rotated through several orientations. The
unit cell is looked at and adjusted if the operator
diffractometer employs a microfocus X-ray source,
thinks the computer made some mistakes.
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Schlenk Lines Air- and moisture-sensitive organometallic
pump. A Dewar is placed under the trap and then
chemistry requires the use of rigorously inert
filled with liquid nitrogen. Once the trap reaches
techniques to exclude oxygen and water, both of
cryogenic temperature, the valve is fully opened
which can rapidly degrade sensitive complexes.
to establish high vacuum throughout the line.
The Schlenk line is the standard laboratory apparatus for this purpose, providing access to
The argon line is then opened. Argon is introduced
alternating high vacuum and inert gas (commonly
from a cylinder through a regulator, and the line
argon or nitrogen) in a controlled manner. The
is flushed by opening the bubbler for a good
system consists of a dual manifold: one connected
amount of time to expel any residual oxygen or
to a high-vacuum pump and cold trap, and the
moisture. The bubbler provides a visual indication
other to an inert gas source, with a series of taps
of gas flow through bubbling of the viscous oil
allowing individual access to either vacuum or gas.
which stops air entering the system while still allowing argon to be flushed out on command
To establish the system, all glass taps are first
in addition it maintains a slight overpressure,
lubricated with a thin layer of high-vacuum
ensuring that ambient air cannot diffuse back into
grease. The taps are inserted into the manifold
the system. Before handling sensitive samples,
joints with a gentle twisting motion to avoid
all transfer tubing is purged by alternating
trapping air bubbles or creating striations
between vacuum and argon (typically ten cycles)
that could compromise the seal. Once closed,
to guarantee an oxygen- and moisture-free
the taps are secured with rubber bands to
environment. Each evacuation should be held
prevent accidental dislodging during use. A
for several seconds to allow the pump to achieve
cold trap, connected between the vacuum
a deep vacuum before reintroducing inert gas.
line and pump, is installed and sealed off to the atmosphere. The vacuum pump is then
When connecting a Schlenk flask, the flask neck
activated and opened to the cold trap segment
is closed with a greased ground-glass joint and
to remove any air from the trap before it is
sealed with a stopper. Therefore we must use
cooled as liquid oxygen is explosive then the
Suba-Seals, a pierceable rubber septum designed
trap is cooled with liquid nitrogen to condense
to exclude air but allow access via syringes or
volatile by-products (such as solvent vapours
cannulas, when transferring in solvents or liquid/
or pump oil backstreaming) and protect the
aqueous reagents. The stopper must be replaced
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by a Suba-Seal quickly to minimize exposure,
The Glovebox
and the flask should always be maintained under
The glovebox maintains an oxygen and water
a positive flow of argon to displace any traces of
free environment <1 ppm of each by continuously
air during the exchange. After using a Suba-Seal
circulating the argon through purification
and once the stopper is reequipped, the flask is
columns. Samples and reagents are transferred
flushed with repeated vacuum-argon cycles to
into the glovebox via antechambers, which
remove any oxygen or moisture in the Schlenk.
can be evacuated and refilled with argon gas to prevent air entering. Inside the glovebox,
Transfers of solvents and reagents are carried
all handling is performed through attached
out using a cannula or syringe (for very small
gloves, allowing weighing, storage of air
amounts). A stainless-steel cannula allows
sensitive chemicals and crystallisation in the
solvent to be transferred by creating a pressure
freezer to be done under inert conditions.
differential: argon gas pressure is applied to the source flask, forcing liquid through the cannula into the receiving vessel, where argon can escape through a needle. For filtration of suspensions, PTFE cannulas fitted with a small filter paper are used, allowing solids to be retained in the original vessel while the solution is transferred under inert atmosphere.
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Inside the glovebox, all handling is performed through attached gloves, allowing weighing, storage of air sensitive chemicals and crystallisation in the freezer to be done under inert conditions.
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(2.0 mmol). The mixture was stirred at room
REACTIONS
temperature, and the formation of the alkyl
Synthesis of MesNacNacH
complex was confirmed by isolation of the product after solvent removal under vacuum. The resulting complex, DippNacNacMn– CH₂SiMe₃, was obtained as a yellow solid. Later a larger-scale reaction was performed to test scalability: MnCl₂ (10 mmol) was combined
2,4,6-trimethylaniline (14.46 g, 15 mL, 120 mmol, 2.0 equiv.) and acetylacetone (4.5 mL, 60 mmol, 1.0 equiv.) were dissolved in ethanol (200 mL). To this was added concentrated HCl (6 mL, 10.18 M, 60 mmol, 1.0 equiv.), and the reaction mixture was heated to reflux at 80 °C for 3 days. After cooling, the solvent was removed in a rotary evaporator. The residue was suspended in hexane (300 mL) and refluxed for 1 h. The solvent was again removed, and the residue was suspended in dichloromethane (300 mL) and washed with saturated aqueous sodium carbonate solution (200 mL). The organic layer was separated in a separating funnel and concentrated in a rotary evaporator to give the crude product, which was washed with cold methanol to yield MesNacNacH as a faintly yellow solid. The MesNacNac ligand was made via acid-catalysed condensation of 2,4,6-trimethylaniline with acetylacetone under reflux for 3 days at 80 °C. This synthetic route worked well, providing the desired ligand in pretty pure form without many side products. The bulky mesityl groups are expected to promote low coordination numbers at the metal centre by suppressing oligomerisation. It also gives a comparison to the DippNacNac ligand.
with LiCH₂SiMe₃ (20 mmol) and DippNacNac (10mmol) in Et₂O (50 mL). The product was obtained in comparable yield, indicating no significant loss of efficiency at higher scale.
Synthesis of Lithium Manganese Bimetallic Butyl Complex with TMEDA
Manganese(II) chloride (1.0 mmol) and TMEDA (1.0 mmol) were combined in Et₂O, n-BuLi (2.0 mmol) was added dropwise, resulting in the formation of a manganese centre bearing four butyl ligands. Two Li–TMEDA fragments coordinated to the butyl substituents, one on either side of the manganese centre. The product was isolated after removal of volatiles under reduced pressure.
Synthesis of DippNacNacMnR Complexes (R = –CH₂SiMe₃)
This reaction is useful because it generates a tetrabutylmanganese(II) complex that serves as a versatile organometallic precursor. The use of n-BuLi introduces strongly basic, reactive butyl groups onto the manganese centre, while TMEDA stabilises the reactive species by coordinating lithium, preventing uncontrolled decomposition. The result is a
Pink Manganese(II) chloride solid (1.0 mmol, 0.126 g) was suspended in Et₂O, and DippNacNac (1.0 mmol) was added, followed by LiCH₂SiMe₃
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well-defined complex, a stable starting material is that allows more exploration of manganese’s reactivity in organometallic chemistry.
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Synthesis of DippNacNacMnR·CH₃CN
Reaction of DippNacNacMnR with 2-Chloropyridine
Manganese(II) chloride (1.0 mmol, 0.126 g) was
Dipp
suspended in Et₂O (20 mL), and
in hexane (10 mL). To this was added
NacNacLi·Et₂O
Dipp
NacNacMnR (0.5 mmol) was dissolved
(1.0 mmol, 0.499 g) was added. After stirring,
2-chloropyridine (0.5 mmol). Within two minutes,
LiCH₂SiMe₃ (0.094 g, 1.0 mmol) was introduced,
the initially clear yellow solution turned to an
followed by CH₃CN (52 μL, 1.0 mmol). The mixture
orange suspension. The product was crystallised
was stirred, affording the donor-stabilised
in the freezer, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction
complex
confirmed the formation of DippNacNacMnR
NacNacMnR·CH₃CN as a yellow
Dipp
solution which was put in the freezer to crystalise.
Sodium Manganese Complex Catalytic Methylation of 1,3-Diphenyl-2-propanone
with a 2-chloropyridine ligand coordinated to the manganese centre. After crystallisation it was X ray diffracted to find the structure the structure was found to be as below:
A manganese sodium catalyst was tested for alkylation activity. Mn complex (0.1 mmol) was combined with 1,3-diphenyl-2-propanone (0.4 mmol, 4 equiv.) and methyl iodide (0.6 mmol, 6 equiv.) in Et₂O. The reaction proceeded to give the methylated product, confirming catalytic activity of the Mn species. This reaction showed the alkylation activity of the manganese–sodium catalyst, providing direct evidence of its catalytic ability. Using 1,3-diphenyl-2-propanone as the substrate and methyl iodide as the alkylating agent, the system successfully produced the methylated product. This result confirms that the Mn complex can facilitate C–C bond formation, showcasing its potential as a base-metal alternative to precious-metal catalysts for alkylation chemistry.
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The reactivity of DippNacNacMn–R towards neutral donor ligands was examined by reaction with 2-chloropyridine in hexane. The initially clear yellow solution rapidly turned orange, and crystals suitable for X-ray diffraction were obtained. The structure revealed coordination of the pyridyl nitrogen atom to the Mn(II) centre, highlighting its Lewis acidic character and ability to engage in donor–acceptor interactions despite steric encumbrance.
Synthesis of DippNacNacMn–Hydride
NacNacMnR·THF (1.0 mmol) was dissolved
Dipp
in hexane, and borane (1.0 mmol). A yellow precipitate formed immediately, identified as DippNacNacMn–H. The hydride complex is stable under inert conditions and can be stored in the glovebox without decomposition.
Mn complex can facilitate C-C bond formation, showcasing its potential as a base-metal alternative to precious-metal catalysts for alkylation chemistry.
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CONCLUSION The research shows how versatile manganese chemistry is and how important ligand design is for stabilising reactive species. It was possible to create low-coordinate Mn complexes with better Lewis acidity and reactivity by using bulky amide and diketiminate ligands like DippNacNac. Well-defined manganese complexes were effectively prepared using a variety of synthetic techniques, such as donor-stabilization. Many of these complexes quickly crystallised, enabling structural characterisation. Furthermore, reactivity analyses demonstrated these systems' capacity to go through important changes including hydride formation and alkylation, and the catalytic methylation of 1,3-diphenyl-2-propanone confirmed their utility. These results demonstrate that selecting the right ligand and precursor can provide base-metal complexes novel
These results demonstrate that selecting the right ligand and precursor can provide base-metal complexes novel reactivity, creating opportunities for additional catalysis and small-molecule activation uses.
reactivity, creating opportunities for additional catalysis and small-molecule activation uses. Even with these developments, there are still a number of difficulties. Strict inert-atmosphere procedures were required due to the sensitivity of many manganese complexes to air and moisture, which made handling and synthesis more difficult. Additionally, certain reactions produced unstable intermediates or competing routes, which complicated separation and characterisation. Furthermore, crystallisation may be unpredictable, and little changes in the environment frequently affected the production of appropriate single crystals. Lastly, even though catalytic activity was seen, the range of reactivity was limited, requiring additional
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Dr Marina Uzelac for allowing me to work on this project, for overseeing my work, and for her essential advice during the process. I also want to express my appreciation to Rebecca Jones and Finlay Sullivan the two PHD students both of them where very knowledgeable, helped me in the lab and patiently explained many of the fundamental concepts as well as many of the more advanced concepts, which allowed me to complete the experimental work successfully. Additionally, I am grateful to Dr Uzelac for lending me Robert H Crabtree's The Organometallic Chemistry of the Transition Metals during the project, which I read in my own time and used as a reference throughout the study. Their assistance and direction were crucial to the development of this project as well as my educational journey.
research to properly evaluate these systems' potential. These difficulties underscore the need for continuing ligand optimisation and the delicate balance between stability and reactivity in low-coordinate transition-metal chemistry.
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HOW ALTRUISM AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR CAN BE EXPLAINED FROM AN EVOLUTIONARY, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL PERSPECTIVE
STEM
JOE MILLAR
This Independent Learning Assignment (ILA) won the RGS 2025 ILA award in the STEM category.
INTRODUCTION Altruism refers to the tendency of social
so, across the human and natural world we see
organisms to display prosocial behaviour
evidence of altruism occurring. Whether it be in
to other individuals at their own detriment,
insect colonies or human civilizations, altruism
or without benefitting themselves. At first,
appears to be an integral part of the global
it appears to be an evolutionary paradox. If
ecosystem. This essay will attempt to explain
anything, selfish behaviour – the opposite of
the evolutionary, psychological, and chemical
prosocial behaviour - would appear to be the
reasons why we see altruism so often in nature.
most certain path towards reproduction. Even www.rgsg.co.uk
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individual lives of those organisms making this a pertinent example of how altruism cannot be simplified into a merely evolutionary issue, there must also be other factors, perhaps nullified artefacts of evolution, driving the altruism we see. Even from a purely evolutionary perspective, Hamilton’s equation has its limitations - in general, it can only be applied to kin selection. Dawkins’ “selfish gene” theory explains this well. Even if we cannot pass on our genes directly, assisting our close relatives - children, siblings, cousins – in successfully reproducing means that portions of In some cases, altruism can be explained by
the genes present in our genome will inevitably
Hamilton’s equation. This states that if r*b>c then
be passed on (Dawkins, 1976). This means that
altruism is, evolutionarily speaking, beneficial for
alleles coding for altruistic behaviour will have
an individual (Hamilton, 1964). In this equation, r
a higher chance of being passed on, and so will
refers to the relatedness of the benefactor to the
increase in frequency (Boehnke, 1991). However,
recipient, b refers to the benefit of the altruistic
when considering all types of altruism, the selfish
action to the recipient and c refers to the cost of
gene, being selfish in nature, would surely select
the altruistic action to the benefactor. An example
away from actions such as the kindness a person
of this equation in action comes from termite
may show towards a stray cat. Therefore, it
colonies. Termites are governed by a strict caste
would be shortsighted to propose that altruism
system. The ‘King’ and ‘Queen’ termites are solely
was solely a result of genetic evolution.
responsible for reproduction, while all other members of the colony, soldiers, and workers,
The presence of factors beyond pure genetics
serve to feed and protect them (Rosin, 2000).
may also be seen by the simple fact that how we
The workers and soldiers, which are typically
feel affects our actions. We are typically more
infertile, sacrifice their own potential offspring to
inclined to help those with whom we have a close
ensure that the genetic code of the colony as a
friendship, irrespective of their genetic similarity.
whole can be passed down to the next generation.
This, however, is possibly explained by the idea
By decreasing the competition for the King and
of reciprocal altruism (Trivers, 1971). People
Queen, termites increase the likelihood of the
have a predisposal to help others if they suspect
perpetuation of the colony, and the foundational
that the favour will be repaid (Speilman et al.,
genotypic sequences that exist within it. In some
2020). Of course, there is the chance that acts
cases, Hamilton’s equation is modified to change
of prosocial behaviour will be betrayed, however,
r to be the relatedness of the kin’s offspring and c
particularly in human society, this has historically
to be the product of the cost to the benefactor’s
been discouraged by punishment systems.
offspring and the relatedness of this offspring to
More generally in nature, failure to reciprocate
the benefactor. This is often a useful modification,
altruistic actions may result in social exclusion
since as with all aspects of evolutionary science,
(Buss, 2004). The chances of a benefactor
it is the likelihood of surviving to pass on genes
committing to reciprocal altruism occurring
that should be considered. Therefore, from an
relies on a cost-benefit-analysis (Dovidio et al,
evolutionary perspective, altruism is almost
2006). If the required cost of the altruistic act is
always a beneficial path for individuals who cannot
relatively low, then the benefactor is more likely
or will not reproduce themselves. Of course,
to commit it. Conversely, if the potential reward
this manner of thinking does not consider the
is high then the benefactor will also be more
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likely to display prosocial behaviour. Arguably the
the largest group of membrane receptors in
idea of reciprocal altruism somewhat betrays the
eukaryotes. GPCRs can bind with a vast host
core definition of altruism – namely that the act
of signalling molecules, however in the case of
should be detrimental to the benefactor. Upon
OXTR, the relatively small protein oxytocin will
first examination the idea of being ‘repaid’ goes
bind, causing an interaction between the OXTR
against this principle. However, the cases in
and a nearby heterotrimeric G protein (Alberts,
which reciprocal altruism can occur are such that
2023). When activated by OXTRs, G proteins will
the return act is not guaranteed. For example,
bind to guanosine triphosphate (GTP) in favour of
giving a shopkeeper money cannot be considered
guanosine diphosphate (GDP). The association of
altruism when there is the guarantee that goods
GTP causes the G protein’s alpha subunit (which
of some form are given to the buyer in return. The
the GTP binds to) to dissociate from the beta and
initial payment is not an act of kindness, but the
gamma subunits. The subunits remain anchored in
initiation of trade. If reciprocation of prosocial
the cell membrane, but do not remain associated
behaviour is present in nature, as it is, then it
with the OXTR. This dissociation allows them to
follows that individuals
move laterally through the
who display altruism
membrane to interact with
(and are therefore more
other membrane bound
likely to benefit from
proteins. Inactive OXTRs
another’s altruism in
(which are not associated
return) have a greater
with OXT) will hydrolyse
likelihood of surviving to
the GTP group associated
reproduce, passing on
with the G protein to GDP,
the alleles that prompted
allowing the G protein to
them towards prosocial
bind with the OXTR again,
behaviour in the first
effectively deactivating
place. This results in
it. When activated, G
altruism being selected
proteins coupled with
for by evolution.
OXTR will activate the enzyme phospholipase C.
Reciprocal altruism is
This enzyme hydrolyses
not the only example of where rewards can drive
intracellular phospholipids to inositol triphosphate
prosocial behaviour. The human body, it would
and diacylglycerol (Roby, 2019). These molecules
appear, is hard-coded to reward kindness – and
will stimulate the intracellular release of calcium
punish cruelty. Oxytocin, the so-called love
ions which, in hypothalamic neurons, will stimulate
hormone, primarily plays a role in childbirth. It
the release of neurotransmitters (Südhof, 2012).
stimulates contractions of the endometrium and the cervix during childbirth (Nagwa, 2025) as well as triggering the ‘let down’ reflex in breastfeeding to release the mother’s milk (Baron-Cohen, 2025). However, oxytocin is also linked to making us more trusting, generous and friendly. Oxytocin is a nonapeptide, consisting of a ring of six amino acids with a tail of a further three amino acids. The oxytocin receptor (OXTR), found on the cell surface membrane, is a G
Individuals who display altruism (and are therefore more likely to benefit from another’s altruism in return) have a greater likelihood of surviving to reproduce.
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The ultimate effect of oxytocin, when targeting
response, causing an unpleasant arousal for the
OXTRs in the hypothalamus, is to cause feelings
observer. Cortisol is a glucocorticoid secreted
of intimacy, friendship and comfort. A study
from the adrenal gland (Burkitt, 2009). Cortisol, or
by psychologists Pederson and Prange (1979)
it’s medical equivalent hydrocortisone, is detected
found that injection of oxytocin into rats brought
by two distinct types of receptors, glucocorticoid
on full maternal affection from foster parents
receptors (GR) and mineralocorticoid receptors
towards adopted pups. Interestingly, studies
(MR). The effect of cortisol on the brain is to
also suggest that benefitting from prosocial
increase cognition (Hedayat et al, 2019). Cortisol
behaviour will also cause an increase in oxytocin
favours a more extroverted state, which can lead
levels. Parker and Nemeroff (2021) reported that
to feelings of stress and discomfort, giving cortisol
lower concentrations of oxytocin were found
its reputation as the “stress hormone”. When in a
in breastfeeding women with an experience of
stressful situation, the adrenal gland will secrete
childhood abuse. This suggests that as well as
increased amounts of cortisol. When associated
being passed on genetically, the environments
with cortisol, GRs will shuttle from the cytoplasm
we grow up in also have a long term impact
to the nucleus of their cell. At the nucleus, it
on our oxytocin levels, and possibly therefore
will up- or down-regulate the transcription rate
our inclination towards altruistic behaviour.
of glucocorticoid responsive genes (Nicolaides
Oxytocin is but one example of many hormones
et al., 2020). Glucocorticoid responsive genes
which stimulate feelings of happiness, love,
include PERIOD genes. These genes are found
or comfort. The secretion of these hormones
in the X-chromosome and play a crucial role
is one of the chemical factors with which our
in regulating the molecular circadian rhythm
bodies encourage altruistic behaviour. This
(Kwak et al, 2024). The circadian rhythm defines
encouragement will be a derivative of evolution,
our sleep cycle, body temperature, mood and
since altruism, to a certain extent, is beneficial
metabolism (Fagiani, 2022). As a result, molecular
when considering the chances of reproduction.
changes to it can have widespread impacts. In general, cortisone will increase our drive to
While helping someone may release ‘rewarding’
be active, which, in a situation where altruism
hormones such as oxytocin, this is not the only
is an option, may drive us towards prosocial
chemical driver of prosocial behaviour. Seeing
actions. Of course, in triggering a 'stressful'
someone in pain or discomfort can release
emotional response, the release of cortisol also
hormones such as cortisol to activate a stress
discourages letting someone else remain in pain.
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While there are plenty of chemical and
would wait for someone else to act first. If all
evolutionary factors driving prosocial behaviour
thirty-eight bystanders do this, it of course
from social organisms, we still see examples of
results in no one displaying altruistic behaviour,
antisocial, selfish behaviour across nature. While
with each individual waiting for someone else
actively selfish acts, for example male bears
to act first. The case of Kitty Genovese shows
killing cubs for food, and to promote oestrus in
how, despite the presence of multiple factors
their mother (Frederick, 2010), can be explained
driving individuals towards altruistic behaviour,
by an inherent evolutionary drive of all life for
the nature of humans as social organisms
self-preservation at least as far as reproduction.
sometimes prompts antisocial behaviour over
However, in some cases a lack of prosocial
prosocial behaviour, occasionally to tragic ends.
behaviour is shown through a lack of action. One of the explanations for this lack of altruism is the
CONCLUSION
bystander affect. Following a case in which Kitty
To conclude, altruism, despite in theory being
Genovese was brutally attacked and killed in front
detrimental to the benefactor, can be beneficial
of thirty-eight innocent bystanders, who were free
to their genetic lineage in the long run. This
to help but didn’t, the idea of the bystander affect
is since, while the individual benefactor may
was born (Darley, 1968). One explanation for this
suffer, their offspring, or the offspring of their
phenomenon has been explained already. The
kin, can still benefit. Alternatively, altruism can
principles of reciprocal altruism suggest that if
be beneficial to the benefactor themselves due
the potential cost were higher than the perceived
to prosocial behaviour being reciprocated by
reward no one would help. But in this case, without
its recipients. This has led to chemical drivers
other factors, each of the 38 people would be right
such as oxytocin and cortisol being selected
to assume that the other 37 bystanders would help
for through evolution. While in some cases
to overcome the attacker, making it a relatively
the nature of social organisms may inhibit
low risk option to help, particularly considering
the expression of prosocial behaviour, social
that a life would certainly be lost if they didn’t. The
behaviour will often manifest as prosocial
main factor inhibiting prosocial behaviour in this
behaviour rather than antisocial behaviour.
scenario is pluralistic ignorance. This phenomenon is grounded on the assumption of individuals that one of the other bystanders is more qualified to firstly identify that the situation at hand requires response, and secondly to action the necessary response. A consequence of this is that, strangely, the more people present at a situation, the less likely any of them are to display prosocial behaviour, since the likelihood of someone else present being better qualified to approach the situation are increased. Another driver of pluralistic ignorance is the human tendency to try to fit in. The social nature of humans means
The nature of humans as social organisms sometimes prompts antisocial behaviour over prosocial behaviour, occasionally to tragic ends.
that, where possible, people will copy the actions of those around them. This means that, in the example of Kitty Genovese, the bystanders
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.
Alberts, B., Bray, D, Hopkin, K., et al. (2014), Essential cell biology (4). W.W. Norton & Company 2. Baron-Cohen, K.L. (2025), Oxytocin system of breastfeeding affected in mothers with postnatal depression. Available at: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ news/2025/mar/oxytocin-system-breastfeedingaffected-mothers-postnatal-depression. 3. Boehnke, M. (1991), Allele frequency estimation from data on relatives (1), PMC. Available at: https:// pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1682747/ 4. Burkitt, J. M. (2009), Small animal critical care medicine (75). Elsevier. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/abs/pii/B978141602591710075X. 5. Buss, D. M. (2004), Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson. 6. Darley, J. M., Latane, B. (1968) Bystander intervention in Emergencies: Diffusion of Responsibility (8). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0025589. 7. Dawkins, R. (1976). The Selfish Gene. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 8. Dovidio, J. F., Piliavin, J. A., Schroeder, D. A., Penner, L. (2006). The social psychology of prosocial behavior. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. 9. Fagiani, F., Di Marino, D., Romagnoli, A. et al. (2022) Molecular regulations of circadian rhythm and implications for physiology and diseases (7) Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-022-00899-y. 10. Frederick, C., Kyes, R., Hunt, K., et al. (2010), Methods of estrus detection and correlates of the reproductive cycle of the sun-bear (Helarctos malaynus) (74) Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/abs/pii/S0093691X10002645. 11. Hamilton, W. D. (1964), The genetical evolution of social behaviour (7). Elsevier. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/abs/pii/0022519364900384. 12. Hedayat, K. M., Lapraz, J. (2019) The Theory of Endobiogeny (2). Academic Press. 13. Kwak J. S., León-Tapia, M. Á., Diblasi, C. et al. (2024) Functional and regulatory diversification of Period genes responsible for circadian rhythm in vertebrates (14). Oxford University Press. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/ g3journal/article/14/10/jkae162/7717306.
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14. Nagwa. (2022). Recalling the Role of Oxytocin in Childbirth. Available at: https://www. nagwa.com/en/videos/579184195428/. 15. Nicolaides, N. C., Chrousos, G., Kino, T. (2020) Glucocorticoid Receptor. National Library of Medicine. Available at: https://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279171/. 16. Parker, J., Nemeroff, C. B. (2021), Stress: Genetics, Epigenetics and Genomics (4), Academic Press. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/abs/pii/B9780128131565000066. 17. Pedersen C.A., Prange A.J. (1979) Induction of maternal behavior in virgin rats after intracerebroventricular administration of oxytocin. Available at: https:// www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.76.12.6661. 18. Roby, K. F. (2019) Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences, Elsevier. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/abs/pii/B9780128012383971976. 19. Rosin, Y. (2000), Diversity and Evolution of Caste Patterns. Available at: https://doi. org/10.1007/978-94-017-3223-9_5 20. Speilman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., Lovett, M. D. (2020). Psychology 2e. Rice University: OpenStax. Available at: https://assets.openstax.org/oscms-prodcms/ media/documents/Psychology2e_WEB.pdf. 21. Südhof T. C. (2012), Calcium Control of Neurotransmitter Release (1), National Library of Medicine. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3249630. 22. Trivers, R. L. (1971), The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism (46), The University of Chicago Press. Available at: https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/images/ uploads/Trivers-EvolutionReciprocalAltruism.pdf.
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TEMPORAL DISCRIMINATION IN
BOMBUS TERRESTRIS
(BUMBLEBEES)
STEM
WILL MORROW
This Original Research in Science (ORIS) project was short-listed for the ILA/ ORIS Celebration Evening.
INTRODUCTION At the Queen Mary University of London, I worked
before leading onto experiments concerning
with one of Professor Lars Chittka’s postgraduate
‘order’ discrimination. In short, the ‘duration’
groups over a 3-week period studying bumblebees.
experiments use ‘long’ flashing lights against ‘short’ flashes and the ‘order’ experiments use
The overarching aim of the experiment is to
blue and green lights in different sequences
determine whether bumblebees are able to
(e.g. blue-green or green-blue). With post-grad
distinguish between different patterns of light, to
Alexander Davidson, I had completed an
test their ability to perceive ‘duration’ and ‘order’.
experiment on ‘duration’ discrimination from
Firstly, studies on ‘duration’ discrimination are
start to finish, to see if bumblebees could
carried out to validate the apparatus at hand,
distinguish long flashing lights from short ones.
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OVERVIEW The bumblebees will be kept in a hive box that is connected to two arenas, one for the ‘exposure’ phase and the other for ‘testing’. During the exposure phase, the bees will be presented with a choice between a sugar solution and a quinine solution. The sugar solution acts as a reward whilst the quinine solution (which bees are deterred by the taste of) acts as a punishment. After ‘exposure’, singular bees will be tested in the ‘testing’ arena to see if they prefer a certain pattern of light, after having been conditioned to associate one with a reward and the other with a punishment. Previously, the team had done a study where
-80°C. It was then time to transfer a new colony
the short flashing lights were rewarded with
into a fresh hive box. It is important that this is
sugar sol^ and the long flashing lights punished
done in the dark with the use of red light, as this
with quinine sol^. This time I helped them carry
way the bees will not fly as they cannot see (red
out the opposite experiment where the long
light is not in the visual spectrum of bees).
flashing lights were the ‘rewarded’ ones and the short flashing lights were the ‘punished’ ones.
After prepping the hive box by bunging up the holes between compartments and adding cat
THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCESS
Preparation
litter to one side, I then began moving bees from the storage box into the hive box under red light.
The bees that were currently in the hive box were
I used closed tweezers and pointed them in front
the same ones that were used in the previous
of the bees, so they would grab onto the tweezers,
‘duration’ experiment; therefore they had already
and I could shake them off into the hive box. It is
been conditioned so it would be unfair to use
also important to try and remove the queen first,
them again in this
she is easily identifiable because of her relatively
opposing experiment.
huge size. This prevents the queen’s alarm/
First thing first we had
stress pheromones from reaching others in the
to remove the old bees
colony during the transfer. This means trapping
and replace them with
the queen in a separate cup and not placing
new ones, which had
her into the hive box at first. Once all bees have
not been previously experimented on. This meant that the old bees had to be euthanised, because releasing them back into the nature may pose threat to wild bees as the experimental bees may out compete them as they have been trained to feed. This was done by putting the hive box into a freezer of
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been moved into the ‘outside’ compartment, use a spoon and dig up the brood from their previous box and place it into the other compartment of the box. This is so they can still rear their brood and survive as a colony. Then place the queen
Testing Arena
by herself into the brood compartment and wait
Exposure Arena
to let her calm so her pheromone production dies down. Unplug the bung connecting the
Cylinders with Feeders and Lights
compartments and place a cover over the brood compartment so that it remains in the dark whilst the ‘outside’ cat litter compartment stays lighted. Move this hive from the ‘transfer’ room to the experimental room where the apparatus is. Place it so that the box aligns with the tunnels connecting to the arenas. The exposure arena Hive Box
is then cleaned out by removing the bees’ waste
Tunnels
and wiping down the surfaces with 70% ethanol to remove chemical cues left by the previous bees. Ethanol solutions rather than soaps are used to clean because they aren’t scented. When working with bees, this can be very important as they are sensitive to these scents and they may
THE APPARATUS
disturb the bees from their foraging trips. To begin,
The walls of the arenas are covered in random pink
prepare new feeders with 10% sucrose solution so
patterns to help the bees orientate themselves.
the bees can go into the arena to feed, allowing them to familiarise themselves with the new
REARING CONDITIONS
surroundings. Additionally, give the bees a cap full
The bees are kept in a dim lit room that has a
of pollen granules into the brood compartment
temperature of around 25-26°C. Due to the lack of
so they can continue to nourish their larvae. Once
light, the bees tend not to fly, so it makes it easier
everything is sealed, the bung at the front of the
to deal with them, e.g. moving them out the arena.
hive box and the white plastic doors in the tunnels can be removed so the bees have access to the
Every weekend, give the bees two full caps of
exposure arena, where the feeders are situated.
pollen granules into the brood compartment and 3 full feeders in the exposure arena. Remember, it is important that 10% sucrose is used here rather than the 20% during exposure, so there is no association to be made. This should keep them nourished whilst there is no exposure period.
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EXPOSURE PHASE
position of the different feeders will be constantly
This phase allows the bees to experience
changing. There are two rotating platforms, and
foraging rewarding sucrose solutions from
each will support a cylinder holding one sucrose
feeders lit with long flashing lights whilst also
feeder and one quinine feeder. Each cylinder
encountering quinine solutions (punishment)
structure contains an Arduino R4 chip that is
from feeders lit with short flashing lights.
connected to two NeoPixel Jewel 7 LED disc lights. The Arduino and battery will be hidden
To begin setting up the exposure phase, remove
inside the cylinder. On top of the cylinder there
all bees from the arena either by luring them back
is a foam wall. The wiring for the LEDs run inside
through the tunnels with a UV torch or by cupping
the wall up to the lights dangling at the top on
them and placing them back into the hive. UV
either side. One light will have long flashes and
light helps bees find food like nectar and pollen in
the other with short flashes. For the bees to
flowers, so it is not surprising that they will have
be able to clearly differentiate the long flashes
an attraction towards it. However, it amazed me
from the short, it was found that the different
how some bees almost seemed to be involuntarily
durations must have a 1:5 ratio to be best suitable.
pulled by the UV light from the torch. I would
Therefore, the long flashes will be 2.5secs
guess that such a strong source of UV light may
on/2.5secs off, and the short flashes 0.5secs
trigger some sort of reflex response within them.
on/0.5secs off. These sequences balance so they produce the same total durations of light
Clear plastic column feeders will be used as the
after every 5 second period, meaning there is no
sources for the sucrose and quinine solutions.
bias towards one sequence producing more light
It is important that the bees do not form any
than the other. Plastic films are cut out to sit on
relations between the position of the feeders
the floors of the cylinders, to make cleaning any
with the solutions, as this would be a variable
dirt or chemical cues left by the bees easier.
that will affect the bees’ decision making during the test phase. So, the feeders will be placed on
To avoid the bees making associations with
rotating platforms within the arena, meaning the
the feeding solutions outside of ‘exposure’ time with the ‘rewarding’ solutions presented during ‘exposure’ a different concentration of 20% sucrose solution will be used for exposure (unlike the 10% sucrose sol^ to feed them whilst the exposure period doesn’t take place). This helps to avoid bias as the bees will hopefully only associate the 20% sucrose
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Each bee will have a specific QR code stuck to their thorax (on their ‘back’), and as they pass by the camera, a sequence of codes will translate the QR to a specific number whilst recording the date and time of when the frame was captured.
solutions with the flashing feeders (and the 10% sucrose sol^ for only feeding, which takes place in clear/ ‘non-flashing’ glass feeders). Turn on the two rotating platforms that sit beneath
Above the transparent tunnel connecting the
the arena floor. It is measured so that when the
hive box to the exposure arena is a camera
‘exposure’ cylinders sit on the platforms, the arena
positioned near the entrance to the arena. This
floor will sit flush with the cylinder floor. Placing
camera points downwards into the tunnel and
the cylinders onto the rotators can sometimes be
is able to capture passing bees. The purpose
quite fiddly, because they need to be positioned
is to gauge which bees are more frequently
accurately in the middle for constant smooth
entering the arena and therefore likely to have
rotation. Once the cylinders are successfully
been exposed to the stimulus more than others.
revolving and the flashing lights are switched
This data would take a rather long time to record
on, fill two column feeders with 20% sucrose
manually, so an automatic system involving
and two with 12% quinine. Try to fill the feeders
the use of QR codes was implemented. Each
with the same volume of solution to help keep
bee will have a specific QR code stuck to their
as many variables controlled as possible. Gently
thorax (on their ‘back’), and as they pass by the
place one sucrose feeder on each of the cylinders
camera, a sequence of codes will translate the
underneath the long flashing lights. Do the same
QR to a specific number whilst recording the
for the quinine feeders but this time under the
date and time of when the frame was captured.
short flashing lights. The feeders on each cylinder should face opposite directions to each other when viewed from above, because this means they will face the same way on each side of the wall during rotation. One cylinder spins anticlockwise whilst the other spins clockwise. This removes any movement bias. The cylinders are positioned near the entrance to the arena to make it easier for the bees to interact with and to help expose as many bees as possible to the stimuli. Lastly, tape the lights onto the tops of the feeders so the light gets dispersed through the plastic columns. It is harder for bees to see very directional light, similar to that produced by LEDs, so it is important the plastic columns can disperse the lights for the bees to be able to experience the stimuli.
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The camera is set to be black and white and has
the QR codes with colours to make a key that
very high contrast to aid clarity when capturing
would help keep track which day certain bees were
QR codes. The first set of code on python
marked. However, it turned out that the different
controls the camera’s settings. Instead of a video
tones of highlighter colours meant that some QR
recording, the code makes the camera take
codes couldn’t always be detected, because it
pictures every 0.1 seconds and sends the frames
was only possible to perfect the parameters of
to a certain file. The other set of code on MATLAB
the camera to a certain tone of colour. Although
retrieves the frames from the file and detects
keeping track of the dates that bees were marked
for QR codes to translate into recordable data.
would help confirm the time they have been
This produces a very large datasheet. Both of
actively recorded during exposure, the QR data
these codes must only run during the exposure
actually makes it unnecessary. This is because
phase when the lights have been set up.
with the data, we can see how many times they have been captured by the camera and this would
Tag the bees with QR codes in the same way as
give a rough idea as to how many times they enter
with numbered tags. The QR codes are printed
the exposure arena – experiencing the stimuli.
onto a shiny card and the individual codes are small enough to fit through the grid squares
Slide the acrylic lid to access the arena. Using a
on marking cages. (However, just after the
marking cage, cup a bee walking along the arena
experiment, slightly larger QR codes were printed
floor. With a plastic square, trap the bee in the
to try and improve the consistency of successful
marking cage and lift it out the arena. Quickly
QR captures – because this would be easier for the
switch the plastic square with a sponge plunger.
camera to detect). Originally, we would highlight
This can be repeated multiple times to have a batch ready for tagging. With one of the bees, try to get their back facing upwards into the grid on the marking cage and aim to align their thorax with a square in the grid. Swiftly push the plunger up and squish the bee to hold them in place, the thorax should be nicely positioned in a grid square. Using a toothpick, gently brush the thorax with a little water then apply some super glue. The toothpick can now also be used to stick
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There are some inaccuracies that may occur when using these QR codes. For example, a bee could sit under the camera and be captured for many frames without even entering the exposure arena. Using the data, we would only assume that the many frames it was captured for corresponded to the bee having lots of time in ‘exposure’, when in reality it didn’t. Additionally, the tags can sometime get dirt on them which interferes with the QR, resulting in the inability to capture any frames for that specific bee. Of course, sometimes a perfectly normal tag may also just not get detected in passing. Once the stimuli are set up and all the code is running, the ‘exposure’ can now be left ongoing the QR code onto the bee’s thorax. Apply some
for the rest of the day. Towards the end of the
pressure and wait for the QR to stick. The tag
day (~5pm) ‘exposure’ is stopped, the cylinders
should now remain on the thorax when releasing
and feeders can be taken out to allow batteries
the plunge and letting the bee free to move again.
to charge and for surfaces to be cleaned.
In the early stage, it is possible to see the bee try
Fresh solutions will be used in the feeders the
and remove the tag from itself using its legs and
following morning when exposure shall begin
beating its wings. Eventually they get used to it.
again. The bees don’t feed overnight so there is no need to put in feeders for them in between
To obtain data that would suggest how much
the exposure periods during the day. In total,
exposure a specific bee has had to the stimuli,
the ‘exposure’ phase will last for 2 weeks, giving
two other strings of code are used. The first is
the bees enough time to hopefully develop a
a shorter version of one of the codes that run
positive association with the long flashing lights.
constantly during ‘exposure’, translating QR codes into meaningful data. It requires the input of a frame of a specific bee with a clear QR tag. It will then show the specific number that this QR refers to. The other string of code can then use the input of this specific number and retrieve (from the large output datasheet) how many frames this number was captured for under the camera during exposure. If for example it showed that a certain bee was only captured for 3 frames over a two-week period of exposure, it wouldn’t be very reliable using the bee for ‘testing’ – as it hasn’t been recorded to have had much exposure to the stimuli at all and therefore wouldn’t be expected to provide a reliable preference for the rewarded light pattern. Whereas a bee with a QR that has been captured for 1000 times, could be expected to provide much more reliable results. www.rgsg.co.uk
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TEST PHASE Once the bees have been sufficiently exposed to the stimuli of flashing lights associated with their respective solutions, it was time to put their experience to the test. The testing arena is slightly different to the exposure arena. The dimensions and materials of the arena are all the same, the only changes are the positions of the rotating cylinders and the lights on each one. Rather than the cylinders being placed near the entrance to the arena, they are positioned towards the back. This allows the bees to take a longer approach and give time to make their decision. Additionally, instead of each cylinder having one short and one long flashing light, one
The plastic doors in the tunnels can be used to
of the cylinders has both long flashing and the
isolate a few potential test bees. This time, open
other cylinder both short flashing. This ensures
up the door into the tunnel leading to the testing
the two different flashing patterns can always
arena. Two other doors further along the tunnel
be viewed by the bee and not be hidden by the
create a compartment that can trap singular bees.
foam wall during rotation. Also, all feeders are
Over this compartment is another camera. By
filled with distilled water so the bees cannot base
recording videos from this camera, clear frames
their decision on any scents or other potential
of QR codes can be manually captured and run
cues caused by the sugar and quinine solutions.
through the code that translates it into a number. Another string of code can use the input of this number and refer it to the number of frames it was captured (using data stored in the huge output file). This will help decide whether or not to use the current contained bee in testing.
Testing Procedure The bees have to complete 5 trials where they decide between the long and short flashing feeders. From entering the testing arena, each bee has 3 minutes to make a decision, otherwise the trial is terminated. A decision is counted when a bee approaches the feeder and samples the distilled water – this can be seen when they touch the liquid with their antennae. If the bee fails to make a decision three times in a row (takes longer than 3 minutes each trial), then that bee is discarded from the test. A total of 20 different bees will need to complete 5 successful trials where they make a decision.
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RESULTS Some bees only needed a total of 5 trials to
The details and results for each trial during the
make their 5 decisions, but others took more.
test was recorded in an excel spreadsheet. In total,
A number of bees didn’t make any choices and
there were 40 choices for ‘slow’ (the rewarded
were removed from the test, so in total more
pattern), 60 choices for ‘fast’ (the punished
than 20 bees were tested overall. Between each
pattern) and 17 ‘no choices’. Immediately, we
trial, the surfaces of the arena and cylinders
can see that the bees didn’t seem to develop a
had to be wiped with ethanol to remove any
positive association with the slow flashing lights.
chemical cues that may affect the bee’s next
In fact, there is no significant difference between
decision. The positions of the two cylinders
the frequency of choices for slow versus fast. No
would be swapped in a pseudo random order
preference for either light pattern was shown.
between left and right, to try and remove bias. The latency of the bees’ decisions were also
However, from the previous experiment
recorded. After a bee had been used in testing, it
when ‘fast’ was rewarded, a much higher
had to be placed in a compartment of the tunnel
proportion of bees chose ‘fast’ than this
isolated from other bees so no communication
experiment when ‘slow’ was rewarded.
was possible. Every trial was recorded by an overhead camera filming the testing arena.
This graph shows the comparison between the frequency bees chose the ‘fast’ light pattern in the first experiment when ‘fast’ was rewarded (purple) versus the second when ‘slow’ was rewarded (green). The points are the means of the fast and slow choices starting from the first choice bees made to their fifth. (y-axis has unit %).
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CONCLUSION Following from this, Alex (the postgrad working on
The pink line shows most bees chose ‘fast’
this) wishes to carry out an experiment to test if
to begin with, but as they found they weren’t
the bees have a natural preference for the ‘short’
getting rewarded the frequency drops. Once
light pattern over the ‘long’. The results from this
figuring that the ‘slow’ was also not rewarding,
might help explain why ‘slow’ has always been
the ‘fast’ choices increase again. However this
chosen more frequently in the past experiments.
is just another idea, no test has been conducted to show evidence of this within our apparatus.
Finally, another thought to bear in mind is that the bee partakes in these trials one after the
To conclude, the bumblebees did not show a
other. The bee may initially decide to sample
significant preference for the rewarded light
from the ‘rewarded’ light pattern, however this
pattern and they even sampled the ‘short’
time it only finds water. Therefore, the following
light more frequently. Further experiments
trial it may choose to sample from the other
must be carried out to understand why this is.
light pattern, in hope that this different stimulus
Importantly, because the bees did not succeed
will provide a ‘reward’. The bees may have
in the experiment doesn’t mean that they
foraging strategies that come into play in these
are unable to discriminate between different
experiments, which can complicate testing
light patterns, but it may just mean that the
their ability for temporal discrimination. This
experimental procedure and apparatus is
can be seen by the trends in the graph above.
inadequate in order to show that they can.
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MODELLING ACOUSTIC SCATTERING VIA
FRACTAL MESH DECOMPOSITION
STEM
YUVAN RAJA
This Original Research in Science (ORIS) project won the RGS 2025 ORIS award.
INTRODUCTION In this project I develop a variety of strategies
on fractal domains. The task of performing
for code that produces fractal meshes for
numerical integrals on fractal domains is an
Koch Snowflake and Heighway Dragon curves.
area of interest, as evaluating these integrals
These meshes are created so that the mesh
is a key challenge in finding the solutions of
components can represent infinitesimal elements
Integral Equations on fractal domains, such as
when approximating numerical integrals
those governing acoustic wave scattering.
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Coastline of Britain(c) (rspatial.org, n.d.)
Mandelbrot set (www.mathsisfun.com, n.d.)
Sierpinski Triangle Martinez-Cruzetal, 2024) Figure 1: Examples of fractals.
BACKGROUND Fractals To pin down a definition on what exactly a
translation, rotation and dilation with scale fator −1
fractal is, is a hard task. Many mathematicians
< s < 1. We can then consider an IFS, which is a set
have tried to define the term but the resulting
of contraction mappings
definitions all have differing degrees of
operator F, associated with this IFS is defined as
strictness on what properties a fractal should
the topological closure of the union of
have. As such the term fractal can describe a
contractions, so for A ⊂ X
whole host of phenomena, but the essence of the concept is that a fractal is an object
. The Hutchinson
which contains detail on every length-scale. One common way to generate objects with this fractal property is to exploit self-similarity, the idea
Conceptually, we can think of the IFS
that an object can contain smaller copies of itself.
as representing multiple contractions
This motivates two methods of generating fractals,
all applied simultaneously on a set.
prefractal approximation and IFS attraction. The fractal set S is then a non-empty compact set
IFS Attractors
which is fixed under the Hutchinson operator F.
One method of producing a fractal is via collecting
This is because we can think of this fractal S, as
together contraction map-pings to form iterated
being composed of N smaller copies of itself, each
function systems (IFSs). A contraction mapping is
given by one of the contractions fᵢ. So S satisfies
a transformation f : X → X, satisfying dX (f (x), f (y)) < dX (x, y), where X is a metric space with metric dX, (Pollicott, 2022). Common examples of contraction mappings include geometric transformations on X = ℝ2 that are composed of 46
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Prefractal Approximation
The Koch Snowflake
To produce a fractal via prefractal approximation,
The Koch Snowflake is the unique fractal
we can again consider an IFS with associated
associated with IFS given by
Hutchinson operator F. However, instead of directly seeking a solution of F(S) = S, we can instead build up a solution by repeatedly applying F , starting from an initial non-empty compact set S0. Then,
The limit is taken with respect to the Hausdorff metric, which describes how close two sets are to each other according to
Figure 4: Koch Snowflake bordered by 3 Koch curves (larryriddle.agnesscott.org, n.d.) Figure 2: Sierpinski triangle showing 3 contraction mappings (larryrid-dle.agnesscott.org, n.d.)
(larryriddle.agnesscott.org, n.d.)
The Koch snowflake is the primary fractal which I shall be investigating throughout my ORIS Figure 3: Three sequences of prefractal approximation to the Sierpinski triangle, with different initial sets S0 (larryriddle.agnesscott.org, n.d.)
project, as an example of a self-similar fractal. It is interesting to remark that the Koch snowflake is two dimensional, but it’s boundary is composed of three Koch curves which are
≈ 1.26−
The contraction mapping theorem
dimensional curves. The other example fractal that
guarantees equivalence between the IFS
I use to illustrate ideas during this project is the
Attractor and Prefractal Approximation
Heighway dragon, which is the attractor of a
approaches (Pollicott, 2022).
two-function IFS.
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Acoustic Equation
Crucially, in order to approximate solutions
The theory of acoustic propagation and scattering
to these acoustic equations, it will be
is well-studied, and the fundamental equations that govern the dynamics of a sound wave are no different, even when we consider scattering off of a fractal surface (Caetano et al., 2024). In the same way in which Netwon’s second law F = ma might allow someone to setup the equations governing any particular mechanical system, we can use the following general equations to construct a particular equation which can be solved to determine the scattered waveform. These equations are the Helmholtz equation, which describes the oscillatory nature of a wave:
necessary to approximate the value of integrals defined across fractal domains.
Numerical Integration As we have seen, the challenging step in approximating solutions of acoustic equations on fractal domains is the necessity to perform numerical integration across non-standard fractal domains. To approximate typical Riemann integrals on real domains, a method such as the midpoint rule is used, where a continuous function is replaced which a function that it is constant along small intervals of length δx. This method works well, because
This idea can be reused even with a fractal domain, but now it is not possible to split the domain up into small rectangles, due to the irrational dimension of the boundary. Instead, we can split the domain into smaller copies of the fractal itself. Thus the primary aim of my project is to develop a program to create Figure 5: Heighway dragon showing two smaller copies (larryriddle.agnesscott.org, n.d.)
The Sommerfeld condition, which asserts that the direction of energy flow is from source to sink, rather than the opposite:
Finally, there are scattering conditions which describe how waves scatter off a surface.
Figure 6: First 4 Prefractal Approximations of the Koch Curve, adapted from (larryriddle.agnesscott.org, n.d.)
The exact form of the scattering condition depends on the shape of the scattering surface, but it takes the form of an equation involving the acoustic potential S defined via a certain integral across the fractal surface ⌜
meshes of Koch snowflakes to represent infinitesimal elements partitioning a larger snowflake. They should be meshed together in ways that will simplify the process of numerically solving differential and integral equations.
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SOLUTION DEVELOPMENT Storing and Drawing Snowflakes In order to work with snowflakes using code, we
There are a few overarching ideas that guide
must consider the necessary parameters that
which choices we should make. Recall that
define a snowflake. To determine the size and
the purpose of the mesh is to allow functions to
position, we can use the coordinates of the centre,
be approximated as
and the length of the diameter. There are two relevant orientations that a snowflake might be in, for a given mesh. They differ by a rotation of π/6 radians, or, equivalently reflection about y = 𝑥. When we then come to draw the snowflakes
that comprise a mesh, it is impossible to draw out the fractals exactly, as the boundary of the fractal is 1.26... dimensional. Therefore
Subprogram
we instead choose to draw the 4 prefractal th
approximant, as seen in Figure 6.
IFS Decomposition The key idea that allows us to generate meshes, is that the Iterated Function System encodes the relevant information to partition a fractal into smaller copies of itself. For example, the IFS of a Koch Snowflake describes the partition of a Koch Snowflake into 7 smaller copies, as can be seen in Figure 7. Then, in order to create a mesh composed of many smaller Koch snowflake tiles, we can repeatedly apply this IFS decomposition to the new smaller snowflakes, until we
Snowflake after 1 decomposition
are satisfied with the resulting mesh.
Refinement Strategies In the above process, there are many choices to be made as to which snowflakes should be decomposed. This means that it is up to us to decide upon a refinement strategy - an algorithm determining which snowflakes to decompose.
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With these aims in mind, we now turn to implementing a range of refinement strategies, and evaluating their merits.
Fixed Number Strategy The most basic strategy is to simply fix the number of subsnowflakes N, that we would like to have in our mesh, as determined by the computational limits due to the time needed to solve the acoustic equation. We can then refine snowflakes arbitrarily until we reach N. There are major issues with this approach. Firstly, it is not necessary possible to generate a Snowflake after two decompositions
mesh with a given number of snowflakes. This is because each times we perform a decomposition,
Figure 7: IFS Decomposed snowflakes
we turn one snowflake into seven, increasing the number of snowflakes by exactly six. As we
taking a constant value across subsections
start with exactly one snowflake, only N of the
of the snowflake, rather than continuously
form 6k + 1 can every be reached. This issue can
varying across the snowflake. The smaller the
be resolved easily, by stopping once we reach
snowflakes used in the mesh are, the more
the closest number of the form 6k + 1 to N .
accurate this approximation will become, and the function can vary more smoothly. Of course,
However, the more critical issues with this
there is a trade off as the smaller the snowflakes
approach are that there is no guaranteed
are, the more constituents there will be, and
symmetry, and the refinement is not
it will be more computationally intensive to
targeted towards the boundary.
numerically solve the acoustic equation across these constituents. Therefore, we must try and
Fixed Width Strategy
prioritise certain regions of the snowflake.
A second strategy is to produce a quasi-uniform mesh, in which snowflakes are decomposed
For the approximation to remain accurate, it
until their diameter lies in a fixed interval [d,
is more important to have a higher density of
√3d]. In effect there are only two possible
snowflakes in areas in which we expect the
sizes of snowflake within this mesh.
function to be varying steeply, rather than in areas in which we expect the function to
This mesh is symmetrical, and has the property
be varying slowly. In the acoustic case, this
that every edge between two snowflakes
area of interest is the boundary of the curve.
connects snowflakes that differ in size by a factor
Additionally, the symmetry of the snowflake
of exactly √3. This is a highly desirable property
is highly relevant. Exploiting symmetry allows
because it means that there is only one way in
computations to be sped up, as certain identical
which neighbouring snowflakes border each
parts of the computation can be skipped.
other. When propagating information during
Thus, where possible we should preserve the
the solving of numerical differential equations,
inherent symmetry of the Koch snowflake -
this means that we know that each neighbour
namely the sixfold rotational symmetry.
lies in one of only six directions from a given
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Figure 8: Fixed Width Strategy
snowflake. This is much nicer than having to deal with a mesh in which a small snowflake is adjacent to a much larger snowflake, which would require considering many more cases. However, a disadvantage of this mesh is that the number of snowflakes required to reach a certain level of refinement grows steeply at an exponential rate. This is because no attempt is made to prioritise the boundary, and instead much unnecessary refinement is made at the centre.
Radial Step Strategy A third strategy is to focus entirely on the
Figure 9: IFS Decomposed Heighway Dragons.
boundary, refining only those snowflakes which are within a fixed distance from the perimeter of the curve. This leads to a plot of density against radial distance from the perimeter resembling a step-function. Whilst this does prioritise the boundary effectively, an issue is the discontinuity in density, resulting in edges which occupy only a small fraction of the large central snowflake. As noted with the previous strategy, it is easier to numerically solve differential equations when neighbouring snowflakes are of similar sizes.
Boundary-Heavy Strategy A fourth strategy is to only decompose snowflakes which touch the boundary. Then once the new snowflakes have been created, we again pass through and decompose all the snowflakes
Figure 10: Radial Step Strategy
which still touch the boundary. This process can keep on going for a fixed number of iterations. This will create a more gradual density profile, compared to the Radial Step Strategy. www.rgsg.co.uk
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Smoothed Boundary-Heavy Strategy The final strategy I consider is a variation on the Boundary-Heavy Strategy. Instead of only decomposing snowflakes which touch the boundary, we instead only decompose snowflakes whose distance to the boundary is less than their diameter. The Boundary-Heavy Strategy is essentially the same as this strategy, but with
Subprogram
the diameter threshold replaced with a tighter radius threshold. There is a trade off being made here, in that this strategy will produce more refinement further from the boundary and an increased number of snowflakes, however the
After 3 Iterations
mesh will be much smoother. This is because with this strategy, even though the size of snowflakes spans many orders of magnitude, any adjacent snowflakes differ in size only by a factor of √3, the ideal proportion for performing calculations. Equivalently, this mesh has the same smoothness as the quasi-uniform mesh, whilst still allowing
After 5 Iterations
for a great deal of the refinement to be focussed away from the centre onto the boundary.
Distance to Perimeter
Figure 11: Boundary-Heavy Strategy
To implement the above strategy, we must determine the distance between the centre of subsnowflakes and the boundary. This is not a simple task, as the boundary itself is a 1.26... dimensional fractal. Thus we cannot simply check each vertex of the boundary and identify the closest vertex, as there are infinitely many vertices. Therefore it was necessary to develop an algorithm to approximate this calculation. The crux of the algorithm is that it is possible to narrow down the range of perimeter in
After 3 Iterations
After 5 Iterations
which the closest vertex lies, in a manner akin to a binary search. To start, we can identify
Figure 12: Smoothed Boundary-Heavy Strategy
which Koch curve is closest to a snowflake by using the threefold symmetry of the snowflake.
Then, taking advantage of the self-similarity
At each stage we can then halve the range
of the Koch curve, we can select the
in which the closest vertex lies by checking
appropriate half of the Koch curve, which
whether the snowflake centre is closest to the
in itself is a smaller Koch curve. This allows
leftmost or rightmost portion of a Koch curve.
the procedure to be repeated indefinitely.
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CONCLUSION AND FURTHER CONJECTURES Following my investigation, the conclusion I have arrived upon is that the Smoothed Boundary-Heavy Strategy produces meshes that are the most promising for solving the acoustic equation, for reasons layed out in the previous section. Therefore the academics I worked with will be using this mesh in their future simulations of acoustic propagation. Following detailed inspection of the meshes that I produced, a few new claims have been conjectured by the academics with whom I worked. Firstly, it seems that the Smoothed Boundary-Heavy Strategy is guaranteed to produces meshes in which neighbouring elements differ in size by a factor of √3. If this property can be proved, it will greatly simplify later computations, and furthers confirms that this mesh is the optimal mesh for use in numerical approximation. Finally, from inspection of the dragon mesh I produced, it has been recently conjectured that the uniform dragon mesh is composed of a finite number of disjoint lattices. This
Figure 13: Acoustic Propagation from Koch Snowflakes, (Caetano et al., 2025)
again could lead to a proof of a strong translational symmetry which would drastically speed up numerical computations.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.
2.
3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Martınez-Cruz, M.A´., Patin˜o-Ortiz, J., Patin˜o-Ortiz, M. and Balankin, A.S. (2024). Some Insights into the Sierpin´ski Triangle Paradox. Fractal and Fractional, [online] 8(11), p.655. doi: https:// doi.org/10.3390/fractalfract8110655. Caetano, A.M., Chandler-Wilde, S.N., Claeys, X., Gibbs, A., Hewett, D.P. and Moiola, A. (2025). Integral equation methods for acoustic scattering by fractals. Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences, 481(2306). doi: https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2023.0650. Caetano, A.M., Chandler-Wilde, S.N., Gibbs, A., Hewett, D.P. and A. Moiola (2024). A Hausdorff-measure boundary element method for acoustic scattering by fractal screens. Numerische Mathematik, 156(2), pp.463–532. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00211-024-01399-7. larryriddle.agnesscott.org. (n.d.). Koch Snowflake. [online] Available at: https://larryriddle. agnesscott.org/ifs/ksnow/ksnow.htm. larryriddle.agnesscott.org. (n.d.). Heighway Dragon. [online] Available at: https://larryriddle. agnesscott.org/ifs/heighway/heighway.htm. www.mathsisfun.com. (n.d.). Mandelbrot Set. [online] Available at: https://www.mathsisfun.com/numb rspatial.org. (n.d.). 2. The length of a coastline — R Spatial. [online] Available at: https:// rspatial.org/cases/2-coastline.html. Pollicott, M. (2022). Topics in Fractal Geometry. Warwick University. [online] Available at: https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/maths/people/ staff/mark pollicott/p3/main22.pdf.
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The Smoothed Boundary-Heavy Strategy produces meshes that are the most promising for solving the acoustic equation.
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ARTS & HUMANITIES
OSCAR FORD WINNER IN THE ILA ARTS/ HUMANITIES CATEGORY FOR HIS COMPARISON OF THE GERMANIC AND GARCIAN SCHOOLS OF SINGING TECHNIQUE.
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ARTS JD VANCE'S VIEWS HUMANITIES ON IMMIGRATION FOLLOW THE PRINCIPLES OF CAMERON BROWN ST AUGUSTINE TO WHAT EXTENT DO
OF HIPPO?
This Independent Learning Assignment (ILA) was short-listed for the ILA/ ORIS Celebration Evening.
INTRODUCTION JD Vance, Vice President of the United States
of Charity. It will conclude that ultimately his
of America, is noted for his controversial
attitude, while certainly drawing upon some
immigration policy, largely as a result of his place
elements of Augustinian thought, overplays
in Trump’s administration. This essay will aim to
these elements in justifying mass deportation-
assess whether these policies are sufficiently
though his aims of reducing illegal immigration
justified, as argued by Vance, by the ideas of
are more strongly justified by a sensible
his patron Saint Augustine of Hippo (354-430
interpretation of the saint’s writings hinging upon
CE), particularly the Ordo Amoris and Order
the influence of his perception of Natural Law.
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For context, in August 2019, Vance officially
above that quote, Augustine summarises the
converted to the Catholic faith- which he
concept with a verse ‘someone has said’:
described as the result of being ‘desperate for a worldview that understood our bad behaviour
"These are Thine, they are good, because Thou
as simultaneously social and individual,
art good who didst create them. There is in
structural and moral’. This view, he argued, was
them nothing of ours, unless the sin we commit
exemplified in Augustine’s City of God- it was
when we forget the order of things, and instead
‘the best criticism of modern society I [Vance]
of Thee love that which Thou hast made."
had ever read’. This was not the beginning of Vance’s appreciation of the 4th and 5th century
This is the clearest ordo amoris of Augustine; it is
Church father - he claims that he had been a
primarily the ordering of love towards God before
1
fan ‘since college’ (Ibid) . This provides some of
his creations- not, directly, as Vance suggested,
the background for the event that inspired this
the loving of those socially closest to oneself
project: Vance’s interview with Sean Hannity, in
above those far. Indeed, this is in his view, the
which he states one
primary difference between
ought to love their family
the City of God and the
first, then community,
City of Man- the latter has
then citizens of one’s
love directed first at the
own country and
self, and God secondarily,
then those of other
while the former loves
countries (Schwartz, I.
the creator before the
(2025)). Moreover, his
creation (City of God, Book
response to a criticism
XIV, Chapter 28). This
by Rory Stewart
foundational difference
(British ex-MP and
between caritas, ordered
podcaster) alleging this is in fact ‘less Christian
love, and cupiditas, runs throughout the work
and more pagan tribal’ provides the catalyst
of Augustine, and if Vance is as keen a reader of
and framework by and from which this essay
Augustine as he claims, one would expect him
will come to its above conclusions - Vance
to know this is generally what Augustine means
telling him to "just google ordo amoris".
when he discusses rightly ordered love- not what he paraphrased in the TV interview.
This is where the influence of St Augustine becomes particularly clear, and so is what
Therefore, is any link between his statement
justifies the title question. Ordo Amoris, or
and Augustine’s ancient Christianity unjustified?
the concept of the right ordering of love,
Perhaps not; a generous interpretation of
is a key theme in Augustine’s works - he
Vance’s statement appears to align quite
describes it as the ‘brief and true definition of
closely with a number of Augustine’s pieces of
virtue’ (City of God, Book XV, Chapter 22).
practical advice on charity- the ‘order of charity’ as it is later called. Indeed, one could argue
However, a cursory reading of St Augustine
that while this is not the narrowest conception
presents an apparent dislocation between
of the ordo amoris, it does constitute an
the saint’s description of ordered love, and
ordering of love: an ordering of practical love,
the point Vance is looking to make; indeed,
and so an outflow of the former concept.
Interestingly, when he considered himself an atheist (Vance, 2016, Ch. 11) 1
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For example, Augustine argues that, despite
However, it highlights something important; a
an equal sense of love towards all, Christians
key strand in the justification of this order of
ought to ‘take greater care’ of those closest to
charity is convenience. This can be seen in both
them- by circumstance or location (On Christian
passages; it is the effects of the laws of nature
Doctrine, Book I, Chapter 28). This is prima facie
and society that one’s household is closest,
is rather similar to Vance’s statement; if by his
and so it is partially on this basis of created
‘love’, he is taken to mean direct aid or charity,
convenience that they are one’s primary focus.
then certainly one’s family and neighbour are some of those most closely joined to them ‘by
Moreover, Vance’s implication earlier on in the
accident’, and so prioritising their wellbeing is in
interview that the ‘far left’ of the country ought
line with Augustine’s advice. This interpretation,
to love American citizens more than ‘illegal
I would argue, is justifiable given the last part of
aliens’ (Schwartz, I. (2025), does run against
the excerpt- the wording ‘focus and prioritize
these Augustinian statements- as ‘all men are
the rest of the world’ suggests a practical
to be loved equally’. However, he may be closer
nature to this ‘love’- it makes far more sense as
in his assumed view that their obligations to
a statement when it is taken to mean charity
Americans are greater than those to foreign
or care, rather than an unactioned goodwill,
immigrants. This is because, while the laws of
which has less sense of priority and ‘focus’.
society (especially for legal immigrants) place immigrants equally close to Americans, they are
He further states that: “Primarily, therefore, his
further by familial and community bonds; the
own household are his care, for the law of nature
‘law of nature'2 does not position them as the of
and of society gives him readier access to them
priority for Americans. This is the second clear
and greater opportunity of serving them.”
strand of justification for the order of charity, and one that Vance’s statements and policy is
This confirms the above- Augustine even directly
more clearly in line - with the nuance that this is a
names the family as the primary focus of care.
matter of obligations and action, not love itself. The concept of Natural Law is important to Augustine, as it represents a reminder of ideal prelapsarian human societyhowever, it is only useful insofar as it allows humans to follow divine law (Anon, n.d.). Thus, its application to the order of charity in its own right might be justified by argument that the structured obligations it supports will create family units (mirroring those of Adam and Eve) are directly conducive to order society and human movement towards God.
2
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Vance has argued against mass immigration
deportation is going to a much greater effort to
on the basis that it worsens the quality of life of
carry through a much smaller-ranging love, to a
American citizens since he claims “[the price
much lesser effect than other measures could.
of housing] is through the roof”, jobs are taken,
While Augustinian ethics are not consequentialist
and social security is put under strain (Stepman,
in the usual sense (Helm, Paul (1981).), this
J (2024)). A key policy he supports that aims
does seem to conflict with the practicality that
to address this is mass deportation (Pereira, I,
underpins one aspect of the order of charity.
2024), and as such it will be reviewed below on
However, this aspect could still be overcome by
an Augustinian basis. Justification for it is easy
Vance’s use of the natural law justification.
to imagine based on his conception of ordo amoris - he would argue that the reduced number
Secondly, there is a problem in that this principle
of migrants will improve the lives of American
is secondary to a primary one; Augustine prefaces
citizens by reversing the above problems
it in City of God, Book XIX, chapter 14 with the
migration can cause. Thus the American state
quote ‘this is the order of this concord, that a man,
is looking after its most important subjects,
in the first place, injure no one, and in the second,
those in traditional American communities. It
do good to everyone he can reach’. Therefore, the
fits with Vance’s conception of this order of love,
order of charity seems to only apply to positive
and positive action, as the people it does active
action (not necessarily supererogatory, given
harm to, the immigrants themselves, are at the
the duties to one’s family), and is overruled by
bottom of his order of concerns. They are just
the avoidance of harm. Thus, mass deportation
‘illegal aliens’, to whom he thinks Americans
falls foul of Augustine’s principles in two ways.
need not consider on the level of one another.
It misses the practical element of the order of
Indeed, he would likely frame it as simply a matter
charity, which would support the aiding of these
of stronger obligations towards one than the
immigrants equally to American communities (from
other, as mentioned above; the American state
the perspective of the state). Moreover, it violates
might have a stronger obligation to protect the
the non-harm principle that overrules it. This is
American family units that fund it, and constitute
what overrules the principles of Natural Law that
the society it governs. This is understandable
may create greater obligations to one’s family.
on the basis of the law of nature argument earlier- in fact, if that was the only concern of Augustine, it would be a valid argument. However, the policy does have two conflicts with the Augustinian order of charity: One obvious, and one more subtle. The former is simple- it is no easier to help these ‘American’ communities than it is to aid immigrant ones. Therefore, the first justification of the practical order of charity does not apply between them; immigrants and Americans are equally “closely joined… by some accident, as it were, of location, or time, or circumstance, or any such thing”- and Vance could not rightly make an Augustinian defence of the policy on those grounds. In fact, an argument could be made that the massive difficulty in carrying out mass 60
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Important also is his aim to reduce illegal immigration into America. This carries a similar justification - however, instead of acting against immigrants within America, it simply reduces the number entering. Thus, it has the similar benefit of protecting (rather than actively aiding) American lives. This seems more in line with the above Augustinian principles, as these American citizens are closer both by social bonds, as they were above, but also by convenience (‘by accident or circumstance’) unlike above, where the migrants are equal. More importantly, it may not constitute harm. Where removing migrants from their communities and
In a vacuum, he might be right- however, this
uprooting the lives they had made in America
point is part of an overall picture of Augustinian
is, simply not allowing them to do so hardly
beneficence towards immigrants. It is on that
constitutes ‘injury’ in the same sense .
basis (as well as that of general Christly agape)
3
that he directly argues Christians ought to see Something worth considering is the fact that
Christ in refugees - when he quotes Matthew
Augustine directly uses the Latin term for
25:35, he changes the Latin word for foreigner
immigrant or refugee (peregrinus) to describe
(hospes) to immigrant (peregrinus) (CCP1, 2018)-
the Christian people as a whole on multiple
who Jesus says aiding is an act of worship, and
occasions in his works (e.g City of God, Book
so desirable. Thus the general attitude is quite
XIX, Chapter 17); the saint was likely very familiar
clearly different between the two, even if there
with the phenomenon of mass refugeeship/
is no direct conflict- this is further evidence
migration. In fact, City of God itself was written
for difference between the VP and Augustine’s
in 413 CE in reaction to claims Rome’s adoption
positions on immigration. Nuance could perhaps
of Christianity had caused the decline of the
be found in a difference between those who legally
Roman Empire and sack of the city in 410- and
seek asylum and have need of shelter, and those
this same sack resulted in a number of refugees
simply wishing for a more materially prosperous
entering his home (and relatively stable)
life- as Augustine is largely concerned with the
province of Africa (Ralph D, 2006). That said, it is
former, Vance has more leeway in acting against
important to note that the migration Augustine
the latter while maintaining fidelity to his alleged
describes of all Christians is a spiritual one; it
saintly influence. This is especially true where
describes the movement of Christians from the
they might strongly undermine his principles
corrupted and sinful earthly world to the Godly
of properly and naturally ordered society- such
one. Therefore, Vance could make the argument
as if, immigrants were indeed ‘eating the cats’
that drawing any conclusions from this about
in American communities. However, The fact
earthly migrants are unjustified, given they
that they are not, and many have been given
represent entirely different spheres of reality.
legal status under the Biden administration
3 While a consequentialist might argue against this, Augustinian ethics is far more act and intention based- as that is what, primarily, constitutes action guided by God as a part of the process of reunion with Him (Helm, Paul (1981).
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(Thomas, M and Wendling, 2024) renders this point less forceful in practice - especially given there were no such legal mechanisms for internal migration within the collapsing Roman Empire. Overall, while the latter piece of Vance’s policy may be compatible with St. Augustine’s moral theory, it is unlikely to be that way due to an attempt at loyally following it. This is especially true of the ordo amoris, which is largely focused (in Augustine) upon ordering love towards God above love towards His Creations (though it could perhaps be extrapolated to include the order of charity), not quite what Vance stated in his interview. Indeed, Rory Stewart may be correct in his assessment that his statement is ‘more pagan tribal than Christian’- while the principle of greater obligations towards the family is seen in Augustinian Natural law4 (and so in influence upon what I have called his order of charity), it is secondary to the Divine Law that commands "all men are to be loved equally". Since this prioritises the harming of none (which mass deportation does), that policy sufficiently violates this important Augustinian concept for one to consider it not supported by his works. This is especially true given the lack of cohesion with the order of charity’s practical strand of justification, and Augustine’s overall benevolence towards migrants- even those without systematic support. However, Vance’s aims to reduce inward migration to the US, as they do not have the same problems, are reasonably supported by the fulfilment of natural law obligations underlying the order of charity in the saint’s works. Thus, it seems likely that Vance is familiar with the work of Augustine of Hippo, and is not fully unjustified in invoking his philosophy- only in overplaying the importance of social and familial obligations in ordering one’s love, at the expense of the radical agape that still underpins Augustine’s direct views of immigrants and charity. Natural law Augustine directly admits was available and utilised by the pagans before Christianity! (Anon (Law Explorer), n.d.)
4
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.
Vance, J. (2020). How I Joined the Resistance. [online] The Lamp Magazine. Available at: https://thelampmagazine.com/blog/ how-i-joined-the-resistance. 2. Schapitl, L. (2024). Where J.D. Vance stands on key issues. [online] NPR. Available at: https:// www.npr.org/2024/07/16/g-s1-11128/jd-vanceabortion-immigration-ukraine-jan-6. 3. Gedeon, J. (2025). Vance poses immigration as ‘greatest threat’ to US and Europe in CPAC speech. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian. com/us-news/2025/feb/20/jd-vance-cpac-trump. 4. Vance, J.D. (2016). Hillbilly Elegy : A Memoir Of A Family And Culture In Crisis. New York: Harper. 5. Schwartz, I. (2025). Vance: The Far-Left Feel More Of A Sense Of Compassion for Illegal Aliens Than American Citizens. [online] Realclearpolitics.com. Available at: https://www.realclearpolitics.com/ video/2025/01/30/vance_the_far-left_feel_more_ of_a_sense_of_compassion_for_illegal_aliens_than_ american_citizens.html [Accessed 10 Jun. 2025]. 6. X (formerly Twitter). (2025). Available at: https://x. com/JDVance/status/1885073046400012 538?lang=en [Accessed 10 Jun. 2025]. 7. Augustine, A. (2014). The City of God: Volume I, by Aurelius Augustine--A Project Gutenberg eBook. [online] Gutenberg.org. Available at: https://www. gutenberg.org/files/45304/45304-h/45304-h.htm. 8. Hedges, B.G. (n.d.). Saint Augustine on Rightly Ordered Love. [online] Available at: https:// www.brianghedges.com/2013/09/saintaugustine-on-rightly-ordered-love.html. 9. www.gutenberg.org. (n.d.). The City of God: Volume II, by Aurelius Augustine--A Project Gutenberg eBook. [online] Available at: https://www.gutenberg. org/files/45305/45305-h/45305-h.htm. 10. Stepman, J. (2024). JD Vance: America’s a Homeland, Not Just an Idea. Mass Immigration Is Sullying That. [online] The Daily Signal. Available at: https://www.dailysignal.com/2024/07/11/ jd-vance-america-is-homeland-not-just-idea/. 11. Pereira, I. (2024). JD Vance says mass deportations should ‘start with 1 million,’ defends ‘thought experiment’ giving parents extra votes. [online] ABC News. Available at: https://abcnews. go.com/Politics/jd-vance-mass-deportationsstart-1-million-defends/story?id=112739447. 12. CCP1 (2018). Augustine of Hippo: we are pilgrims on Earth and we must show our common fate and closeness with immigrants, the pilgrims in our society OAR • PSNT. [online] OAR • PSNT. Available at: https:// agustinosrecoletos.org/2018/08/augustine-of-hippowe-are-pilgrims-on-earth-and-we-must-show-our-common-fate-and-closeness-with-immigrants-the-pilgrimsin-our-society/?lang=en [Accessed 15 Jun. 2025]. 13. O’Donnell, J. (2019c). The City of God|work by Saint Augustine. In: Encyclopædia Britannica. [online] Available at: https://www. britannica.com/topic/The-City-of-God. 14. Ralph, D. (2006). A history of medieval Europe from Constantine to Saint Louis [electronic resource]. Routledge Uuuu-Uuuu. 15. Anon, (n.d.). The Philosophy of Law in The Writings of Augustine |. [online] Available at: https://lawexplores. com/the-philosophy-of-law-in-the-writings-ofaugustine/#Fn23 [Accessed 6 Sep. 2023]. 16. Helm, Paul (1981). Divine Commands and Morality. Oxford University Press. 17. Thomas, M. and Wendling, M. (2024). Donald Trump repeats baseless claim about Haitian immigrants eating cats and dogs in Springfield, Ohio. [online] BBC News. Available at: https:// www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c77l28myezko. www.rgsg.co.uk
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ARTS THE REIMAGINING OF HUMANITIES
MYTH TO MOVIE: CLASSICAL THEMES IN FILM NOIR
WILL GOSSAGE
This Independent Learning Assignment (ILA) was short-listed for the ILA/ ORIS Celebration Evening.
INTRODUCTION From the ancient tales of heroes to post-war
I noticed striking parallels between the genres,
psychological thrillers, the exploration of
such as the similarities with characters such
human characteristics and fate have remained
as the femme fatale or the tragic hero, and the
consistent over time. Film noir was a genre of
inevitable concept of fate. This made me reflect
film in the 1940s and 50s that is characterised
on the extent at which classical themes have
by its dark, psychological themes, and the
influenced and shaped the narrative in film
morally complicated characters. While watching
noir. Ultimately, this essay will argue that the
certain noir films (specifically Billy Wilder's
dark psychological themes in film noir are just
Double Indemnity and Sunset Boulevard),
modernised iterations of motifs in classic myth.
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'Sunset Boulevard' (1950)- SlashFilm: https://www.slashfilm.com/802393/why-sunset-blvd-had-to-scrap-its-original-opening-scene/
An underlying theme throughout both classical
Walter Neff's eventual dark turn, leading him
myth and film noir is fate, highlighting the
down a downward spiral. This descent ties in with
inescapable outcomes of the protagonist, based
the concept of katabasis (κατάβασις) in Greek
on their moral decisions. Fate is the idea that
mythology, meaning the descent of a hero into the
a person’s outcome is predetermined and beyond
underworld. In film noir, this descent is symbolic,
human control. The impact of fate on both
and refers to the psychological descent of the
genres is to build up the tragic falls of the hero,
characters, often symbolised by dark scenery,
constantly alluding to their eventual demise.
like the broken Los Angeles shot at the start of
With classical literature, fate shows that great
the film. Katabasis ‘shifts onto the narrative, the
heroes suffer because of the consequence of
power of a death tale’ (Holtsmark, Erling B, 2001),
their flaws, whereas in film noir, fate adds to that
thus illustrating that a death will happen in the
idea, showing that the ordinary man can also
film. What befell Joe Gillis in Sunset Boulevard
suffer from this. Right from the start of the films,
is explicitly shown at the beginning, where the
there are signs, guiding the audience towards the
camera pans across, following reporters, revealing
eventual outcomes of the key characters. A key
Gillis’ lifeless body in the pool. From the outset,
comparison can be made with Sophocles’ Oedipus
we know that Gillis is doomed, and because of
Rex, a play centred around the inescapability of
the press surrounding the body, the audience
fate, where Oedipus is predestined to marry his
understands that his death will be a spectacle.
mother and kill his father. The opening scenes of
§In the first half of the film, there are many
both noir films and of Oedipus Rex foreshadow
macabre allusions, suggesting a tragic fate awaits
the doomed fates of their protagonists: Walter
him. As written by Joan F Dean (1984) “As Joe's tale
Neff, Joe Gillis, and Oedipus. In Double Indemnity,
unfolds, it is fraught with images of death : his own
the establishing shot is of an out-of-control car
corpse floating in the pool; the remains of Norma's
that narrowly misses colliding with roadworks.
pet chimp laid out and later buried; his own voice
The opening scene in noir is usually from the end
which reminds us that his narration comes from
of the film, and so the audience will know that
beyond the grave”. Therefore, there is a sense
this tense and chaotic moment reflects how the
of inevitable death, mirroring the role of fate in
end of the film will be. The frantic motion of the
classical myth. Just like in Sunset Boulevard,
car reflects Walter Neff’s desperate attempts to
the allusions to death in Oedipus Rex show the
avoid consequences from the murder. In classic
inevitability of Oedipus fulfilling the prophecy of
noir style, the shot is in darkness, creating a
killing his father. For example, at the beginning,
dark atmosphere. This then sets the tone for
the priest tells Oedipus that “Thebes is tossed
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on a murdering sea and can not lift her head
these early signs of the protagonists’ fate
from the death surge”. This refers to the plague
reinforce that nobody, whether heroic or ordinary,
that is tormenting Thebes, resulting in countless
can escape the consequences of their actions.
deaths. Oedipus is also fixated on avenging Laius, after his murder, stating that this was the “only
Additionally, fate is presented via Gillis' and Neff's
way of help in this great need: To find and smite
narration, commenting on their lives as if they are
with death or banishing, him who smote Laïus”.
beyond the grave. Essentially, both characters
The tragic irony is that it was Oedipus who killed
are becoming the traditional Greek chorus,
Laius, and in seeking to punish the murderer, he
acting as “an audience within the fictional world”
is inadvertently denouncing what he himself has
(Hawthorne, Kevin 2009). Both men are looking
done. The impact of this is
back at the lead up
to make Oedipus seem so
to their downfalls; a
tragic, with the audience
famous line of Neff
knowing that his death
reflecting on his crime
is inescapable. Finally, in
is, “I guess I didn’t
Double Indemnity, there
fight it hard enough”,
is a constant reminder for
commenting on
Neff that fate is closing in.
the allure of Phyllis
The lighting is carefully
Dietrichson. It also
manipulated so that the
shows how fate is
blinds reflect on the face of
unable to be fought,
Neff on multiple occasions,
no matter how hard
conveying bars in a prison
one tries. Gillis has a
cell. This serves to show
more cynical approach
that Walter Neff’s fate will
to his narration,
be tied to his eventual
where he would insult
capture. In a cut ending, Billy Wilder has Walter Neff executed in a gas chamber.
'Double Indemnity' (1944) - FLIXCHATTER FILM BLOG: https://flixchatter.net/2014/09/30/september-blindspot-double-indemnity-1944/
Therefore, the lighting could
Norma Desmond at any given opportunity (“I wondered what a handwriting expert
have been foreshadowing Neff’s imprisonment
would think of her childish scrawl”), which is apt
and execution. The subtle hints via the lighting
because she was the one who shot him dead.
cannot be achieved through Sophocles’ Oedipus
In Greek plays, rather than commenting on the
Rex, but there are references throughout to
past, the chorus would react as events happen,
blindness, playfully leading up to Oedipus gouging
often providing a moral message. Right at the
his eyes out in the final part of the play. Firstly,
end of Oedipus Rex, the chorus says that “life
Oedipus, showing himself to be a compassionate
in death, should be a memory without pain”,
ruler, said that if he disregarded the sufferings due
fundamentally telling the audience to indulge
to the plague, he would be “blind to misery.” Later,
in a joyous life, whereupon you can reflect back
Oedipus taunts the prophet, Tiresias’ blindness,
happily in death. In the two films, the protagonists’
mocking him that he would get “lost in the night”
narration acts as a modernised Greek chorus,
due to his blindness. Ironically, Oedipus is both
highlighting how film noir uses classical traditions
blind to the truth of his own mother and father, but
to explore themes such as fate and morality.
also what he is mocking becomes his own fate,
Unlike the collective Greek chorus, Neff and
just like how the visual signs in Double Indemnity
Gillis’ solitary voices accentuate their isolation,
foreshadowed Neff’s ultimate fate. Altogether,
adding to the emotion of their tragic downfalls.
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The femme fatale’s ability to control the
Medea’s bold statement was purposefully said
protagonist, via the weaponisation of sexuality
at the start of the play to disassociate herself
and intelligence, proves her to be an immensely
from familial norms, and as a warning to the
powerful figure. With traits that opposed the
audience of the transgressive violence that will
stereotypical characteristics of a woman of both
happen later on. Dietrichson is also presented
Ancient Greece, and early 20 century, the femme
as a remarkably dangerous femme fatale,
fatale is presented as the dangerous seductress.
whose psychopathic and narcissistic behaviour
Her character in noir often manipulates the male
is shown in various visual motifs. Firstly, when
protagonist, luring him to his downfall, as well as
Walter Neff is killing Mr Dietrichson in the car,
in classical myth, the femme fatale’s beauty and
the death is only heard due to the close-up shot
cunning is exaggerated, allowing her to seduce
of Mrs Dietrichson’s face throughout the scene.
and kill even the greatest of heroes (shown with
Phyllis stares blankly at the camera, letting the
Clytemnestra). Firstly, the influence and control
audience see her psychopathic nature by showing
held by Phyllis Dietrichson in Double Indemnity
zero emotions during her husband’s murder.
exemplifies her status as a femme fatale. The
The addition of the non-diegetic orchestral
first time we see Mrs Dietrichson, she is on the
crescendo juxtaposes with Dietrichson’s
landing, looking down upon Walter Neff. This
emotionless expression, drawing attention to
establishes the power dynamics between them,
her cold demeanour. Before being made into
where Dietrichson holds the control, subverting
a film, Double Indemnity was a novel written
the stereotypical order of the man having the
by James M Cain (1935). Cain took inspiration
influence. Phyllis Dietrichson’s authority is
from the real life murderer, Ruth Snyder, in 1927,
presented via her metaphorically being ‘in the
for the character of Mrs Dietrichson. Snyder
driver’s seat’ . Whenever Neff and Dietrichson are
joined forces with her lover to kill her husband,
in a car together, it is always Dietrichson driving,
extremely similar to the plot of Double Indemnity.
conveying how she is driving both the literal and
Thus, the dangerous nature of Mrs Dietrichson
metaphorical direction of their affair and the
is emphasised because she is inspired from an
murder plot. Dietrichson, being the archetypal
actual murderer. In Aeschylus’ Agamemnon,
noir temptress, embodies the post-war views
Clytemnestra is the femme fatale who, like Mrs
of women’s self-assertion and liberty within
Dietrichson, killed her husband (Agamemnon)
marriage and the workplace (Boozer, Jack 1999).
whilst he is bathing. She is described by the
From this we can draw parallels from Euripides’
character of Cassandra as; "the most heinous
Medea, where Medea states that she “would
of heinous snakes, being able to slither back
rather stand in the front line of battle three times
and forth against all her prey" (translated by
than bear one child”. As Barlow (1989) argues,
G. Theodoridis ©2005). The symbolism of the
th
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'Sunset Boulevard' (1950) - The Hollywood Reporter Everett: https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/ movie-news/sunset-boulevard-review-movie-1950-1235172387/
snake suggests Clytemnestra’s deceptive and
prospect of furthering his scriptwriting by joining
evil character, two traits associated with the
forces with the former actress, Norma Desmond.
femme fatale. Ultimately, the femme fatale is a
Her entrapment of Gillis eventually became
character written by men, an embodiment of fears
abusive, leading to the outrage of Desmond,
of what women are capable of with ‘male’ power.
and climactically, Gillis’ death. Conclusively, the
Thus in the cases of Clytemnestra and Phyllis
influence of the Sirens on noir femme fatales is
Dietrichson, both show how female independence
shown in the way both use temptation to lead men
was often portrayed as a dangerous power, with
to their deaths. Although, while the Sirens rely on
Dietrichson in particular resembling the idea
their beauty and enchanting singing, Desmond’s
that women post-war will have become more
power is in her emotional manipulation rather
assertive, no longer confined to traditional roles,
than her physical attractiveness. This contrast
and capable of undermining male authority.
henceforth shows the evolution of the femme fatale; from the figure who seduces with their
In contrast to Dietrichson’s femme fatale, one of
hypnotic beauty, to the psychologically complex
beauty and danger, Billy Wilder presents Norma
noir femme fatale. Norma Desmond’s desire to
Desmond in Sunset Boulevard as an aging
be loved stems from the cruelty of Hollywood,
and obsolete character, who capitalises on Joe
where one minute you are the star, the next (like
Gillis’ troubled state to keep him captive in her
in Norma Desmond’s case) you are put aside
mansion. Compared to Dietrichson, Desmond
and forgotten about completely. Essentially,
lacks the beauty to lure Joe Gillis to his downfall,
Norma Desmond sacrificed her whole youth
but instead keeps him using psychological
to Hollywood, and her need to look young and
manipulation, as well as abuse (when she slaps
beautiful is a way for her to feel like she did as
him during the ballroom dance and shouts at him,
an actor, hence why she rewatches her younger
“I’ll do it again!”). Desmond initially draws Gillis
films. Wilder uses the motif throughout of the
in by promising safety at her mansion from the
mirror to highlight this, displaying the vanity of
taxmen, as well as a room to stay in, and a luxury
the femme fatale. Like how Desmond sacrificed
lifestyle that he would not be able to resist, due to
her youth for Hollywood, Medea sacrificed her
his lack of funds at the time. These temptations
younger brother and her royal life back in Colchis,
lure Gillis in, reminiscent of the lure of the sirens
to travel with Jason on his journey to the Golden
in Homer’s Odyssey; whose entrancing songs
Fleece. Their violent outbreaks, therefore, stem
drew sailors to their deaths. Just like Odysseus’
from the betrayal of those who both Medea and
crew, Gillis is unable to resist the comfort and the
Desmond sacrificed something for. For example,
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Medea sacrificed all for her love for Jason, only for
to a contemporary audience, unlike in myth,
him to abandon her for another woman, Glaucis.
where the tragic figure is meant to be symbolic
This then resulted in Medea viciously murdering
and endure an epic fall. Throughout Greek and
not only Glaucis, but Medea and Jason’s children,
Roman Epic, there have been illustrious heroes
committing the heinous sin of filicide. As for
such as Heracles and Jason, who embody this
Norma Desmond, the hopes of achieving fame
title, as well as those who endure moral and
again rose when an aspiring scriptwriter showed
psychological suffering akin to the characters
up at her house, only for him to walk out on her,
of Walter Neff (Double Indemnity) and Joe Gillis
resulting in her shooting him. Medea’s own quote
(Sunset Boulevard). Walter Neff’s flawed character
from Medea encapsulates this, when she says,
in Double Indemnity may at first appear to be
“Wrong a woman in love and nothing on earth
entirely down to the seductive manipulation of
has a heart more murderous”. Ultimately, both
Phyllis Dietrichson, but his own overconfidence
Medea and Norma Desmond embody femme
in believing he could commit the perfect murder
fatales whose actions stem from betrayal and
ultimately was his hamartia. When Neff is
loss, rather than being naturally cruel. Desmond's
reassuring Dietrichson that he is “the guy that
violence stems from her delusion of still being a
knows how”, the direction for his acting (in script)
successful actress and her belief that Gillis loves
is as follows; “There is fierce determination in his
her, reflecting Hollywood’s disregard for aging
voice. His fingers dig into her arm”. His aggressive
actresses. Therefore, Wilder is modernising the
and physically intrusive behaviour here both
violence that becomes the vengeful character
shows his misogynistic belief that Mrs Dietrichson
of Medea, illustrating how betrayal affects
will be safe, solely because she is in his presence,
the contemporary actress in Hollywood.
but also his arrogance that he holds the perfect plan. The duality of his nature (respected
The noir concept of a tragic hero is modernised,
insurance salesperson and cold-blooded
with the ‘heroes’ being ordinary men rather than
murderer) can be seen in the lighting, where his
great kings or legendary warriors. The impact of
shadow often appears behind him, connoting his
this is to make their downfall emotionally resonant
two personalities: one in the light, one in the dark. The looming shadow could also resemble his growing guilt throughout the film, leading to his downfall. Furthermore, his underestimation of Mrs Dietrichson results in him being outmanoeuvred by her, as shown when she attempted to shoot him near the end of the film. Similarly, in Medea (Euripides), Jason’s pride leads him to betray his lover, Medea, by marrying Glauce (daughter of King of Corinth) for status and power. Medea then outmanoeuvres Jason’s strategic move for power by killing his children, his only successors. Thus, both Neff’s and Jason’s tragic suffering was down to their own choices, blind to the repercussions of the femme fatale’s behaviour. Similarly, film noir often portrays characters who destroyed by their fatal flaws (hamartia), despite their intelligence. In both classical literature and film noir, the tragic hero’s downfall is often because of the influence of a woman. Both Walter Neff
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and Joe Gillis use the metaphor of a hook (“the
femme fatales to both film noir and classical
hook was too strong” and “I dropped the hook,
literature work to emasculate the tragic hero. Gillis’
she grabbed it”) to convey the magnetic allure of
showering in gifts of new clothes, and his financial
both Mrs Dietrichson and Norma Desmond. Their
dependency upon Desmond, act to flip the gender
allure draws parallels from the sirens in Homer’s
roles of a 1940s American household, where
Odyssey, who would lure sailors to their deaths,
Gillis is now essentially Desmond’s ‘kept man’.
like how both women led Gillis and Neff to their
This portrays the hero’s tragic fall, from a man
downfalls. Gillis was an opportunist and a cynic
of autonomy to Norma Desmond’s unglamorous
and lived with Norma Desmond believing he could
gigolo. Pentheus, King of Thebes, in Euripides’
gain screenwriting success from it, only to become
Bacchae, is a classic example of the emasculation
emotionally imprisoned within her house. This
of a hero. In the play, Pentheus loses his authority
theme of being entrapped by a powerful woman
and dignity as a king, due to him disguising himself
can be seen with Odysseus in Homer’s Odyssey
as a woman to spy on the Bacchic celebrations,
book six. This is when he is kept by the nymph,
resulting in him being torn apart by the Maenads
Calypso, who falls deeply in love with him. These
whom he wanted to control. In both cases, the
periods of entrapment for Odysseus and Joe Gillis
feminisation of the male protagonists are key
highlight their loss of agency, gradually reinforcing
elements to their arcs as a tragic hero. Overall,
their downfall. The previously mighty Odysseus,
film noir modernises classical literature with
who was victorious in the legendary Trojan War,
darker scenery and more relatable characters,
was found by Hermes “racking his soul with tears
but the blueprint of the tragic hero remains. The
and groans and griefs”. The tricolon of laments
black and white lighting in noir help portray the
exaggerates Odysseus’ tragic state. Gillis rarely
tragic hero’s moral conflicts, casting them in
showed outward emotion on his feelings within
darker lights and exaggerating their shadows. So,
the house, but in his narration, he acknowledged
although the ways Neff and Gillis are presented
Desmond’s manipulation of him with “An older
is different to those of Jason and Odysseus,
woman who is well-to-do. A younger man who is
the downfall of the hero is still rooted in classic
not doing too well”. One may argue that his lack
tradition. The modern retelling of the character
of outwardly showing emotions adds to the stoic
serves to show how any man can undergo such
nature of a tragic hero. The addition of these
a fall, rather than solely the mighty hero.
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'Double Indemnity' (1944) - Hollywood Reporter - Courtesy Everett Collection: https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/wp-content/ uploads/2021/12/Double-Indemnity-Stanwyck-Everett-MBDDOIN_EC007-H-2021.jpg?w=1296&h=730&crop=1
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
In conclusion, the effect of these classical themes in film noir serve to convey that heroic tragedy affects those who are not supernatural,
1.
2.
or ancient warriors. Each of fate, the femme fatale, and the tragic hero, all are used in film noir
3.
to tackle contemporary ideas; such as the rise of post-war female autonomy, the treatment of aging actresses in Hollywood, and the complex
4.
psychology of the modern man. With the addition of visual motifs, directors such as Billy Wilder use lighting, sound, and levels, to modernise these Classical themes. The persistent presence of fate is established by constant reminders
5.
Barlow, Shirley A. “Stereotype and Reversal in Euripides’ ‘Medea.’” Greece & Rome, vol. 36, no. 2, 1989, pp. 158–71. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/643169. BOOZER, JACK. “THE LETHAL <italic>FEMME FATALE</Italic> IN THE NOIR TRADITION.” Journal of Film and Video, vol. 51, no. 3/4, 1999, pp. 20–35. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20688218. DEAN, Joan F. “‘Sunset Boulevard’: Illusion and Dementia.” Revue Française d’études Américaines, no. 19, 1984, pp. 89–98. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20873130. Hawthorne, Kevin. “The Chorus as Rhetorical Audience: A Sophoklean Agōn Pattern.” The American Journal of Philology, vol. 130, no. 1, 2009, pp. 25–46. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20616166. Holtsmark, Erling B, 'The Katabasis Theme in Modern Cinema', in Martin M Winkler (ed.), Classical Myth & Culture in the Cinema (New York, NY, 2001; online edn, Oxford Academic, 31 Oct. 2023), https://doi. org/10.1093/oso/9780195130034.003.0002.
of death throughout both the literature and the films. The femme fatale evolves from the dangerous seductress in classical literature, to the post-war autonomous and powerful woman. No longer supernatural, the noir femme fatale becomes the traditional woman of the 1940s. Similarly, the tragic hero is reimagined as the normal American working man. This allows him to show that the ordinary man suffers from the same flaws as classical greats like Heracles and Jason. Overall, these reinterpretations are not only drawing inspiration from these classical motifs, but are bringing these old themes into a new cultural context, ultimately showing the way such classic characters and constructs can be made modern to speak to a contemporary audience, and highlight modern issues. 70
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BEL CANTO: TO WHAT
EXTENT IS THE GERMANIC SCHOOL OF SINGING TECHNIQUE THE OPPOSITE OF THE GARCIAN SCHOOL OF SINGING?
ARTS HUMANITIES OSCAR FORD
This Independent Learning Assignment (ILA) won the RGS 2025 ILA award in the Arts/ Humanities category.
INTRODUCTION Bel canto is a term widely used, and one
into a more familiar idiom of singing that is well
surrounded by misunderstanding and controversy.
studied (despite easily being approximated
While it saw its culmination in the 19 century with
(Potter, 31) and that we take for granted today as
pivotal teachers such as the Spaniard Manuel
the healthiest method of classical singing. While
Garcia II (Stark, 1) and Giovanni Battista Lampert,
the bel canto operas of Bellini and Donizetti
its roots can be traced back to the North of Italy
were still flourishing, a radical, new, seemingly
in the late 16 century to small and specialised
irreconcilable school of singing came about in
groups of singers. It was in these groups “whose
Germany, arguably as a nationalist separation
vocal prowess eclipsed amateur choristers” (Stark,
(Whitener, 155) from the Italian tradition that had
190) that singers began to display their virtuosic
“no other ambition than to satisfy this shallow
skills through their ease in coloratura, diction and
audience” (Wagner, 44). While derived from
emotional expression. This gradually developed,
similar fundamental principles as bel canto, this
over lifetimes of dedicated study and experience,
new Germanic school took the muscularity and
th
th
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physicality of the style to new heights and new
and the creating of space in the back of the throat
pedagogy emerged. In order to compare these
is instinctive and easy to do, as it is very similar
sometimes seemingly incompatible styles, it is
to the ‘every-day’ method of breathing (teachers
logical to try to break the technique down into
often advocate for a ‘yawning’ position) and is
individual, manageable parts within a phrase;
seen even in newborns as they cry for hours on
preparation, onset and phonation. Through
end without vocal fatigue (Cathcart, 26). While
this method, one can locate both similarities
in the German school, the importance of the
and differences in small scale vocal physiology
pharyngeal space and low larynx prior to onset
while maintaining a somewhat comprehensive
is still present, the action of inhalation is often
image of how each aspect integrates with
more muscular and prepares the mechanism
one another to form a complete technique.
for extreme sub-glottic pressure. Despite this, the mechanics of the inhalation are largely very
PREPARATION
similar, although there are a wide range of theories
In the first part of Manuel Garcia II’s Traité
of breathing. While one might assume that by
complet de l’art du chant, he only spends half a
default a singer would opt for the relaxed and
page talking about respiration, predominantly
grounded method in the Garcian school, Friedrich
the process of inhalation and preparing the voice
Schmitt (1812-1884) advocated the importance of
for phonation. In this succinct passage, Garcia
the intercostal breathing, in which a singer would
describes the silent breath combining a raised
feel as if the lungs were fully dilated (Whitener,
chest with a lowered diaphragm (Stark, 97) as this
38) and would take a quick and energised breath.
“allows the lungs to complete all their expansion
The importance of the sensation of the lungs
and to receive all the air which they can contain”.
being fully dilated would suggest to modern
In practice a singer cannot control the diaphragm
pedagogues that a singer is over breathing, as
but instead controls the muscles around the
teachers today (Marek, 76) would argue that the
abdomen, for example the abdominal wall must
breath mechanism must remain relaxed and
relax during inhalation (in other words the belly
flexible, rather than rigid and muscular as Schmitt
must expand). The silent nature of this breath
suggests. Over breathing can cause problems
also indicates sufficient pharyngeal space and
during phonation due to muscular tension created
therefore a low larynx in preparation for onset. By
in the neck and shoulders which will indirectly
nature, the relaxing of these abdominal muscles
affect the vocal mechanism, and it also makes it more difficult for a singer to finely control the amount of air being output for a phrase, the balance of which being known as appoggio in Italian. Therefore, while both methods rely on similar muscular movements, the Germanic style of singing is somewhat different and arguably less healthy or efficient by today’s vocal standards.
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ONSET After the singer has set their posture of the proud chest and relaxed upper body, inhaled and prepared the resonators (mainly the pharynx) for phonation, comes the onset. As Garcia II was a pioneer of the more scientific based vocal teaching style, having invented the laryngoscope, he was able to imagine a biologically accurate structure of the larynx and each cartilage or muscle therein. As a product of the hypotheses he had tested using laryngoscopy, several of his ideas were new and controversial. Perhaps most famously, the coup de la glotte (meaning hit/stroke of the glottis) was a cornerstone of Garcia’s technique (Stark, 14) and one that sparked controversy and misunderstanding. Fundamentally, the exercise is the practise of the building up of a tiny amount of pressure below the glottis just moments before phonation and onset. As the combined adductive
of some words, it is natural that this is carried over
force of all the muscles around the larynx
in singing. The glottal stops are further intensified
(importantly the interarytenoids) contract and
in Wagnerian singing, as the dramatic nature of the
close the glottis space, it sets up the phonation
characters often calls for harsh plosives with the
process to be aerodynamically efficient with a
vocal cords, often signifying tragic helplessness,
brilliant, focussed sound (Stark, 12). The wave of
anger or other powerful emotions. Bel canto is not
contemporary misunderstandings and criticism
exempt from this almost melodramatic tradition,
was perhaps understandable as the connotations
as in Verdi especially (which is often sung by bel
of the word hit suggests the violent and pushed
canto singers), similar glottal stops are used to
action, as subglottic pressure is built up and
emphasize the drama on stage. Despite this, the
suddenly released. In fact, Garcia maintained
German pedagogy somewhat agrees, follows and
that the coup de la glotte “must be the delicate,
sometimes even cites this traditional Italian school
precise action of the glottis” (Lunn, 21). Modern
(Whitener, 48) as the balanced onset was deemed
views on the topic continue to be controversial
effective in focussing the sound and activating
and polarised (Stark, 20), as many believe it can
thin edge function of the vocal cords. This allows
lead to the so called hyperfunction (Froeschels,
the production of the singers formant which is
63) of the muscles in the larynx, leading quickly
one of the most importance mechanisms in either
to problems such as “paratetic hoarseness”
style, as a singer is required to easily project over
(Froeschels, 63) caused by the overuse and over
(in Wagner’s case) a 90 piece orchestra. Thus,
tensioning of these fragile but relatively powerful
despite the coup de la glotte being a traditionally
muscles. Others however, agree that, if used
Italian concept, the German school (to some
carefully and correctly, it is a tool that is helpful for
extent) adopted and developed this exercise in
developing cord closure and avoiding breathiness.
onset while making adjustments pertaining to
As the German language contains harder glottal
the dramatic nature of the music being written
stops (which Garcia II warned against) at the start
and the demands of the German language.
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control and often creates the impression of a ‘big’ voice (Stark, 108). While both the Italianate and Germanic techniques can rely on the pinching or damming of the glottis, the Germanic school encouraged this muscular pressing of breath against the larynx which, while effective in volume, not only reduced flexibility in the voice for phrasing and musical delicacy, but also leaves the possibility of vocal damage due to the high demand placed on the somewhat delicate muscles in the vocal folds (Husler and Rodd-Marling, 44-6). A vital and longstanding concept in the Italian tradition is the chiaroscuro description of tone colour that has been held up as the ‘ideal’ sound for soloistic singing. Meaning bright/clear-dark
PHONATION
in Italian, the term refers to the bright, almost
After phonation has begun, the fundamental
piercing edge to an operatic sound, interacting
aim of the Italian teachers was to reach the
with the sonorous and pharyngeal resonance,
most efficient method of vocal production while
arguably the body of the tone. In practise, a
maintaining the smooth tone and seamless
listener refers to the upper partials (between
transition between registers (Cathcart, 36).
~2.2 kHz for basses, up to ~3.2kHz for tenors
As a product of the ideals behind his coup
(Sundberg, 15)) created in resonance (largely
de la glotte exercise, Garcia advocated for a
created in the head spaces such as the sinuses
similar idea of pinching the vocal cords during
or nasal cavity) when describing the bright
phonation (Stark, 38) which produced effects of
element of the voice. As previously discussed,
vibrancy and ease of projection. However, many
the most common method to achieve this high
teachers (to this day) dislike the encouragement
resonance was through the firm glottal closure,
of pinching or squeezing in teaching as it may
and the use of the thin edge function of the vocal
normalize tension around the larynx and contact
cords. The timbre of the voice (‘light’ or ‘dark’)
stress. Contemporary vocal scientist Ingo Titze
largely depends on the position of the resonating
warns against the tight adduction for fear of
column or vocal tract. This can be varied in
hyperadduction, very similar to the worries of
several ways; the lateral width of the pharynx,
hyperfunction in reaction to the coup de glotte.
the vertical positioning of the larynx, the length of the pharynx - controlled by the positioning of
Perhaps more apparently dangerous for the
the soft palate along with the mechanisms with
vocal cords, German voice teacher George Armin
which vowels are created, such as the tongue or
(1871-1963) created an equally controversial
lips (Stark, 38). It is important to note that each of
method; a form of breath damming that he named
these mechanisms are influenced by one another
Stauprinzip (Parr, 67). Stauprinzip relies on the
and in many cases, it is difficult to isolate one
opposition of the air flow towards the larynx and
without affecting the other. Being one of the only
the stopping power of the glottis. The extreme
adjustments which is easily visible to a viewer,
subglottic pressure (and therefore stopping
the position of the larynx or ‘Adam’s apple’ is a
or damming power of the glottis) does create
common topic in vocal studios, to this day (Stark,
very large amplitude, tends to improve breath
41). In order to achieve the dark resonant element
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of chiaroscuro, the larynx must be low enough
an inch apart and the mouth and lips should be
so that the singer feels there is sufficient space,
elliptical, with the upper lips not covering the
without losing cord closure. In bel canto singing,
teeth. The movement of the mouth is perhaps
the larynx should also be free to move, and
less emphasised in other schools, but it aims to
should not be locked in place with musculature.
release or control any tension in the system that may affect the operation of the larynx, an ideal
The German pedagogy also talks of a similar
shared with many other techniques, including the
balance of timbre within the voice. Heinrich
Italian tradition. Some contemporary teachers
Mannstein (1806-1872) suggested that there
of Mannstein suggested the teeth (especially the
were only three types of tone; the throaty tone
top row) were an important part of the finding
(‘Kehlton’), the nasal tone (‘Nasenton’) and
of resonance, as the popular but non-science
the balanced tone (Whitener, 26). There are
based method of ‘resonance imagery’ emerged.
clear parallels with the Italian tradition here,
This involved ‘placing’ the sound at different
Kehlton being close to the ‘scuro’ aspect of the
points in largely the upper body, relating to
chiaroscuro, the Nasenton being related to the
different vowels or points in the register (Stark,
‘chiaro’ aspect, and the balanced tone refers
51), something especially relevant in the practical
to the ideal mix of these two poles. However,
teaching of voices, due to the ease of description
Mannstein aims to reach this goal in a different
and tactility. The instructions on jaw position
perspective. A large part of his teachings was his
are perhaps less clear in their intent. Arguably
criteria for ‘correct’ mouth position (Whitener,
it is designed to help focus the sound, and
27). In summary, the mouth should not move
avoid ‘spreading’ the sound, and losing upper
between consecutive vowel sounds or a change of
resonance, however this advice somewhat breaks
note, the upper and lower teeth should be roughly
down when different registers are considered.
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In 1831 French tenor Gilbert Duprez became (in)famous for the first known high C (ut de poitrine - literally meaning ‘C of chest’).
Being one of the most studied aspects of singing
Gilbert Duprez became (in)famous for the first
teaching, the Garcian theory in registers is
known high C (ut de poitrine - literally meaning ‘C
complex and too convoluted to fully explore in this
of chest’). performed on stage in (what appeared
essay as his thoughts changed and developed with
to be) the chest register. Prior to this, tenors had
further research and time (Cathcart, 50). However,
resorted to voce di testa for high notes - a far
Garcia was able to practically demonstrate (Stark,
cry from that which modern audiences expect
69) his theory of two registers; the chest register
(Stark, 58). As this concept was so alien to the
and the falsetto-head register (Stark, 68) in 1841.
pedagogues of the time, Garcia’s theories on
He used his students to show that the chest
this technique were somewhat indecisive and
and the falsetto register overlapped (in an area
cautious. He insists that the idea of mixing
known as the passaggio), however the previously
registers is biologically impossible as each are
separate falsetto and head registers would not
distinct positions of the vocal structures. Instead,
overlap and could be joined up and sung smoothly
he suggests two ways to move above the passagio
through the range. Members of the Académie
(Stark, 74). The first creates a mellow and subtle
des Sciences were persuaded, and his theory is
timbre, using a relaxed pharynx, low larynx, small
now largely regarded as definitive (Cathcart, 49).
stream of air and loose glottal closure. One of the
As the voice moves up through the registers, the
few times Garcia advocated weak glottal closure,
general trend is in the decrease in cord mass,
the sound allows “the piano and mezza voce use
and in the highest notes of falsetto, only the
of this register in the high tones and thus the
edge of the cords vibrate (Stark, 69). A seemingly
dispensation of the excessive use of the falsetto
universal goal to most (singers and teachers alike),
tones” (Garcia, 161-2). This distinctive timbre
is to unite these registers in order to have free
is incredibly useful for delicate and vulnerable
reign over the compass of the voice (Stark, 58).
scenes in several genres. For example, Jerry
Arguably the most drastic change in technique to
Hadley’s 1990 Dalla Sua Pace at the Metropolitan,
accommodate for these registers is in the tenor
or the cadenza at the end of Una Furtiva Lagrima.
voice, above the passagio. In 1831 French tenor
His second suggestion is more familiar to tenors
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modern singers, and is presumably what Gilbert
(and therefore tension) of the vocal cords, and it
Duprez is said to have pioneered - known to
is allowed further range than it would normally
modern pedagogues as covered singing. Garcia
be in this tilted position, the voice is allowed
was wary about this new and somewhat radical
to continue in ‘normal’ (full) vocal function
technique as “exhaustion and paralysis of the
above the passagio (Sonninen, 80-6). Despite
organ are the inevitable and unfortunately too
Garcia’s concerns, this concept is constantly
frequent result of this procedure” (Garcia, 162-3), a
used by (largely male voices) to ascend to
concern shared by some modern teachers (Stark,
the highest pitches and is accepted by most
75). This is because it suggests a rather dramatic
contemporary vocal teachers and scientists.
and vigorous change in the handling of the vocal muscles, when in practise singers should be able
By the time of the Wagnerian German teachers,
to finely adjust their singing with ease. As a singer
the concept of carrying the full voice beyond
passes over and above the passagio, they should
the passagio seemed less alien and radical,
feel the slight darkening of the vowel, with an
beginning to be more widely welcomed and
increase of pharyngeal space, akin to a yawning
developed on. However, a small amount of
sensation. Some teachers choose to focus on
teachers (namely aforementioned George Armin)
the space between the back two molars in the
took this concept further, to what they called
mouth, increasing the resonating space at the
‘deckung’ singing (Whitener, 137). Whilst the
back of the throat, but preventing a spread sound
intention of a darker vowel and a lower larynx
at the lips. Biologically, these sensations correlate
remained, some singers interpreted this as
to the movement of the larynx to below or at its
artificially pressing the tongue down and back.
resting position by the sternothyroid muscle. As
Not only does this reduce supraglottic and
a result, the thyroid cartilage which is attached to
pharyngeal space, but it also causes the locking
the cricothyroid muscle tilts up and backwards.
of the laryngeal musculature which prevents the
As the cricothyroid muscle controls the elongation
tilt and therefore Italian ‘covering’ concept. It must be noted however, that this concept was radical and only accepted by a small number of teachers and quickly rejected by others; similar ideas were posited in Italy by the infamous Arturo Melocchi who taught Mario del Monaco and influenced Franco Corelli in the 1930s.
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Through examination of both contemporary and present-day texts and observations, one can argue that the Italian school (namely Garcia’s teaching) is fundamentally more natural, efficient and healthy for most voices than the Germanic school.
a positive direction. Without recording technology available of either era, this debate remains ambiguous to some extent as even canonical texts have moments of vagueness and contradiction. However, through examination of both contemporary and present-day texts and observations, one can argue that the Italian school (namely Garcia’s teaching) is fundamentally more natural, efficient and healthy for most voices than the Germanic school.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Through this research, it is clear that Manuel Garcia II was innovative and vital (however
BIBLIOGRAPHY
somewhat controversial) to the development
1.
of the traditional Italian bel canto technique,
2.
through his scienced based techniques - most
3.
importantly the coup de glotte. Radicals of the German style around the turn of the 20th century, as a reaction to the demanding and progressive writing of Richard Wagner’s ‘Musikdrama’ genre,
4.
resorted to more muscular, extreme techniques. To some extent these were a development of the Italian fundamental principles (as shown,
5.
there is much overlap to be found) that had been taken to extreme lengths in order to produce
6.
seemingly unnatural volumes and capacity for
7.
expression - attempting to fulfil the godly heights of Wagner’s works. It is unclear on Wagner’s view would have been had he known these radicals. It is clear he admired the fundamental technique of the Italians, but advocated for his new German
8. 9. 10.
school of singing which was supposedly better suited to his work (Fischer, 53-58). It is important
11.
to note that these two seemingly opposites of techniques were not taught in isolation from one
12.
another. Several Italian singers had successful careers in Wagner roles (Giuseppe Borgatti in 1904 was the first Italian tenor to appear at Bayreuth) and vice versa. Similarly, much of post-Wagner teaching draws from and collaborates with the Italian tradition in order to take vocal pedagogy in
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13. 14.
Stark, James. Bel Canto. University of Toronto Press, 28 Mar. 2003. Potter, John. Tenor. Yale University Press, 2 June 2009, p. 31. Whitener, Joshua J. The German School of Singing: A Compendium of German Treatises 1848-1965. Journal of Singing, vol. 75, no. 5, 14 Apr. 2016, p. 155, https://scholarworks.iu.edu/iuswrrest/ api/core/bitstreams/26cf5dd9-1b7d-4fbd-8d179f9f9a5c307e/content. Accessed 8 June 2025. Wagner, Richard. The Art-Work of the Future and Other Works. 1894. Translated by William Ashton Ellis, Lincoln; London, University of Nebraska Press, 1 Dec. 1993, p. 44. Cathcart, Robyn. The Singing School of Manuel Garcia II. 3 Dec. 2003, dspace.library.uvic.ca/server/ api/core/bitstreams/9dcbf969-696f-4616-924f13784bba5195/content. Accessed 10 June 2025. Marek, Dan H. Singing. Lanham, MD, Scarecrow Press, 28 Dec. 2006, p. 76. Lunn, Charles. The Philosophy of Voice: Showing the Right and Wrong Action of Voice in Speech or Song. 1878. Fourth ed., London, Baillière, Tindall & Cox. Froeschels, Emil. Hygiene of the Voice. Archives of Otalaryngology, vol. 38, 1943, pp. 122–130. Parr, S. Wagnerian Singing and the Limits of Vocal Pedagogy. Current Musicology, no. 105, Mar. 2020, doi:10.7916/cm.v0i105.5403 Husler, Frederick, and Yvonne Rodd-Marling. Singing: The Physical Nature of the Vocal Organ. London, Faber & Faber, 1965. Sundberg, Johan. Vocal Tract Resonance in Singing. Journal of Singing , vol. 44, no. 4, Mar. 1988, Accessed 19 June 2025 JOS-044-4-1988-011.pdf Garcia, Manuel. A Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing. 2. [English Translation of Garcia 1847, Part 2] . Collated, edited, translated by Donald V. Paschke, Da Capo Press, 1975. Sonninen, Aatto. The External Frame Function in the Control of Pitch in the Human Voice. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 155: 1968 Fischer, Jens M. The Opera Quarterly, Volume 11, Issue 4, 1995, https://doi.org/10.1093/oq/11.4.53 accessed 30/08/2025 Wagner and Bel Canto | The Opera Quarterly | Oxford Academic.
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FROM MUSE TO MONSTER:
DID ROMAN LOVE POETS LIBERATE OR INCARCERATE WOMEN IN THEIR POETRY?
ARTS HUMANITIES ANGUS SCOTT
This Independent Learning Assignment (ILA) was short-listed for the ILA/ ORIS Celebration Evening.
INTRODUCTION Roman love poetry flourished during the 1st Century
were transforming during this period. This
BCE. Through its combination of emotional
was particularly noticeable at the end of the
complexity and honest reflections the poets
Republic, a time of fundamental change in the
showcased their underlying feelings about socio
position of women in society. This essay, by
political issues during the late Republic and early
focussing on the presentation of the beloved in
Principate. Unsurprisingly, the predominantly
Roman love poetry, argues that the poets were
male authorship meant that the main focus was
using their works as a means of calling for the
on the experiences of men, however using the
liberation of women and also to campaign for
presentation of their beloveds the poets also
women to be able to enjoy the same privileges
managed to explore how the lives of women
as their male counterparts in relationships.
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THE CASE FOR SOCIAL CHANGE
Beauty
The first way in which the poets argued for the
was not only a sign of your wealth but also your
liberation of women was through their vivid
status. Women were pressured to parade the most
descriptions of them in their poetry. At the time
elaborate hair possible to show themselves as
there were strict expectations when it came to
being of exalted status3. Therefore, the fact that
appearance. Women were forced to conform to
Ovid goes against this, demonstrates his belief
traditional methods of hair styling and various
that women should not only have more freedom
poets used the medium of their literature to
in their style of hair but also should not be forced
condemn this and to argue that women should
to conform to traditional ideals. Later, Ovid goes
have the freedom to choose how they look. If we
further in his praise of her hair saying "Often,
focus on Ovid’s Amores (a series of elegies written
with your hair still uncombed you lay reclining on
about his love for Corinna), there is much attention
a bed of purple. But even neglected like that, it
given to the style of hair worn by Corinna. In fact,
was lovely, like a weary Thracian Maenad’s, lying
in Poem 1.14 Ovid complains that Corinna has
heedless on the emerald grass." In this description
1
been using too many dyes in
it is fascinating that Ovid
her hair which have weakened
chooses to compare her
it and led to it falling out.
natural hair to that of
Upon first reading one cannot
a Maenad and that he
help but be critical of Ovid
emphasises the fact that
for he not only condemns
it is free flowing. Both
how she looks but goes even
characteristics have strong
further by telling Corinna
underlying connotations
that what has happened was
of sexual activity as a
all her fault. However, this is
women would never
not the point that Ovid was
have let down her hair in
making. What he is trying to
public out of traditional
get across is that Corinna
modesty. Therefore, the
and all women should not
fact that Ovid celebrates
have to conform to traditional
this type of controversial
styles of beauty but should
hairstyle serves to
be free to choose their own
condemn the traditionalist
style. This is made clear when Ovid goes on to
views about how hair had to look in public.
describe the colour of her natural undyed hair as being "like a tall cedar, stripped of its bark, in a
Interestingly, Catullus like Ovid also emphasises
dewy valley of mountainous Ida" . This detailed
that just following traditional methods of making
description of the colour of her hair makes it
yourself look attractive does not make you
obvious to the reader that it is completely unique
beautiful. In fact in Poem 86 Catullus commends
to her and cannot be replicated through style.
the aesthetic beauty of Quintia (she is used as
2
a comparison to his Lesbia) saying "Quintia is For us as a 21 century audience, this idea of
thought beautiful by many" but then goes on to
wearing your hair how you like seems trivial but in
say that "I demur to {calling her} ‘beautiful’ for
the Late Republic and Early Principate your hair
she has no grace". Clearly here we see that in the
st
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RELATIONSHIPS eyes of Catullus what makes Lesbia special is not
A call to liberation can also be seen in the
her physical attraction alone but her personality
presentation of the relationship between the lover
and the characteristics she displays . This
and his beloved. At a time when male superiority
4
was interwoven into all areas of society it
makes the case that the beauty
was typical to see a male dominated
of a women does not simply
relationship however some poets
come from following traditional ideas of physical beauty but
drew emphasis on a balanced
from the combination of a
relationship to demonstrate
woman’s own unique beauty
the necessity for women
combined with her character.
to be liberated from the control of men. Evidence
Although the way in which
of this can be seen in
the writers have brought out
Catullus’ Poem 72, when
the points seems a particularly
he tells his puella, Lesbia,
subtle way of commenting
that "I loved you then, not only
on the freedom of women, it is
as common men their girlfriend
important to remember that these
but as a father loves his sons".
poets were writing at a time when there
For a 21st century audience the
were masculine ideals that they were
prospect of a wife being compared to her partner’s son is without a doubt
expected to follow and thus challenging
belittling however in the late Republican period
them too overtly would have been dangerous.
1 Although mentioned here in conjunction with Roman love poetry, earlier lyric poetry also explores the same themes of beauty such as Sappho (Fragment 16) which compares the beauty of her lover Anactoria to that of Helen of Troy. 2 The significance of the reference to Ida here is that Mount Ida was sacred to the goddess Cybele and thus had connotations of sanctity. 3 This was especially the case in the early Principate when Augustus came to power as he brought with him a household of women who became symbols of the ideal Roman woman and thus many women tried to replicate their style (like Livia’s notorious nodus style) to show themselves as being integrated with the regime. 4 This idea of appreciating beauty as not only being physical beauty but also being your personality can be traced back to the Greek lyric poet Sappho who focussed on the idea of ‘χάρις’ or {charm} which was the idea that the beauty of one’s lover did not solely lie in their beauty but also in their personality. As a result of this it is likely that Catullus is drawing inspiration from Sappho in these lines.
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the father-son bond was one of the strongest
even when Catullus is describing his lover in this
bonds as eventually the father’s legacy, estates
way he still acknowledges her independent power.
and even his position at the head of the family
For when he talks about her adulterers, he uses
would be passed down to his son. As a result of
an encircling word order of ‘suis ... moechis’ to
this, by comparing his love to the father-son bond,
demonstrate how they all gravitate around her
Catullus demonstrates that he believes that his
control. Not only that but he then goes on to use
beloved is more important than just an object of
a simile comparing his Lesbia to a plough which
passion and is someone worthy to carry on his
is associated with strength and power. Although
legacy. The fact that he promotes women in such
Catullus is certainly not endorsing the behaviour
a way displays his desire that women should be
of Lesbia in this passage, the fact that he pays
liberated from the control of a man and should
tribute to her control demonstrates his opinion
be able to enjoy equality in a relationship.
that women should be viewed in a stronger light.
Catullus’ own life experiences may well have inspired him to act in this way. Born in approximately 84 BCE, Catullus grew up during years of Civil War1 which characterised the collapse of the Roman Republic. Men were away from their families for extended periods of time and thus women became more influential and significant2. It is therefore possible that Catullus saw the fundamental importance of women in this period and thus used his poetry to not only acknowledge them but also to advocate that they should receive even more freedom. Further evidence of this can be seen in Poem 87 where he describes how "No faith so great was ever found in any contract as on my part in love of you". It is interesting that in
Overall, Catullus through his portrayal of
this context Catullus chooses to use the Latin
equality in a relationship promotes the
word ‘foedus’ which has connotations of being
importance of the liberation of women from
an equal agreement between two separate
their inferior position in their relationships.
individuals or states. The fact that he does this illustrates that in his eyes, for true love a man and woman must be on an equal standing. Catullus’ portrayal of his Lesbia is not wholly positive. In Poem 11 for example, he uses his friends Furius and Aurelius to send a message to her saying "Let her live and be happy with her adulterers" (cum suis vivat valeatque moechis) before going on to describe how his love has been destroyed "like a flower on the meadow’s edge when it has been touched by the plough passing by"3. Clearly here we see Catullus being significantly more critical about Lesbia however 82
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Just two years after Catullus’ supposed birth Sulla introduced Proscriptions and the result was mass confiscation of land. Then just a few years later in 77 BCE Lepidus raised an army and marched on Rome. All these events resulted in men either being forced to join the army or in losing all their power and influence. This meant that the responsibilities which had never previously been conferred on women were now being given to them. 2 One of the most fascinating examples of this during the years of Civil chaos can be seen in Marcus Tullius Cicero’s letters to Terentia (his wife) when he uses her as an essential proxy master of the house carrying out the daily administration on behalf of him while he is away in Thessalonica and Dyrrachium. At one moment he says ‘About our slaves, we will do what you say is the opinion of our friends’ which strongly suggests that Terentia is the one organising the domestic administration while Cicero is away. 3 This poem is in Sapphic Meter which makes the fact that he is condemning his love for Lesbia even more profound and poignant as he is not only denouncing Lesbia but is using the meter of one of the most influential love poets to do this. 1
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FREEDOM So far, the focus has been on the male poets’ views of the freedom that women should have in society. However, during the late republic and early empire women were gaining more freedom in all aspects of life1 resulting in activities, including writing poetry, being enjoyed by women as well. Sulpicia was one such person. Unlike her male counterparts, Sulpicia did not have the pressure of upkeeping masculine values and thus she was much more liberal in her campaigning for women’s freedom. Of Sulpicia's works a series of short poems remain for us to read, situated in the corpus of Tibullus. Her female perspective serves to give her a vastly different viewpoint from the male authors and she uses this to call for women to gain more freedom in all areas of domestic life not only in relationships but also in
Sulpicia then goes even further in her poetry to
making decisions. In one particularly poignant
call for more freedom for women when, upon
moment, Sulpicia writes "cum digno digna fuisse
being summoned to attend a birthday celebration
ferar" (let all hear that we have met, each worthy
away from her lover Cerinthus, she writes that
of the other). The fact that Sulpicia emphasises
"force forbids my living mistress of myself"
the equal worthiness of the two lovers through
(arbitrio quam vis non sinit esse meo). Here,
the polyptoton of ‘digno... digna’, implies that
Sulpicia’s words serve to emphasise the anguish
she is critical of the unbalanced relationships
she feels at never having the freedom to make
prevalent in the Roman Republic and that she
her own decisions (notice how the polarisation
believes women should be liberated from being
of ‘arbitrio .... meo’ further draws attention to
controlled by a man so that they can enjoy
this discontent). It is likely that this was a feeling
equality in all aspects of society. From a modern
shared with many women during the period
perspective this is not surprising however in the
and thus Sulpicia is using her poetry to call for
ancient world this was incredibly significant .
freedom for all women suffering as she has.
2
Evidence of this can be seen as early as 42 BCE when Hortensia addressed the triumvirs on the tribunal platform in the forum after a motion had been passed with the result that women were forced to give away their property to the state even after they had lost their father/brother in the Civil Wars. Clearly Hortensia's speech marked a pivotal moment in the Republic as it demonstrated that women could not only have their opinions heard but also could engage in activities usually reserved for men such as oratory. This inspired other women to also indulge in activities traditionally reserved for men and one of these women was the poet Sulpicia. 2 Evidence of this imbalance can be seen in 18 BCE (slightly after the time of writing of Sulpicia) when Augustus passed the 'lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis'. This set of laws despite being on adultery was primarily directed against the woman who was involved in the adultery and thus created a visible imbalance in the relationship between a man and his wife. 1
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SUPPORTING THE STATUS QUO?
The two most notable examples of these were
Conversely, the idea of liberation is not reflected
Clodia and Sempronia4. In the case of Clodia,
by some poets. In the period of the late Republic
Cicero in his Pro Caelio accuses her of plotting
some women were able to prophet lucratively
with her slaves to frame Caelius, giving money to
from the turmoil created by Civil War and
Caelius for him to use in a crime and of committing
established for themselves enormous amounts
incest with her brother Clodius Pulcher. In the
of wealth and power. They became a symbol (in
case of Sempronia Sallust goes into vibrant detail
the eyes of the male citizens) of depravity and
about her overly luxurious life (and tendency to
excess and thus inspired some poets to call for
artistic flare) which eventually led her to become
them to have their freedom limited. The poet
entangled in the Catiline Conspiracy of 63 BCE
Propertius for example uses his puella Cynthia
when she plotted along with other disgruntled
to try and show his audience that giving women
Republican citizens to march against Rome.
freedom not only threatens their own safety
In both cases we see Propertius condemning
but also the stability of society. Throughout his
women who had exploited the opportunities
poems Propertius compares Cynthia to various
provided by the Civil War. The fact that he
mythological women who consistently defied
compares her to specific mythological women
their traditional gender roles and values.
suggests that he does not want the reader to treat his observations generically but rather view
In Poem 1.3, Propertius compares Cynthia to
them as applying to those select individuals who
Ariadne, Andromeda, and an Edonian Bacchante . 1
exploited the opportunities given by the Civil War.
Although each of these women individually had a completely different story, they all shared
Overall, whilst Propertius in his poetry does
a common characteristic; they all suffered
allude to the necessity of limiting women’s
terribly because a single woman gained more
freedom, he is specific in condemning
freedom than her gender traditionally allowed .
women whose unique position in society
Not only that but Propertius further attributes
gives them exceptional freedom.
2
descriptions to these women which amplifies their vulnerability, for example Ariadne is described as ‘languida’ (weak), Andromeda as ‘accubuit’ (collapsed) and the Bacchante as ‘fessa’ (tired). When reading this it seems incredibly surprising that Propertius, would choose such negative women and on top of that a semantic field of vulnerability to compare his lover with3 the fact that he does this therefore showcases that Propertius is using his lover Cynthia as a warning of the consequences of allowing individual women to gain too much independence for themselves. Given the time of writing coupled with the fact that Propertius is using mythological women who were far from ordinary in their socio-political situation, it is evident that he is targeting those individual women who gained unparalleled power and influence during the early part of the 1st Century BCE.
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1 This is not the only time where this happens. Other examples include Medea (2.21) and Clytemnestra (3.19). It is important to note that many of these mythological women feature prominently in Euripides’ Tragedies with many acting as tragic heroes and thus their use in Propertius undoubtably serves to compare Cynthia to the traditional female tragic hero of the classical period. 2 Ariadne betrayed her father the King Minos to help Jason against the Minotaur but then was abandoned by Jason at Naxos. In the case of Andromeda her mother was overly boastful of her beauty which led to Poseidon growing angry and chaining her up to a rock by the sea. Finally the Bacchants were notorious women who defied their position and ran away from their families to the mountains to worship Bacchus (the most famous case of this was recorded in Euripides' Bacchae which eventually resulted in one of the Bacchants, Agave, ripping apart her own son in a mad frenzy). 3 Especially given that there are countless examples during Propertius’ Poems where much more favourable women are mentioned but Cynthia is never directly compared to them. Some examples include Calypso (1.15), Hypsipyle (1.15), Briseis (2.9 A) and Penelope (2.9A). 4 Other influential women mentioned by Helen E Wieand in her article ‘The position of women in the Late Republic’ include Fulvia and Mucia (third wife of Pompey).
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CONCLUSION This essay began by focussing on the presentation of beauty in love poetry. Ovid’s portrayal of Corinna’s natural beauty combined with Catullus’ depiction of what true beauty really entailed served to subtly call for the liberation of women from previous traditions. This was further built upon by Catullus’ efforts to compare his relationship with his lover to the father-son bond and through his acknowledgement of his lover’s influence amongst men. Unsurprisingly, the female poet Sulpicia, brought an even more pronounced cry for liberation as she overtly celebrated equal relationships between men and women. Although Propertius was much more critical in his depiction of the freedom of women, this was particular to specific cases rather than applying in general. Overall, despite Propertius’ scepticism of the increasing power of certain women in the late Republic, the majority of poets not only acknowledged the increasing freedom of women but went even further by calling for their liberation from the control of men and the traditions which surrounded them.
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The majority of poets not only acknowledged the increasing freedom of women but went even further by calling for their liberation from the control of men and the traditions which surrounded them.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources 1.
2.
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5. 6.
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Catullus, G.V. (1998) Catullus: The Complete Poems Guy Lee. Translated by G. Lee. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cicero, M. et al. (1982) ‘155. Cicero on Clodia. Rome 56 BC’, in Women’s life in Greece & Rome A source book in translation. 2nd edn. London, UK: Duckworth, pp. 147–149. Cicero, M. (2000) M. Tullius Cicero, letters to his friends Evelyn S Shuckburgh, Perseus Digital Library. Translated by E.S. Shuckburgh. Available at: http:// www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perse us%3Atext%3A1999.02.0022%3Atext%3DF%3A book%3D14%3Aletter%3D1 (Accessed: 2025). Ovid (2001) Ovid: The Amores Book 1 A S Kline, Poetry in Translation. Translated by A.S. Kline. Available at: https://www.poetryintranslation.com/ PITBR/Latin/AmoresBkI.php (Accessed: 2025). Propertius, S. (2004) The Complete Elegies of Sextus Propertius Vincent Katz. Translated by V. Katz. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Sulpicia, POSTGATE, J.P. and Goold, G.P. (2017) ‘Sulpicia’, in Catullus. Tibullus. Pervigilium Veneris. 2nd edn. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press (LCL), pp. 333–337.
Secondary Sources
Chen, Y. (2023) ‘The change in upper-class women’s social status between the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the roman empire’, Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, 8(1), pp. 516–520. doi: 10.54097/ehss.v8i.4299. 8. Culham, P. (2014) ‘Women in the Roman Republic’, The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, pp. 127–148. doi: https:// doi.org/10.1017/CCO9781139424783. 9. Drinkwater, M.O. (2013) THE WOMAN’S PART: THE SPEAKING BELOVED IN ROMAN ELEGY, JSTOR. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/ stable/23470088 (Accessed: 2025). 10. Flaschenriem, B.L. (1999) ‘Sulpicia and the Rhetoric of Disclosure’, Classical Philology, 94(1), pp. 36–54. doi:10.1086/449415. 11. Goddard, E.H. (1923) ‘Propertius, Cynthia, and Augustus’, The Classical Review, 37(7–8), pp. 153–156. doi:10.1017/s0009840x00085152.
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12. Hallett, J.P. (1973) ‘The Role of Women in Roman Elegy: Counter Cultural Feminism’, Arethusa, 6, pp. 103–124. 13. James, S.L. (2010) ‘IPSA dixerat’: Women’s words in Roman love elegy, JSTOR. Available at: https:// www.jstor.org/stable/23074749 (Accessed: 2025). 14. Luard, P. (2022) Miser catulle? making a powerless Catullus & a powerful lesbia , SENTENTIAE ANTIQUAE. Available at: https://sententiaeantiquae. com/2022/01/28/miser-catulle-making-a-powerlesscatullus-a-powerful-lesbia/ (Accessed: 2025). 15. Lyne, R.O. (1979) ‘Servitium Amoris’, The Classical Quarterly, 29(1), pp. 117–130. doi: https://doi. org/10.1017/S0009838800035229. 16. Maltby, R. (2006) ‘Major themes and motifs in Propertius’ love poetry’, Brill’s Companion to Propertius, pp. 145–181. doi:10.1163/9789047404835_008. 17. Manolian, C. (2021) ‘Elite women as tools of power in first-century C.E. Rome’, Binghamton University Undergraduate Journal, 7(1). doi:10.22191/buuj/7/1/8. 18. Miller, P.A. (2013) ‘The puella: Accept no substitutions!’, in T.S. Thorsen (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Latin Love Elegy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Companions to Literature), pp. 166–179. 19. Skoie, M. (2013) ‘“The woman”’, in T.S. Thorsen (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Latin Love Elegy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Companions to Literature), pp. 83–96. 20. Miller, P.A. (2021) Unspeakable enjoyment in Catullus (80, 16, 11, 63), Dictynna. Revue de poétique latine. Available at: https://doi. org/10.4000/dictynna.2564 (Accessed : 2025). 21. Wieand, H.E. (1917) ‘The position of women in the late Roman Republic. part I’, The Classical Journal, 12, pp. 378–392. Available at: http:// www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/3288382?re freqid=fastly-default (Accessed: 2025). 22. Wieand, H.E. (1917b) ‘The position of women in the late Roman Republic. part II’, The Classical Journal, 12(1), pp. 423–437. Available at: http:// www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/3287948?ref reqid=fastly-default (Accessed: 2025). 23. Wyke, M. (1989) ‘Mistress and Metaphor in Augustan Elegy’, American Journal of Philology, 16(1), pp. 25–47.
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DOES FREE SPEECH BUILD OR BREAK A COMMUNITY?
N AT I O N A L
ESSAY
COMPETITION
MARCUS PERKIN
This essay won the Karen Becher national essay competition, run by the National Holocaust Museum.
INTRODUCTION Communities are fragile concepts (Bauman,
Press, 2024) defines ‘community’ in several
2000). Most people struggle to identify
ways, including groups based on geography,
a physical community they belong to, yet
identity, and common interests. This essay will
historically, they have been essential for trust
consider all three when exploring whether free
and societal efficacy (Anderson, 2010). The
speech helps build and sustain communities or
Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford University
undermines them to the point of dissolution.
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Free speech is often correlated with diversity,
European communities thrived, remaining
allowing the discussion of a broad range of
cohesive through faith. These settlements still
ideas that may otherwise be suppressed. This
form the roots of settlements in Europe today.
diversity of thought is beneficial as a variety in
This demonstrates that censorship can provide
ways of thinking means that a range of views
stability to communities, helping them to
are put forward, and that these are evaluated
survive. On the other hand, as later discussed,
and judged fairly by those that see certain
this was not without heavy religious conflict.
concepts differently: substantiated discourse
Repression bred resentment and a desire for
occurs, strengthening decision-making (Page,
retribution. A mix of underground movements,
2007). When people with diverse perspectives
violent resistance, and rulers converting
can critique ideas, the consensus becomes
meant that Protestantism eventually became
more robust and well-developed. This is why a
commonplace, especially in Britain and the
diversity of opinions, resulting from the freedom
Low Countries, despite the opposition it faced.
of speech, forms part
Whilst censorship initially
of the core of modern
maintained order, this
Western democracy.
division challenges the idea
This is emphasised
that restrictions on speech
by a societal and
increase the long-term
governmental emphasis
survival of communities
on diversity (Ely and
and their strength.
Thomas, 2020; Gedling Borough Council,
However, in certain
2021). Diverse ideas are
cases, censorship may
instrumental to Western
still aid communities. In
communities as way to
a theoretical sense, the
decide on courses of
harm free speech presents
action together. In many
is clear: by allowing the
communities, elected councils, commissions, and
expression of dissent, it is allowed to spread.
boards ensure free speech. Their representative
As unity often depends on shared beliefs and
members reflect the community’s diversity,
leadership, this can lead to fragmentation,
leading to better decision-making. Since beneficial
damaging the community. This is linked to the
decisions promote community development, this
idea of social change cascading. For example,
suggests free speech helps build communities.
in the United Kingdom, homosexuality was decriminalised in 1967, the age of consent was
However, restrictions on speech are not entirely
equalised in 2001, and same-sex marriage was
negative for communities. In medieval Europe,
legalised in 2013. It is unlikely the latter two would
the Roman Catholic Church denounced heresies,
have occurred without the first. Repressing
what were perceived as sinful, blasphemous
non-mainstream concepts, such as homosexuality,
differences in theology and religious practices,
can delay social change. This division prevents
leading to severe persecution. The Waldensian
integration between minority and majority groups.
movement, for example, was zealously hunted -
However, by making these unorthodox ideas
their brutal mistreatment started with the burning
less visible, they inevitably spread much slower.
of eighty of their members in Strasbourg in 1211
This limits the amount of dissent and otherness,
(Ellwood and Alles, 2007). Despite restrictions
providing common ground for the community.
on religious speech, many medieval Catholic
This highlights how the restriction of speech can
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aid community-building. By regulating speech,
unorthodox ideas continue to spread—albeit
governments can enforce unity within their
slowly. The British government’s efforts to
community, strengthening them against external
suppress homosexuality only intensified the
pressures and promoting internal stability.
gay rights movement, which reached a peak
Another example of this is Joseph Stalin’s Great
in the late 20th century due to the AIDS crisis
Purge, which, through censorship and propaganda
and with the repressive Section 28 of the
with harsh punishments for alleged dissent,
Local Government Act 1988. Similarly, what
created a unified front that allowed for military and
were perceived as heresies survived in Europe
economic success, such as the Five-Year Plans
despite several inter-denominational wars—the
and rapid Soviet industrialisation, contributing to
Albigensian Crusade, the Hussite Wars, and the
their resilience during the Second World War, and
Eighty Years’ War to name a few—and the severe
thereby strengthening their community. However,
punishment of dissenters such as Jan Hus and
the long-term damage to individual freedoms,
Thomas Cranmer through torture and execution.
extensive human costs the purges had, and the
Nowadays, these ‘heresies’ are widespread in
creation of a culture of fear, suggest that whilst
Europe, Protestants accounting for a fifth of
extreme censorship may provide short-term
European Christians (Pew Research Center,
stability, it undermines the fundamental values
2011). This shows that restrictions on speech can
of trust and collaboration that sustain a healthy
be ineffective at containing unwanted ideas and
community. The fear-driven loyalty it produced
thus do not always help to promote unity within
was unsustainable, necessitating reforms
a community. Additionally, strict impositions
as part of de-Stalinisation, as introduced by
may exacerbate tensions, both inside the
Stalin’s successor, Nikita Khrushchev.
community and externally, causing more conflict. This means that restrictions on speech may
Moreover, history also shows that this censorship
even help to damage and break a community by
is often ineffective. Even under strict censorship,
introducing irreparable social and legal divides.
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Today, free speech is widely recognised as a fundamental human right, with censorship like that overseen by the Lord Chamberlain in the UK prior to the 1960s being rare in developed countries (Handley, 2004). Despite this, a sense of community has declined in real life. Trust, neighbourly conversation, and overall cohesion have significantly fallen within local communities in the last decade (Borkowska and Laurence, 2021). A sense of belonging has been on the decline for the last decade, as well as reported membership of political, voluntary, professional, or recreational organisations (Mohdin, 2020). However, this trend applies
A sense of belonging has been on the decline for the last decade, as well as reported membership of political, voluntary, professional, or recreational organisations
Mohdin, 2020.
mainly to physical communities, not virtual ones. Future evaluation should consider how digital communities, such as those on platforms such as microblogs, imageboards, and forums, are affected by free speech and censorship.
CONCLUSION Ultimately, free speech is crucial in the early stages of a community. In a vulnerable state, informed decision-making improves survival. By leading to the free exchange of ideas, free speech fosters trust, social equality, and democracy, helping decision-making. However, whilst gentle censorship may increase social cohesion and harmony by slowing the spread of minority viewpoints, this often leads to greater unrest and division in the long term. Free speech enables communities to adapt and evolve in response to changing circumstances, fostering trust, progress, and effective decision-making, essential for enduring unity and resilience. In contrast, heavy-handed restrictions, as in medieval Europe and the USSR, weaken the very foundations of communities by stifling discourse and creating artificial, fear- driven unity. This has ultimately led to entrenched divisions and perceptions that mean these restrictions have continued to harm society, such as in the Troubles, originating from sectarian divide in Northern Ireland. Therefore, despite the risk of divisive opinions, free speech remains essential to sustainable communities. Rather than breaking them, it allows them to rebuild, reform, and grow stronger. 90
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JUDGING PANEL Michael Royds, International Education Director, RGS Guildford Louise Ford - Head of Senior School, RGSG Dubai James Creighton - Deputy Head (Academic), RGSG Muscat.
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