PNGAF MAGAZINE ISSUE #9D3 of 12th Dec 2021. Rehabilitation PNG's Degraded Tropical Moist Rainforest by rbmccarthy

AUSTRALIAN FORESTERS in PAPUA NEW GUINEA 1922-1975

PNGAF MAGAZINE ISSUE # 9D3 of 12th Dec 2021 THE DEVELOPMENT OF PNG’s FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Rehabilitation of PNG’s Degraded Tropical Moist Rainforest Editor R B McCarthy1 2021.

Dick McCarthy District Forester TPNG 1963-1975. Harvesting Open Bay NB 1974 Photo credit Ian Whyte. 3 Natural forest regeneration Open Bay NB 1974. Photo credit Ian Whyte. 4 Stages of subsistence gardening, fallow, and regrowth Gogol TA Madang. Photo credit Ian Whyte. 5 Harvesting 1974 Vanimo Block 6. Photo credit Ian Whyte. 6 Wewak North Coast PNG Rainforest recovery after harvesting disturbance. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 1995. 7 Forest Dieback Ok Tedi/Fly River Floodplains. Source Ok Tedi Mining Rehabilitation Program. 8 Reforestation Naturally Technique Tom Vigus 1996. Kandrian Gloucester Project Kimbe WNB. 1 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS “FORWOOD”

page 7

Introduction Some Pertinent Facts re Water Some Pertinent Facts re Population Pressures

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Background to the Rehabilitation of Degraded Tropical Moist Rainforests FAO studies Synnott and Kemp Dawkins 1959 FAO 1970, 1974, Lamb 1969, King 1968, Nwoboshi 1975, Moore 1975 Enrichment planting in gaps Line or group planting Close planting

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Progress in Understanding Degraded Tropical Moist Rainforest’s Ecology Stand Structure, Species Composition, Diversity and Dynamics Swaine and Hall 1983 Natural Regeneration of tropical moist rainforests Synnott and Kemp 1976 Swaine and Whitmore 1988 Richards 1966, Gomez-Pompa 1971, Smith 1973 Riddock et al., 1991 Adaptation to light and temperature Denslow 1980 Hutchinson, 1986a Seed development and dispersal Soils of tropical rainforests Influences of Human Impact on Tropical Moist Rainforests Shifting cultivation Baur, 1968, Gomez-Pompa, 1971 Maintaining strict natural conditions under non-disturbance Fire management Frost and Robertson, 1987 Swaine et al. 1987 Harvesting of timber and other products Hawthorne, 1993 Silviculture and management practices Swaine and Hall, 1983 FAO, 1997a, b, 1998a, b Objectives of Management Synnott and Kemp 1976 Demand for Specialised (Cabinet Woods) Timber Conservation of soil and water resources Gilmour 1971 Conservation of Genetic resources Social Objectives Employment

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Food Recreational and environmental benefits Constraints on Forest Management Land Availability Land Capability Van Baren 1974, Fraser, 1975 Forest Capability Financial Resources Human and Technical Resources History of Natural Regeneration Techniques for Moist Tropical Rainforest with relevance to PNG Forests Globally Baur 1962 Andaman Islands Griffin 1947 Malaysia Barnard 1954 North Borneo Nicholson 1958a Nigeria/Ghana Trinidad Ayliffe 1952 Puerto Rico Wadsworth 1947 Queensland Just (1987) Malaysia Wyatt Smith 1963 Troup 1928 Barnard 1954 Nicholson 1958 Enrichment planting Tat and Wadley in 1972/73 FAO Studies Malaysia Schmidt 1986 Leslie, 1985 Hutchinson 1986 a, b FAO/PNUE, 1981 a, b, c Burgess 1975 Salleh and Baharudin, 1985 Chai and Udarbe, 1977 Fox and Hepburn 1972 UNDP/FAO, 1982 a Hutchinson, 1981, 1986 a, b Baur, 1964 Hutchinson 1986 Wadsworth 1969 McCarthy 1976 Philippines 3

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UNDP/FAO 1970 a Nillson, Marsch and Singh, 1978 Indonesia Wood, Vanclay and wan Razali Wan Hohd 1993 Van Alphen de Veer, 1953 Beekman 1949 Steup, 1955 Soerianegara 1973, Soerianegara & Kartawinata, 1985 Smits, 1983 Wiersum, 1980, Michon and Bompard 1987 Kartasubrata 1990, 1991, Bratamihardja 1990 Coster and Hardjowasono, 1935 Beekman 1949 Kartasubrata, 1979; Wiersum, 1982 Simon and Wiersum, 1992 Tropical Americas Africa Nigeria Côte d'Ivoire Ghana Gabon International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO) Forest Management in Queensland Tropical Moist Rainforests Just 1987 Vanclay 1990 Vanclay 1989 b Preston & Vanclay 1988 Horne & Gwalter 1982 Gilmour 1971 Gillman et al 1985 Congdon and Lamb 1990 Nicholson et al 1988/1990 Crome et al 1992 Stocker 1981/1983 Unwin 1983/1988 Webb & Tracey 1981 Crome and Moore 1989/1990 Preston & Vanclay 1988/1989 Vok 1975 Problems and Opportunities Salleh and Baharudin 1985 Hutchinson 1986a Henry 1989 Hopkins 1990 Shugart et al 1980 Gilmour 2016 Shepherd and Richter 1985 Poore 1989

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Sist et al. 1998 page 62 Enters et al. 2002 FAO 1985a, 1986b Lamb and Gilmour (2003) Asia Pacific Forest Rehabilitation Network (APFReN) Lamb 2019

page 62 page 62 page 64 page 64 page 65

PNG’s Geography PNG’s Vegetation Ecological Basis for PNG’s Rainforest Management PNG Soils Impact of PNG Agricultural Systems on PNG Soil Fertility Fallowing

page 66 page 66 page 68 page 70 page 70 page 71

PNG Experiences with Natural Regeneration Treatments Baur 1962 McCarthy 1963 Davidson 1968 Womersley 1958 Enrichment Planting Klinkii 1969 Havel 1971 Gray 1973 New Horizons 1973 PNG Experiences Whyte 1975 Gray 1975

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Post-1975

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White K J 1976 Gillison 1976 Enright 1976 Johns 1976 Johns 1977 Enright 1978 Enright 1978 Johns 1983 Saulei 1984 Saulei 1985 Johns 1987 Buenaflor & Tiki 1987 Saulei 1988 Kingston 1988 Arentz, Johns, Lamothe, Matcham, Simaga & Taurereko 1989 Natural Rainforest Regeneration Impact on PNG Forestry Barnett Inquiry 1989 Amos 1990 Vanclay 1990 New National Forest Policy 1990 5

page 108 page 108 page 108 page 109 page 109

New Forest Act 1991 Johns 1989 Johns 1990 Johns 1992 Johns 1983 Taylor 1964 Siaguru 1992 Oavika 1992 Nir & Srivastava 1992 Bun 1992 Vigus 1993 Petilami 1994 NFCAP 1994 World Bank 1994 Sustained Yield Harvesting Cameron and Vigus 1994 Vigus 1994 Vigus 1996 Saulei & Kiapranis 1996 The adoption of a National Forest Plan 1996 PNG Logging Code of Practice 1996 The adoption of new Forestry Regulations 1998 Oavika 1995 Page 1997 Vigus 1998 Reforestation Naturally Technique Hurahura 1998 Alder 1998 Alder 1999 Vigus 2000 Turia 2005 Shearman 2008 et al Filer, Keenan, Allen and McAlpine 2009 PNG NFS Policy 2009 Pearson 2019

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Case Study 2021 Rehabilitation Works - Ok Tedi Fly River Floodplains PNG page 134

page 134

References

page 143

Acronyms

page 157

“FORWOOD” Globally FAO estimated that there are some two billion hectares of degraded tropical forests in the world. Often, these are remnant forests, left over from harvesting of wood and nonwood forest products. The soils in these areas are usually susceptible to erosion and have low fertility. These forest areas are often susceptible to forest fires.

Tropical forest ecological zones (FAO) However, some species of trees thrive in these degraded ecosystems and often, due to the poor soils, such sites have few alternative uses (other than to be used as forests). The role of foresters in a cost-effective way, is to apply the use of natural regeneration techniques/agro forestry/conservation techniques as currently known and yet to be developed, across some two billion hectares of degraded tropical forest lands in the tropics. In tropical forest where the harvesting operation is based on a selection system with only merchantable stems above a certain diameter being removed, the theory being that the smaller stems will grow over a nominal 35-year period. Concerns re the selection system of management include: • • • •

That without proper monitoring, harvesting operators may remove smaller species. That even if smaller stems are not removed, poor harvesting techniques can damage the remaining smaller stems and they may not recover from that damage. Excessive logging may so change the character of the forest, that the resultant smaller stems may not survive. In areas of high population density, the proliferation of unsustainable practices is a major problem. Logging in accessible areas of these moist tropical forests is intense and deforestation and forest degradation prevails. 7

• •

The pressure to convert forestland to farmland to meet expanding agricultural requirements is often intense. Setting aside forests for protection or for sustained production of wood in areas of high population density is difficult because of the generally high opportunity costs and political costs of such actions.

Much of the early work in PNG during the 1950’s and 1960’s on the development of silvicultural systems involving natural regeneration techniques, was based on a composite of Malayan systems interlinked with North Queensland moist rainforest silvicultural systems. At the same time, these activities together, had to interlink with the impacts of the historical processes of shifting cultivation, fallowing, selective forest tree harvesting and the impact of the introduction of steel axes. Renewed effort in the 1990’s resulted in Vigus’s9 development of the technique of Reforestation Naturally. This technique developed by Vigus meant looking after the natural regeneration that occurs after logging through tending. If, at the first tending there were gaps, enrichment planting was undertaken with transplanted seedlings from nurseries or elsewhere from within the forest area. This process was developed such that land ownership resides with the people rather than governments. The North Queensland experience demonstrated that moist tropical rainforest can be sustainably managed for wood production, provided adequate attention is given to tree marking as a silvicultural tool. Cameron and Vigus 1994 review10 identified issues as: • •

Effect of shade on regeneration in relation to silviculture. Effect of controlled logging practices and silviculture implications for sustainable forest management.

All authors referred to in this magazine, emphasized that timber stand improvement techniques follow the Baur’s11 decree of the maintenance of ecological processes. This is to limit the impact of timber harvesting on the tropical forest and at the same time ensure maintenance of biodiversity and optimising community benefits. The PNG Logging Code of Practice 1996 was introduced to ensure reduced impact of logging operations on the residual stands of the rainforest and protection of watersheds. Richards12 1997, in comparing the Queensland rainforest silvicultural practices for selection rainforest logging compared to the present rainforest logging system in PNG, posed the following issues to be addressed, once a detailed review of the current system in PNG was undertaken: •

Should the minimum cutting diameter be the same for all species?

Vigus T 1998 Paper “Planim diwai – a discussion on the social, economic and conservation issues of monoculture forestry plantations and reforestation naturally.” AFPNG Lae Conference 1998. 10 Cameron A L & Vigus T 1993. Papua New Guinea Volume and Growth Study: Regeneration and Growth of the Tropical Moist Rainforest in Papua New Guinea and the Implications for Future Harvest. Brisbane CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology (for the World Bank). 11 Baur G 1962 The Ecological Basis of Rainforest Management Andre Mayer Fellow 1961-62 UN FAO 499p. 12 Richards B 1997 The Silvicultural Imperative in Forest Management First Forester’s Refresher School June 1997 Lae PNG. PNG Forestry HRD Project AusAid. 9

• • • • • •

Should tree marking rules be formulated and written into the PNG LCOP? Should rules for the identification and marking of residuals be included in the PNG LCOP? Should there be a requirement for the retention of seed trees? What is the minimum economic cut for the various forest types? Would it be economically efficient to work on a shorter cutting cycle to service a downstream processing industry? What research is needed to provide the data and information required for sustainable timber management of PNG’s moist tropical rainforests?

Globally, a common feature of discontinued natural forest management programmes in tropical moist forests is that technical feasibility is never cited as the reason for the discontinuation. Often political developments have meant that institutions dealing with forest management have been given new directions, and new techniques, promising more rapid results than those achieved through the relatively slow growth of natural forests. These are not problems of species diversity, lack of understanding of ecosystem dynamics, inability to retain adequate regeneration or lack of response to silvicultural treatment. The problems concern land-use policy, socio-economic conditions, and political realities. A large part of the problem is that the productive potential of abundant resources is undervalued. The problem is to expand the time horizons of policy makers. The tropical world already offers many examples of the consequences of continuing to neglect sustainable resource management policies. Once productive capacity has been reduced, efforts to restore it become very expensive. Although more information would be useful in areas such as growth and yield statistics, annual increment, and sustainable removals, there is now enough information to implement a sustainable natural system of management. Any claim that the silvicultural and yield regulatory elements are the limiting factors to the advancement of forest management is hard to sustain. National forest policy must ensure that population development is in harmony with the optimum productive capacity of land available. Institutions responsible for management must have long-term programme stability, with stable leadership in key positions to provide continuity. Effective training institutions must prepare workers from the technician to the doctoral research level, and institutional mechanisms must place knowledgeable and competent personnel in the field where management activities occur. Profitable management must be integrated with the national economy and the world timber market. Those plans must assess the demand for products 20 years or more in the future. Effective legislation and national land-use planning that identify the forested areas to be managed are indispensable. It would be foolish to maintain that the current management picture in moist tropical forests is an encouraging one. In the three great centres - the Amazon Basin, Central Africa, and the islands of Southeast Asia - substantial areas of forest are being cut over or converted to other uses. Significant programmes of silvicultural treatment are occurring only in Malaysia.

Achieving sound management will not be easy, but failure will result in the loss of the great majority of tropical rain forests. There is every indication that economically unproductive areas in tropical countries will continue to be highly vulnerable to development or conversion, even if such development is unsustainable. There is no economically profitable alternative use for large areas of biologically highly productive tropical forests.

COUNTRY NATURAL RAINFOREST FOREST POLICY

Timber Management Objectives

Assessment of Forested Lands

Forested areas incapable of supplying timber products

Forested areas after timber harvesting nominated for alternate land use

Forested areas after timber harvesting, nominated for ongoing forest timber production

Assessment of natural forest regeneration after selective harvesting operations.

Inadequate Regeneration

Adequate regeneration

Attempt natural regeneration techniques (choice of treatments)

Failure

Success

Consider alternate land uses Determine harvesting cycle nominally 35 years for PNG species to regenerate

Harvest regenerated forest lands

Introduction Globally FAO estimated that there are some two billion hectares of degraded tropical forests in the world. Often, these are remnant forests, left over from harvesting of wood and nonwood forest products. The soils in these areas are usually susceptible to erosion and have low fertility. These forest areas are often susceptible to forest fires. However, some species of trees thrive in these degraded ecosystems and often, due to the poor soils, such sites have few alternative uses (other than to be used as forests). The role of foresters in a cost-effective way, is to apply the use of natural regeneration techniques/agro forestry/conservation techniques as currently known and yet to be developed, across some two billion hectares of degraded tropical forest lands in the tropics. In this era of climate change scenarios, it is critical that the methodology and implementation of natural rainforest regeneration techniques be undertaken to ensure rehabilitation of degraded forested lands to provide for the key elements of life i.e., food, shelter, air, and water. Many of the current known techniques could also be applied in the desert zones of the world. INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON ENVIRONMENT The forest environment consists of the physical environment surrounding the aerial portions of the tree (climatic factors), the subterranean portion (edaphic factor) and the third of the living organisms within the forest ecosystem (biotic factor). INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. Influence on Air Temperature Influence on Local Precipitation Influence on General Precipitation Influence on Atmospheric Humidity Influence on Transpiration Loss INFLUENCE OF FOREST ON EDAPHIC CONDITIONS Influence on Soil, Soil Temperature Influence on Seepage, Water Retention, Floods, Water Erosion and Ground Water Resources Influence on Wind Erosion INFLUENCE OF FOREST ON BIOTIC CONDITIONS Influence on Animal life Forests as Source of Food for Animals, as a Source of Shelter and Protection and on Animal Distribution Influence on Mankind Influence on Civilization SANITARY INFLUENCE OF FOREST Favourable Influence on Weather Carbon Sink INFLUENCE OF FOREST ON POLLUTION Air Pollution Control of Air Pollution through Forests. Plants as Air Cleaner Water Pollution Control of Water Pollution through Forests Noise Pollution Control of Noise Pollution through Forests 12

As the forest becomes established and develops, the site itself changes. Forest cover moderates the extreme diurnal temperature regime of open sites resulting in more uniform conditions. Wind velocity is slowed in the vicinity of tree crowns and becomes negligible within the forest. Trees crowns intercept sunlight and alter the quantity and quality of radiation reaching forest floor compared with that reaching open sites. On the forest floor, accumulating layers of leaves, twigs and other litter attract a characteristic grouping of plants and animals that live on decaying organic matter and on each other. Some Pertinent Facts re Water The awareness of the interactions between food, energy, poverty, environment, and climate change is increasing, as well as the recognition that water plays a central role in all these issues. Agriculture faces complex challenges between now and 2050 to satisfy an estimated global population of nine billion. More water will be needed to produce the estimated 60% of extra food needed. Issues around water that need to be addressed include producing more food while using less water, building resilience of farming communities to cope with floods and droughts, applying clean water technologies that protect the environment. Activities could include review and restoration of forest catchment vegetation, biomass projects in various countries utilising waste waters to produce large quantities of fuelwood, and wood fibre resource projects. Vanimo Block 6. Photo credit Ian Whyte 1970. Some Pertinent Facts re Population Pressures As the global population grows, especially in areas of high population density, the proliferation of unsustainable practices is a major problem. The pressure to convert forestland to farmland to meet expanding agricultural requirements is often intense coupled with rising population levels need for fuelwood and wood fibre for shelter. 13

13Cloudy

Bay TA. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 2005. Cloudy Bay TA. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 2005.S 15 Madang Gogol TA. Photo credit Ian Whyte 1973. 14

Background to the Rehabilitation of Degraded Tropical Moist Forests FAO studies describe large-scale reforestation of degraded tropical forests starting during the first half of the 20th century. An impressive body of technical knowledge has been accumulated on how to re-establish high-quality forest cover in those areas. For example, reforestation techniques are well developed for a wide variety of tree species and large expanses of degraded forestland replanted, especially in Asia and Latin America. Most of those plantations have been planted with fast growing species to produce industrial roundwood. In practically all areas where forest management has been introduced to rainforests, one of the earliest developments has been to attempt to convert the normally mixed uneven aged natural forests to even aged species by planting. The apparent simplicity of this approach had obvious attractions but there are enormous difficulties, both technical and managerial to overcome. The choice of species, seed supply, nursery and planting techniques, weed control, insect and fungal attack, damage by browsing animals and the cost of the operations, are some of the difficulties that have to be faced. In general, although the area of tropical moist rainforest in most countries may have been large, the funds for planting are limited. In fact so limiting, that only a small proportion of the forested land were converted to plantations. On the other hand, techniques involving natural regeneration are not always practicable, in rainforest areas. In many regions where large areas of forests have been cleared by shifting agricultural techniques or other forces, long periods must elapse before natural succession will produce economic timber crops on such sites. Planting tree seedlings is a means of speeding up the succession on such sites. In other areas, the most valuable species of the natural rainforest tend to be poorly represented, both as mature trees and as regeneration. Artifical means of introducing these into the forest area by planting is highly desirable. Such a process is clearly on the borderline between outright plantation establishment on one hand and the management of natural forest on the other. As the country’s population increases and more land is required for agriculture, it becomes increasingly important for forestry to make the maximum use of the land at its disposal. Where the forests are intended mainly for the production of timber, it is commercially necessary to produce the highest possible yield of timber from the forest. In terms of merchantable volume, plantations produce much greater volumes than natural forests in terms of timber yield. However, concerns about the vulnerability of monocultures to pests and fire, recently led to the greater use of species mixtures in forest plantations. Experience shows that one of the conditions for sustainable forest management in forest plantations, is that appropriate species are selected for planting on each individual site.

Although tropical moist rainforest ecosystems are of enormous interest to science, with great potential for development, their ecology and biology are poorly understood. Available data is sketchy and often inadequate for planning and policy development. The taxonomy of many trees and shrubs remains weak, and many species are unnamed. A fundamental feature of tropical moist forest ecosystems is their complexity. Whilst this is a major problem for the manager, it is a major strength of the system, in regard both to environmental hazards and to changing demands. The need to simplify and refine the system for wood production must therefore be set against the desirability of retaining the wealth of variability that may be required to adapt to future changes. It may be necessary, however, and is certainly possible, for these two largely incompatible processes to be carried out separately, in different parts of the forest. Evidence shows that the productivity of the tropical rain forest comes from good growing conditions, constituted by a combination of high temperatures, light and rainfall all year round, coupled with efficient nutrient recycling processes. Ecological studies of tropical forests are concerned with how the biotic component (plant and animal species, or the living component) interacts with abiotic factors (the non-living component of the substrate, nutrients, moisture, and climate). Sustainable management of secondary forests calls for a clear understanding of how species interact with the biotic and abiotic environment. The biggest challenge facing forest management today is the development of strategies to adopt sustainable forest management practices. This is called multipurpose management, in which the overall capacity of forests to provide goods and services is not diminished. This calls for a firm knowledge and understanding of the resource base (resource inventory as a basis of stand history, structure, species composition, diversity, and dynamics), and availability and implementation of environmentally sound forest harvesting practices. Synnott and Kemp16 (1976) discussed the initial reliance on natural regeneration in most areas of tropical moist forest to provide the future crop. The silvicultural techniques have been intended to increase the stocking and growth rates of seedlings of valuable species, but techniques for inducing regeneration of chosen species have often been unreliable. In practice, it has only proved possible to directly increase the stocking of valuable seedlings if silvicultural operations can be timed to coincide with abundant seed-fall of valuable species. More success has been achieved with operations which increase the survival rates and sometimes the growth rates of existing valuable young trees by reducing competition from unwanted trees. Some techniques improve the proportion of valuable trees in a standby eliminating unwanted trees without necessarily increasing their growth rates of seedling numbers. Formerly, uniform systems (especially those termed shelterwood systems) were designed to achieve abundant regeneration of valuable species by careful manipulation of the canopy.

Synnott TJ & Kemp R H 1976 Choosing the best silvicultural system. Unasylva No 112-113 Vol 28 1976 topic Management and Utilisation of Tropical Moist Rainforest. 16

However, complicated systems often proved difficult to organize, as well as being unreliable or unnecessary. In current practice, uniform systems aim to ensure the survival and growth of an adequate amount of the existing regeneration. A fundamental feature of these systems is that selection is operated against the unwanted trees over the whole regeneration area, irrespective of the local presence of valuable individuals. If there are few desirable species, uniform systems are likely to fail. However, the extensive destruction of much of the stand and the canopy caused by the more intensive uniform systems, usually results in relatively abundant regrowth of seedlings of certain light demanding or pioneer species. If these species produce useful timber, supplementing the existing valuable trees (e.g., certain Dipterocarps in Malaysia) or if a market subsequently develops for them (e.g., Mansonia and Triplochiton in Ghana, Maesopsis and Funtumia in Uganda) the systems may subsequently be judged successful. Dawkins17 (1959) stressed that the timber yield from most forms of tropical moist forests is likely to decline under a polycyclic system (including selection or stratified uniform systems) because of the extensive damage to young regeneration caused by felling large-crowned, upper canopy trees and the inability of most of the desired timber trees to grow vigorously when under the shade of older and larger trees. Further, in most areas of tropical moist forests, methods involving only partial canopy opening have not succeeded in inducing or increasing the regeneration of the most valuable species as much as required. Most tropical countries have used nursery-raised planting stock to improve the species composition or productivity of indigenous forests, often developing many systems in practice over many years and large areas. General principles and local experiences are summarized by FAO18 papers (1970, 1974), Lamb19 (1968 & 1969), King20 (1968), Nwoboshi21 (1975), Moore22 (1975) and others including the principles and technical guides which must be followed if line planting is to succeed. Many typical methods have been described, and many intermediate examples are known, differing mainly in the planting density and the extent to which the existing young valuable trees, or later regrowth, are to be retained for harvesting. They may be loosely grouped as follows: Enrichment planting in gaps, when trees are planted only on spots where no young valuable trees exist, so that the future crop will include the unharvested young valuable trees and 17 Dawkins H C 1958 The management of natural tropical high forest with special reference to Uganda. University of Oxford. Imperial Forestry Institute. 18 FAO. 1970 Report of the 2nd session of the Committee on Forest Development in the Tropics, Rome, 1970. FAO. 1974 Report of the 3rd session of the Committee on Forest Development in the Tropics. Rome. 19 Lamb A FA 1968 Artificial Regeneration in the Humid Lowland Rain Forest. UNASYLVA Vol 22 (4)1968. Lamb A F A 1969 Enrichment Planting in English Speaking Countries of the Tropics. FAO Committee on forest development in the tropics, Report on Second session, Rome 1969 pp 44-51 20 King, K.F.S., 1968, 'Agrisilviculture: the taungya system', Bulletin No. 1, Department of Forestry, University of Ibadan. King, K.F.S., 1989. 21Nwoboshi L C 1975. Problems and prospects of natural regeneration systems in the future management of the tropical moist forest for timber production. Committee on Forest Development in the tropics (4th session) FAO Rome. 22 Moore, D. 1976 Enrichment of the species composition in relation to management of the tropical moist forest. Committee on Forest Development in the Tropics (4th session), FAO, Rome.

subsequent regrowth of valuable species, supplemented to a variable extent by the planted trees. Line or group planting, when trees are planted in cleared lines or in regularly spaced groups in a matrix of partially cleared forest. The intensity of planting may vary from a minor enrichment, supplementing natural regeneration, to a stocking sufficient for a full final crop, amounting to a conversion planting. In practice, a proportion of natural regrowth is usually accepted in the development stand. Close planting, when enough trees are planted to provide at least the number expected in the final crop, without any contribution from natural regrowth. They may be planted at a closer spacing to allow for losses, selection and thinning. The pre-existing forest and regrowth are either cleared progressively to make room for the planted trees or it is completely cleared before planting. The problems of clearing forest for enrichment or conversion have resulted in the development of many systems involving arboricides, charcoal burning, bulldozers and Agrisilviculture. The various systems and field techniques of crops establishment have varying advantages and disadvantages, with different relevance in different regions, according to such conditions as the availability and skill of labour, the suitability of terrain and soil for mechanical equipment, the availability of markets for the produce, competing demands for land, etc.

Mile a minute vine. Rainforest recovery after harvesting. North Coast PNG near Wewak. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 1996.

Progress in Understanding Degraded Tropical Moist Rainforests Ecology, Stand Structure, Species Composition, Diversity and Dynamics. Swaine and Hall23 1983 surmised that the occurrence and distribution of the various forest types can largely be explained by geophysical characteristics, and the quantity and seasonality of rainfall. Forest composition and species population sizes are determined in part by species tolerance of prevailing environmental conditions, particularly rainfall and soils, and in part by local site history. Swaine and Hall 1983 Ghana defined two categories of secondary species. (1) small pioneer species - short-lived, and unable to germinate in shade; (2) large pioneer species - large trees also found in mature forest, but unable to germinate in shade. Primary, or late seral, species are capable of germination and establishment in shade. Tree density reached 2.5 trees m -2 within 1 year, 95% of which were secondary species. Thereafter, density declined exponentially, principally by the death of secondary species, to c1 tree m -2 after 5 yr. Mortality amongst secondary species varied between 14-59% annually, but there was no evidence that the rate was lower for the large pioneers. Occurrence of large pioneer species in mature forest may reflect persistence of rapid growth, rather than extended life- span. Over 90% of the accession of secondary species during the 5-yr period was achieved in the first year, compared with c60% for primary species. At 5 years, the number of secondary tree species was declining, whilst 1-2 additional primary species were continuing to appear each year. The immigration of new primary species other than trees was much faster - c10 species a year. Immigrant individuals were about equally divided between those germinating from the seed bank in soil and those which dispersed in by wind at the time of clearance. Total species diversity exceeded that of nearby mature forest after only 3 years and was c25% higher at 5 years. The total area of forests in most developing countries is largely unknown, as is the area per vegetation type. Where forest inventories are available, they are often outdated. The forests are often fragmented and patchy. The boundaries between one vegetation type and another may be difficult to discern. The nature of fragmentation itself leads to overall degradation of forests due to the large ratio of forest margin to forest area. Information emerging from different fields such as tree architecture and canopy structure have shown that forests are much more dynamic than was considered earlier when long term stability was emphasized. The vegetation composition is therefore seen as a balance between the process of competition and interactions between plants and their biotic and physical environments. Trees display a wide spectrum of physiological and life history characteristics that suite them in different site conditions. The moist tropical rainforests hold over 100 different species on one ha but only a minority of which have known commercial value. Two or more resource-limited species having identical patterns of resource use cannot co-exist. One species will be better adapted and will out compete the others. It is the available space that dictates the number of trees that can be accommodated in any class and continual tree mortality permits further growth of surviving Swaine M D & Hall J B 1983. Early Succession on cleared land in Ghana. Journal of Ecology Vol 71 No 2 (Jul 1983) pp601-627. 23

trees and recruitment of new ones. Growth rates of trees are highly variable, with large differences between species, tree sizes, sites, and even between the same sizes of individual trees of the same species growing in the same site. In contrast, growth of individual during successive periods is much less variable. Trees which are growing fast continue to do so while slow growing individuals remain slow. Felling guidelines are therefore given on tree diameter ranges as opposed to the age of the trees. It is crucial to understand how the different species interact through intra and interspecies competition within associated physical factors. It calls for accumulation of a comprehensive knowledge of the ecology of individual species, including phenology, seed biology, dispersal and germination requirements and physiology. Natural Regeneration of Tropical Moist Rainforests. Synnott and Kemp24 1976 reported that the merits of natural regeneration, enrichment planting conversion and agri-silviculture in tropical forestry are relative and depend upon factors ranging from the ecology to the economy. Considerable progress has been made in understanding the regeneration of degraded tropical moist rainforests. In nature the regeneration system has evolved in clearings caused by natural events as river floods, storms, trees that die of age, and the like. Several species developed characteristics that were advantageous in the rapid colonization of such clearings. Swaine and Whitmore25 1988 recognized two crude categories in this succession process: pioneer and secondary species. Pioneer species typically germinate, establish, grow, and mature relatively quickly in the clearings and breaks created by the death of dominant plants. Many of the primary species regenerate by the seedlings and young plants already on the forest floor, root suckers and rhizomes, seed in the soil and seeds with a very short seed dormancy that happen to be in fruit during disturbance of the area (Richards26, 1966; Gomez-Pompa27 1974, Smith28 1973.) Gomez-Pompa 1974 - The vegetation on the earth has existed for millions of years but has evidenced continuous change over time. For example, the angiosperms, originating in the Jurassic or possibly even Triassic time (Smith, 1973) about 181 million years ago, partially replaced the previous plants that had dominated the vegetation. Presumably these plants, with their animal life, formed ecological communities under the same processes currently operating on the earth. The contemporary communities in turn are the result of continuous plant and animal evolution under the selection pressure of geological, biotic, atmospheric, and hydrobiological processes. Synnott TJ & Kemp R H 1976 Choosing the best silvicultural system. Unasylva No 112-113 Vol 28 1976 topic Management and Utilisation of Tropical Moist Rainforest. 25 Swaine, M.D., and Whitmore, T.C. (1988) On the definition of ecological species groups in tropical rain forests. Vegetation 75: 81–86. 26 Richards, P.W. 1966. The tropical Rain Forest. Second edition. Cambridge University Press. 27 Gómez-Pompa A. et al. (1974) Recovery of Tropical Ecosystems. In: Farnworth E.G., Golley F.B. (eds) Fragile Ecosystems. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-86763-7_4 28 Smith, A. C. 1973. Angiosperm evolution and the relationship of the floras of Africa and America, p. 49– 61. In B. J. Meggers, E. S. Ayensu and W. D. Duckworth (eds.) Tropical Forest ecosystems in Africa and South America: A comparative review. Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D. C. 24

Pioneer species establish only in highly disturbed environments. Their ecology is designed to exploit rapidly the resources made available by the death of dominant plants. Surrounding forests serve as seed sources. Early pioneers are often fast-growing, short-lived weedy trees. Their ecology is well suited to plantation forestry. At the other extreme, many climax species are designed to tolerate resource scarcity. Seeds can germinate in the dark forest understorey and seedlings can tolerate canopy shade for long periods, until disturbance creates an opportunity for growth. Shade-tolerant species reach their peak rates of photosynthesis at much lower light levels than their counterparts (Riddock29 et al., 1991). Eventually the late pioneers are replaced by late successional vegetation that is diverse in architectural form and long-lived. The mature forest is the ecological unit that has reached its maximum diversity and number of species by containing all stages of the forest mosaic. Adaptation to light and temperature. Tropical rainforests have developed pronounced stratification created by different heights of the trees. Most light is blocked by the layers of tree crowns and the forest floor is dark. At the forest floor level, the air is hot, humid, and very still, limiting the number of plants. Some of the plants here are woody shrubs and trees of species of stunted growth forms. Others are young plants of trees and palm species that may grow over 48 m high. Herbaceous growth forms in the forest understorey are adapted to the low light conditions. For example, fern species adapted to these conditions tend to have large, broad, and very dark green leaves with extra pigments to make the best use of this dim light. Each leaf is set at the best angle to receive as much light as possible. The young leaves of the lower and upper canopy trees have one unusual feature that is only found in tropical plants. When they are first formed, they come in a range of brilliant colours, from red, purple, to blue and even white. The leaves do not turn green until they are older. Denslow30 1980 proposed that different species of climax rain forest tree seedlings may be adapted for optimum growth at different levels of irradiance. Disturbances of the forest canopy are essentially haphazard and maintain a wide spectrum of light levels. Specialization would give competitive advantage in a disturbance of a specific suite of light conditions but would be likely to involve adaptive compromises with restricted success where the light was at a different level. Vines and climbers constitute a major component of tropical rain forests and have significant effects on tree growth. The systematic elimination of undesirables has often led to proliferation of climbers, inhibiting crop-tree development and forest operations. Equally frustrating to attempts at natural tropical rain forest silviculture has been the incredibly rapid growth of non-commercial pioneers or light-demanding species. Tropical forests have many more gradations of shade tolerance within different species and more species within broad categories of shade tolerance than temperate forests. The choice of the type of improvement thinning needed should therefore be guided by the ecological groups into which most of the commercially valuable species fall. Extensive canopy opening favours light-demanding species, moderate opening favours the gap-

. Riddock, I., Grace, J., Fasehun, F.E., Riddoch, B. & Ladipo, D. O. 1991. Photosynthesis and successional status of seedlings in a tropical semi-deciduous rain forest in Nigeria. Journal of Ecology 79, 491-503. 30 Denslow, J.S. 1980. Gap partitioning among tropical rain forest trees. Biotropica 12 (Suppl.), 47-55. 29

opportunist species, while shade-tolerant species will be encouraged by minimum canopy disturbance, such as that provided by overstorey removal (Hutchinson31, 1986a). Seed development and dispersal. Available information shows that different plants have evolved an intricate system for pollination and seed dispersal by different insects, birds, and other animals. Animals disperse seeds from fleshy fruits. When eaten, animals' digestive juices induce germination. When finally dropped in the right habitat, they are ready to germinate. Other seeds are dispersed by water or wind. Soils of tropical rainforests. Many tropical rainforest areas have been geologically stable for long periods of time and the soils have undergone intense weathering. Most soils are primarily oxisols and ultisols. Both these soil types are almost incapable of storing nutrients. In forest environments the nutrients are largely locked in the living vegetation. The warm, moist conditions cause a rapid decay of the large quantities of leaf-fall and other plant biomass supplied to the forest floor. The released nutrients are rapidly recycled directly from the decaying vegetation to the living plants without first being stored in the soil. In some circumstances tree roots even grow upward towards the soil surface, permeating the litter layer. It is this closed nutrient cycle through the veneer of partly decaying organic matter resting on the soil itself that must be preserved if the forest is to regenerate. Once the forest is removed, the soil degrades rapidly because of microclimatic changes, and quickly loses its nutrient supply through leaching under the abundant rainfall. Many micro-organisms take part in this decomposition process: termites, bacteria, fungi, various invertebrates, and mycorrhizal fungi, which invade the roots of trees to obtain nourishment. These fungi gain carbon nourishment from the tree and benefit the tree by providing a vastly expanded nutrient gathering network in the soils. Influences of Human Impact on Tropical Moist Rainforests (Anthropogenic Factors). Logging operations with modern machinery, frequent fires and intensive grazing under current land use systems have introduced disturbance dimensions and impacts that are new to these forests. Forest management is therefore unable to cope using available tools to ensure sustainability of all forest components. By contrast, the elements of shifting cultivation blend well with those of natural disturbance and unless the cultivation phase is extended or the stands are opened prior to maturity of the secondary forest cover, this practice remains sustainable. Shifting cultivation.

Hutchinson, I. 1986a Improvement thinning in natural tropical forests, aspects, and institutionalization. In Symposium on Natural Management of Tropical Moist Forests. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. (In press). 31

Traditional shifting cultivation favoured regeneration of secondary forests because the regenerative system was well adapted to the activities of the primitive man. The use of small pieces of land for agriculture and their abandonment after a decrease in crop production (two to four years of shifting agriculture) is like the occasional destruction of the forest by natural causes (Baur32, 1968; Gomez-Pompa33, 1971). In modern times farmers have extended cultivation in the opened areas for long durations. With the rapid depletion of nutrients in the tropical soils this has been followed with a sharp decline in productivity, forcing the farmers to open new areas in the forest. At the same time, extended cultivation prevents recolonisation of the cultivated areas. By this time, the seeds of most of the rain forest species are not available for regeneration. Even if seeds are available, microclimatic alterations resulting from the removal of the forest make many areas no longer ideal environments for rain forest regeneration. Such areas tend to revert to bushes with no value. Maintaining strict natural conditions under non-disturbance. Around the world, evidence shows that culminating disturbance can have adverse impacts on both biodiversity and forest productivity. For example, forest-fire suppression programmes and single-tree selection harvesting prescriptions are resulting in major disruptions of ecosystem processes and changes in forest composition in mahogany forests. Mahogany species for example, require substantial canopy openings for regeneration. Strict nondisturbance is therefore likely to derail the course of development of the secondary forest away from reaching management goals. Fire management. Fire influences the environment directly by consuming organic matter, releasing nutrients in bulk, and killing intolerant species. Indirectly, fire affects the environment by creating space for regeneration and modifying microclimates and the population of component flora and fauna (Frost and Robertson34 1987). Early burning has been used widely in forest management as a tool for clearing debris and fire belts to ward off wildfires and minimize the ferocity of late dry season fires in forests. There are also situations where firing may aid regeneration of certain species such as the regeneration of mahogany and disruption is likely to upset ecosystem processes. But Swaine35 et al. 1987 have discouraged its use in dry semi-deciduous forest reserves in Ghana. This is because forest fires devastate forests during the dry seasons, particularly where there are heavy accumulations of debris from previous logging activities. In the woodlands and savannas, communities practice seasonal grazing. Periodic fires are used for pasture renewal and to kill browsing/predator vectors. Fires promote the germination and Baur, G. N. 1968. The Ecological Basis of Rainforest Management. Blight Government Printer, New South Wales. Gomez-Pompa A. 1971. see Biotropica 3:125. 34 Frost, P.G.H. & Robertson, F. 1987. The ecological effects of fire in Savannah. In B. H. Walker (ed.). Determinant of tropical savannahs, IRL Press Oxford, pp 3-40. 35 Swaine, M. D., Lieberman, D. & Putz, F.E. 1987. The dynamics of tree populations in tropical forest, a review. Journal of Tropical Ecology 3, 359-366. 32 33

growth of fire-tolerant plant species, such as the Acacias, but suppress regeneration of firesensitive species. Except for communities with knowledge of the management of grass fires in resource management, wrong fire management in ecosystems that have evolved in different directions, can cause serious management bottlenecks. Harvesting of timber and other products. Timber harvesting is the most important single disturbance factor in forests over which the managers have significant influence, and the most important issue regarding protective management. Logging has in recent decades been more intense in the semi-deciduous zones than in the evergreen due mainly to the greater densities of desirable timber trees. Several silvicultural treatments have been tested to improve management. Notably among these are the improvement thinning, salvage felling and selective felling by diameter limits. In this latter system, a single tree or a group of trees is given to concessionaires for exploitation. Generally, trees selected are over-mature, with broken tops or diseased. The amount of wood to be cut generally depends on the growth of the stand. Total growth of a stand is a function of stocking. Total growth is greater with a higher stocking, within the limits of diameter distribution. It has been suggested that a reserve stock should be maintained after every logging to optimise growth. The system of logging is influenced by distribution of the species in demand and unit costs of bringing logs to points of loading. The latter is largely determined by the volume of timber removed per unit area. The greater quality of timber removed, the lower the unit costs. Often over cutting affects the forest’s ability to regenerate itself without systematic replanting. Most commercial species are patchily distributed which disperses timber extraction. To accumulate a significant volume of timber of any one species, an extensive area of forest must be exploited to provide adequate material for haulage. Loggers have reverted to practices such as creaming, to overcome this constraint. But felling all saleable trees above a given size has led to marked damage to residual trees, biodiversity depletion and even the loss of sustainability of commercial species. Logging can be tolerable or fatal from the point of view of forest regeneration and maintenance of a healthy mosaic. Where few trees (say, <1.5 per hectare in a long felling cycle) are removed, and the disturbance is well-dispersed, the long-term effects on plant species composition are likely to be minimal. Loading areas and roads suffer particularly from soil erosion and lead to poor plant regeneration, but the effects of these can be contained in the context of forest recovery (Hawthorne36, 1993). If logging is appropriately managed, then it need not be a serious threat to the integrity of the forest vegetation. The problem is that logging in recent decades has certainly not been

Hawthorne, W. D. 1993. Forest Regeneration after logging: Findings of a study in the Bia South Game Production Reserve, Ghana, ODA Forestry Services No. 3, ODA, London. 36

managed appropriately, and this can be a major reason for the degradation of many forest reserves. Silviculture and management practices. Despite a long history of scientific forest management, logging practices impact on several issues related to silvicultural management of the forest. Ecologists now see vegetation composition as a balance between the processes of competition between plants and environmental disturbance, rather than seeing a plant community as a stable entity. Disturbance releases resources by killing off the dominant plants and provides opportunities for new ones to grow. The magnitude and frequency of disturbance exert a crucial influence over the types of plants that are likely to survive and grow. The low growth rate of trees in most tropical rain forests is another constraint to sustainable management of secondary forests. The economic value in terms of commercial timber per unit area as compared to plantation forests is therefore low. Appropriately managed logging would not threaten the forest vegetation. However, extended logging practices have considerable impact on forest structure and species composition and may lead to loss and fragmentation of forests. Species diversity is lower in logged-over sites compared to mature and unlogged natural forests. Moreover, markets change between one phase of logging and the next - new species become marketable and current fashions may decline. The level of "timber production" to be sustained cannot be the same from one cutting cycle to the next. Management must therefore plan and execute logging activities carefully, following results of research and field experiences, if sustainable forest management is to be achieved. The following are some of the priority activities to be considered in the development of strategies for sustainable exploitation: •

•

Encouraging the exploitation of a broad base of species, although logging of lesserused species is bound to lead to increased canopy opening with concomitant changes in species composition and tree mortality (Swaine and Hall37, 1983). Employing silvicultural and logging systems with minimal impact and disturbance to commercially valuable trees harvested and using skills and care on regeneration and the environment. In this regard countries should test and consider introducing reduced impact logging (RIL) (FAO38, 1997a, b, 1998a, b) that has been recommended for its reduced stand and environmental damage associated with felling and skidding practices, or excessive use of forest land for infrastructure.

Swaine, M.D. & Hall, J.B. 1983. Early succession in cleared forest land in Ghana Journal of Ecology 71, 601-27. FAO 1995. Forest Resources Assessment 1990: Global Synthesis. FAO, Rome. FAO. 1997a. Forest harvesting in natural forests of the Republic of the Congo, by R. Scharpenberg. Forest Harvesting Case Study No. 7 Rome. FAO. 1997b. Environmentally sound forest harvesting: testing the applicability of the FAO model code in the Amazon in Brazil, by N. Winkler. Forest Harvesting Case Study No. 8. Rome. FAO. 1998a. Reduced impact timber harvesting in the tropical natural forest in Indonesia, by Elias. Forest Harvesting Case Study No. 11. Rome. FAO. 1998b. Environmentally sound forest infrastructure development and harvesting by long distance cable systems in the Himalayan region in Bhutan, by N. Winkler. Forest Harvesting Case Study No. 12. Rome. 37 38

•

Minimizing the adverse impacts of forestry operations on biodiversity and maximizing the likelihood of sustainable timber harvesting methods and silvicultural practices that mimic natural stand and landscape-level dynamics. Natural disturbance regimes, such as fire, pathogen outbreaks, wind damage, and other processes critical for maintaining species diversity, should be used as models for designing harvesting plans and silvicultural treatments.

Objectives of Management. Synnott and Kemp39 1976 in addressing silvicultural systems for natural tropical moist rainforest emphasised that the objective or objectives must be set, and priorities be clearly established at the time of regeneration of the forest. This is even when prediction of market demands, and opportunities are uncertain. This uncertainty places a premium on flexibility in management, to accommodate changing demands, and this consideration may in turn influence the choice of regeneration method. The more exactly the method is designed to meet a special market requirement the fewer the options likely to be open for changes in management objectives later in the rotation. Demand for Specialised (Cabinet Woods) Timbers. Up till now, almost all the valuable tropical hardwood timbers have been harvested from naturally regenerated forest. In many areas it has not been possible to increase or even maintain the stocking of the currently commercial species and if they continue in demand, they are likely to increase in value as the supplies diminish. Countries possessing tropical moist forests of valuable hardwoods, therefore, may have a great advantage in future world markets, if they can achieve their regeneration. Although a few major species, such as teak, are readily raised and managed in plantations many are not, either because of the dangers of insect damage in concentrated populations, or for reasons such as slow initial growth rate, very short seed life, susceptibility to exposure or other disturbance during the nursery or planting phase, and other reasons. At the same time there are often difficulties in obtaining natural regeneration of such valuable species with any certainty. Nevertheless, the stocking of valuable young trees before and after harvesting in the forest may be readily assessed and, if it is adequate to provide a final crop (e.g., a stocking of about 100 established trees per hectare) there is a clear case of retaining the natural regeneration, even though knowledge of the probable growth rates, and of possible ways of influencing the yield, may be uncertain. Conservation of soil and water resources. The influence of forest vegetation on soil and water resources in the humid tropics may vary greatly with the structure of the forest and the amount of disturbance during logging and regeneration. For this reason, the method of regeneration must take account of the need to protect the stability of the system in areas where disturbance may cause accelerated soil erosion, unfavourable changes in stream flow or loss of soil fertility. The main dangers are the loss of topsoil, sedimentation of streams, canals and reservoirs, the increased magnitude of flood flows, a reduction in water yield

Synnott TJ & Kemp R H 1976 Choosing the best silvicultural system. Unasylva No 112-113 Vol 28 1976 topic Management and Utilisation of Tropical Moist Rainforest. 39

during low flows, and the loss of soil nutrients through accelerated leaching and the disturbance of soil nutrient cycles. Logging inevitably disturbs the forest structure and leads to severe local soil disturbance, although careful location of roads and tracks can reduce the damage (Gilmour40, 1971). Wherever soil and water resources may be vulnerable to changes in forest structure the retention of an evergreen effective cover using natural regeneration or enrichment methods may be preferred. If retention of an effective forest cover is the primary objective, it can be most simply achieved in most areas of tropical moist forest by unaided natural regeneration. Conservation of Genetic resources. Any operations to exploit and regenerate the forest will have some impact on the genetic resources of both flora and fauna. Social Objectives The other major services to society which may be influenced by the choice of regeneration method are the provision of recreation facilities and the protection of the human environment, particularly regarding health hazards. Employment. Wherever the provision of employment in rural areas is an important social objective the techniques employed in regeneration can be chosen to be labour intensive. Food. In many areas of tropical moist forest, the soils are vulnerable to leaching and erosion and incapable of sustained arable farming without the intervention of tree fallows. Recreational and environmental benefits. At present these are minor objectives in most areas of tropical moist forest and unlikely to influence greatly the choice of regeneration systems. The ease of access, aesthetic appearance, and the influence of the forest on wildlife vary at different stages in the life of the crop, and their value varies according to individual human judgements. Constraints on Forest Management. The choice of regeneration method has an important influence not only on the type of forest produced and its productivity but also on the way in which the nation's resources of land, forest vegetation, staff and finances are used to achieve the objective. When resources are severely restricted there may be strong social and political pressure for them to be used in ways that are evidently profitable within a short time; short, that is, in comparison with a timber rotation period. This pressure has an important and sometimes decisive effect on the choice of regeneration method. Land Availability. The greater the area of land available for forest production the less the pressure for intensive use of the land. However, when the market demands a high rate of production of wood from a limited area, or when other forms of land use are competing strongly for forest land, natural regeneration systems are disadvantageous compared with the more intensive systems, particularly conversion planting and Agri-silviculture. The competition may come from shifting agriculture, when farmers wish to move from soils already degraded by agricultural use, to the soils kept fertile by forest. Although natural regeneration of the forest might in the long term achieve maximum benefit from limited Gilmour, D. A. (1971). The effects of logging on streamflow and sedimentation in a north Queensland rainforest catchment. Commonwealth Forestry Review 50, 38-48 40

resources the choice of conversion planting or Agri-silviculture may then be made as the only way to resist the pressures for no reservation of the land. With rapidly increasing human populations this factor is bound to exert increasing influence on the choice of regeneration methods. Land Capability. Clearance of forest for farming has been an important influence on the occurrence and structure of tropical moist forests throughout the tropics and over a very long period. The most fertile soils, capable of sustained arable cropping, have become the base for settled communities and in general it is the poorest soils which have been allowed to remain longest as forest, since they have not permitted the development of a stable agricultural system (Van Baren41, 1974; Fraser42, 1975). The low level of human population in such areas leads to a low level of pressure on the land for other uses than forestry and limited availability of labour for any intensive operations. In these circumstances natural regeneration systems, which aim to retain a considerable part of the original forest complexity, with a minimum of disturbance compared to other systems, are least likely to upset the balance of the nutrient cycle. Accepting a low level of productivity imposed by the limitations of soil and climate the use of a system which demands only low levels of financial and labour resources can be an advantage. Forest Capability. Low productivity of many areas of tropical moist forest is due not only to the limited capability of the site but also to the fact that there are very few valuable species present, that their regeneration is inadequate, and that their rates of growth are comparatively low. In these circumstances the introduction of a greater number of valuable trees, perhaps with faster growth, is clearly advantageous, provided that the anticipated increase in value of the crop will bear the cost of establishment at the end of the rotation (perhaps with some contribution from intermediate yields). The use of selection and breeding methods may offer further possibilities for increasing the productivity of the forest in later rotations. By contrast the possibilities for increasing the productivity by use of natural regeneration alone are very limited. A related factor that may be considered is the effect of competing vegetation, such as climbers. These may suppress or distort regeneration of valuable species from natural regeneration or enrichment methods, as well as more intensive plantations. Although the cost of weeding and climber control may be more readily borne by the more intensive plantation crops, which have a higher value per unit area, the emergence of dense growth of weed species in dense uniform conversion planting has been a severe problem in some areas e.g., Brazil in 1975. Financial Resources. In many developing countries the lack of capital to invest in long-term projects such as timber production, where financial returns are relatively low and long deferred, is more severely limiting to the choice of regeneration methods than is the land availability. Natural regeneration is relatively cheap, and an equal investment can be spread over a much wider area, thus retaining, perhaps, a larger forest estate, with an assurance of continued production of wood even if the growth rates and future market value may be uncertain.

Van Baren, F.A. 1974 The soil as an ecological factor in the development of tropical forest areas. In Proceedings of the Regional Meeting on Ecological Principles for Development in Tropical Forest Areas in S.E. Asia. Bandung. 42 Fraser, A. I. 1976 Technical and economic implications of the management systems applied in moist tropical forests in Asia. Committee on Forest Development in the Tropics (4th session), FAO, Rome. 41

Human and Technical Resources. Any method of regeneration in tropical moist forests presents technical and operational problems related to the complexity of the ecosystems, with many species and site differences over small areas, the difficulties of access and movement in the forest and the frequently large extent of the area to be treated. In many developing countries there is a shortage of trained staff and sometimes of labour available for work in the relatively remote and often uncomfortable conditions of the forest. The more extensive systems of regeneration, if they also demand close attention to the distribution, composition, and status of the regeneration, whether individuals or groups of young trees, present the greatest problem in ensuring adequate control and supervision.

History of Natural Regeneration Techniques for Moist Tropical Rainforest with relevance to PNG Forests Globally Baur43 in 1962, noted that it was no coincidence that improvement and regeneration treatments of extensive areas of moist tropical rainforest have occurred only since the increased demand for rainforest timbers occurred. Any such treatments have not been that successful nor widely applied especially in countries where demand was greatest. However, for the global tropical moist forests, the development of sound silvicultural practices for moist tropical forests has become a problem of great urgency. In 1961/62 Baur globally examined in detail, rainforest silviculture, paying particular attention to techniques involved in the use of natural regeneration. He examined them to determine any underlying principles involved. This led him to developing a review of factors to be considered in implementing a natural regeneration forest management regime. Lamb44 A 1967, described the techniques of artificial regeneration within the humid lowland tropical forest that have been used on a commercial scale are: the taungya plantation system; clear felling and planting; line planting; and the afforestation of grasslands. The forest manager's approach to these four systems is to calculate, for the local conditions, which will give the biggest return on the effort and money spent and supply the product most suited to the domestic or export needs of the future. There is no doubt that the taungya system should be given priority wherever it can be successfully practiced. Andaman Islands Early Indian experience made little impact on managing tropical moist rainforest by natural regeneration methods although as early as 1906, improvement fellings were introduced to the Andaman Islands (Griffin45 1947). Malaysia Malaysia undertook the development of natural regeneration methods around 1910. The various treatments around Malaysia were considered at an Empire Silvicultural Conference in 1927. The outcome from this conference was the basis for treatment of the Malayan rainforests up to 1941 as the Malayan Regeneration Improvement Felling System. This system was replaced after WW2 by the Malayan Uniform System.(Barnard46 1954). North Borneo The Malayan Uniform System was applied in North Borneo (Nicholson47 1958a).

Baur G 1962 p13, p11 The Ecological Basis of Rainforest Management Andre Mayer Fellow 1961-62 UN FAO. Lamb A FA 1968 Artificial Regeneration in the Humid Lowland Rain Forest. UNASYLVA Vol 22 (4)1968. 45 Griffin AL 1947 India’s Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests. 5th British Empire Forestry Conference Paper. 46 Barnard R C 1954 Manual of Malayan Silviculture for Inland Lowland Forests. Malaysian Forest Research Institute pamphlet #14. 47 Nicholson D I 1958. Natural Regeneration of Logged Tropical Rainforest North Borneo. Mal For 21 p 65-71. 43 44

Nigeria/Ghana During WW2. silvicultural operations were started in the Nigerian rainforest under the TSS system. (Tropical Shelterwood System). This was based upon the pre-war Malayan regeneration system, largely due to the influence of a Malayan forestry officer seconded to Nigeria during WW2. The TSS has been further modified within Nigeria and introduced in a modified form to Ghana. Trinidad Independent of the African TSS developments, a regeneration treatment known as TSS evolved in Trinidad, where it had been applied since 1939 (Ayliffe48 1952). Puerto Rico This in turn influenced Puerto Rico (Wadsworth49 1947). North Queensland In Northern Queensland, moist rainforest silvicultural systems were applied. Just50 (1987) presented an outline of forest management policies, practices, methodologies, and philosophies in relation to the North Queensland tropical rainforests. In 1989, all the rainforest areas were declared a Wet Tropics World Heritage Area which banned forest harvesting for wood utilisation.

Ayliffe R S 1952. Natural Regeneration of Trinidad Forests. 6th British Commonwealth Forestry Conference paper. Wadsworth FH 1947 An Approach to Silviculture in Tropical America and its application in Puerto Rico. Car. For 12(3) p93-114. 50 Just T.E. (1987) - Management of tropical rainforests in North Queensland. Proceedings of Conference of Institute of Foresters of Australia, Perth 1987.pp 299-312. 48 49

Development of Tropical Moist Rainforest Natural Regeneration Techniques Early Indian Experience in Tropical Silviculture.

Malaya (Improvement Fellings 1910)

Malaya (Regeneration Improvement Felling System 1927)

Trinidad

Malaya

Nigeria

(TSS 1939)

(Uniform System 1950)

(TSS 1944)

North Borneo (Sabah)

Nigeria

Ghana

(TSS 1953)

(TSS 1945)

Puerto Rico (Selection System 1943)

(Uniform System 1955)

(First version)

(2nd version)

Nigeria (TSS 1961) (3rd version) Source Baur G 1962 p214 The Ecological Basis of Rainforest Management UN FAO

Malaysia

Source Wikipedia Tropical rainforests encompass between 59% to 70% of Malaysia's total land area, of which 11.6% is pristine. Malaysia has the world's fifth largest mangrove area, which totals over a half a million hectares (over 1.2 million acres). Human intervention through agriculture, forestry, and urbanisation impact greatly on Malaysia’s forests. Major forests account for 45% of all ecoregions in the country, interrupted woods represent 33%, major wetlands constitute 3%, grass and shrubs make up 2% while other coastal aquatic regions form 8% of the country's land area, with crops and settlements taking up the remaining space. The Matang Mangrove Forest, otherwise known as the Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve (MMFR), located in Perak State in peninsular Malaysia is about 40,000 hectares in size and is considered the largest stretch of mangrove forests in peninsular Malaysia. Since conservation efforts started in 1906, after it was designated as a permanent forest reserve and managed closely by the Forestry Department, the MMFR has become one of the world's best managed mangrove forests, utilizing a 30-year rotational conservation method involving two artificial tree thinnings occurring in 15- and 20-year-old blocks, and then a clear felling during the 30-year-old block. Wyatt Smith51 in 1963, described the evolution of silvicultural systems involving natural regeneration techniques for tropical rainforests in Malaya. J Wyatt-Smith in 1963 as Silviculture Research Officer for the Malayan Forest Service prepared the manual of Malayan Silviculture for Inland Forests Vol 1 and Vol 2.

Wyatt-Smith J. 1963 Manual of Malayan Silviculture for Inland Forests Vol 1 & Vol 2. Malaysia Forest Record 23. Forestry Dept Malaysia. 51

Wyatt-Smith detailed that the classical and in general European systems definitions did not fit tropical rainforest ecology. The classic definition of a silvicutural system by Troup52 1928 was the process by which crops constituting a forest are tended, removed and replaced by new crops, resulting in the production of forests of a distinctive form. These systems (refer British Commonwealth Forest Terminiology 1953) then defined a High Forest System - Crops normally of seedling origin, either natural or artificial or a 52

Troup R S 1928 Silvicultural Systems Oxford University Press.

combination of both. Rotations really long. Felling and regeneration concentrated on part of the forest only through clearcutting systems or shelterwood system. Wyatt-Smith explained that the reasons for the divergence included: • • • •

As with most tropical rainforests, there is a general diversity of species, many uneconomic and with different growth rates. Harvesting of economic species in a single operation does not leave the forest land in a bare state. European defined silvicultural systems rely on subsequent seed fall which does not necessarily occur at the same time with a rainforest situation. Due to the diversity of species, within the rainforest, harvesting of economic stems only opens the canopy and as there are many seedlings on the ground, it is these seedlings which provide the majority of the regeneration. This is what the forester has to manage.

From the above, the Malayan silvicutural systems both pre-war and post-war were developed. The treatment of the Malayan rainforests up to 1941 was known as the Malayan Regeneration Improvement Felling System. This system was replaced after WW2 by the Malayan Uniform System.(Barnard53 1954). This system was applied in North Boreno (Nicholson54 1958). Successful regeneration in Malaya was established by both systems although the difficulties of financing long term silvicultural operations from annual government allocations was highlighted even back in 1954 with a consideration for a “Forest Fund” to enable the continuation of such natural regeneration treatments. By evolution, the Malayan Regeneration Improvement systems techniques were the foundation of the tropical shelterwood system adopted by many other countries. It included commercial regeneration fellings of poles and firewood and regeneration improvement fellings. Following further refinement of systems in the Malayan forests, the Malayan Uniform System was formulated. The essential components of this system was the felling and removal in the natural forest in a single short operation over an adequate number of selected natural seedling regeneration determined by systematic linear sampling of that part of the upper story which consists of the economic crop to be followed immediately by the poison girdling of the uneconomic balance of the canopy of commercial seed trees and of all smaller trees and saplings down to a minimum girth of 6 to 18 inches, other than those of economic species of sound form. Systematic sampling of all trees of exploitable size if frequently carried out at the time of the seedling regeneration sampling. The above canopy removal is followed after 4 to 5 years later by a systematic linear sampling of the stocking of young sapling regeneration of economic species . A similar sampling is undertaken after ten years.

Barnard R C 1954 Manual of Malayan Silviculture for Inland Lowland Forests. Malaysian Forest Research Institute pamphlet #14. 54 Nicholson D I 1958. Natural Regeneration of Logged Tropical Rainforest North Borneo. Mal For 21 p 65-71. 53

In both cases, treatment is prescribed on the basis of the sampling and further field inspections. Techniques included linear enumeration of big trees, linear regeneration sampling, treatment diagnosis in regenerated forests, frill girdling and poisoning, climber cutting and poisoning, bamboo eradication, cleaning operations up to 10 years after final felling, thinnings in regenerated forests, climber treatment and bamboo control. Enrichment planting Wyatt Smith described that where the natural regeneration of desirable species is considered to be inadequate under the Malayan Uniform System (MUS), alternative means to achieve an economic crop by artificial regeneration must be considered. Conditions meriting enrichment planting include at end of ten year establishment phase under MUS showing inadequate regeneration, deforested areas within the forest e.g, abandoned garden sites, abandoned log yards etc. and if sampling prior to commercial felling shows deficit of desirable regeneration of economic seedlings. Source Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia 200455 Problems confronting enrichment planting include seedling stock supply, wildings – those tried not very successful especially with larger wildings, vegetation density and height, size difference between newly planted seedlings and ten years or more old natural regeneration and high costs. Source Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia 200456 Silvicultural characteristics of ideal enrichment planting species include frequent flowering and fruiting, easy seed collection, reasonable period of seed viability, good percentage germination, easy handling in the nursery, high percentage survival on planting out, fast height growth in early stages, tolerant of shade and side competition, indigenous to the area, good stem form, naturally self pruning, naturally gregarious, low crown diameter/girth breast height, rapid growth, normally free from insect/fungal attack, producer of valuable poles in thinnings and timber of high economic value. 55 56

Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia 2004 Sustaining our Green Heritage. ISBN 9839369143. Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia 2004 Sustaining our Green Heritage. ISBN 9839369143.

Methods included line planting and group planting. Suggested species included indigeneous species as agathis, shorea, dipterorcarps, etc and exotics including araucarias. Seed collection and storage addressed. Nurseries may be permanent or temporary.The intensity of planting dependent on type of species, cost and density of advanced growth. Site preparation included addressing the planting site, overhead cover and miscellaneous weeds. Planting include line and group planting. Tending during establishment phase covered the follow up Beating up – especially for line plantings within the first 18 months after planting for both group plantings and line plantings. A detailed recording, including costing in relevant compartment histories .

Source Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia 200457.

Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia Sustaining our Green Heritage. ISBN 9839369143.

Source Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia 200458.

Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia 2004 Sustaining our Green Heritage. ISBN 9839369143

Tat and Wadley59 in 1972/73 undertook a survey of all forested areas in Perak and Selangor. From that survey they developed a guide to artificial regeneration in Peninsular Malaysia in 1976. The guide covers determination of areas requiring artificial regeneration, type of planting stock, the planting operation, survival and development sampling.

In 1978, the Forestry Department60 Peninsular Malaysia announced the introduction of the Selective Management System (SMS) inclusive into “timber complex agreement areas” as it brought greater flexibility into the felling regime. FAO Studies Malaysia Schmidt61 1986 of the Forest Resources Division FAO Rome, reviewed management systems in selected areas of closed broad-leaved tropical forests. It draws heavily on Malaysian studies by Thang Hooi Chiew and Abdul Rashid Mat Amin of the Forestry Department of Malaysia, on those in the Philippines by the Philippines Bureau of Forest Development (Leslie62, 1985) and two recent papers on Sarawak (Hutchinson63, 1986a, b). Schmidt found that the potential for sustained management of natural forests in the humid tropics continues to be a subject of concern and uncertainty among tropical foresters. His review indicates that the productive management of many humid lowland forests is both technically feasible and economically viable. The article considers "natural" forest management in a restricted sense: controlled and regulated harvesting, combined with silvicultural and protective measures, to sustain or increase the commercial value of subsequent stands, all relying on natural regeneration of native species. In a model management programme, the negative ecological impacts of harvesting or alternative land-uses can be minimized. Overall operation is productive and profitable while the essential ecological character of the forest is maintained. The destruction of approximately 7.5 million ha annually of tropical rain forest, plus about 4 million ha of open and savannah woodlands, has emphasized the importance of managing

Tang H. and H. E. Wadley (1976): A Guide to Artificial Regeneration with Particular reference To Line-Planting in Peninsular Malaysia. Research Pamphlet No. 68. FRI, Kepong. 60 Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia 2004 Sustaining our Green Heritage. ISBN 9839369143. 61 Schmidt R a paper presented at the Unesco-lVIC International Workshop on Rain Forest Regeneration and Management, Guri, Venezuela, in November 1986. 62 Leslie, A.J. 1985 Study of management systems in the tropical mixed forests of Asia. Rome, FAO. 63 Hutchinson, I. 1986a Improvement thinning in natural tropical forests, aspects, and institutionalization. In Symposium on Natural Management of Tropical Moist Forests. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. Hutchinson, I. 1986b. The management of humid tropical forests to produce wood. In US Forest Service Inst. Tropical Forestry Conf. on Management of tropical American forests: prospects and technologies. 59

tropical rain forests (FAO/PNUE64, 1981 a, b, c). Such destruction continues unabated, amounting to more than 19000 ha every day. The virtual disappearance of commercially productive tropical rain forests is imminent in some countries; in others, the process is developing at a slower pace, usually because large areas of forest are inaccessible. Managing tropical forests for economic production is a key element toward their conservation. Otherwise, four main options for land-use remain: tree plantations, protected natural forests, degraded, and depleted forests, and non-forest uses. Plantations yield great benefits but cannot replace the functions of current natural forest areas. Thus, plantation and natural forest management are not competitive but complementary. They provide different types of products and are suited to different terrains. Economically unproductive forests are often regarded as reserves of unutilized land. It is clearly appropriate to protect them in many areas, but this will become increasingly difficult and expensive where short-term productive potential for agriculture exists and where the rural poor have no alternatives for food production. Schmidt reported that significant efforts to manage natural tropical forests have been made in Malaysia, where it was found that when marketable trees were cut, either commercial species regenerated, or existing regeneration developed rapidly. While this did not always happen, it did occur under sufficiently different circumstances to be encouraging. Although few studies on humid tropical forest outside Malaysia have clearly confirmed this finding (Leslie65, 1985), there is little to indicate that it would not be true in other areas with appropriate harvesting, and silvicultural knowledge appears to be adequate to commence management operations in many humid forests throughout the tropics. The Malayan Uniform System (MUS), developed after the Second World War, converts virgin tropical lowland rain forest (a rich, complex, multispecies, multi-aged forest) to a more or less even-aged forest containing a greater proportion of commercial species. This transformation is achieved by a clear-felling release of selected natural regeneration of varying age, aided by the systematic poisoning of unwanted species (Wyatt-Smith, 1963). Five important factors in this system are relevant to any humid tropical forest natural management operation: • • • • •

The stocking of regeneration must be adequate. The original partially harvested canopy must be removed. There must be no tending until regrowth has passed the ephemeral climber stage. An adequate new canopy must be maintained to prevent the redevelopment of climbers. Linear sampling must assess the regeneration status.

FAO/PNUE 1981a Proyecto de evaluación de los recursos forestales tropicales. Los recursos forestales de la América tropical. Première partie: synthèse régionale. Deuxième partie: résumés par pays. FAO/PNUE. 1981b Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project. Forest Resources of Tropical Asia. Rapport technique n° 3. UN 32/6. 1301-78-04. FAO/PNUE. 1981c Les ressources forestières de l'Afrique tropicale. Première partie: synthèse régionale. Deuxième partie: résumés par pays (rédigés en français, anglais ou espagnol selon la langue officielle de chaque pays). 65 Leslie, A.J. 1985 Study of management systems in the tropical mixed forests of Asia. Rome, FAO. 64

Although successful in lowland forest areas, the MUS was judged less successful in the dipterocarp hill forests. Contributing factors included rough and variable terrain, consequent uneven stocking and variable regeneration, heavier damage to residual stands during steepslope logging, and irregular seeding of the principal commercial species. Burgess66 1975 examined why the MUS was only moderately successful in the hill forests. He prepared the above manual to assist foresters in treatment of the stand after harvesting. He emphasized that stands harvested without regard to any silvicultural control may well prove to be impossible to regenerate naturally. The modified MUS as practiced in Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah introduced certain refinements to the original MUS for specific sites and circumstances and emphasized post-harvest sampling to determine appropriate silvicultural treatment. In more recent times, the Selective Management System (SMS) has been developed in Peninsular Malaysia (Salleh and Baharudin67, 1985). This system advocates flexible management options based on a pre-harvesting inventory to determine diameter limits and species selection for harvesting. Climber cuttings prior to harvest and marking for directional harvest attempt to minimize logging damage to residual stands. The key step of post-harvest treatment is left undefined. SMS is not a true selection system according to standard silvicultural terminology where single stems or very small groups of trees are removed as they reach maturity on a more or less constant (polycyclic) basis. Truly polycyclic systems have not functioned success fully on a wide scale anywhere in the humid tropics. It is therefore perhaps more accurate to describe this as a system which leaves the manager with wide discretionary powers to determine where silvicultural treatment will be most advantageous from a cost/benefit standpoint. Silvicultural treatment continues in Peninsular Malaysia - poison girdling of noncommercial species was carried out on more than 62 000 ha in 1982 (Salleh and Baharudin, 1985). In Sabah, a long history of exploitative logging was countered after 1971 by the application of the Modified Malayan Uniform System to 140 995 ha of logged-over dipterocarp hill forests. By 1978, poison girdling was halted because increased logging had opened the stands to such an extent that additional opening was considered counterproductive. The cost-effectiveness of such treatment was uncertain, and market acceptability was changing so quickly that poisoning undesirables became a questionable operation (Chai and Udarbe68, 1977).

Burgess, P. F. 1975. Silviculture in the hill forests of Peninsular Malaysia. Research Pamphlet, Forest Research Institute, Kepong No. 66. 67 Salleh, M.N. & Baharudin, J. 1985 Silvicultural practices in Peninsular Malaysia. In The future of tropical rain forests in Southeast Asia. Commission on Ecology Papers, 10. UICN. 68 Chai, D.N.P. & Udarbe, M.P. 1977 The effectiveness of current silvicultural practice in Sabah. Mal. For., 40 (1): 2735. 66

Sequence of operations of the Modified Malayan Uniform System, Sabah. Source Fox and Hepburn69. 1972 Chai and Udarbe, 1977. Year n - 2 to n-1 n n + 0-1 month n + 0-2 month n + 36 month n + 10 to n + 15

Operation Allocation of coupe First silvicultural treatment - protective tree marking and climber cutting Felling operation Clearance inspection Assessment of regeneration through Linear Sampling Milliacre (LSM); (2 m x 2 m plots) Second silvicultural treatment - first poison girdling of unwanted and defective trees, climber cutting if necessary Assessment of regeneration through Linear Sampling Half-Chain Survey (LS1/2); (10 m x 10 m plots) - third silvicultural treatment, liberation treatment where necessary

The silvicultural system developed in Sarawak is currently one of the most consistently applied and successful. From 1974 to 1980, FAO projects assisted the Forest Department in developing and instituting silvicultural practices for the mixed dipterocarp hill forest (UNDP/FAO70, 1982a; Hutchinson71, 1981, 1986a, b). The conceptual and operational point of departure for this system is not undisturbed forest but the increasingly large areas of forest that have been selectively logged for valuable species. In this selectively logged forest, liberation thinnings are performed. The concept is not new or even exclusively tropical: liberation thinnings are logically indicated in any situation where a young crop of potentially good trees is overtopped by older, distinctly fewer desirable trees. If the overtopped trees respond vigorously and speedily to form a new good-quality stand, quick and cheap silvicultural transformation to a productive stand is possible (Smith, 1962). To recover the cost of rain-forest treatment, the maximum rate of increment must be concentrated on what will prove to be the final crop trees (Baur, 1964). Because a low proportion of commercially valuable species exists (a frequently cited constraint to tropical forest management), selective logging is often light. From 1974 to 1980, selective logging in Sarawak extracted 5-15 trees per ha, representing a volume of 10-50 m3, compared to total commercial volumes of 150 of 250 m3. At these levels of extraction, 60 percent of Sarawak's logged tracts retained residual forest consisting of 20 percent undisturbed and 40 percent disturbed in some way by extraction. Both overstorey removal and liberation thinning were applied. Overstorey removal is cheap, but the increase in dbh increment is correspondingly modest. The distinguishing Fox, J.E.D. & Hepburn, A.J. 1972 Code of Silvicultural Practice. Sabah Forest Dept. UNDP/FAO. 1982a Forestry development project Sarawak terminal report. Project result, conclusions, recommendations. FO: MAL/76/008. 71 Hutchinson, I. 1981 Sarawak liberation thinning: background and an initial analysis of performance. A practical guide. Document de terrain n° 15. U N DP/ FAO/ MA L/ 7 6/ 008. Sarawak Forest Dept., Kuching, Malaisie. 121 p. Hutchinson, I. 1986a Improvement thinning in natural tropical forests, aspects, and institutionalization. In Symposium on Natural Management of Tropical Moist Forests. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. (In press) Hutchinson, I. 1986b. The management of humid tropical forests to produce wood. In US Forest Service Inst. Tropical Forestry Conf. on Management of tropical American forests: prospects and technologies. 69 70

characteristic of liberation thinning is that it opens areas around trees selected individually to be potential final-crop trees. Unwanted trees are poisoned in localized patches throughout the forest, their numbers being inversely related to the minimum dbh specified for the selection of final-crop trees (Hutchinson, 1986 b). The detailed procedures of the system have been described by Wadsworth72 (1969). The essential principle is that trees are not systematically eliminated according to species and size across forest stands. There are very simple set rules, which are essentially distance tables with a few concrete modifications for poison girdling those trees that are judged to compete directly with final-crop trees. This conserves the forest and the foresters both ecologically and economically. 73McCarthy

1976 prepared a development plan for the Air Hitam Forest Reserve University Pertanian Malaysia. As described by Barnard and Wyatt Smith in Malayan Forest Records # 23, the area was managed under the Malayan Uniform System. Detailed compartment histories were available for the period 1935 to 1975 including details of volumes extracted and revenue received for each compartment. In the 1930’s pole fellings and selective felling for veneer, for matches and sawn timber was carried out. Unclassified species were harvested for charcoal. During the Japanese occupation in WW2, harvesting operations clear-felled certain areas. Permit conditions of the 1930’s obligated the permittee to construct and gravel roads into various compartments. Dick McCarthy Air Hitam Forest Reserve University Pertanian Malaysia 1976. Photo credit Dick McCarthy. The Ayer Hitam Reserved Forest, Puchong, is a research forest with an area of some 1,248 hectares. The forest is 20 km from the capital city Kuala Lumpur and 10 km from the main campus of Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) Serdang. The Selangor State Government gave the research forest in a long-term agreement for 80 years beginning 1996 for the purpose of education and research. The forest is managed by the Selangor Forestry Department and Faculty of Forestry UPM based on sustainable forest management. The Forest Management Plan for Ayer Hitam Forest Reserve is prepared by the faculty. The forest area is the only well-managed lowland Dipterocarp Forest in the Klang Valley. The facilities include a partially enclosed multipurpose hall, prayer room, kitchen, bathrooms, toilets, and a playing field. The base camp can accommodate around 100 to 150 persons at a time. The forest is also used for teaching purposes in the field of forestry, wood science, and park and recreation management. There are field plots for research activities in silviculture, Wadsworth F.H. 1969 Posibilidades futuras de los bosques del Paraguay. Working document 2. FAO: SF/PAR 15. McCarthy R B 1976 Development Plan for the Air Hitam Forest Reserve University Pertanian Malaysia. Dept of Forestry ANU Canberra. 72 73

wildlife management, forest ecology, forest survey, forest engineering, and hydrology. The extension programmes include forestry, science, motivation, interpretation, and ecological camps. At the very least, the Asian experience shows that integrated management of the tropical mixed forest is technically feasible. Philippines. Source Wikipedia. In the Philippines with extensive areas of productive tropical forests, and forestry institutions and educational systems are well established. The approach to management has been that properly implemented selective logging leaves a residual stand that develops so that another commercial cut becomes possible in 30-45 years. (UNDP/FAO74, 1970a). An extensive and comprehensive inventory system has been developed which is quite similar in scope and approach to the national forest inventory in the United States. Permanently marked plots are selected at random within forested areas and periodically remeasured. Regeneration, growth, and volume are monitored, and aerial photos are thoroughly evaluated to contribute data (Nillson, Marsch and Singh75, 1978). From 1975 to 1981, a Philippine-German Timber Stand Improvement Project developed methods of post-logging treatment. The treatment prescribed was basically a selection of the best potential crop trees (Leslie76, 1985). This confirms work done in Sarawak.

Indonesia. Source Wikipedia Indonesia has had a silvicultural research history of more than a century. Important changes in this research have included the change from even-aged monocultures to natural forests and multispecies, uneven-aged forest plantations and agroforestry systems. 77

Wood, Vanclay and wan Razali Wan Hohd 1993 described traditions and recent advances in tropical silviculture research in Indonesia Four phases of silvicultural research in Indonesia may be distinguished: the teak era (18501920), devoted to production for colonial powers; the forest plantations era (1920-1970), which focused on forest plantations for wood production and watershed management; the era UNDP/FAO. 1970a Demonstration and training in forest, forest range and watershed management, the Philippines. Based on work by D.J. Nicholson. Technical Report technique n° 3. FO: SF/PHI 16. Rome. 52 pp. 75 Nillson, H.E., Marsch, H.E. & Singh, H.W. 1978 Identification, and planning of a National Forest Inventory for the Philippines. FAO Working Paper 15. PHI/72/006. Rome. 76 Leslie, A.J. 1985 Study of management systems in the tropical mixed forests of Asia. Rome, FAO 77 Wood, Vanclay and wan Razali Wan Hohd (1993). 74

of natural rain forest management (from 1970), where attention turned to silviculture for sustained timber production from natural rain forests and involved an approach integrating silvicultural and harvesting techniques; and the era of community forestry development, which started at the end of the 1970s and involved rural people in the management of local forest resources. Consequently, much attention is given to production systems and tree species preferred by villagers, whether growing on private land or on forest lands. These silvicultural systems are characterized by an uneven-aged, multispecies composition and may also include combinations of trees and agricultural crops. During the first phases, research attention focused on assessing new silvicultural practices but, during the recent community forestry era, the application of new practices by forest managers also was evaluated. This brought with it important changes in research methodology, with research being carried out in cooperation with local people rather than by forest researchers in isolation. The appointment of the first colonial foresters in 1849 not only represented the start of statecontrolled professional forestry in Indonesia but may also be considered the start of systematic efforts to improve the cultivation of timber trees. At first, silvicultural experimentation took place in an informal manner in conjunction with practical efforts to improve forest management. An official forest research institute was founded in 1913 and developed in subsequent decades into one of the main centres for forestry research in the tropics. In accordance with the prevalent forest policies, silvicultural research first focused on teak cultivation. Until the 1970s most silvicultural research focused on plantation forestry as the main silvicultural model. Research work concentrated on establishment and maintenance practices, including artificial regeneration, weeding, thinning and protection against pests and diseases. The research focused strongly on the influence of biotic and abiotic elements on the growth of commercial tree species. Although the possible effects of nurse crops and shade trees on the timber trees did receive some attention, mixed stands were generally considered too complex and too costly (Van Alphen de Veer78, 1953) and, consequently, most silvicultural research focused on monoculture plantation forestry. The state of silvicultural knowledge as it existed in Indonesia at the end of the 1940s is reflected in the silvicultural textbook by Beekman79 1949. More than 60 percent of the text in this book is devoted to silvicultural descriptions of four important commercial tree species: Tectona grandis, Altingia excelsa, Pinus merkusii and Eusideroxylon zwageri. Since then, much information has been collected on additional species and important advances in the field of plantation forestry have been made, for example in tree breeding (Soerianegara80, 1974) and symbiotic relations between trees and micro-organisms (e.g., Smits81, 1983). However, most research on plantation silviculture still seems to focus on

Van Alphen de Veer, E.J. 1953. Problems of tropical silviculture in rain forest areas of Indonesia. Tectona, 43: 8896. 79 Beekman, H.A.J.M. 1949. Silviculture in Indonesia. Wageningen, the Netherlands, Veenman. 386 pp. (in Dutch) 80 Soerianegara, I. 1974. Forest tree improvement in Indonesia. In R. Toda, ed. Forest tree breeding in the world, p. 146-153. Tokyo, Government Forest Experiment Station. 81 Smits, W.T.M. 1983. Dipterocarps and mycorrhizae, an ecological adaptation, and a factor in forest regeneration. Flora Malesiana Bull., 36: 3925-3937. 78

monocultures not with-standing the fact that, since 1950, concern has been voiced about their potential impact on soil properties and resistance against pests and diseases (Steup82, 1955). The decision in 1966 to exploit the rain forests on other islands marked an important new phase in silvicultural research. Attention focused on natural forests and, rather than concentrating only on artificial regeneration, attention broadened to include techniques to stimulate natural regeneration of desirable tree families, for example Dipterocarpaceae. A new principle emerged: harvesting was not considered purely as exploitation but also as an important silvicultural practice. Research began to dedicate special attention to competition between tree species and synergistic relations between trees and other ecosystem components (Soerianegara83, 1973; Soerianegara and Kartawinata84, 1985; Smits85, 1983). During the community forestry era, silvicultural research shifted again to focus on production systems and tree species preferred by villagers, both on state forests and on private farmlands, and including timber, fruit-tree, and multipurpose tree species. It was gradually realized that many farmer-managed indigenous silvicultural systems are present in Indonesia. Many of the indigenous silvicultural systems preferred by local people are characterized by mixed tree stands and/or their integration with agricultural crops because they can provide a multitude of useful products for household needs, ranging from fuelwood and construction wood to edible products for people and livestock and medicinal products. Furthermore, these mixed plantations provide protection against production losses resulting from pests, disease, and unfavourable weather. The silvicultural significance of these indigenous silvicultural systems is now being recognized (Wiersum86, 1980; Michon and Bompard87, 1987). Several studies have described the silvicultural characteristics and dynamics of these systems (Wiersum88, 1982; Weinstock89, 1983, Berenschot, Filius and Hardjosoediro90, 1988) but

Steup, F.K.M. 1955. Some desiderata concerning forest research and forest policy in Indonesia. Tectona, 43: 265277. (In Dutch with English summary). 83 Soerianegara, I. 1973. Ecological research relevant to current silvicultural problems. Rimba Indonesia, 17: 133142 84 Soerianegara, I. & Kartawinata, K. 1985. Silvicultural management of the logged natural dipterocarp forest in South-east Asia. In J. Davidson, Tho Yow Pong & M. Bijleveld, eds. Future of tropical rainforests in South-east Asia. Commission of Ecology Papers, 10. Gland, Switzerland, IUCN. 85 Smits, W.T.M. 1983. Dipterocarps and mycorrhizae, an ecological adaptation, and a factor in forest regeneration. Flora Malesiana Bull., 36: 3925-3937. 86 Wiersum, K.F. 1980. Possibilities for use and development of indigenous agroforestry systems for sustained land use on Java. In J.I. Furtado, ed. Tropical ecology and development, p. 515-521. Kuala Lumpur, International Society of Tropical Ecology. 87 Michon G & Bompard J M 1987 Indonesian agroforestry practices: a traditional contribution to the conservation of rain forest resources. Revue d'Ecologie (France) ISSN: 0249-7395 88 Wiersum, K.F. 1982. Tree gardening and Taungya on Java: examples of agroforestry techniques in the humid topics. Agrofor. Syst., 1: 53-70. 89 Weinstock, J.A. 1983. Rattan: ecological balance in a Borneo rain forest swidden. Econ. Bot., 37: 312-322. 90 Berenschot, L.M., Filius, B.M. & Hardjosoediro, S. 1988. Factors determining the occurrence of agroforestry systems with Acacia mearnsii in Central Java. Agrofor. Syst., 16: 119-135. 82

efforts to adapt them further or to develop analogous systems through silvicultural research have started only recently (Kartasubrata91, 1990; 1991; Bratamihardja92, 1990). The important changes in silvicultural research methodology that are emerging at present in response to the organizational setting of community forestry may be illustrated by the history of research on Taungya cultivation in Indonesia. Taungya, the temporary intercropping of food crops by local farmers in young forest plantations, is a common technique in Indonesia. It was first used in the 1870s to establish teak plantations in Central Java and subsequently became widespread. During the twentieth century it was used to establish plantations of Pinus merkusii, Agathis dammara, Altingia excelsa and Swietenia macrophylla. Taungya cultivation was considered an effective means of reforestation. Its contribution to improving the welfare of local people was considered subsidiary. Research attention focused on the effect of various crops on teak growth and the effectiveness of the practice in comparison with other regeneration techniques (Coster and Hardjowasono93, 1935). As described by Beekman94 (1949) specific goals were to: • • • •

Reduce the establishment costs of teak plantations and earn an income from agriculture during the juvenile stage of the plantation. Improve maintenance of young tree stands through intensive weeding. Reclaim wastelands with agriculture before establishing tree plantations. Help address local shortages of good agricultural lands.

In the 1970s, the possibility of improving the crop component of the Taungya system was considered (Kartasubrata95, 1979; Wiersum96, 1982). Efforts began to be made to achieve a better balance between the needs for local community development and efficient timber production for commercial needs. Taungya cultivation was intensified through the introduction of high-yielding crop varieties, fertilization and crop protection measures coupled with improvements in land preparation and soil tillage. Improved cropping practices increased dryland rice production from 700 to 1000 kg per hectare to 2 000 to 3 000 kg per hectare, with similar increases in maize production. Tree growth also profited from the fertilization. Later studies looked also at the possibility of Kartasubrata, J. 1990. Research support to community forestry projects on forest land in Java, Indonesia. In M.E. Stevens, S. Bhumibhamon & H. Wood, eds. Research policy for community forestry in the Asia-Pacific region. p. 227-236. Proceedings of a seminar. Bangkok, RECOFTC. Kartasubrata, J. 1991. Planning and implementation aspects based on some successful agroforestry projects in Indonesia. In W. Mellink Y.S. Rao & K.G. MacDicken, eds. Agroforestry in Asia and the Pacific, p. 232-250. RAPA Publication 1991/5. Bangkok, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific and Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development. 92 Bratamihardja, M. 1990. Agroforestry on forest land in lava. In Agroforestry systems and technologies. BIOTROP Special Publication (Bogor). 39: 141-146. 93 Coster, C. & Hardjowasono, M.S. 1935. The influence of agricultural crops in taungya plantations on the growth of teak. Tectona, 28: 464-483. (In Dutch with English summary) 94 Beekman, H.A.J.M. 1949. Silviculture in Indonesia. Wageningen, the Netherlands, Veenman. 386 pp. (in Dutch). 95 Kartasubrata, J. 1979. Tumpangsari method for establishment of teak plantations in Java. Trop. Agric. Res. Rep. (Japan), 12: 141152 96 Wiersum, K.F. 1982. Tree gardening and Taungya on Java: examples of agroforestry techniques in the humid topics. Agrofor. Syst., 1: 53-70. 91

increasing the spacing of timber trees to lengthen the cropping period. The intensified taungya practices proved to be profitable to both farmers and the forest service and, in 1990, the system was applied on 75 percent of the total reforestation area on Java (Simon and Wiersum97, 1992). Notwithstanding the widespread acceptance of intensified taungya cultivation, this silvicultural practice has not solved the problems of high population pressure on the Javanese forest areas. Consequently, a new silvicultural practice called "full-rotation agroforestry" is now being tested. The practice is based on the principle of intercropping during the full plantation cycle from planting to harvest. The agricultural crops that farmers are allowed to plant are not restricted to annuals but include fruit-trees and multipurpose trees for up to 20 percent of the stand. The most effective combination depends both on site conditions and the kind of timber species present and on the socioeconomic conditions of the farmers who oversee managing the intercrops. Tropical Americas. Source Wikipedia The climate of the Americas varies significantly from region to region. Tropical rainforest climate occurs in the latitudes of the Amazon, south-eastern Florida etc. There are currently no large-scale sustained yield management programmes being implemented in the vast closed broad-leaved forests of tropical America. This is certainly not for lack of resources. In 1985, tropical America had an estimated 491.8 million ha of productive closed broad-leaved forests, of which 54.7 million ha have been logged over. The current absence of this type of management is certainly not because of lack of experimentation, recommendations and attempts at pilot demonstration programmes, even though more effective efforts need to be conceived and designed.

Simon, H. & Wiersum, K.F. 1992. Taungya cultivation in Java, Indonesia: Agri silvicultural and socio-economic aspects. In C.F. Jordan, J. Gajasein & H. Watanabe, eds. Taungya: forest plantations with agriculture in Southeast Asia, p. 101-111. Sustainable Rural Development Series No. 1. Wallingford, UK, CAB International. 97

Africa. Source Wikipedia In Africa, forest harvesting has evolved considerably since 1950. The forest lands logged over before 1930 are estimated to cover about 42 million ha of the 162 million ha of productive closed broad-leaved forest. The most accessible forests, such as those remaining in Côte d'Ivoire and Nigeria, have already been logged over several times. Approximately 90 percent of the undisturbed forests are found in Zaire, Gabon, the Congo, and Cameroon. Harvesting is still as selective as it was originally. The net volume of logs extracted from the forest averages from 5 to 35 m3/ha. The number of species utilized is still limited, in densely populated countries such as Ghana (55 inhabitants per km2) and particularly Nigeria (more than 100 inhabitants per km2), where domestic markets have supplanted exports, this should normally lead to a diversification of utilized species. In other major wood-producing countries, however, such as Côte d'Ivoire Cameroon, Gabon and the Congo, 75 percent of the timber trade volume consists of exports, and the domestic market is not large enough to absorb the lesser utilized species. Harvesting rules that existed before 1960 in anglophone countries (particularly in Ghana, Nigeria, and Uganda) and in Zaire have been gradually abandoned in most countries because of insufficient staff and funds. When the efficiency of silvicultural techniques was questioned, more spectacular planting operations backed by external funding were chosen. In the 1960s, an original system was set up in the Central African Republic: silvicultural operations were carried out within concessions, financed mostly by concessionaires. They consisted of marking saplings for protection during harvesting and post-harvesting thinning operations. Unfortunately, this procedure was discontinued after ten years because of institutional problems. Forest management in francophone Africa has sometimes consisted of harvesting regulations that fix the terms and areas for concessions and a minimum exploitable diameter for economic species. Stumpage rates paid in harvesting contracts are theoretically earmarked to finance management and regeneration costs, but in practice the funds revert to the general state budget. Silviculturists in Nigeria and Côte d'Ivoire experimented with natural regeneration and line planting during most of the first half of the twentieth century. Many other African forestry departments tried to take up the challenge of silviculture in moist forests beginning in the 1950s. Some of the methods relied on natural regeneration, others utilized techniques for improving the dynamics of the stands and others used artificial regeneration. The three main methods based on natural regeneration were the Tropical Shelterwood System (TSS) in Nigeria; the Amelioration des peuplements of naturels (APN), or improving natural populations, in Côte d'Ivoire and the Selection System in Ghana.

Natural regeneration techniques are not practiced on a commercial scale in the francophone countries, nor in Nigeria. However, Ghana and Uganda have in principle, continued both moist forest planting and management.

Nigeria

Source Wikipedia.

The TSS was designed in Nigeria in 1944 based on 20 years of tests. Its objective was to enhance are the natural regeneration of valuable species before exploitation by, gradually opening the canopy (poisoning undesirable trees, cutting climbers) to obtain at least 100 of 1m high seedlings per ha over five years. The forest thus worked was logged over in the sixth year and cleaning and thinning operations were then carried out over 15 years. Two hundred thousand ha of forest were treated this way by the Nigerian Forestry Department between 1944 and 1966, after which the method was dropped. The main problems encountered were the exuberant spreading of climbers once the canopy had been opened and the failure of the seedlings of valuable species to grow adequately. Moreover, some poisoned eliminated trees later turned out to be commercially valuable, e.g., Pycnanthus angolensis.

Côte d'Ivoire

Source Wikipedia.

Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire. In 1950, the Forestry Department of Côte d'Ivoire found the initial results in Nigeria appealing and gave up line planting in favour of APN, a technique linked to TSS. Apart from technical considerations, there was an economic motive for this drastic change: the productive capacity of sawmills for domestic consumption was increasing. The geographic dispersal, as well as the widening of the range of species used, called for widespread operations and more species to be regenerated. The APN method was applied to forests that had been logged over and were well stocked in valuable trees of average size. The aim was to favour the growth of these average stems and to ensure regeneration through natural seeding of the valuable species by removing climbers and opening up the canopy. The method was applied by the Forestry Department from 1950 to 1960 on large areas but was then abandoned after results were disappointing.

Ghana Source Wikipedia. The Ghana Selection System (called a selective system by Nwoboshi98, 1975) includes tending operations designed to increase the growth rates and survival of young individuals of valuable species larger than 10 cm diameter which exist at the time of harvesting. Britwum (1975) states that the canopy disturbance induces some new regeneration. The abundance and species composition of the seedling regeneration cannot be precisely controlled although it can be predicted within wide and general limits. The growth rates and stocking are likely to be lower after slight canopy disturbance than after the more drastic disturbance involved in uniform systems, although the regrowth in both cases is likely to include a majority of shade-intolerant species. The Selection System has been applied in Ghana since 1960. Its objective is to assure the regeneration of forests well stocked with valuable species. Harvesting occurs about every 15 years, after the Forestry Department has marked the stand to retain some well-distributed seed trees, followed by thinning operations. The method has been found to cause considerable felling damage because of the relatively short rotation. Regeneration has been poor, and less valuable shade-tolerant species dominate because of insufficient opening of the canopy. Gabon Source Wikipedia. In Gabon, the improvement of stand dynamics technique was utilized in the 1950s in Gabon's Aucoumea klaineana forest to accelerate the growth of all-sized stems of valuable species in naturally well-stocked stands, without trying specifically to provoke regeneration through natural seeding. The species grew in patches or clumps, presumably because of natural seeding of forest trees in the clearings or gaps. The objective was to let these stands attain commercial diameters as quickly as possible through thinning operations, but the production gain was never measured. After treating about 1 000 000 ha in this way, the Forestry Department gave up the technique in 1962 to switch to Aucoumea klaineana plantations.

Nwoboshi L C 1975. Problems and prospects of natural regeneration systems in the future management of the tropical moist forest for timber production. Committee on Forest Development in the Tropics (4th session), FAO Rome. 98

International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) Guidelines for forest landscape restoration in the tropics Policy Brief 2020. Guidelines for forest landscape restoration in the tropics Policy Brief This is the policy brief for the guidelines on forest landscape restoration (FLR) in the tropics which are based on vast recent experiences in implementing FLR in the field. Guidelines for forest landscape restoration in the tropics 2020. ITTO PS-24 [en] These guidelines on forest landscape restoration (FLR) in the tropics are based on vast recent experiences in implementing FLR in the field and the invaluable inputs of forest landscape specialists and institutions from around the globe. ITTO guidelines for the restoration, management, and rehabilitation of degraded and secondary tropical forests. 2002 This publication, developed by a team of experts from ITTO and organizations such as CIFOR, FAO, IUCN, WWF International and national agencies, is part of a substantial effort by ITTO and its partners to deal with degraded forest and forest land.

ITTO mangrove workplan 2002-2006 This document will guide the mangrove-related work of ITTO and its member countries until 2006.

Forest Management in Queensland Tropical Moist Rainforests

https://www.fao.org/3/y1997e/y1997e2b.jpg Figure Oceania: ecological zones Oceania comprises of Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and the Pacific Islands (Micronesian, Melanesian, and Polynesian archipelagos). Tropical moist rainforest occurs within the Pacific Islands and small patches in north-eastern Australia (Queensland). The rain forests of the tropical Pacific Islands are generally evergreen. Their structure is comparable to that of the Indo-Malayan forests, but the flora of the dominant strata is often relatively poor. The tallest hardwood forests, with heights ranging from 30 to 45 m, are found on deep volcanic soils. About a dozen species (in the 52

genera Calophyllum, Campnosperma, Dillenia, Elaeocarpus, Endospermum, Gmelina, Maranthes, Parinari, Schizomeria and Terminalia) are the main constituents of the canopy, overtopped occasionally by banyan figs (Ficus spp.) and Terminalia calamansanai. In Vanuatu, Fiji, and Samoa this forest type is somewhat lower (about 30 m) and floristically slightly different. New Caledonian flora is totally different from that of the forests in other parts of Melanesia. Clusiaceae (Calophyllum spp. and Montrouziera spp.), Cunoniaceae, Myrtaceae, Myrtoideae, Proteaceae and Sapotaceae predominate in the upper stratum. Coniferous forests belonging to the Araucariaceae, Cupressaceae, Podocarpaceae and Taxaceae families have a limited distribution throughout the Pacific. Mangroves cover rather large areas in the Melanesian archipelagos and in the Caroline Islands. The traditional view was that the Australian rainforest flora consisted of two elements. The “Antarctic” which has evolved when the Australian land mass was physically connected with Africa, South America and Antarctica and the “Indo Malaysian” element which evolved more latterly in the tropical region. Both elements were regarded as invaders, forming the current assemblage of species with only a minor competent developing locally. While some degree of interchange has taken place with the Asian flora, a more convincing viewpoint is that the modern rainforest flora developed in the supercontinent “Gondwanaland” and continued to evolve with breakup of the supercontinent into the land masses of today.

Source Queensland Department of Forestry. Tropical rain forests constitute around one million hectares of Australia's forests. The forest canopy ranges from around 30 to 40 m high with emergent trees up to 50 m. They resemble the rain forests of Indo-Malaya in floristic composition except for the complete absence of Dipterocarpaceae. Australian endemics of the emergent tree strata include species of Flindersia, Cardwellia, Musgravea, Placospermum, Buckinghamia, Darlingia, Backhousia, Blepharocarya, Castanospermum, Ceratopetalum and Doryphora. The presence of several primitive and restricted angiosperm genera - Idiospermum, Austrobaileya, Sphenostemon, Bubbia, Ostrearia, Neostrearia, Eupomatia and Galbulimima - add a further distinctive character to the rain forests. In swamp forests, limited to the coastal zone, Melaleuca viridiflora paperbark forest often constitutes the main canopy species along 53

with numerous palms. In the well-drained lowlands, woodlands and forests include Eucalyptus tereticornis, E. tessellaris, E. intermedia and E. pellita. Distribution of Queensland Rainforests. Source Queensland Department of Forestry.

Just99 1987, presented an outline of forest management policies, practices, methodologies, and philosophies in relation to the North Queensland tropical rainforests. In 1989, all the rainforest areas were declared a Wet Tropics World Heritage Area which banned forest harvesting for wood utilisation. However, the North Queensland experience demonstrated that moist tropical rainforest can be sustainably managed for wood production, provided adequate attention is given to tree marking as a silvicultural tool. Prior to European settlement, rainforest covered some 1,200,000 hectares in North Queensland. After G E Dalrymple’ expedition of 1873, land settlement and red cedar cutting which resulted in the loss of large areas of highly productive forests. Swain as head of Queensland Forestry had significant areas of rainforest permanently reserved as State Forests although it upset the political masters of the day. Queensland government forestry management objectives were to maintain essential ecological processes, preserve genetic diversity and to ensure the sustainable utilisation of species and ecosystems. Just T.E. (1987) - Management of tropical rainforests in North Queensland. Proceedings of Conference of Institute of Foresters of Australia, Perth 1987.pp 299-312. 99

In 1984, the overall management objective was the sustainable production of forest products within a balance conservation program which provides for co-ordinated development, preservation, and environmental integrity. These covered areas including wood production, catchment protection, landscape values, scientific values, recreation values and flora and fauna activities. Harvesting of North Queensland rainforest on State Forest reserves was a conservative selection logging system subject to strictly enforced environmental controls and based on the principle of sustained yield. •

• • •

Pre-operational planning of harvesting operations including a detailed logging plan with a map showing location of haulage roads and snig tracks, designated streams and design of stream crossings, location of landings, delineation of all excluded areas. Filter strips for reduction of sedimentation. Sectional planning of tree marking and felling operations. Forest closure during wet season.

Just commented that no one silvicultural system appeared appropriate given there were at least 600 species in North Queensland rainforest which grow to merchantable size. Queensland forestry silvicultural research showed that: •

• •

•

Regenerative capacity of the rainforest was enormous. It has the capacity to regenerate itself within a forty-year period, providing there is no continued disturbance particularly fire. Studies of natural regeneration confirm that selective logging does not systematically remove particular species nor cause long term changes in species composition. Silvicultural treatments involving removal of undesirable species and unwanted stems of desirable species is a demonstrably successful method of increasing production of desirable species. It is high-cost silviculture. The establishment of native rainforest hardwood species in plantation format has been widely researched with minimal success. It is high-cost silviculture. The silviculture system adopted is that of selection logging. The basis was a polycyclic selection logging system based on a 40-year cutting cycle (range 28-40 years). The tree marking prescriptions provided for harvesting of mature and overmature stems. Species are grouped according to growth and milling characteristics for the purpose of prescribing appropriate cutting size. Typical cutting diameters included: Queensland walnut Endlandra palmerstonii Queensland maple Flindersia brayleyana Kauri pine Agathis robusta Northern silky oak Cardwellia sublimis Silver ash Flindersia schottiana, Flindersia borjotiana White cheesewood Alstonia scholaris Black bean Castanospermum australe Silver quandong Elaeocarpus grandis Brown Salwood Acacia auiacocarpa Bollywood Litsea bindoniana

100 cm 80 cm 80 cm 80 cm 70 cm 70 cm 60 cm 60 cm 50 cm 50 cm

The tree marking rules provided for removal of damaged or fungal infected stems below cutting diameters. They do not provide for thinning removals. The rules do provide for flexibility of operations and modifications of intensity of logging or exclusion from logging where environmentally desirable.

Tree marking Rules for North Queensland rainforests. Source Queensland Department of Forestry Vanclay100 1990 from an analysis of data from 212 permanent sample plots provided no evidence of any decline in rainforest productivity after three cycles of selection logging in the tropical rainforests of north Queensland. Relative productivity was determined as the difference between observed diameter increments and increments predicted from a diameter increment function which incorporated tree size, stand density and site quality. Analyses of variance and regression analyses revealed no significant decline in productivity after repeated harvesting. There is evidence to support the assertion that if any permanent productivity decline exists, it does not exceed six per cent per harvest. The present study concerns the tropical rainforests of north-east Queensland. These forests had been managed for conservation and timber production for more than eighty years (Just 1987), before logging ceased following their World Heritage nomination in 1988. Although initial exploitation of these forests was largely uncontrolled, logging practices were progressively improved and harvesting in recent years has caused little environmental impact (Just 1987). The earliest exploitation caused relatively little damage because of the highly selective nature of logging and modest horsepower involved. Environmental impacts probably peaked during the mid-1960's with the ready availability of heavy earth moving machinery.

: Jerome K. Vanclay (1990) Effects of Selection Logging on Rainforest Productivity, Australian Forestry, 53:3, 200-209, DOI. 100

During the 1980's, timber harvests were obtained through selection logging which removed 7 to 10 trees per hectare, comprising not more than 25 per cent of the total standing basal area (Vanclay101 1989b). Guidelines (Preston and Vanclay102 1988) ensured that not more than 50 per cent of the canopy was removed. Such guidelines ensure rapid recovery of the rainforest canopy (Horne and Gwalter103 1982). Key components of this selection logging system as practiced during the 1980's were: •

•

• • •

Logging guidelines were sympathetic to the silvicultural requirements of the forest, viz. ensuring retention of vigorous advance growth, harvesting only defective and fully mature trees, providing for adequate regeneration of commercial species, and discouraging invasion by weeds. Tree marking by trained staff specified trees to be retained, trees to be removed and the direction of felling to ensure minimal damage to growing stock and minimal opening of the canopy. Logging equipment was appropriate and driven by trained operators to ensure minimal damage to the residual stand and minimal soil disturbance, compaction, and erosion. Prescriptions ensured that adequate stream buffers and steep slopes were excluded from logging. Sufficient areas for scientific reference, feature protection and recreation were identified and excluded from logging. Deficiencies in an evolving system were recognised and remedied, leading to an improved system.

Several studies have examined impacts of timber harvesting in these forests. Gilmour104 1971 found that effects of logging on streamflow and sedimentation were small scale and short lived. Gillman105 et al 1985 examined soil chemical properties and found that most topsoil nutrients regained their initial levels within four years of logging. Whilst nutrient cycles were disrupted by logging, losses appeared to be small and quickly replaced by natural inputs, if logging was of low intensity, short duration and infrequent (Congdon and Lamb106 1990).

Vanclay, J. K. (1989b). Modelling selection harvesting in tropical rain forests. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 1, 280-294. 102 Preston, R. A. and Vanclay, J. K. (1988). Calculation of Timber Yields from North Queensland Rainforests. Technical Paper No. 47. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Forestry. 103 R. Horne J. Gwalter (1982) The recovery of rainforest overstorey following logging Austr. Forest. Res. 13 29–44 104 Gilmour, D. A. (1971). The effects of logging on streamflow and sedimentation in a north Queensland rainforest catchment. Commonwealth Forestry Review 50, 38-48. 105 Gillman, G. P., Sinclair, D. F., Knowlton, R. and Keys, M. (1985). The effect on some soil chemical properties of the selective logging of a north Queensland rainforest. Forest Ecology and Management 12, 195-214. 106 Congdon R A & Lamb D 1990. Essential nutrient cycles. Pp. 105–113 in Webb, L. J. & Kikkawa, J. (eds). Australian tropical rainforests: science – value – meaning. CSIRO, Melbourne. 101

Nicholson107 et al 1988, 1990 and Crome108 et al 1992 reported that whilst timber harvesting caused localized destruction, it did not lead to loss of any plant species. Logging tracks and canopy loss were confined to 5 and 20 per cent of the area respectively (Crome et al 1992). However, the light climate may be altered in areas with no direct canopy loss. Stocker109 1981, 1983, Unwin110 1983, 1988 and Webb and Tracey111 1981 have investigated other aspects of the dynamics and regenerative capacity of these rainforests. Crome and Moore112 1989, 1990 discussed effects of logging on fauna. It has been estimated that a timber harvest of 60 000 cubic metres per annum could be sustained from these forests (Preston and Vanclay113 1988). Vanclay and Preston114 1989 examined the long-term sustainability of such a harvest and concluded that selection logging could be sustained by the growth of residual trees and regeneration and need not rely upon trees missed during previous harvests. 115Vok

1975. Problems in the silvicultural treatment of the tropical rainforests of Queensland. Vok provided results for TSI trials in Queensland. The period of growth assessed was 15 years and included volume of the commercial species in the 40 cm plus dbh class. The data indicated that growth in untreated stands was not high but there was the potential to increase yield in commercial species by a factor of 4 to 5, through timber stand improvement techniques.

Nicholson, D. I., Henry, N. B. and Rudder, J. (1988). Stand changes in North Queensland rainforests. Proceedings of the Ecology Society of Australia 15, 61-80. Nicholson, D. I., Henry, N. B. and Rudder, J. (1990). Reply: Disturbance regimes in north Queensland rainforests: A re-evaluation of their relationship to species richness and diversity. Australian Journal of Ecology 15, 245-246. 108 Crome, F. H. J., Moore, L. A. and Richards, G. C. (1992). A study of logging damage in upland rainforest in north Queensland. Forest Ecology and Management 49: 1-29. 109 Stocker, G. C. (1981). Regeneration of a north Queensland rain forest following felling and burning. Biotropica 13, 86-92. Stocker, G.C. 1983. Aspects of the dynamics of rain forests in northeast Australia. Ph.D. thesis. University of New England. 400 pp. 110 Unwin, G.L. (1983) - Dynamics of the rainforest-eucalypt forest boundary in the Herberton Highland, north Queensland. M. Sc. Thesis, James Cook Univ., Townsville. Unwin, G.L., Applegate, G.B., Stocker, G.C. and Nicholson, D.I. (1988) - Initial effects of cyclone 'Winifred' on forests in north Queensland. Proc. Ecol Soc. Aust. 15: 283-296. 111 Webb, L.J. and Tracey, J.G. (1981) - Australian rainforests: pattern and change. In: A. Keast (ed.) “Ecological Biography of Australia” Vol 1. Junk, The Hague. pp. 606-694. 112 Crome, F. H. J., Moore, L. A. and Richards, G. C. (1992). A study of logging damage in upland rainforest in north Queensland. Forest Ecology and Management 49: 1-29. 113 Preston, R. A. and Vanclay, J. K. (1988). Calculation of Timber Yields from North Queensland Rainforests. Technical Paper No. 47. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Forestry. 114 Vanclay, J. K. and Preston, R. A. (1989). Sustainable timber harvesting in the rainforests of northern Queensland. In Forest Planning for People, pp. 181-191. Proceedings of 13th biennial conference of the Institute of Foresters of Australia, Leura, N.S.W., 18-22 September 1989. Sydney: Institute of Foresters of Australia. 115 Vok H E 1975. Problems in the silvicultural treatment of the tropical rainforests of Queensland. Technical Conference on Tropical Moist Forests, FAO Brazil 1975. 107

Problems and Opportunities Countries attempting to manage tropical rain forests may be dealing with hundreds of tree species that have reached merchantable size. It is necessary to group these species for commercial purposes and to simplify the real botanical complexity. In this effort, local people and their knowledge of the forest are often very useful. The criteria for what constitute a commercially valuable tree are changing constantly. The general trend throughout the tropics is that more and more species are being "discovered" as valuable. Some countries have regretted poison girdling of species that subsequently proved marketable. However, relative values have seldom been reversed; more and more species have simply become economically acceptable. A tree should therefore be eliminated only if it is directly competing with a more valuable one. Although there is much debate about what constitutes an adequately stocked residual stand Salleh and Baharudin116 1985, it should never impede the implementation of management programmes. The average dbh increment in natural tropical forests varies with many factors but is seldom greater than 1 cm per year and is often less. Thus, if crop trees were 10 cm average dbh, a minimum of 40 years might be expected to maturity. If larger trees can be successfully released, logging might occur every 25 or 30 years. The complexity and variability of ecological dynamics and species composition in tropical rain forests means one thing for silviculture: flexibility, guided by common sense acquired through field experience. Hutchinson117 1986a suggested examining seedlings and saplings present before and after logging; assessing the impact of logging upon the forest, particularly regarding damage to surviving stems; and the provision of open space for regeneration. Those findings would suggest an appropriate silvicultural treatment to ensure a future crop. With respect to existing tropical forest resource was the question of how to manage a moist rainforest forest area after it has been logged. The belief that governments will have a longer-term view than industrialists was one of the compelling justifications for government control of forest resources. Conventional silvicultural research in many parts of the developing world proceeded on the assumption that actual silvicultural management would be carried out by a professional forest service and under State control. State control over forest areas assured large management units in which management practices could be applied over relatively large areas. Consequently, silvicultural research could proceed from a wellestablished body of professional knowledge and a general understanding of the objective Salleh M.N. & Baharudin, J. 1985 Silvicultural practices in Peninsular Malaysia. In The future of tropical rain forests in Southeast Asia. Commission on Ecology Papers, 10. UICN. 117 Hutchinson, I. 1986a Improvement thinning in natural tropical forests, aspects, and institutionalization. In Symposium on Natural Management of Tropical Moist Forests. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. (In press) 116

- greater production of commercial products at acceptable costs and without undue deterioration of site productivity - as well as watershed and soil protection. However, within the context of community forestry these assumptions are no longer valid. Much of the new silvicultural research can only partially be built on knowledge gathered through "traditional" formal scientific methods. In contrast, much information on the feasibility of uneven-aged, mixed-species tree cultivation systems is stored in the empirical knowledge of people using existing indigenous forest and agroforestry management systems. Therefore, silvicultural research within the context of community forestry must combine scientific and indigenous empirical knowledge. The use of forest management systems by indigenous populations is often very location specific. The identification of possibilities for improved techniques should therefore be based on a location-specific problem analysis rather than on general scientific problem identification. Not only does the knowledge base for research change, but the objective for silvicultural management may alter. Local communities often have different objectives from professional foresters in managing forest resources; for example, they may wish to optimize production of multiple products for subsistence use (including many non-wood forest products) instead of maximizing production of industrial commodities, or they may manage forests primarily as an input for their farming enterprises rather than for the direct production of tangible end products. The end goal is to develop silvicultural techniques permitting sustainable forest management that satisfies multiple objectives. It is likely that wood scarcity may have to become acute before more sustainable forms of forest management become attractive. When this occurs, it is more likely that the establishment of forest plantations and more intensive management of secondary forests will become economically feasible. The Asian experience shows that sustainable, integrated management of the tropical mixed forest is technically feasible. The silvicultural system developed in Sarawak is currently one of the most consistently applied and successful. Research into the relationship between diameter (breast high or above buttress, over bark) and log volume provided no evidence to suggest that there was any increase in defect or any reduction in log length in trees harvested from previously logged stands (Henry118 1989). Rainforests appear to have the regenerative capacity to cope with the effects of a single selection logging, given sufficient time to recover (Hopkins119 1990).

Henry, N.B. (1989) - One-way equations for north Queensland rainforest species. Qld. Dep. For. Unpublished Report, 1989. 11 pages. 119 Hopkins, M.S. (1990) - Disturbance - the forest transformer. In L.J. Webb and J. Kikkawa (eds) Australian Tropical Rainforests: Science - Values - Meaning CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 40-52. 118

Shugart120 et al 1980 used a succession model to examine the effects of comparatively intensive harvesting on a 30-year cycle in subtropical rainforest in New South Wales, and concluded that such harvesting was sustainable, although the structure and composition of the forest would be altered. Gilmour121 2016 described that Australian forester have played major roles in international forestry for many decades. The scope of the work in which Australian foresters have been involved can be thought of as falling into five broad but somewhat overlapping categories: • • • •

•

Introduction of Australian germplasm into smallholder and industrial plantations. Developing operational modalities, technical options and supporting regulatory frameworks to adapt forestry to improve community and smallholder livelihoods. Developing systems and procedures for reduced impact logging in tropical rainforests and demonstrating its application in Asia and the Pacific. Distilling the lessons learned from field experiences to influence policy and practice of international organisations such as The World Bank, International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO), Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations and International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Building capacity of developing country professional and technical staff.

Gilmour addressed the philosophy of reduced-impact logging in tropical rainforests. During the 1970s and 80s, the long-term sustainability of tropical rainforests became a global issue that polarised community opinion into two opposing camps of protection versus sustainable utilisation. The protection camp claimed that sustainable utilisation was impossible and that the only way to ensure the long-term viability of tropical rainforests was by preserving most of the remaining forests in conservation reserves. The opposing camp argued that by applying a carefully managed set of systems and procedures tropical rainforests could be managed sustainably in the long term. By the 1980s, Australian foresters working in tropical North Queensland had developed systems and procedures to manage the state’s tropical rainforests that ensured the longterm sustainability of the resource while safeguarding environmental values (Shepherd and Richter122 1985). This approach was held up to the World as one of the few extant examples where sustainable management of tropical rainforests had been demonstrated on an operational scale (Poore123 1989).

Shugart, H.H., Hopkins, M.S., Burgess, LP and Mortlock, A.T. (1980) - The development of a succession model for subtropical rain forest and its application to assess the effects of timber harvest at Wiangaree State Forest, New South Wales. J. Environ. Manage. 11: 243-265. 121 Don Gilmour (2016) The role of Australian foresters in international forestry, Australian Forestry, 79:1, 63-69, DOI: 10.1080/00049158.2015.1109020 122 Shepherd, K.R. and Richter, H.V. (eds) (1985) Managing the Tropical Forest. Development Studies Centre, ANU, Canberra, 341 pp. 123 Poore, D. (1989). Queensland, Australia: An approach to successful sustainable management. In No Timber Without Trees. A Study for ITTO (Poore, D., Burgess, P., Palmer, J., Rietbergen, S. and Synnott, T., eds), pp. 28-39. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd. 120

Poore noted that two important features made the north Queensland example exceptional. These were: • •

The effective control of field operations. The application of stringent environmental controls that were based on solid science.

The above approach was influential in the development and application of Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) that was adopted and promoted by FAO, ITTO and others during the 1990s (Sist124 et al. 1998; Enters125 et al. 2002). Some examples of application of Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) of tropical rainforests adapted from North Queensland experience include: •

•

The Asia Pacific Forestry Commission unanimously adopted RIL principles in ‘Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific’ at a meeting of the APFC in Yogyakarta in 1998. This code was adapted from North Queensland experience and developed in consultation with member countries of the Commission. RIL Guidelines and associated training programs were subsequently prepared for Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Cambodia, Indonesia, and PNG under funding from Environment Australia, AusAID and USAID. Sabah. In the 1990s, the North Queensland rainforest management systems and procedures were adapted for use by a company in Sabah (RBJ) which was the commercial forestry arm of the Sabah Foundation, funded by New England Power and the Sabah Foundation. These guidelines have now been adopted for all concessions practising natural forest management and in Forest Management Units administered by the Sabah Forestry Department.

Effective management programmes may draw on international expertise, cooperation, and financial assistance, but they will be carried out by national governments and institutions. Action must be coordinated and comprehensive both at a national and, if international assistance is to be used, at international level. The Tropical Forestry Action Plan, (FAO126, 1985a, 1986b), had a focus well suited to natural forest management in that it sought to coordinate international assistance for priority areas based on a comprehensive analysis of each national situation.

Sist, P. & Bertault, J.-G. 1998. Reduced impact logging experiments: impact of harvesting intensities and logging techniques on stand damage. In: Silvicultural research in a lowland mixed dipterocarp forest of East Kalimantan (Eds, Bertault, J.-G. and Kadir, K.). CIRAD-Forêt, Montpellier, France, pp. 139-161. Sist, P., Nolan, T., Bertault, J. & Dykstra, D. 1998. Harvesting intensity versus sustainability in Indonesia. Forest Ecology and Management, 108: 251-260. 125 Enters T & Leslie R Eds. 2002 Forest Policies and Forest Policy Reviews. EC-FAO Partnership Programme (20002002) Kuala Lumpur Malaysia 2002. 126 FAO. (1985a) Intensive multiple-use forest management in the tropics. Analysis of case studies from India, Africa, Latin-America, and the Caribbean. Forestry Paper No 55. FAO, Rome (Italy). FAO. (1985b) Tropical Forestry Action Plan. FAO, Rome (Italy). 124

FAO in 1985, gave a list of 36 countries with at least 1 000 000 ha of tropical forest suitable for productive management. (Approximately 90 percent of the world total.) 1981 FAO definition logged over once or more last 60-80 years). Country Brazil Zaire Indonesia Peru India Colombia Burma Gabon Venezuela Bolivia Cameroon Malaysia PNG Guyana Suriname Mexico Ecuador French Guiana Philippines Madagascar Kampuchea Viet Nam Central African Rep. Nicaragua Thailand Panama Laos Angola Paraguay Guatemala Côte d'Ivoire Nigeria Honduras Ghana Sri Lanka

Total area (million ha) 295.5 79.2 67.5 42.8 37.8 36.0 21.8 19.8 18.8 17.0 16.6 14.4 13.9 13.5 12.5 11.4 9.7 7.6 6.3 6.0 5.0 3.5 3.4 3.2 2.9 2.8 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.8 1.8 1.6 1.3 1.2 1.0

Logged over (million ha) 13.5 0.4 34.5 6.4 3.9 0.8 5.5 9.9 11.4 2.0 10.6 5.7 0.4 1.4 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.2 3.7 4.6 05 2.3 0.4 0.1 E 0.8 E 2.2 1.9 1.2 1.8 1.5 1.1 0.1 1.0

Lamb and Gilmour127 in 2003 presented approaches to restoring and rehabilitating vast area of global degraded, fragmented, and modified forests to enhance socio-economic and ecological gains at the landscape level. Dave Lamb was extremely active in promoting APFReN activities. Photo credit APFReN.

Asia Pacific Forest Rehabilitation Network (APFReN) 128. Large swathes of forests in the Asia and the Pacific region, exceeding 40 percent of logged areas, have become degraded. The causes of degradation are varied, ranging from poor harvesting methods, shifting agriculture following logging entries, and forest fires. In their present state, these degraded sites offer no future for timber crops or for ecological services such as carbon sequestration, watershed protection and biodiversity conservation. Moreover, if these "useless" forests are not attended to, pressures could build up to convert them to other, non-forestry purposes. Although research work on rehabilitation of degraded forests has been conducted for over a century in the region, there have been few success stories. Most of the research, especially that involving assisted natural regeneration, including planting of gaps or strips (enrichment planting), is long term. Most of the initiatives have been ad hoc; rehabilitation work has rarely been extensive enough to be used as a model for further application, and maintenance and continuity have been lacking. Rehabilitation has not generally been given the same priority as plantation research; enrichment plantings have been considered too costly, skill intensive and unpractical. Costs are often calculated in narrow financial terms, without consideration of such values as biodiversity conservation, watershed protection, non-wood forest products and other benefits. With this background, the Forestry Research Support Programme for Asia, and the Pacific (FORSPA) initiated the Asia Pacific Forest Rehabilitation Network (APFReN), whose main thrust is to establish demonstration sites in several countries to showcase how rehabilitation can be undertaken. The demonstration site (about 100 ha) in each country is a focal point where various techniques can be tested on a secure site for longterm observations. The site can be the focal point for extension and training on rehabilitation technologies. The first demonstration plot was initiated in the Lao People's Democratic Republic in 1999. Since then, four other demonstration sites have been set up, in Cambodia, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam. Establishment and management protocols have been developed and preparation and treatment plans are in place. In general, these activities consider the current status of the forest and the

127Lamb 128

D & Gilmour D 2003 Rehabilitation and Restoration of Degraded Forests. IUCN ISBN 2-8327-0668-8 Dr S. Appanah FORSPAFAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Thailand.

potential role of the forest in terms of conservation and production. Improved rehabilitation. Dave Lamb’s129 first professional appointment was to the Department of Forests in Papua New Guinea, where one of his responsibilities was the supervision of forest practices for the Gogol Valley project, the first large-scale pulpwood logging operation in the Madang District. He recognised early on that complex patterns of kinship, land ownership and ambitions for land use following logging were more difficult to deal with than the obvious technical challenges of forest regeneration. This work resulted in a detailed but under-appreciated book describing the background, operation, and consequences of the logging business. It also established his abiding interest in the interaction between ecology and sociology that was to prove so fruitful in later years. In 1977, David was appointed to a lectureship in ecology in the Department Botany at The University of Queensland. He presented courses in ecology at all undergraduate levels, but particularly in Third Year, where he was able to impart his experience and insights to hundreds of students. At the same time, he built up a strong group of research students who were concerned with various aspects of forest regeneration, ranging from mineral nutrition to dispersal, stand development and effects such as fire and logging. He was a key member of a research group that continued studies of post-logging rainforest recovery in southern Queensland. With the establishment of the Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Rainforest Ecology and Management in 1993, David led a comprehensive and active program on forest rehabilitation in Far North Queensland that combined fundamental ecological research with its application to the Community Rainforest Regeneration Program that was established by the Commonwealth Government after declaration of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area in 1988. This consortium of university, government and community organisations produced both research insights and practical guidance for forest regeneration that received international attention. At the same time, he attracted postgraduate students from overseas and became actively involved in the supervision of projects in Southeast Asia. David retired in 2006 with the rank of Professor. His retirement was marked by an increase in his international engagement. He continued his research and advisory work, and wrote two landmark books reviewing forest restoration, especially in lessindustrialised countries. He was in demand as a valuable contributor to training programmes, conferences, and workshops. Colleagues at APFNet aptly described him as “our dear friend and thought leader.” David epitomised much of what it means to be a “genuine” forester—a solid understanding of the science of forest land management coupled with a good appreciation of the practicalities of applying the science in a range of socio-economic settings. He had a major impact on several generations of students and others who came within his orbit.

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Obituary Dave Lamb the Forester 2019

PNG’s Geography

130

Natural Forest Vegetation (addressed previously)131

132

Vegetation Map PNG by Dept of Forests 1970.

Womersley J S & McAdam J B 1957 The Forests and Forest Conditions in the Territories of Papua and New Guinea. TPNG Forest Service. Prepared for British Commonwealth Forestry Conference Australia 1957. 131 PNGAF Mag 9 B of 17 March 2021 page 11 132 Vegetation PNG Map published New Horizons Jacaranda Press 1973 ISBN0701681845. Source Dr R Robbins Dept of Forests PNG data 1970 130

Approximately 40 million hectares, or 87% of Papua New Guinea, is covered with some form of forest cover which ranges from savanna woodlands, swamps and mangroves to lowland rainforests, hill forests and montane forests. Extensive areas of grasslands are found in the Highlands and in the southwest. Throughout geological time, PNG’s vegetation is associated with Australian vegetation due to the influence of continental drift, coupled with a history of climatic fluctuations. The present boundaries of rainforest are far from static. Given freedom from fire and other disturbance, there would be a tendency for rainforest to encroach into adjoining plant formations. PNG is a land wracked by continual catastrophe. The mountains are young and continuing to uplift as the Australian plate subducts below the Pacific plate, so earthquakes with associated landslides are frequent on the young steep slopes. There are numerous active volcanoes, which create lava flows and mudflows and thick ash deposits. Strong destructive winds occasionally occur. In exceptionally dry years those forests that are always slightly seasonal become unusually dry and may catch fire. The big rivers that run on the coastal plains have unstable courses. Shifting cultivation and associated regrowth forest is also extensive. It is no surprise that lists of timber tree species for a tract of lowland rainforest in PNG usually include a considerable proportion of pioneers, such as species of Albizia, Paraserianthes and Serianthes, or Eucalyptus deglupta, besides strongly light-demanding climax species such as Campnosperma spp, Pometia pinnata and Terminalia spp. The impact of El Nino Southern Oscillation events (this is part of a pantropical climatic perturbation which results from anomalous warming of the usually cool surface of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean) has seen rare droughts in the tropics (PNG 1972), which in turn are linked in recent times with higher and higher incidences of uncontrolled bush wildfires throughout affected tropical areas. The recovery of fire damaged stands is slow and a downward spiral to non-forest cover is one potential outcome.

Ramu River near Madang. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 2001.

Photo Left - Volcanic explosion 1994 Rabaul Airport. Photo Credit Dick McCarthy.

Highlands of PNG. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 1997.

Ecological Basis for PNG’s Rainforest Management Foresters identified that in order to manage and rehabilitate PNG’s natural forests, the need was to establish an ecological basis for PNG’s rainforest management yet ensure a multiple use concept of forest resources. FAO estimated in 1976, that PNG then with a population of some 2 million people, shifting agricultural systems cleared approximately 200,000 hectares of regrowth and virgin forest annually. Previously,133 the moist tropical rainforest life cycle and forest dynamics and its applicability to PNG’s forests has been addressed. For foresters to understand rainforest management, it is necessary to examine the life cycle of climax rainforest vegetation. Herein lies the basis for successfully managing rainforest vegetation, or indeed, any vegetation. Forest ecology is the scientific study of the interrelated patterns, processes, flora, fauna, and ecosystems in forests. The general pattern of growth for any area of climax (mature) rainforest is one of an overstorey of large trees, most of which tend to be light demanders throughout most of their life. Beneath these trees, are one or more lower stories which contain both smaller individuals of over storey trees and mature trees of lesser stature. Large climbers are present in the upper canopy, epiphytes occur on the trunks and branches, shrub layers and in places, a herb layer is found in the undergrowth, while on the ground are fallen leaves, seedlings and seed. Competition is severe and mortality amongst seedlings is high. In PNG’s mixed rainforest stands, the actual composition is largely a matter of chance, depending not only on the size of the opening but upon the species present as seedlings and /or saplings when the opening is formed, and the climatic conditions that exist at the time of creating the opening.

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Forest dynamics describe the underlying physical and biological forces that shape and change a forest ecosystem. The continuous state of change in forests can be summarized with two basic elements: disturbance and succession. Rainforest silviculture is the manipulation of the forest to favour certain species and thereby enhance its value to Man. It is not a science (in its own right), but it is applied ecology. The forester needs to understand all the factors involved in regenerating the more desirable species. This includes flowering and fruiting, seed dissemination, germination, distribution and development of regeneration, size class distribution, and pattern of growth leading to climax vegetation in the rainforest. Rainforest soils tend to be generally infertile and deficient in plant nutrients. It is probably that infertility, which provides the main limit to production on rainforest sites. Rainforest plants are clearly adapted to making the best use of these infertile sites. Sustainable utilisation of the rainforest depends on working within the limits of ecosystem nutrient cycles. Shifting agriculture works by using the capacity of trees to grow on acid infertile soils and bring nutrients from the soil into the biomass. During the bush fallow period, nutrients reaccumulate in the vegetation, partly from the soil and partly from rain. Shifting agriculture and selective removal of trees do not cause serious permanent depletion. More complete biomass utilisation for wood chips or in plantation forestry will deplete ecosystem nutrients unless balanced by rain and soil inputs. The ecological basis of natural forest silviculture is the manipulation of the forest canopy. By controlling canopy gap size, it is possible to influence species composition of the next growth cycle. Rainforest silviculture will be successful so long as it is practised within the biological limits of the forest. Foresters have no control over changes to the climate. Yet, forests are sensitive to climate. Climate change can have a great effect on the dynamics of the ecosystem.

Cloudy Bay TA 2005. Photo credit Dick McCarthy.

Middle Ramu TA. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 2001.

PNG Soils. It is difficult to generalize on PNG soils and their properties. PNG Soils are relatively young, particularly in areas where sedimentation is occurring, or volcanoes are depositing ash. PNG uses the USDA Soil Taxonomy which is an internationally recognised soil classification system. The most common soils in PNG are inceptisols (yellow colouring on map above) which are found over half the land area as Western Highlands, Simbu, Eastern Highlands and West New Britain provinces. Inceptisols are young, well drained, and moderately weathered soils. The next common soils are Entisols (light green colouring on map above) common in East Sepik, Morobe, Central, Western, Oro Sandaun and Madang provinces. Entisols are very young soils excluding volcanic ash.

Source PNGRIS. Distribution of PNG Soils according to USDA Soil Taxonomy orders. Impact of PNG Agricultural Systems on PNG Soil Fertility Shifting cultivation is the basis for most food production in PNG. Most agricultural systems in the lowlands are shifting cultivation systems that use only long fallows to maintain soil fertility. In PNG, a wide variety of techniques are used to slow the loss of soil and nutrients during cultivation and to restore them between times of cultivation. 70

These techniques include: • • • • •

Fallowing – long and short fallowing. Planting trees in the fallow. Using leguminous crops in rotation with food crops. Constructing wooden barriers or terraces to slow the loss of soil by erosion, tilling the soil and constructing mounds and beds. Incorporating green manure in the soil - a form of composting.

Fallowing In general, land under fallow vegetation that is believed ready for cultivation again, is cleared by slashing and then buring the fallen fallow vegetation. Crops are then planted. Crops may be planted one to three plantings on the lowlands. In the Highlands with the use of green manure crops, they can get up to five plantings. Fallow periods range from 5 to more than forty years depending on population pressures for land. A very effective and almost universal way of restoring soil fertility in PNG is to use a fallow. A fallow is a period when land is not planted with crops but is left to “rest” or is planted with a species that assists in restoring soil fertility such as a leguminous crop. In PNG, land may be left to fallow from 2 months to more than forty years. Where land is fallowed for long periods, naturally occurring plants colonize the previously cultivated area. This fallow vegetation may progress to a tall tree cover. Tree roots penetrate deep into the subsoil and draw up nutrients to the leaves and branches. Soils become more friable as root systems develop and litter decomposes. The fallow vegetation protects the soil surface from rainfall and sunshine. Pests and diseases that live on particular food crop plants are significantly reduced because their target plants are no longer available to them. When the fallow is cleared, most of the vegetation is not removed from the site. Leaf litter and wood material is either burned on site or decomposes and hence provides nutrients to the soil. Fallow vegetation follows a number of vegetation community successions. The most common pattern of succession is weeds and grasses first, followed by fast growing shrubs and bushes, then pioneering tree species and finally more merchantable economic species. It may take up to 30 years to reach a secondary forest succession, with two or three layers of vegetation under a tree cover.

1968 Kalivit village ENB showing logged over and fallow /subsistence garden area landscape. Photo credit Ian Whyte.

1971 Steep country fallow and subsistence garden areas Madang Hinterland Gogol TA. Photo credit Ian Whyte.

1971 Madang Gogol TA flat country fallow and subsistence garden areas. Photo credit Ian Whyte.

1976 Sagari Gadisu TA. fallow and subsistence garden areas. Photo credit Ian Whyte.

1974 Vanimo TA Block 6 fallow and subsistence garden areas. Photo credit Ian Whyte.

1974 Open Bay TA fallow and subsistence garden areas following extensive logging. Photo Credit Ian Whyte.

1974 Open Bay TA fallow and subsistence garden areas. Photo credit Ian Whyte.

PNG Experiences with Natural Regeneration Treatments Baur134 1962 described the status of PNG natural regeneration activites in PNG of 1960 although it was believed at that time that the majority of lowland rainforest was designated for agricultural development (FAO135 1960b). Baur reported on trials136 established at Kerevat ENB over some 800 acres where after logging, a climber cutting was carried out, undergrowth removed and unmerchantable stems up to 12 inches dbh felled.Where the upper canopy was not sufficiently opened, undesirable stems were ringbarked or poisoned to create larger gaps. The major species being Pometia tomentosa had abundant seedlings present which responded to increased light. After the canopy opening, two annual tendings were undertaken to free regrowth of desirable species. In a six year old regenerated stand there were 350 stems per acre with a BA of 51 sq ft per acre; the 160 best stems per acre had a mean dbh of 5.4 inches and the taller stems were over 60 ft high. Concern was expressed at the time re the impact of urbanisation from Rabaul and the increasing number of commercial species may affect the continuation of these trials. Reference is made to research137 commencing on regenerating some of PNG’s dipterocarp forests. 138

139

140

McCarthy 1963 reported on the natural regeneration treatments undertaken at Kerevat Forest Station ENB.

Baur G 1962 The Ecological Basis of Rainforest Management Andre Mayer Fellow 1961-62 UN FAO p 372. FAO 1960 b – Report of the sub-committee on Silvicultural Systems for lowland tropical rainforests. 5th Session APFC New Delhi FAO/APFC 60/10e.3. 136 ANON: 1960 territorial silvicultural techniques Papua New Guinea Australian timber industry stabilisation conference Kuranda. 137 ANON: 1961 Regeneration in treated Dipterocarp forests. Borneo Terr. For. Bull 11. 138 Cartoon from Bob Brown’s Grass Roots Guide to PNG Pidgin South Pacific Post. 139 Original copy of report by McCarthy R B 1963 Natural Regeneration Treatments Kerevat ENB. Cadet Officer Report Dept of Forests. Unpublished. 140 McCarthy R B 1963 Natural Regeneration Treatments Kerevat ENB. Cadet Officer Report Dept of Forests. Unpublished. 134 135

Baining track showing Vine Growth ENB . Photo credit Ian Whyte 1967. The system used was: 1. Useful species under 2 ft DBH which are of good form and vigour are retained. 2. Species above 6 inches DBH that are a. Useless are poisoned. b. Useful but of poor form and vigour are poisoned. c. Useful but over 2 ft DBH are poisoned. 3. All climbers are cut. A

Object of Natural Regeneration

The object of natural regeneration techniques is the conversion of low value rainforest, or previously logged rainforest into forest areas that at maturity will contain a high proportion of desirable timber species. B

Treatment Prescription

Object of treatment

This is to establish dominancy of well-spaced and useful stems, to confer crown space to those selected stems to ensure rapid growth and the development of well-rounded crowns. 2

Those trees to be marked for removal (a) Those stems of useless species which are competing in space with select stems (b) Species above 6-inch diameter breast height that are a. Useless species. These are poisoned off. If below 6 inches diameter breast height are brushed.

b. Species which are useful but of poor form and vigour are poisoned or cut depending on their size c. Species which are useful but over two feet diameter (that is over mature) are poisoned. (c) All climbers are cut. The above treatment is carried out in areas previously untreated. These areas have previously been logged and have little if any merchantable timber remaining. 3

Follow up treatment used at Kerevat on regenerated areas is:

(a) In generated areas where the regenerated trees have an average height of 50 feet, selection is made at the rate of stems per acre i.e., a spacing of 23 feet by 23 feet. Selection of stems is made upon the following points. 1 2

Vigour, form. Select stems must be dominants of good form and free of defect (disease and bad form) and acceptable species. Order of desirability of species a. Terminalia complanata b. Terminalia mcadomii c. Terminalia sepikana d. Pometia tomentosa (taun) e. Dracontomelum mangiferum (walnut) f. Pterocarpus indicus g. Anthocephalua cadamba h. Octomeles sumatrana (erima)

The object of this treatment is to establish the dominance of well-spaced, useful species and to confer crown space to those selected stems to ensure rapid growth and the development of well-rounded crowns. Those stems, whose crowns are competing in space with select stems, are marked for removal. 4

Treatment Prescription

Girdling and Poisoning It has been found that ring barking and deep girdling of rainforest trees without the application of poison is uncertain in its effect. In several cases deeply girdled trees have survived for many years and remained in full leaf and vigour without the girdle becoming liberated. Chemical used as a poison in girdling techniques The poison used is a 2.5% solution of 2-4-5 T in diesel oil. Standard Method for Poisoning 1

Poison frill girdling. This issued to eliminate unwanted trees which are larger than can easily be cut with two or three strokes of a bush knife. In cases where the trees are frill girdled without the application of poison may or may not die. If the tree should die, it will usually produce suckers from below the frill. From this, it is usually a waste of time to girdle a tree without applying poison.

5 6

The frill girdle should be made at a convenient height. This is usually above waste height unless the trees are buttressed. a. Where trees are deformed (re forks, diseases, holes, or other irregularities) the frill girdle will, if possible be made above or below the deformity. b. Where the tree is greatly buttressed, if the bole is circular at a height which can be reached with little waste in time, the frill girdle will be cut above the buttress. The frill girdle is made with a light short, handled axe (1½ lbs). in making the girdle, the present practice is to cut the sapwood, 2 to 3 inches wide and approximately an inch deep. a. The aim of the girdle is to completely severe the cambium layer. Poison is now applied to the girdle by means of a brush. b. Deep cuts are undesirable. This may result in the tree being blown over before it is dead and rotten. In so doing, it will cause more damage to useful species regenerating than would a stem from which branches have fallen. c. With the use of a small axe instead of a larger one, there is less tendency to break off chips of bark, which would break the “channel” of the frill girdle. Applications of poison at Kerevat is done by means of a brush. Each operator is provided with a tin of poison solution and a brush. Poison must be applied to the whole of the area exposed by the frill girdle. The frill girdle must be made as horizontal as possible, so that poison does not run along the girdle and overflow at low points. This system is both time saving and economical although basal spraying has not yet been fully assessed at present. Frilling and poisoning take only 3-4 months for an 80% crown death. a. It has been found that ring barking is far too slow for it may take up to two years for 80% crown deaths. In Malaya, indications at present are that spraying is not likely to be as effective or as cheap as poison girdling. a. Instead of using a brush with which to apply poison to the frill girdle, in Malaya a poisoning can is used. To overcome problems accounted in the use of an ordinary watering can, there have been made modifications to the watering can. This is termed a poisoning can. The can should be kettle shaped with a top and side handle for easy manipulation without the hands encountering the container. In tapering the spout to a fine point (about ½ an inch), it should also be bent downwards at the end so that no drips fall onto other species or run back down the spout onto the operator’s clothing. The main advantage of having the spout bent downwards is so that the flow of poison is directed into the frill girdle.

Disadvantages of this treatment compared to the use of brushes are that: i. More poison will be used. This poison may not be wasted by trained staff, but wastage could easily occur with use of untrained labour. ii. As frill girdles are not made exactly horizontal, the poison solution is going to run to the low points of the girdle. If enough poison solution is applied, this will overflow onto the ground vegetation below, thus endangering some regeneration species. 77

9 10

iii. Still, the idea of poisoning trees by use of a poisoning can is being discussed. Perhaps this idea could be both a time saving and more effective resulting in a quicker death. Rain, during or immediately after poison girdling treatment has no practical effects, as the poison is rapidly absorbed. The aborticide (2/5% solution of 2-4-5-T in diesel oil) ensures the death of the tree reducing the necessity of re-treating.

Thinning In general, the effects of thinning seem to last for about 2 years. Owing to the density of young generation, it would be impracticable to carry out thinning unless the regrowth has reached a height of 20 to 30 feet which is usually at about five years of age. Indications at present show that to some extent, thinning in young regeneration sets back the succession and increases the growth of weed species and climbers. In carrying out thinning at the correct stage of the succession (20 to 30 feet in height), there will be removal of competition from selected species. This will also allow hampered regrowth of desirable species of the ground vegetation to come on. Tendings At Kerevat, in the first regeneration area treated in 1954-55, there is a dense stocking of Taun regeneration. It is known that this area had frequent tendings. This could be considered as a possible factor for future success. Frequent tendings need to eb carried out to remove climbers and weed species. If tendings are done too frequently, there will be an encouragement of weed species and climbers instead of encouraging desirable species to come on. This has been seen in younger treated regeneration areas at Kerevat. This disagrees with the above factor that frequent tendings increase the amount of regeneration. Treated Areas The Kerevat forests may be divided into these major communities: A

Well drained

Intolerant species forests with communities dominated by: a. Eucalyptus deglupta b. Pometia tomnetosa – Dracontomelum magiferum – Terminalia sp. c. Octomeles sumatrana These forests are incapable of self-replacement without intervention. Tolerant species forests with a complex of species as: Meliaceae, Pometia pinnata, Myristica, Calophyllum, Syzgium, Lauraceae. This type of forest is largely capable of replacing itself in time. B

Inundated

Minor communities of Terminalia brassii & Comprosperns. The forest communities are found as such: 78

Intolerant species as Pometia/Dracontomelum forests are generally found on the better drained ridges. Tolerant species are generally found on wetter situ as river flood plains. On the ridges and slopes are found the desirable species mainly required for timber purposes. Hence, these areas are ideal for natural regeneration works. Natural regeneration aims to have as many stems as possible of the desirable species stocked per acre. The order of desirability in future forests as Kerevat is for Pometia tomentosa, Dracontomelum mangiferum, Terminalia complanata, Terminalia mandamii. With these species being found on the ridges and slopes, at present the treating of river terraces has been abandoned. Treated areas thus are restricted into the ridges and slopes within the areas specified. On the inspection made of Kerevat regeneration areas treated before July 1961, the areas can be divided into two groups: Group A. Sufficient regeneration of Taun and other timber species to form a complete canopy. Group B. Areas dominated by macaranga sp with very little or no other regeneration present. From the inspection, it is difficult to see at first, why these areas though treated in basically the same way (re poisoning of all large trees after completion of logging operations) should differ. Possibilities put forward as to the differences in the regeneration of species in these areas do not hold true throughout. Possible Factors With Group A, there was frequent tending to remove climbers and weed species. This was done in the 1954-55 treated areas which had a dense regeneration of Taun. On further examination of younger regeneration areas where only one or no tending was carried out, there was found to be a good stocking of Taun. This disagrees with possibility of tending increasing Taun cover. But what is the main factor most probably is the amount of Taun seed present in the soil. With Group B – areas covered by Macaranga sp. It has been put forward that in future regeneration areas, before treatment commences, a number of seed trees should be selected. This could be a possibility for the failure of Taun for this tree does not drop seed every year in succession. If this is the case, then successful regeneration can only be obtained by the retention of seed trees. This possibility is supported by the fact that along old logging tracks and ridge tops where most mature trees have been removed, Macaranga sp. dominate the area. Removal of Macaranga sp. during regeneration treatment has not proved to be entirely successful. Where the Macaranga sp. is removed by poisoning of cuttings, usually a regrowth of this species occurs. In a few areas, there has been regeneration of a few desirable species as Pometia sp & Calophyllum sp. beneath the Macaranga canopy. If the macaranga were poisoned this regrowth would probably come on unless a regrowth of macaranga occurred. In most areas where macaranga dominates, practically all the desirable regeneration has been suppressed. 79

An investigation was made into the status of the regeneration in macaranga dominated areas. In all, 20 chains of continuous plots, each 10 links square were enumerated. These plots were on four lines randomly located throughout the area. It was found from these plots that if one takes 5,000 seedlings per acre to produce a healthy stand of trees, then each milli square of an acre would need 5 seedlings in each square. This rarely occurs. If one regards 2,000 seedlings as the minimum, then only 15.5 % of the area can be regarded as stocked. It appears from these plots that without further addition of seed there is insufficient regeneration to form a complete stand. In order not to involve a costly enrichment planting, seed trees should be retained to act as a safeguard against a lack of desirable species regeneration. Cost of Operation 1962-63 constituted the first year of the Department of Forests 5-year plan. The aim was for the treatment of 2,000 acres of forest by natural regeneration techniques in the Kerevat area. Though no figures were calculated for the cost of regeneration treatment during 1962-63, these figures offer a guide to the work carried out. The area treated was in the little Vudal Logging area which was 219 acres. Total man days for 1962/63 was 1480. Number of acres treated was 219. Hence man days per acre was 7. As labour cost is about 6 shillings per man day then the labour cost is approximately 2 pounds 2 shillings. (1 pound = 20 shillings). NB. Due to a shortage of labour, the continuation of the natural regeneration program was made impossible for almost half a year. Growth Rates Fifteen 2-acre plots have been established in Bridge L/A. to observe growth rates and reactions to treatments applied. These plots were established in 11-15th July 1960 and measured. All plots were brushed, and each received treatments approximately in 1954-55. This treatment consisted of: 1. Brushing of stems to 3-inch diameter. 2. Felling of stems to 12-inch diameter. 3. Ring barking of stems to 12-inch diameter and species of the overstory. The following treatments were applied in 1961. A. Minimum treatment where 80 stems per acre were selected and these were given a crown liberation if required. B. Thinning to 120 trees per acre. C. Thinning to 160 trees per acre. D. Thinning to 80 trees per acre. 80

E. Thinning to 40 trees per acre. These plots were remeasured between 23/9/63 and 9/10/63 giving an interval of 13 months between the 1962 and 1963 measurement dates. Treatment A Minimum treatment

Plot No. 1

T.P.A.

DBH 1963

Inc 1.00

BA/ac 1963 19.77

Inc squ. ft 3.97

9.32

8.59

1.01

16.61

3.75

8.17

1.09

13.23

3.32

8.69

1.03

16.54

3.68

9.91

1.01

22.18

4.73

8.59

0.97

16.52

3.44

8.56

0.90

16.78

3.52

9.02

0.99

18.49

3.90

8.87

0.84

17.64

3.21

9.84

1.17

22.28

5.03

8.36

1.11

15.58

3.86

9.02

1.04

18.5

4.03

9.72

1.29

21.99

5.34

9.95

1.52

22.22

6.17

9.19

1.28

19.14

4.91

9.62

1.36

21.12

5.47

8.37

1.06

15.93

3.73

9.13

1.52

16.17

4.91

1.74

1.50

24.25

6.02

9.55

1.39

18.75

4.89

Mean A B Thinned to 120 stems/ac

Mean B C Thinned to 160 stems/ac

Mean C

D Thinned to 80 stems/ac

Mean D

E Thinned to 40 stems /ac

Mean E

From the above table, it will be seen that diameter increments are similar for the minimum, 160 and 120 TPA treatments and with increases for the heavier treatments.

For comparison purposes, the data was divided into 3 sections 40 TPA, 70 TPA and the whole stand. Treatment stems/ac

BA/ac 1963

40 TPA inc

BA/ac 1963

70 TPA inc

BA/ac 1963

Total inc

Total TPA

A minimum treatment

16.54

3.68

25.59

5.48

56.69

7.32

110 (253?)

B 120

18.49

3.9

28.26

6.74

40.66

8.55

113

C 160

18.5

4.03

29.32

5.98

47.34

8.77

150

D 80

21.12

5.47

30.92

7.94

30.92

7.94

E 40

18.78

4.89

nil

19.04

4.94

Present (1963) treatment at Kerevat Due to a backlog of work due to a shortage of labour, natural regeneration treatment has now been modified. Treatment has been deferred to steep areas and gullies, but treatment must extend into these areas where it is necessary to give crown freedom to treated areas. This is being done in order to catch up on areas covered by the Trans Vudal Logging Operation. The areas not carrying desirable regeneration consist of steep slopes and gullies. In the bottom of the gullies there is not sufficient area for plantation establishment. These areas are the most expensive and difficult to treat due to the nature of the topography and the inaccessibility of these areas. As yet, it has not been seen whether regeneration treatment of these poor areas brings on regrowth of desirable species. Until this has been seen, removal of the poor areas from the present program of treatment may not decrease but increase the stocking of desirable species treated per acre. Conclusion Through the application of natural regeneration treatment, areas which have been logged but are either inaccessible as regards plantation establishment or have not been selected as plantation areas, can be turned into forest which at maturity will contain a high proportion of desirable timber species. Natural regeneration is the technique of encouraging natural regeneration of useful timber species by the elimination of competing overstory and weed species. This work is confined mainly to ridge type forests where the most desirable species occur. It is essential that the workers have a comprehensive knowledge of the useful species as well as a knowledge of those which can be regarded as useless. Above all, the supervisor must be suitably instructed as well as having a knowledge of the majority of trees in the area being worked. Cadet Forest Officer R B McCarthy.1963. 82

Cut over Forest Kerevat Forest Station area undergoing natural regeneration treatment. Photo credit Ian Whyte 1967.

Undistrubed secondary rainforest - survey crew Kerevat. Photo credit Ian Whyte 1968.

Background logged over rainforest Kerevat ENB with clearing for plantation of newly planted area teak and terminalia Keravat. Photo credit Ian Whyte 1968.

141

John Davidson142 1968 re Plantation burns at Keravat in mid-1968 and natural regeneration activities. Half of Compartment 3 Vudal was burned in the morning on Thursday 13 June, the other half in the morning the following day. Compartment 2 Vunapaladig was burned in the morning on Monday 1 July. The upper half of Compartment 3 Vudal above the access road was burned in the morning on Thursday 13 June 1968. The ignition team is shown here advancing along the mid-slope access road from right to left using fire sticks to light the fuel at intervals. The lower half of the Compartment was burned in the morning of the following day, starting from a line along the Vudal River located to the right. Compartment 2 Vunapaladig was burned in the morning on Monday 1 July 1968. On the left the burn had been started along the edge of the felled area. On the right the ignition points were being extended deeper into the area on a moving front.

Natural and artificial regeneration of logged over rainforest areas at Keravat Early in 1968, Kevin White was keen to start some trials on natural regeneration of the logged over rainforest areas near Keravat. An area near the top of the hill off the Vudal Road just after crossing the bridge at Keravat was chosen. This was a location where sufficient time had elapsed since logging for low forest and secondary species like Sarcocephalus sp, Hernandia papuana, H. peltata, Terminalia sp, Macaranga sp and Mallotus sp to have begun to be replaced by regeneration 141 142

Cartoon from Bob Brown’s Grass Roots Guide to PNG Pidgin South Pacific Post. John Davidson Forestry Cadet to Forestry Professor. 2021

of primary forest species like Pometia pinnata (Taun), Homalium foetidum (Malas), Dracontomelun mangiferum (New Guinea Walnut), Celtis sp, and Pterocarpus indicus (New Guinea Rosewood). There was one drawback, however. Occasional large-buttressed Homalium sp and scattered large, crooked Vitex sp had been left behind after the logging operation because they were too difficult to fell at the time (wood too hard and/or buttresses too high). After the logging they were ringbarked and the dead stags were still standing years later, posing a possible danger to anyone working in the regenerating stand. Tuckwell, then Regional Forest Officer in Rabaul, arrived at Keravat with what he believed was the solution, a very large hand-turned wood-boring auger capable of making a round hole a little larger than a stick of dynamite. Tuckwell, Davidson and a small crew of labourers entered the regeneration area with some very sweaty sticks of dynamite, fuse cord and detonators taken from the “secure” corrugated iron store near the Keravat Forest Department Workshop. One horizontal hole was bored near breast height in a dead stag to reach somewhere near the middle. A quarter of a stick of dynamite with a detonator crimped to a generous length of fuse was pushed into the hole as far as it would go, the fuse was lit, and the party retired rapidly to a safe distance. A loud explosion ensued, but the blast merely shot out of the hole with very little damage to the trunk of the tree. The same result occurred with half a stick, then with a full stick of dynamite, the hole acting like a shotgun barrel. Boring two or three holes into the trunk at the same height from different directions with a stick of dynamite in each succeeded only in producing louder and louder explosions without the desired result of bringing down the stag! Tamping the holes with a mudpack didn’t work either. The party retired to the office temporarily defeated. A couple of weeks later Tuckwell was back with a new strategy. He had come across a returned soldier in Rabaul who had had experience in destroying power and telephone poles behind German lines in Europe during WW II. He explained the most effective method was to wrap several rounds of instant blasting fuse cord around the circumference of the pole and set that off with a piece of slow burning fuse to give time for personnel to retire to a safe distance. The poles were instantly cut completely through and fell to the ground. Elliot, Davidson, and party returned to the forest with a large supply of newly purchased instant fuse cord, igniters, and some slow burning fuse. The first attempt with twenty turns of fuse tightly wrapped around a trunk was spectacularly successful with the stag cut through and felled in a shower of splinters! It was found even fewer turns of fuse cord would suffice and subsequently most of the more threatening stags were felled. Several parallel lines were cut through the regenerating forest about 30 feet (about 10 m) apart. The lines were opened to different widths by slashing the undergrowth, forming tunnels of different size. Some lines were opened vertically to the sky. These lines were (enrichment) planted with seedlings of Pometia, Homalium, Dracontomelun and Pterocarpus that had been raised in the Keravat nursery.

Kevin White visited Keravat on Tuesday 9 July 1968. Davidson and White spent the morning in the regeneration area working out an assessment procedure. It was concluded the enrichment planting would only have some chance of success if the lines were completely opened up through to the sky above at considerable expense. The seedlings planted in the “tunnels” remained in deep shade and had not grown at all after planting. Keravat Botanical Walk A trail had been cut through some of the remnant rainforest that had not been logged, starting from near the Keravat River Bridge and coming out on the Vudal Road on the top of the first hill. On Monday 15 July White and Davidson spent almost the whole day identifying and labelling the larger trees that were near the trail with the scientific, common, and local names. Visitors from Rabaul welcomed these labels. Chris Borough working on Botanical Walk Kerevat Forest station April 1963. Photo credit Chris Borough. Womersley143 J S 1958. The Araucaria Forests of New Guinea. A unique vegetation type in Malaysia. Womersley reported that the two species of Araucaria in PNG were being overrun by the broad-leafed montane forests. Enrichment planting144 Klinkii Bulolo 1969 In 1969, the Dept of Forests PNG changed from open planting of A. hunsteinii (klinkii) to enrichment planting in the logged Araucaria forests. Gray’s paper describes results of performance of Hoop and klinkii seedlings in open and in underplanting situations. Havel1451971 The Araucaria forests of New Guinea and their regenerative capacity. Havel reported on two theories advanced on the mode of regeneration of Araucaria are examined in the light of ecological studies made in New Guinea. The first theory postulates that they are 'living' fossils dependent for their regeneration on natural catastrophes. According to the second theory, they are integral components of the forest whose regeneration patterns are similar to those of their angiosperm associates. The two species of Araucaria, A. hunsteinii and A. cunninghamii, occur over a wide latitudinal and altitudinal range, chiefly as emergents over several broad-leaf forest types. Optimum development of Araucaria is normally found in forest types whose canopy is reduced in density and height as compared with that of the tropical lowland rain forest. In two of these types of Araucaria forests of New Guinea studied in detail the size class distribution of Araucaria and the angiosperms is similar. There is an adequate representation of seedlings, saplings, and young trees. Autecological studies indicate that conditions favouring seedling development are found in the forest rather than in the open. Seed dispersal is limited to within 60-80 m of the parent tree. It is therefore concluded that the Araucarias are integral components of the forest types in which they Womersley J S 1958. The Araucaria Forests of New Guinea. A unique vegetation type in Malaysia. Proc. Symp. Humid Tropics Vegetation. UNESCO, Tjiawi Indonesia pp 252-7 UNESCO Paris. 144 Gray B 1975 Size-Composition and Regeneration of Araucaria Stands in New Guinea. Vol 63 No 1 (Mar 1975) pp 273-289 Journal of Ecology British Ecological Society 145 Havel J J 1971 The Araucaria forests of New Guinea and their regenerative capacity. Vol 59 No 1 (Mar 1971) pp 203-214 Journal of Ecology published by British Ecological Society 143

occur, and that their capacity to colonize large openings created by natural catastrophes is very limited. Gray146 1973. Distribution of Araucaria in Papua New Guinea. Two species of Araucaria are known from Papua New Guinea, and both are of considerable biogeographical, ecological, and economic significance. A. cunninghamii is widely distributed between 500 and 1900 m alt., but is also found at ca. 90 m and up to nearly 2800 m. A. hunsteinii [A. klinkii] has a slightly narrower and more disjunctive distributional range than A. cunninghamii; it also has a narrower total altitudinal range of 520-2100 m. Where the two species occur in the same area, A. hunsteinii usually occurs at lower altitudes than A. cunninghamii and on less precipitous terrain, though mixed stands are common. Regeneration is plentiful in most stands. New Horizons147 in 1973, reported that natural regeneration treatments had been attempted on a trial basis in forests of intolerant species at Kerevat to release prolific seedling generation of commercial species. The stand of unmerchantable stems remaining after logging was poisoned. When the average height of the dominant regeneration is 15m, 200 stems per hectare are selected for release by poisoning competing crowns. This minimum treatment gives the selected trees dominant or co-dominant status. At Kerevat approximately 1090 hectares have received the initial treatment and over 45 ha. the follow up treatment. The desirable fast-growing species encouraged in order of preference are Terminalia spp, Pometia tomentosa, Dracontomelum mangiferum, Pterocarpus indicus, Anthocephalus cadamba, and Octomeles sumatrana. GROWTH RATES – NATURAL REGENERATION KEREVAT ENB. Age

Trees

BA per ha. (m²)

CAI

Mean OTS** Diameter(cm) Select*

Predominant CAI height (m)

(years)

Per ha.

865

11.71

16.8

12.2

395

7.35

1.15

17.8

12.7

24.7

285

7.58

1.61

20.1

13.5

25.0

285

9.18

1.61

22.3

15.5

26.2

1.2

285

10.56

1.38

23.9

16.8

27.1

0.9

CAI current annual increment. * Select at rate of 170 trees per ha. **other than select. Source New Horizons Dept of Forests PNG 1973 p 56

146 147

Gray B 1973. Distribution of Araucaria in Papua New Guinea. Research Bulletin 1 p1-56 Dept of Forests PNG. New Horizons 1973 p 56 Dept of Forests PNG Publication Jacaranda Press ISBN 0701681845

PNG Experiences

1974 Open Bay TA. Photo 1 - Harvesting area. Photo 2 Natural Forest regeneration. Photo credit Ian Whyte.

1974 Vanimo Block 6. Harvesting area. Photo credit Ian Whyte

1974 Vanimo Block 6 teak plantation area. Photo credit Ian Whyte.

2007 Cloudy Bay TA harvesting area. Photo credit Dick McCarthy.

148Whyte

1975. Land Classification and Mapping for Reforestation Planning in PNG.

Open Bay Field Studies. Photo 1 - Ian Whyte. Photo 2 - Dave Lamb. Photo credit Ian Whyte 1974.

Open Bay Field Studies. Photo 3 Muyeng Basengke, Debon Logo, Andrew Yauieb, Ben Ivara Photo 4 Open Bay transport. Photo credit Ian Whyte 1974.

Photo 5 Vanimo Field Studies Muyeng Basengke Debon Logo and Toire 1974. Photo 6 Gogol Madang field studies. Dave Lamb crossing Gogol River. Photo 7 Gogol Madang field studies, view Gogol Valley from Amele Madang. Photo credits Ian Whyte 1974.

Whyte 1975. Land Classification and Mapping for Reforestation Planning in PNG. Unpublished Report Dept of Forests PNG. 148

Gray149 1975 Size-Composition and Regeneration of Araucaria Stands in New Guinea Gray’s paper addressed two species of Araucaria that occur in Papua New Guinea: A. cunninghamii and A. hunsteinii. Their ranges overlap but almost invariably one species predominates in a given site, A. hunsteinii most often at lower elevations and on gentler topography. A. hunsteinii generally has the greater mature height with a maximum of 76.9 m in this study and a record figure of 88.9 m. This is the highest tree reliably recorded for the tropics. The maximum DBH is usually similar in the two species (c. 1.5 m), but the record is held by A. cunninghamii (1.73 m). The size (diameter) distribution in two large plots covering 1000 trees of each species was very similar (strongly positively skewed). Regeneration was also abundant in eight other plots 50 m square though there was very little or no regeneration directly beneath large trees within the layer of parent litter around the bole. In the study area the mature trees of A. cunninghamii are denser than those of A. hunsteinii but the reverse is true of small seedlings (<15 cm). Complicated differences are also found in growth rates of seedlings and trees. Experimental studies are badly needed.

Gray B 1975 Size-Composition and Regeneration of Araucaria Stands in New Guinea. Vol 63 No 1 (Mar 1975) pp 273-289 Journal of Ecology British Ecological Society 149

Post 1975 White K J 1976. Notes on Enrichment Planting in Lowland Rain Forests of PNG.

100

101

102

103

104

Gillison150 1976 A review of problems and techniques in restoring the tropical forest ecosystem once it has been altered. Gillison’s review dealt with the restoration aspects of the lowland tropical ecosystems which are regarded as a highly dynamic mosaic of cycle vegetation types varying from grassland to advanced secondary forests as well as “climax” rainforest. Disturbances and effects on the system are discussed and the problems involved in restoration summarised. From the literature it is apparent that restoration and future management of the tropical forest ecosystem will depend on what can be learnt from the application of known disturbances on the different vegetation facets within the ecosystem. Evidence suggests that in most cases there is little likelihood of a return to the former floristic and structural “climax” following the more drastic forms of man-made disturbance such as logging and over-intensive subsistence agriculture. 1976. Araucaria Forest of the Wau-Bulolo Area. Paper presented to the 4th meeting of the Papua New Guinea Botanical Society. 151Enright

152Johns

1976. Natural vegetation following chip logging in the tropical rainforest: a case study from the Gogol River Valley. Paper presented at the third meeting of the Papua New Guinea Botanical Society Lae. Johns1531977 Habitat conservation in Papua New Guinea. Johns had previously noted the seral nature of the Castanopsis forests of the lower montane zone in Papua New Guinea. It appears probable that excluding logging or providing strict protection through establishment of national parks or nature reserves would result in the development of the Gogol Valley forests into mixed forests of quite different species composition from those found in the area today. 154Enright

1978 - The effects of logging on the regeneration and nutrient budget of Araucaria cunninghamii dominated tropical rainforest in Papua New Guinea. A natural stand of A. cunninghamii (Hoop pine) dominated rainforest in PNG was examined prior to logging and at two intervals shortly thereafter. The results indicate that selective logging radically alters the forest system both in terms of vegetation and nutrients. Whilst certain nutrients may rapidly return to their former levels (e.g., nitrogen and organic carbon) others will take much longer to recover (e.g., calcium and potassium). Early secondary tree Gillison A. N150. (1976). A review of problems and techniques in restoring the tropical forest ecosystem once it has been altered. Report on Symposium on Ecological Effects of Increasing Human Activities on Tropical and Subtropical Forest Ecosystems. University of Papua New Guinea. 28 April-1 May 1975. Australian UNESCO committee for Man and the Biosphere. 151 Enright NJ 1976. Araucaria Forest of the Wau-Bulolo Area. Paper presented to the 4th meeting of the Papua New Guinea Botanical Society. 152 Johns R J 1976. Natural vegetation following chip logging in the tropical rainforest: a case study from the Gogol River Valley. Paper presented at the third meeting of the Papua New Guinea Botanical Society Lae. 153 Johns, R.J. (1977) Habitat conservation in Papua New Guinea. Unpublished paper. PNG Botanical Society. 154 Enright, N.J. (1978) - The effects of logging on the regeneration and nutrient budget of Araucaria cunninghamii dominated tropical rainforest in Papua New Guinea. Malaysian Forester 41: 303-318. 150

105

species rapidly occupy the disturbed sites. It is probably only as these species approach senescence and later tree species invade that the nutrient status of litter and soil and ground level light conditions reach levels suitable for A. cunninghamii regeneration. 155

Enright N J 1978 The Comparative Ecology and Population Dynamics of Araucaria species in New Guinea. The Leslie matrix was used to examine the stability and likely changes to sample populations of the two species A. hunsteinii and A cunninghamii. 156Johns

R J 1983. The instability of the tropical ecosystem in New Guinea. Blumea 31 p

341-371. 157Saulei

1984 Natural regeneration following clear fell logging operations in the Gogol valley Papua New Guinea. Ambio 13(5-6): 351-354. Saulei undertook a study re the environmental effects of clear felling in a tropical lowland rain forest, in the Gogol Valley to assess the immediate and longer-term damage. Because clear-felling removes topsoil (thereby increasing erosion) and reduces P levels in the soil, it was found that the logged areas do revegetate fairly rapidly, but the new growth is poorer and less diverse. 158Saulei

1985. The recovery of lowland rainforest after clear fell logging operations in the Gogol Valley Papua New Guinea. PhD thesis University of Aberdeen. 159Johns

1987 The natural regeneration of Anisoptera and Hopea in P.N.G.

Johns reported that Anisoptera seedlings under very low light intensity (closed canopy) died within three months if not released. Howcroft160 suggested that it was moisture stress causing leaflet fall as the seedlings were still green and still had terminal buds. 161Buenaflor

V & Tiki T 1987. Logging studies in Vanimo Lowland Forests. UNDP: FAO/DP/PNG/84/003 Working Paper No 7. This report details work undertaken by FRI and FAO on harvesting systems and damage levels in Vanimo TA. There were high losses in all diameter classes.

Enright N J 1978 The ecology and population dynamics of Araucaria species in New Guinea. Aust Nat Univ PhD thesis Canberra. 156 Johns R J 1983. The instability of the tropical ecosystem in New Guinea. Blumea 31 p 341-371. 157 S Saulei (1984). Natural regeneration following clear fell logging operations in the Gogol valley Papua New Guinea. Ambio 13(5-6): 351-354. 158 Saulei S M 1985. The recovery of lowland rainforest after clear fell logging operations in the Gogol Valley Papua New Guinea. PhD thesis University of Aberdeen. 159 Johns, R.J. 1987e. The natural regeneration of Anisoptera and Hopea in P.N.G. in Kostermans, A.J.G.H. (ed.) Proceedings of the 3rd Round Table Conference on Dipterocarps. Samarinda pp 213-233 160 N Howcroft personal communication 1994 161 Buenaflor V & Tiki T 1987. Logging studies in Vanimo Lowland Forests. UNDP: FAO/DP/PNG/84/003 Working Paper No 7. 155

106

162Saulei

S M 1988. Early secondary secession of tropical lowland rainforest following clear fell logging in Papua New Guinea. This report showed that seedling density reached a maximum only 3.5 years after harvest in a clear-felling operation in Madang. 163

Kingston B 1988 A report on diagnostic sampling conducted in Oomsis forest Morobe Province. Kingston reported on post-harvest data at Oomsis. These forests were some of the better yielding hardwood forests of PNG. In the initial harvest of the 1950’s, these forests had yields upward of 40 cubic metres per hectare. In the second harvest in 1982/84 yields of around 25 cubic metres per hectare were obtained. Species mix was the same as Mersawa, Pometia, Canarium, Celtis etc. Kingston reported stocking of the forest some 30 years after harvest as 260 stems per hectare over 20 cm dbh with a standing basal area of 17 sq m. In trees > 10 cm the stocking was 459 stems per hectare and basal area of 22.2 sq m. Kingston reported the impact of export logging compared to downstream processing markets for the Oomsis forest area. In the 1950’s some 8 to 12 species per hectare were being harvested, then in the 1980’s some 12 to 15 species were harvested. With the advent of export logging, over 60 species were cut. 164Arentz

F, Johns R J, Lamothe L, Matcham E J, Simaga J, & Taurereko R. 1989 The forests of New Britain: Central New Guinea. Several areas in central New Britain were studied to assess the impact of the selective logging operations. A list of species previously collected from New Britain was prepared from the available literature (Johns in Arentz et al., 1989) and from previous collections held in the National Herbarium at Lae. It was not possible to assess adequately the effects of the selective logging operations on species diversity. After logging the total destruction of large forest areas had occurred as a consequence of the establishment of oil palm plantations. Areas were examined where the forests had not been disturbed after logging. These forests were quite diverse in species composition and included many species of filmy ferns (Hymenophyllaceae), a family that perhaps indicates that the microclimatic effects of the operation were not as extreme as one might expect. Several previously unrecorded species were collected from the logged areas, this probably reflects low pre-logging collecting intensities rather than new species becoming established as a consequence of logging. The group of species invading after logging included both short-lived and long-lived pioneers. Plot data collected in unlogged forest showed that the important commercial species were poorly represented in the subcanopy of the forest, perhaps indicating that this forest is in a seral state. In regrowth forests seedlings of some commercial species were found to be regenerating in canopy openings caused by logging.

Saulei S M 1988. Early secondary secession of tropical lowland rainforest following clear fell logging in Papua New Guinea. Ng. F S P (ed) trees and Mycorrhiza, Proceedings of the Asian Seminar p 261-289. 163 Kingston B 1988 A report on diagnostic sampling conducted in Oomsis forest Morobe Province. FAO: DP/PNG/84/003 Working paper No 9 164 Arentz F, Johns R J, Lamothe L, Matcham E J, Simaga J, & Taurereko R. 1989 The forests of New Britain: Central New Guinea. PNG University of Technology Lae PNG. 162

107

Natural Rainforest Regeneration Impact on PNG Forestry The role of forests in protecting watersheds has generally been recognized in traditional PNG culture and forests in river catchments have not been disturbed in many traditional communities in the country for many years. Forests have also been recognized and respected as providers of other goods and services. Respect for forests, especially those present in watersheds, is partially embedded in the spiritual and cultural norms of the tribal people. These forests are thought to be places where the spirits dwelled and hence have often been left alone. Fear of enemy tribes also restrained many communities from venturing into water catchment areas, as they are often isolated areas. Overall forests in PNG have played a significant role in the economic development of the country and will continue to do so for the next decade. Unfortunately, there are fewer areas now that are available for logging operations. The main key issue in undermining SFM in PNG is compliance by the timber industry to forestry laws, regulations, and procedures. Destruction of residual tree crops and the unwarranted damaging of soils and saplings through large disturbance are some of the issues that will affect sustainability. Barnett Inquiry 1989 Following a major Commission of Inquiry into the PNG forest sector in 1989 (Barnett165), the World Bank in 1989 reviewed the PNG Forest Sector under the auspices of the Tropical Forest Action Plan for PNG (1988-1990). Sweeping changes were made throughout the forest sector to better regulate forest exploitation and to manage forest resources on a more sustained yield basis including the following key regulatory and administrative changes. Soup M and Arentz F 1990. Investigation into the mortality of regenerating seedlings following logging of lowland rainforest. Klinkii Vol 4 No 2. This work attempted to determine the effect of pathogens on survival of seedlings (50 to 60 cm high) under varying gap (and light intensity) conditions in harvested forests at Labu. Whilst the results were inconclusive regarding identification of pathogens responsible for death of seedlings, the data did provide information on regeneration under different light conditions. Under large gaps pioneer species completely dominate regeneration. The commercial species which had dominated the upper canopy before harvest, were poorly represented at all light intensities studied. 166

Kingston B 1989 Forest mensuration in the Natural Forest.

Kingston developed individual tree growth rates for a limited number of species, as part of a process of estimating future yield. 167Amos

1990 reported on stem damage being twice that of crown damage which may be due to poor snigging practices at Turama TA at the time.

Barnett T 1989 Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Aspects of the Forest Industry, Final Report (2 volumes). Unpublished report to the Government of PNG. 166 Kingston B 1989 Forest mensuration in the Natural Forest. Working document # 14 FAO Forest Management Research and Development Project PNG. FAO: DP/PNG/84/003. 167 Amos G 1990 Unpublished data Turama TA. PNGFA 165

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Vanclay J K 1990. Permanent sample plots for growth modelling. Vanclay provided a guide to the type of data required and the basic methodology for collection. Queensland experience, over up to three cutting cycles, suggests on a cutting cycle of 35-40 years, a harvest of about 65 to 75 % of the initial harvest is possible without timber stand improvement techniques being applied. New National Forest Policy 1990 New Forest Act 1991 The gazetting in 1992 of a new Forestry Act (1991) (amended 1993), which created a new Forest Authority (NFA) governed by a Board which had representation from the private sector, AFPNG, non-government organizations, Provincial and National Government representatives. The 1991 Forest Act (amended 1993) emphasized sound forestry practices on a sustained yield basis. This required the activities of forestry companies; both their harvesting operations and exports be monitored adequately. Natural forest regeneration was encouraged through improved silvicultural management by individual companies and resource owners. Johns169 (1989). The influence of drought on tropical rainforest vegetation in Papua New Guinea. Johns addressed that drought is a major cause of vegetation destruction, particularly through widespread natural fires in the tropical rainforest. He discussed the frequency and scale of major drought and its influence on the extant vegetation outlined. Evidence of fire damage in both the prehistoric and historical records is reviewed. The occurrence of frequent fires in the tropical rainforest requires a re-examination of existing concepts of rainforest stability. Johns170 1990. The illusionary concept of the climax. Johns questioned the widespread view of tropical rain forest as a climatic climax. An understanding of the dynamics of rain forest ecosystems can best be gained by viewing the rain forest as a dynamic and unstable ecosystem. This approach will have important consequences on the interpretation of speciation in tropical areas. The existence of very diverse populations of many species in areas of inherent instability possibly strengthens the argument for punctuated equilibrium. In areas such as New Guinea where the ecosystems are very unstable, management practices for rain forest areas must be adapted to allow for the expected differences in regeneration strategies shown by the major commercial species. Johns171 1992 The influence of deforestation and selective logging operations on plant diversity in Papua New Guinea. Johns reported that few studies of biodiversity in tropical rain forest have been made in Papua New Guinea. Evidence from areas which were burnt in forest fires shows that the re-establishment of a diverse forest will be very slow (Johns, 1983). In the South Naru area, which was burnt in fires in 1941, the river terraces (reportedly burnt) were very species-poor in comparison to the hill Vanclay J K 1990. Permanent sample plots for growth modelling. FAO/DP/PNG/86/009 Working document No 7. Johns R J 1989. The influence of drought on tropical rainforest vegetation in Papua New Guinea. Mountain Research and Development 9 (3). 248-251. 170 Johns R J 1990. The illusionary concept of the climax. Plant Diversity of Malesia (eds P Bass, R Geesink & K Kalkman). Leiden. 171 Johns RJ 1992 The influence of deforestation and selective logging operations on plant diversity in Papua New Guinea. P 143-147. Eds Whitmore, T.C. and Sayer, J.A. (1992) Tropical Deforestation and Species Extinction. Chapman & Hall, London. xvii + 147 pp. IUCN Publications ISBN 0 412 45520 X 168 169

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forest. Johns172, 1983 reported that Taylor173 1954, estimated a time lapse of some 600 years for re-establishment of a species-diverse, 'self-perpetuating', tropical rain forest following destruction by volcanic activity. The forests of the Gogol valley are likely to have been severely affected by the eruptions of Long Island some 300 years ago (Johns, 1983). From 1973 to 1977 the author conducted a detailed study in the Gogol valley to show the influence of logging operations for chip production on the species diversity of the rain forest communities that developed after clear-felling and to assess rain forest regeneration following clear-felling for wood-chip production and selective logging for export-grade lumber. Clearfelling resulted in almost complete loss of the natural species diversity of the forest. In comparison, a single cycle of selective logging, at least when practised in Papua New Guinea, has only a minor effect on biodiversity. The major problems of habitat destruction are associated with the complete destruction of rain forest communities for agricultural development, in areas where logging infrastructure provides access. The data showed the following trends over the four years: • • • • • • •

In all plots (50x25m i.e., 0.125 ha) there was a rapid re-establishment of up to 60 genera of trees, shrubs, climbers, and herbs within two years of logging. The sites supported a maximum species diversity after approximately two years with up to 50 genera per plot. During the period, aggressive secondary species such as Anthocephalus chinensis and Macaranga sp became established in the plots. Natural forest rehabilitation: After a period of three to four years, the total diversity of the site had decreased to only four or five woody species per 0.125 ha plot. Clear felling resulted in almost complete loss of the natural species diversity of the forest. In comparison, a single cycle of selective logging had only a minor effect on diversity. The major problems of habitat destruction are associated with complete destruction of rainforest communities for agricultural development, in areas where logging infrastructure provides access.

Siaguru174 1992 Effects of shade on growth of lowland forest tree seedlings in Paua New Guinea. Siaguru’s study was in two parts and involved two years of field research and nursery work in Madang and Lae respectively, in northern Papua New Guinea. The effect of different intensities of sunlight on the growth of twelve tropical lowland forest timber trees as studied using neutral shade in a nursery and artificial canopy gaps in natural forest. The twelve tree species were Albizia falcataria, Canarium schlecteri, Celtis latifolia, Intsia bijuga, Maniltoa psilogyne, Microcos grandiflora, Neonauclea species, Pometia pinnata, Pterocarpus indicus, Terminalia complenata, Terminalia impediens and Terminalia sepicana.

Johns R.J. (1983) The instability of the tropical ecosystem in New Guinea. Blumea, 31, 341–71. Taylor, P.W. (1954) Plant succession on recent volcanoes in Papua. Journal of Ecology, 45, 233–43. 174 Siaguru P 1992 Effects of shade on growth of lowland forest tree seedlings in Paua New Guinea. PhD Thesis. Dept of Plant and Soil Science Uni of Aberdeen Scotland. 172 173

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The species were monitored in nursery conditions, with those in natural forest. Growth generally declined in full sun, which was partly due to solarization, partly to herbivory, and partly to a pot effect. Clear differences were observed between the species which were ranked on a gradient from the most shade tolerant to the least. The research in natural forest at Madang ran concurrently with the nursery research. Pre-existing seedlings together with transplanted seedlings were assessed for height growth, biomass growth, seedling mortality and leaf production. Species were ranked on a gradient from the most shade tolerant to the least for transplanted seedlings: I. bijuga, P. pinnata, T. complenata, T. impediens and P. indicus; and pre-existing seedlings: C. latifolia, M. psilogyne and P. pinnata. All tree species studied under natural and nursery conditions attained maximum growth in light levels below full sun. Oavika175 1992. Report on the establishment of PSP/TSI plots in Turama and an initial summary of the results obtained from the plots. Oavika detailed a low yielding forest where only 30 % of trees above 50 cm dbh were merchantable. He recorded little damage compared to Amos’s data of 1990 of the same TA. 176Nir

& Srivastava 1992 Editors seminar, Management of Logged-Over Forests, PNG Forestry Research Institute, Lae. This seminar addressed managing logged-over forests: • bridging the gap between the silviculture ideal and social and economic reality. • the effects of harvesting impact on tropical rainforest. • present status of logged-over forests in Papua New Guinea. • role of forest inventory in management. • management of logged-over forests by Stettin Bay Lumber company. • logging activities relevant to the management of logged-over forests. • timber stand improvement: Vanimo Timber Area (VTA). • effects of fertilizer in an enrichment trial in Bukawa, Morobe Province. • rehabilitation methods of logged-over forests. • natural regeneration management of Anisoptera. Nir in the seminar 1992 reported on carrying out a 2% systematic sample in the Pauanda logging area, Mt. Giluwe 12 to 14 years after harvesting. He found a total of 1159 seedlings, 617 saplings and 327 poles per hectare. The dominant genus being Nothofagus spp with 35 % of the seedlings, 44 % of the saplings and 53 % of the saplings and pole classes, respectively. The general conclusion was that the regeneration of the main commercial species (Nothofagus spp) was inadequate to be considered a sustainable resource. Nir 1992 reported on the Mt Giluwe regeneration various reports of Ash 1975, Clunie 1975, Vatassan 1983, Read, Hope and Hill 1990 which all concluded that Nothofagus spp regeneration was rapid after logging but not uniform, patchy, and inadequate. The southern

Oavika F 1992. Report on the establishment of PSP/TSI plots in Turama and an initial summary of the results obtained from the plots. PNGFRI Lae PNG Report. 176 Nir E & Srivastava P 1992 Editors seminar, Management of Logged-Over Forests, 14-15th May 1992, PNG Forestry Research Institute, Lae, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea by PNG Forest Research Institute, Japanese International Co-operation Agency (JICA) 175

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slopes of Mt. Giluwe forests (lower montane) were logged from the mid 1970’s to late 1980’s. Bun177 1992. Present status of natural forest management. FRI, Lae, Papua New Guinea. Vigus 1993 reported on Dept of Forests records re various timber stand improvement programs many of which were abandoned due to urbanisation, land disputes, lack of funding etc. •

• • • • •

Lowland rainforest at Kerevat (file ref 105-6-26). Areas logged 1949 -1956, then TSI 1957/58, plots established 1961, measured till 1970 and then terminated in 1973. Most common regeneration was Pometia, Dracontomelum, Octomeles, Syzgium and Pterocymbium. Timber stand improvement techniques included brushing understorey, felling all undesirable trees < 30 cm dbh, and ringbarking and poisoning larger trees. Results analysed by J Luton 1978 who concluded that thinning increased the diameter of trees that were left. A E White reported defect problems in Pometia in the early 1970’s. Enrichment planting with Calophyllum at Kerevat ended being shaded out by natural Pometia regeneration. Intsia bijuga planted at Keravat under varying degrees of shade. In predominantly open situation, form was bushy and in 1973 aged 17 years, height 16 metres and average dbh 10 cm Macaranga spp at Kerevat shaded out valuable species. Enrichment planting at Brown River with Terminalia sepicana at age 6 averaged 14.5 metres in height and 12.5 cm dbh. Reports of massive regeneration of Antiaris toxicaria after logging of Anisoptera forests at Oomsis.

Petilami178 1994 Research into logging practices and regeneration within Stettin Bay Lumber Company timber concession area Moas/Leim West New Britain. NFCAP 1994 In 1994, the Government of PNG with the World Bank established NFCAP – National Forestry and Conservation Action Program. Its main tasks were: •

To increase landowner awareness of the economic and non-economic values of their forests.

•

To promote landowner involvement in planning, managing, conservation and utilization of forests.

•

An understanding and protection of forest diversity in Papua New Guinea.

•

To ensure long term employment and sustained economic returns from forest utilization for the benefit of the country and resource owners.

Bun177, Y. 1992. Present status of natural forest management. Paper presented at the seminar, “Management of Logged-over Forests”, 14-15 May 1992, FRI, Lae, Papua New Guinea. 178 Petilami178 O 1994 Research into logging practices and regeneration within Stettin Bay Lumber Company timber concession area Moas/Leim West New Britain. Paper presented Huon Seminar 1994 Forest Department UNITECH Lae 177

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The Government embarked on a major review of all existing projects in 1994. The aim of that project was to bring all projects into line with the new Act and, where serious breaches had occurred, to institute remedial actions including prosecution, civil action, and cancellation of permits. World Bank179 1994. Toward Sustained Yield Commercial Forest Harvesting – Roading and Selection Logging for PNGFA.

A Cameron and T Vigus180 (1994). Papua New Guinea Volume and Growth Study: Regeneration and Growth of the Tropical Moist Rainforest in Papua New Guinea and the Implications for Future Harvest. This pioneering work was to access as much information on PNG forest regeneration and to provide PNGFA with a considered opinion regarding the probability of achieving sustainable yields from the natural forest and what the level of yield may be. This report describes: 1. Shade tolerance and its significance for management of the major commercial forest species in Papua New Guinea. a. Stocker shade tolerance classification by species. The classification covers nearly 150 species. It was an attempt by Stocker to adapt the classification developed for the Queensland moist tropical rainforest to PNG species, growing under different conditions. b. Impact of light and moisture on species regeneration and survival c. Future impact of restrictions on harvesting only for downstream processing should limit over cutting of less desirable species for log export. 2. Post-harvest condition of representative forest areas in Papua New Guinea and the implications for future harvest. 3. Estimated future yield for selected forest types in Papua New Guinea. 4. Forest regeneration and stand development after timber stand improvement treatment in selected forests of Papua New Guinea. a. Work of Vigus and Cameron found that the rainforests of PNG can be regenerated after well controlled selective logging (i.e., felling all commercial trees above 50 cm dbh).

World Bank 1994. Toward Sustained Yield Commercial Forest Harvesting – Roading and Selection Logging for PNGFA. Forest Management and Planning Project (FMPP) 180 A Cameron and T Vigus180 (1994). Papua New Guinea Volume and Growth Study: Regeneration and Growth of the Tropical Moist Rainforest in Papua New Guinea and the Implications for Future Harvest. Brisbane CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology (for the World Bank). 179

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b. To maximise benefits, it is essential that residual stems (selected on basis of species, log length, form, crown position and crown quality) are marked prior to harvesting. c. Timber stand improvement can be achieved cost effectively by enriching the species mix regenerating, using nursery grown stock or transplanting wildings and then carrying out some tending operations to remove vines etc. 5. Some phenological characteristics of the major commercial forest species in Papua New Guinea. Findings include: • • • • • • • • • • •

There does not appear to be any major problem with availability of seed from major species. If forest harvesting operates on a well-controlled selection system, there will be little impact on pollination vectors. A cause for concern is the lack in some areas of commercial species regeneration in both pre- and post-harvest areas. A need to raise the cutting diameter limit in particular forest areas. Controls instituted by the PNG LCOP have reduced stand damage. Individual tree fellers and plant operators need to be individually certified. The project involved remeasurement of plots established in the 1980’s. Although established in better quality forest, growth responses were markedly superior to that in untreated stands. The issue of implementing tree marking prescriptions would be determining what species to be favoured. The report found remarkable differences between post-harvest inventory figures and permanent sample plot data for the same harvesting units. In PNG, the tendency has been to assess sustainable yield as the volume that will be in excess of 50 cm dbh at the end of the presumed cutting cycle i.e., 35 years. There is a need over time to standardise data collection, standardise forest assessment techniques and data analysis across the sector. Forest typing needs to address effective productive forest areas in the assessment of likely yields, sustainable yield, and allowable cut.

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This report describes 181Vigus’s work of 1993 in remeasuring plots he established in 1983,1984 and 1985 in the Provinces of Oro (Kumusi TA), East and West New Britain (Kapiuru TA) and West Sepik (Vanimo TA). Plots measured 100 metres by 50 metres and all trees above 10 cm dbh were measured, and their ground location recorded. After harvesting they were assessed for logging damage. In 1993, all trees above 10 cm dbh measured and located including new recruits. In all the plots, regeneration was immediate and profuse. The species that came to dominate over time were all pioneer species as Octomeles, Anthocephalus, Macaranga, Ficus and Hibiscus.

Source T Vigus 1994.

Cameron A L & Vigus T 1993. Papua New Guinea Volume and Growth Study: Regeneration and Growth of the Tropical Moist Rainforest in Papua New Guinea and the Implications for Future Harvest. Brisbane CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology (for the World Bank). 181

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Source T Vigus 1994.

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Source T Vigus 1994.

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Vigus182 1996 described the first of these assisted regeneration techniques, as applied in Kimbe, West New Britain. To-date, reforestation has proceeded at a very low level in Papua New Guinea. The most recent estimate suggests a total of 62,000 ha (Kiki, 2006), over half of which is in long standing plantations managed by the National Forest Service. Without a major reforestation programme being in place at the project level, sustainability currently depends on there being sufficient trees in the stand that survive the logging operation without being damaged, that are commercial species, and are not moribund. Saulei & Kiapranis 1831996. Forest regeneration following selective logging operations in a lowland rain forest in PNG. Saulei et al studied natural regeneration following logging in the Kaut Timber Rights Purchase area, New Ireland Province. Data on stand characteristics (including floristic composition) are reported from natural forest (main canopy species Pometia pinnata, Calophyllum, Terminalia and Alstonia), and plots logged in 1974 and 1976 (now 12- and 10yr-old, respectively). There was a decline in tree density from the 10-yr-old forest to the natural forest, especially for secondary tree species. The adoption of a National Forest Plan 1996

The PNG Logging Code of Practice 1996 was introduced to ensure reduced impact of logging operations on the residual stands of the rainforest and protection of watersheds. PNG forest policy, forestry laws and regulations and operational manuals such as the PNG Logging Code of Practice and Environmental Act provide specific guidelines on the protection of catchment areas. Poorly controlled harvesting operations can be a major cause of damage to the remaining stems in the rainforest. Page 6 of the first edition (April 1966) of the PNG Logging Code of Practice delineates that all conditions imposed by the PNG logging code of practice will be in compliance with requirements of the Forestry Act 1991 as amended, Environmental Planning Act Chapter 370, Water Resources Act Chapter 205, Environment Contaminants Act Chapter 368, Conservation Area Act 1978, Investment Promotions Act No. 8 of 1992, Public Health Vigus, T.D. 1996. Reforestation Naturally. The technique. Kandrain Gloucester Integrated Development Project, Kimbe, West New Britain. Project Design & Management and ANUTECH. 183 SAULEI, S.M.; KIAPRANIS183, R. 1996. Forest regeneration following selective logging operations in a lowland rain forest in PNG. Science in New Guinea 22(1): 27-37 182

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Act Chapter 226 and its regulations (Drinking Water 1984), PNG labour Law, Industrial Safety Health and Welfare Act Chapter 175 and its orders and regulations, Land Transport Board Act as amended No. 11 of 1991, Civil Aviation Act Chapter 239, Public Works Committees Act Chapter 28, Land groups Incorporation Act Chapter 147. 184

The Acts described above are binding on all parties and individuals involved in selective logging in PNG. (In addition, concurrent Provincial legislation may also apply in some forest areas.) The adoption of new Forestry Regulations 1998. These focus on strengthening three crucial areas: 1. The acquisition of forest resources by the PNG Forest Authority (PNGFA), via Forest Management Agreements (FMAs), which require proper consultation with customary resource owners, and which take due consideration of environmental and biodiversity concerns. 2. The allocation of forest management rights to forestry companies, via Timber Permits, in a competitive and transparent manner, with operation conditions based on sustainable forest management principles. 3. Appropriate monitoring of forest operations to ensure that all aspects of the Act, Regulations and Logging Code of Practice are properly adhered to. Section 137 of the new Act provided that all permits, licenses, and authorities granted under the old Forestry Act and agreements entered into under the Forestry (Private Dealings) Act would continue to have full force and effect for the balance of their term as if those Acts had not been repealed. These became known as “saved projects”. Section 137 also provided the National Forest Board power to vary any term or condition applicable to a saved project which it considers is “at variance with the provisions of the (new) Act to an extent which makes it unacceptable”.

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The current forestry law (Forestry Act 1991 as amended) and its Forestry Regulations and various procedures that have been developed including the PNG Logging Code of Practice (LCOP), Planning Monitoring and Control procedures, etc., are intended as tools to address and promote SFM.

The Papua New Guinea Logging Code of Practice was formally adopted by the National Executive Council in March 1996. 185 FAO 2009 ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY SECTOR OUTLOOK STUDY Working Paper No. APFSOS II/WP/2009/19 PAPUA NEW GUINEA FORESTRY OUTLOOK STUDY by Papua New Guinea Forest Authority 184

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Since 1991, selection logging has been the only form of logging permitted in the newer timber concessions that have been secured under FMAs with landowners. LCOP conditions include: • • • •

Rainforest management in accordance with the 24 key standards of the LCOP. 50 cm dbh minimum cutting diameter. Sustained yield management predicted on a 35-year cutting cycle. No explicit instructions for marking of residuals within the LCOP.

To manage forest resources on a sustainable basis, all new timber concessions acquired by the State are for 50 years. This is intended to ensure that there is a second crop after the first 35 years of operation. The efficacy of this selection system has yet to be fully evaluated, as the earliest acquired areas under the FMA concept have not yet expired.

Besides the Government, the NGO community is also actively promoting SFM within rural communities that depend on the forests. It must be noted that there are many key factors that affect the economic viability of the forests of PNG. These include: •

•

Global and regional market forces. The demand and supply of wood and wood products including pricing has an impact on the economic viability of forest management. High demand coupled with high prices, especially for round wood logs, encourages forest operators to produce more wood – sometimes at the expense of good management practices. The economic crisis of 1997 saw log prices plummet, forcing many logging operators to close business. It also led to significantly lower foreign exchange earnings for the country. The highly diverse species mix in PNG’s natural forests can pose certain operational problems. Forest-based industries are often not able to meet their market quota for a desired species and sometimes have to gather logs from different operation points in the country. In many forest concessions, no single species constitutes more than 5 percent of the total growing stock. This leads to large volumes being exported in mixed species parcels, thereby fetching lower FOB prices, especially in Asian markets. 120

•

• •

Low stand density. Forests in PNG have a lower stand density in comparison to other countries in the Asia region. This increases operational costs to extract timber and requires that larger areas be harvested in order to meet market commitments. Extraction of smaller size logs is often resorted to, which ultimately impacts the prices received in the export markets and, more importantly, the sustainability of forest management, considering that the trees that have been removed would have constituted the crop in the second cutting cycle. Remoteness of timber concession areas. This creates a concern for logging operators as they have to pay higher costs for mobilizing and supplying goods and services to the logging sites. In addition, the remaining forest areas that have potential for forest logging operations are located even further from established urban areas with little or no road or other forms of access. To access these resources would require much capital input from the proposed developers. Increasing cost of fuel. This has been estimated by some industry sources to constitute more than 50 percent of the operational costs for some projects. Lack of enabling environment by the Government. This includes issues such as current tax regimes, incentives to improve downstream processing, adequate resource supply, resolution of landowner disputes, and so forth.

Oavika186 1995. Results of TSI trials carried out in Kuri and Vanimo. Timber Stand Improvement (TSI) trials were established in the Kuri (Gulf Province) and Vanimo (Sandaun Province) areas of Papua New Guinea, with the assistance of the respective logging companies (Turama Forest Industries and Vanimo Forest Products). The objective was to study the effect of application of several treatments on the growth rate of the trees in the logged over forests. Page 1997187 presented A Forest Planning and Monitoring Procedures and Logging Coupe Design and Planning at the First Forester’s Refresher school June 1997 Lae PNG. Page was on a four-year assignment with the PNG Forestry HRD Project AusAID from Queensland Forestry to assist PNG foresters re implementation of the key standards including the LCOP for timber harvesting operations in PNG.

186 Oavika F 1995. Results of TSI trials carried out in Kuri and Vanimo. Klinkii recd 5(3): 17-25 187 Page A Forest Planning and Monitoring Procedures and Logging Coupe Design and Planning. First Forester’s Refresher school June 1997 Lae PNG. PNG Forestry HRD Project AusAid.

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Vigus188 1998 In his presentation at the AFPNG Lae Conference titled planim diwai – a discussion on the social, economic and conservation issues of monoculture forestry plantations and reforestation naturally. discussed his personal experience in the history of plantation forestry in Papua New Guinea, dating back to 1970, and compared the benefits and costs of the two principal methods of reforestation, mentioned in the title, which are proposed for replacing PNG’s Forest Resources. The presentation outlines the history of the development of the technique of Reforestation Naturally and briefly discusses the way in which the technique has been further developed for large scale application. Reforestation Naturally is a technique developed by the author where land ownership resides with people rather than governments. Reforestation naturally has two major advantages: It can increase the number of high value trees from the initial quantity of 8-10/ha to 25-30/ha in 35 years’ time and it preserves the “non-economic” benefits of the forest. The most stable environment in most of the lowlands of PNG is lowland rainforest of lowland hill rainforest. There is tremendous pressure to convert large areas of logged over rainforest to oil palm and smaller areas to other agricultural crops such as cocoa. There is also a tendency for villagers to take advantage of highly disturbed areas to establish gardens. This opportunistic gardening combined with constant pressure from increasing populations can degrade much large areas of rainforest than would be the case if the forest was not logged or at logged more carefully. In coastal areas of PNG, the diverse forest mix and relatively low number of high value species means that harvesting of virgin forest is done on a selective basis. That is, only the medium and high value logs (with a dbh of no less than 50 cm) are extracted. While there is damage to the forest during tree felling and extraction, the remainder of the forest is left standing. At present, only about 8-10 commercial sized trees are extracted per hectare from PNG’s lowland rainforests. Based on average log size and the new revenue system landowners get approximately K200/ha, plus an additional sum in the form of a development levy where logs are exported. Landowners face several land use alternatives after this, the initial round of logging: • • • •

Plantation forestry (single species). Reforestation Naturally. Agricultural production (such as oil palm, cocoa, or coconuts). No activity (to simply leave the forest).

Vigus T 1998 Paper “Planim diwai – a discussion on the social, economic and conservation issues of monoculture forestry plantations and reforestation naturally.” AFPNG Lae Conference 1998. 188

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Leaving the forest to regenerate itself, although apparently ecologically sound has several problems. Vines and low value timber species (especially Macaranga) generate quickly after logging and can reduce the future timber value of the forest, or at least considerably slow down the return of the forest, and in particular, the larger forest species which form the top canopy and provide the basis for the forest environment underneath. In addition, opportunistic gardening by villagers in gaps created by logging considerably degrades the biological integrity of the regenerating forest. In the situation where the forest re-establishes, but with a higher proportion of low-value species, it is estimated that in 35 years’ time, only 3-5 trees/ha will be suitable for harvest. It is questionable whether logging would occur with such low returns and as such, the “economic” value of the forest is much lower. This could leave the forest open to alternative uses which may not give due consideration to “non-economic” benefits. Selective logging, i.e., felling commercial species above 50 cm dbh. or above buttress, causes various sized gaps in the canopy which, contrary to outcries in the media, are rapidly filled with regenerating seedlings. Management of natural regeneration is a common silvicultural tool for sustained yield in both temperate and tropical forests and would appear to be a logical approach, in association with the establishment of forest plantations where appropriate, to sustain PNG's rainforests. In 1983 to 1985, several research plots measuring 100 metres by 50 metres were established prior to logging in Oro, East and West New Britain, and West Sepik Provinces. These plots, each 0.5 ha in extent were established before logging in the two most widespread productive forest types, "Large to Medium-crowned Forest on Plains and Fans" and "Medium-crowned Lowland Hill Forest", (Paijmans 1975). The aim of the research was to measure the effect of logging on survival of seedlings and residuals and to monitor progress, if any, of the natural regeneration. Hence the sites were selectively chosen to contain enough merchantable trees to ensure that logging occurred. (Despite this, out of 12 plots established only 10 were logged, indicating an inefficient logging operation, and fortunately preserving some important refugia for wildlife). In each plot, all trees above 10cm diameter were measured and their locations recorded by offsetting with compasses along tape measures located along the centre line of the plot and either to the right or left of the centre line. As soon as possible after logging, the plots were assessed for logging damage. It was immediately obvious that damage to seedlings, saplings and a significant number of the larger residual trees was considerable. In fact, large areas of the plots were effectively "ploughed" by the intensive logging activity (see booklet on “Reforestation Naturally”). The plots were monitored, and it was noted that regeneration was profuse in all areas, with a complete low vegetative cover achieved within 6-9 months after logging. The species regenerating varied considerably with location with the West Sepik plots in particular containing very few species of commercial value. 123

It was also noted that undesirable species such as Musa spp and Macaranga spp were prevalent, and vines grew so vigorously that they shaded out desirable tree species and could smother and deform commercial tree species that had reached 6 metres in height. A conscious decision was made to tend the valuable trees by removing weed species using village labour. The villagers were very enthusiastic and readily grasped the concept, in fact the village elder at Oititande in the Kumusi area produced his own instruction sheet. After tending the Kumusi plots it was noted that excessive removal of weed tree species encouraged the introduction of other weed species, in particular Imperata cylindrica. Tending was therefore modified according to the site and in the case of the West Sepik plots, this meant leaving a number of unmerchantable tree species, such as Ficus spp, to prevent invasion by grasses. Villagers were encouraged to leave any species that had any value to them, and the commercial species were tagged and measured. Tending was carried out about three times per plot up to about two years after logging, at a cost of some 4-6 person days per ha for each tending operation, after which the trees were above competition. Re-measurement of the Plots in 1993 under the ESSTRU project, jointly funded by the World Bank and CSIRO, and with the help of Forest Authority staff and Villagers, the author was able to relocate and remeasure five of the plots, some 7.5 to 9.5 years after logging. Once again, all trees above 10 cm dbh were measured and recruits (new trees in the size class 10 cm dbh and above), were positioned using compasses and tapes. Surviving residuals were remeasured and the log lengths of all trees above 20 cm dbh were estimated so that volume increment could be estimated, and an assessment of form and crown position/quality was made. In all the plots logged, regeneration was immediate and profuse, with in all cases a mixture of highly valuable and lesser valuable commercial species (the West Sepik plots containing the least number of valuable commercial species). However, over time, the species that came to dominate the stand were all pioneer species such as Octomeles, Endospermum, Anthocephalus, Macaranga, Ficus and Hibiscus spp. In the Kumusi TRP, Oro Province, Burckella, a fairly valuable timber species (Group 2 species in 1993, now Group 1) was predominant, germinating in large numbers (greater than 25% of the seedling numbers) alongside Octomeles and Endospermum and Anthocephalus (all Group 3 species in 1993 now in group 1). The changes in the stand table for Kumusi plot 1 from before logging to 9.5 years after logging by species and size class clearly illustrate the influx of the pioneer species Endospermum medulosum. In West New Britain Province, at Kapiura, it was noted that although several valuable Group 1 species germinated quite successfully after logging, in particular Dracontomelum, Planchonella, and Pometia, only the latter was recorded as a recruit some 8.5 years after logging and then only in the 10-19.9 cm dbh class, the plot being completely dominated by Octomeles sumatrana and Anthocephalus chinensis.

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At Kapiura seedlings present in the understorey before logging were recorded by using micro plots on a random systematic basis. The number of tree seedlings present before logging ranged from 12,500 - 65,500 per hectare, with an average of > 30,000 tph. In the West Sepik Province, the disturbance to the two plots caused by logging was markedly different, in Plot 1 residual trees comprised nearly 50% of the original stand some 7.67 years after logging whilst in Plot 2 residuals comprised less than 20% of the original stand. Species dominating both plots at the time of second measurement were Ficus, Aleurites, Alfitonia, Hibiscus and Macaranga, although on a more positive note one specimen of Octomeles sumatrana had achieved a growth rate of nothing to 56.9 cm dbh, with a merchantable log length of 9 metres, a good form, and a merchantable volume of 1.7 Vigus found that: • Selective logging practices result in too much damage to desirable residual trees, too large canopy openings and consequent invasion by vines and other weed species. • Many residual trees that survive logging show little growth response, those that do respond to opening up of the canopy are invariably trees with healthy crowns and have suffered little or no damage during logging. • Protection of desirable residual trees by clearly marking them before logging is the simplest solution to improved felling and extraction practices. Broadscale introduction of the Code of Logging Practice and in particular “Key Standard 15 - marking desirable residuals” is essential for long term sustainable harvesting in PNG’s lowland rainforests. • Seedling regeneration after canopy disturbance is profuse but the species mix is rapidly dominated by fast growing pioneer species, many of which have no, low, or only medium commercial value. • Unless tending is carried out, many fast-growing medium value trees are shaded out and killed by fast germinating and growing trees of little or no commercial value, This led to Vigus’s development of the technique of “Reforestation Naturally” which has been used successfully in thousands of hectares of regenerating forest in West New Britain, West Sepik, Madang, and Oro Provinces. Although it should be considered only as one of several options for reforestation, the following points about the technique should be highlighted: • Customary landowners commit themselves and their land to long term forest management, this is a crucial factor. • The method is well suited to PNG’s land tenure system as there is no need for alienation of land. • Villagers do the work so there is no need to import labour and therefore no consequential social disruption. • The technique provides rural employment for men, women, and youths. • The technique is adaptable (using contracts) to custom events which would otherwise interfere with full-time employment, and to variable working hours (i.e., there is no need to work from 8 to 4). • The technique helps conserve biodiversity, including medicinal plants and the residual stand and assists in more rapid recolonisation of the logged over forests by plants and animals.

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•

The technique is considerably less expensive than other forms of reforestation and can therefore be applied over much larger areas for the same amount of money.

Non-economic or intangible benefits are benefits provided from the forest which cannot easily be given a monetary value. These include social and cultural values, and the use of forest products for medicine, food, building materials and crafts. There are benefits relating to the environment from maintaining biodiversity and protecting flora and fauna, and marine and estuary eco-systems. Reforestation naturally helps preserve these benefits: Vigus undertook an assessment of work done to 1998 under Reforestation Naturally techniques to determine the following such as: • Number of commercial species per hectare. • Species composition. • Number of potential future crop trees. • Growth rates of commercial species by measuring diameters at breast height and total heights of significant trees. (NB mean diameter depends on stand density and is therefore not a useful parameter when the stand is very young and generally overstocked.) However maximum diameter/age and particularly top height/age are useful site productivity indicators. • Basal area/ha as this is a useful measure of rate of stand growth. • An estimate of the amount of shading of the plot caused by the original forest canopy was also noted to see whether shading had any effect on either species composition or rate of growth of regenerating species. Vigus described an evaluation of the economic benefits of Reforestation Naturally by Annual Net Cash Flow and Net Present Value (K/ha) for Various Silvicultural Regimes. (1998). REGIME

YEAR 1

YEAR 2

YEAR 3

YEAR 20

Reforestation (100) Naturally

(60)

Plantation Forestry

(800)

(400)

(200)

20,000

Benign Neglect*

Residuals (50) Marked + RF

(30)

YEAR 35

NPV

IRR

k/ha

100k/ ha

11.8

3,580

21.8

1350

8250

223

14.8

6750

*Benign Neglect means that the forest is left untouched after logging but is allowed to regenerate as opposed to being destroyed by gardening, fires, or conversion to agricultural crops. 126

These figures are based on the following: Reforestation Naturally:

Labour and overhead costs year 1 = K100, year 2 = K50, harvest at age 35 = 75m3/ha @ K130/m3 less K40/m3 harvest cost, = K6750/ha.

Plantation Forestry:

Seedlings, labour, machinery, and supervision costs year 1 = K800, year 2 = K400 and year 3 = K200. harvest at age 20 = 200m3/ha @ K130/m3 less K30/m3 harvest cost, = K20,000/ha.

Benign Neglect:

No costs, harvest at age 35 = 15m3 @ K130/m3 less K40/m3 harvest cost, = K1350/ha

Residuals Marked

Labour and overhead cost year 1 = K50/ha, year 2 = K30/ha; harvest at age 35 = 75m3/ha @ K150/m3 less K40/m3 harvest cost = K8250/ha

•

• •

•

Benign neglect results in a considerable loss in the number of medium value, light demanding, fast growing species such as erima and basswood (Endospermum medulosum). This has a considerable deleterious effect on the economic viability of subsequent timber harvesting. Logging of Papua New Guinea’s lowland rainforests, if done properly, according to the Logging Code of Practice and followed by some form of reforestation can benefit landowners, the country as a whole and conserve PNG’s biodiversity. Unfortunately, to date there has been very little planning for land-use after logging has been completed and this results in degradation of the logged over forest and allows alternative land-uses such as conversion to agriculture to proceed with the consequent destruction of one of the world’s most diverse ecosystems. Reforestation Naturally presents an opportunity for PNG to log its lowland forest resources on a sustainable basis by replacing the logged over forest with the same species which were felled during logging. Even though the return will not be as great as that which could be earned by establishing forest plantations. The cost of Reforestation Naturally is so low, less than 10% of the cost of forest plantations so that for a minimum reforestation levy or reforestation tax, every single hectare of logged over forest could be regenerated, and the logging industry sustained.

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Reforestation Naturally Technique

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Hurahura189 1998 Experience on Implementation of Large Scale “reforestation naturally” nationwide reviewed PNG’s experiences of large-scale reforestation naturally programs. The technique reforestation naturally was tested over 50 ha demonstration areas in the Kandrian Gloucester TA in WNB funded by AusAID beginning in 1994. The demonstration areas were based on data obtained from a number of plots established by Vigus in 1983. In 1996, some 300 ha was treated using reforestation naturally techniques in the Kapaluk TA. As at the end of 1998, some 6,800 ha had been nominated for treatment using “reforestation naturally” techniques. Alder190 1998. The ITTO permanent sample plots in Papua New Guinea: some results of analysis. Paper presented at the ITTO Workshop on Permanent sample plots and growth models for natural forest management in Papua New Guinea, held at the Forest Research Institute, Lae, 10th – 13th November 1998. Alder191 1999. PINFORM: a growth model for lowland tropical forest in Papua New Guinea. ITTO project report PD 162/91 – Papua New Guinea. Anon. 1998. Vigus 2000192, reported that Papua New Guinea's rainforests can be harvested on a sustainable basis and contribute significantly to the country's economy if they are managed properly at a recent development forum in Port Moresby. He said the absence of land-use planning before an area of rainforest was logged was the most significant obstacle to sustainable forest resource management in PNG. Mr. Vigus, who has spent a long time in PNG in the area of conservation and forestry, said the development options study, which was carried out after a Forest Management Area Agreement had been signed, did not address land use after logging. "Reforestation techniques are well understood. There are plenty of examples of successful plantation establishment in Papua New Guinea – using both exotic and indigenous species,'' he said. "Many well established plantations have floundered because of land tenure disputes. Reforestation Naturally is a technique that was developed to suit the situation in Papua New Guinea where land ownership resides with the people rather than governments. The technique is also ecologically sustainable as it conserves biodiversity,'' he said. The PNG Forest Authority has adopted the technique of "reforestation naturally'' as one method of ensuring that logged over forests are regenerated. In 1996 the World Bank insisted on a forest revenue system that excluded a reforestation levy. Logging operations that were paying the reforestation levy before 1996 continue to do so. Mr. Vigus said for a small reforestation levy of K 4 (US$ 1.648) a cubic meter of log

Hurahura (1998) Experience on Implementation of Large Scale “reforestation naturally” nationwide. Paper presented AFPNG Conference Lae 1998 pp 96-106 190 Alder, D. 1998. The ITTO permanent sample plots in Papua New Guinea: some results of analysis. ITTO Workshop on Permanent sample plots and growth models for natural forest management in Papua New Guinea, FR I, Lae, 10th – 13th November 1998. 191 Alder, D. 1999. PINFORM: a growth model for lowland tropical forest in Papua New Guinea. 192 Media statement July 4, 2000 - Post-Courier/PINA Nius Online 189

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harvest, the method could fund the reforestation of every single hectare logged in PNG, if that was the wish of the people. He said where the people did not want reforestation, the levy could be diverted to areas of grassland for afforestation, for instance, converting grassland to forests. "Large areas of PNG's rainforests are being converted to agricultural use and subsistence gardening. In order for forest resources to be managed on a sustainable basis there is a need for both well planned and managed forest plantations as well as extensive areas of forests regenerated using the technique of’ reforestation naturally’,'' he said. Turia193 2005. Cannot See the Land for the Trees: the forest management dilemma in Papua New Guinea. This thesis examines the role of customary landowners in the forest policies of the Australian colonial administration and the post-colonial state in what is now the independent nation of Papua New Guinea (PNG). It examines the ways in which these policies have sought to reconcile the goal of `sustainable forest management' with the country's customary land tenure systems. Through intensive archival research and comprehensive interviews, the thesis investigates the way that this problem is perceived by foresters and other stakeholders in the forest industry. Four specific timber projects are further examined as case studies to illustrate the relationship between forest policy and customary land tenure in different historical periods. Finally, the thesis demonstrates that the ideal of sustainable forest management has not yet come to terms with the reality of customary ownership and use of land and forests in Papua New Guinea. About 97 percent of land in PNG is estimated to be under customary ownership (James, 1985). The rural Papua New Guineans continue to use the land and other resources on it to meet their needs for building, firewood and many other raw materials including foodstuffs and medicine, and for hunting, without any need for government controls. At the same time, the PNG Administration under the colonial era and as a politically independent nation since 1975 has developed forestry policies that have necessitated the management of forested land suitable for commercial timber production on a Western scientific model. This model implies the application of sustained yield management (SYM) and more recently, the application of sustainable forest management (SFM) over forested lands that are deemed suitable for forestry purposes by the government, at the National, Provincial and Local level. This new policy goal has created a new use of the forested land on a much larger scale than the traditional shifting cultivation that the customary landowners are used to. It then creates a conflict over use of the land for hunting and gardening between the customary landowners Turia193, R.C.H. 2005. Cannot See the Land for the Trees: the forest management dilemma in Papua New Guinea. Department of Human Geography, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Canberra, Australian National University. Doctoral Thesis. 193

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and timber companies that have been granted the rights to exploit the forest resources, as well as with the state which assumes it has some rights to practise SFM on the same land which is still customarily owned (Kwa, 1994). Shearman194 2008 et al. The State of the Forests of Papua New Guinea: mapping the extent and condition of forest cover and measuring the drivers of forest change in the period 19722002. Since 2003, the University of Papua New Guinea Remote Sensing Centre has prepared and analysed comprehensive datasets on the state of the country’s forests from the early 1970’s. The main human activities causing forest change were identified as commercial forestry, subsistence agriculture, fires and the development and operations of mines and agricultural plantations. Filer, Keenan, Allen and McAlpine195 2009 Deforestation and forest degradation in Papua New Guinea paper responded to a report by Shearman P 2008 et al. The State of the Forests of Papua New Guinea: mapping the extent and condition of forest cover and measuring the drivers of forest change in the period 1972-200 with claims that rates of DFD (deforestation or forest degradation) in PNG are much higher than have previously reported. It suggests more than half of PNG's remaining forests will have disappeared or be damaged beyond recovery by 2021. Filer et al argue that this claim is incorrect. The report overestimates the area of intact primary forest in 1972 and the impact of traditional land use practices on forest cover. Much of what the RSLUP report considers as deforestation is part of a cycle of traditional clearance for farming, fallow and regrowth that has been occurring for hundreds of years. The assumption that areas impacted by harvesting or shifting cultivation will inevitably degrade and become non-forest is also not supported by observation of cutover forest in PNG. A considerable proportion of cutover forest areas will recover carbon stocks after harvesting. It is argued that traditional land use practices and forest recovery processes need to be considered in assessing greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and degradation in countries with complex land use histories such as PNG. PNG NFS Policy 2009196. Under the Reforestation Policy it is anticipated that more areas will be brought under forest plantations and more areas managed through silvicultural treatment of the selectively logged over forests, commonly referred to as “reforestation naturally” in PNG. Pearson197 2019 reported that the Lucas Bushmill sawn timber output in 2019, was from a "Crisis tree"(approx. 30 years old), one of many that grew up in the cocoa blocks since the start of the Bougainville Crisis in 1990. One of the few upsides of the crisis was the regrowth of the forest that it now being utilized. Another way of recording the regrowth information of PNG’s moist tropical rainforests.

Shearman P 2008 et al. The State of the Forests of Papua New Guinea: mapping the extent and condition of forest cover and measuring the drivers of forest change in the period 1972-2002. ISBN 9789980937483 University of Papua New Guinea. 195 Filer C, Keenan R, Allen B, McAlpine J 2009. Deforestation & forest degradation in Papua New Guinea. Annals of Forest Science 66(8):813-825 DOI:10.1051/forest/2009067 196 Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study ii Working Paper Series Working Paper no. APFSOS ii/wp/2009/19 Papua New Guinea Forestry Outlook Study by Papua New Guinea Forest Authority. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, 2009. APFSOS ii 197 Personal communication Michael Pearson 31 March 2019 194

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Lucas Bushmill. Photo credit Michael Pearson Bougainville 2019. Page198 2021. The PNG LCOP for Logging Native Forest focused on two key aspects of timber harvesting - soil conservation and protection of water quality, coupled with protection of the residual forest through implementation of directional tree felling and vine cutting. Directional felling had the capacity to improve protection of the residual forest, however when there was an indiscriminate diameter cut regime, there was no control over the percentage of canopy removal. It was possible to obtain perfect compliance with the PNG LCOP but if all 50cm or greater diameter trees were cut, particularly if the diameter distribution of the stand was skewed to the right, residual trees were flattened as well as very high canopy removal. This then permitted extensive vine growth over any regeneration, favouring regeneration of soft faster growing forest tree species. The preferred slower growing species were shaded out. Bypass cutting, removing only higher value red species, although not compliant with the harvesting permit, did more for the forest and regeneration. It reduced the number of stems per hectare removed, allowing the forest capacity to protect the residual stand and reduce canopy removal. There was no extensive vine growth. The PNG LCOP improved how harvesting was done. However, it was not designed to address canopy removal or the species diversity and distribution of forest types across the country.

Personal communication A Page 10th Dec 2021. Queensland Forest ranger assigned to AusAID HRD Project 19952001 for PNG LCOP field implementation. 198

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CASE STUDY 2021. REHABILITATION WORKS OK TEDI FLY RIVER FLOODPLAINS PNG OTML’s Mt Fubilan open pit mine in the Star Mountains, Western Province PNG. Source PNG Chamber of Mines and Petroleum.

Ok Tedi Mine Bige dredge River systems in Western Province Source PNG Chamber of Mines and Petroleum.

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Bige on the mend Ok Tedi Mining Ltd undertakes a tree planting programme to rehabilitate dredged areas199 IN 1984, the State of Papua New Guinea (State) approved Ok Tedi Mining Limited (OTML) to dispose its waste rock and tailings from the mining operations into the river system following the failure of the tailings dam. To minimise the impacts on the environment and the livelihoods of the communities, OTML is implementing several mitigation programmes that have been approved by the State. These programmes which have been implemented since 1997 are: • • • •

Dredging of the sediment to reduce riverbed level which in turn reduces over-bank flooding and forest dieback. Extracting pyrite from the tailings to minimise the risk of acid rock drainage and improve water quality. Adding limestone at the mine waste dumps and mill to reduce the risk of acid rock drainage and improve water quality; and Rehabilitating the stockpile to restore plants and animals’ life and the people who depends on those ecosystem services for their livelihood.

199

Story and pictures supplied by OTML Communication and Public Relations Department. Published in the PNG National Weekender newspaper 11th June 2021.

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Over 30 species of trees have been selected for the revegetation of the dredged site. The rehabilitation efforts by OTML epitomises this year’s WED theme of ‘ecosystem restoration.’

Dredging The dredging project, which is located at Bige in the Lower Ok Tedi, is about 80km from the mine. Dredging was commissioned in 1998 to reduce sediment load reaching the Lower Ok Tedi and Fly River system. The dredge removes at least 10 million cubic meters of sand annually from the river which constitutes 60 per cent of the sediment load passing through the dredge slot. The slot is 840m x 50m x12m and is designed to capture sediments as they pass through this section of the river. The dredged sand is hydraulically placed in engineered stockpiles on the east and west banks at Bige covering an area of 1000 ha of land that have been impacted by dieback in the mid-1990s. The remaining 40 per cent, comprising mainly silt and mud passes through to the Fly River. Most of this material will settle in the lower Middle Fly region. After more than two decades of dredging, at a cost of US$55million (about K193million at current rates) per annum, the riverbed levels have reduced by two to four meters in the lower Ok Tedi and have stabilised including the Middle Fly region. Over-bank flooding and the associated forest dieback have decreased compared to 1996/97 period and recovery of some forest species are observed in the lower Ok Tedi and upper

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middle Fly River as a result of bed level reduction. Forest and woodland dieback are expected to continue in some parts of the floodplain but at a much slower rate. The reduction and stabilisation of riverbed is beginning to restore food resources and habitat quality for fish and other species. The restored riparian vegetation provides a key source of food for species that feed on insects, plant leaves, roots, and seeds. Fish monitoring data in the last few years from Kuambit and Erekta, located downstream, proximal to the dredge site, showed greater numbers and diversity of small fish indicating the positive impact of dredging on the downstream environment. Dredged sand contains contaminant metals such as copper, lead, zinc, and cadmium and are devoid of essential nutrients and detritus to support plant growth. These present challenges that need to be managed to achieve the success criteria specified for the stockpile in the Mine Area Rehabilitation Plan (MARP). The MARP calls for a stable landform that comprise a self-sustaining vegetation that comprise native species. To achieve the MARP requirement OTML ensures that: • •

•

Stockpile is designed and constructed to achieve a stable landform which include surface drainage controls. Geochemistry of the dredged sediments, particularly the final cover materials, meets the geochemical criteria set to reduce the risk of acid rock drainage (ARD) by more than 80 per cent. Studies are conducted to improve species selection, planting/seeding methods, and surface treatments. The rehab method now used have culminated over many years of trial. The performance of the rehab programme is monitored to achieve the MARP requirement.

Native pioneer species The model for Bige stockpile rehabilitation is to introduce native pioneer species capable of establishing, reproducing, stabilising, and gradually ameliorating the sand substrate through leaf litter production and root respiration. As shaded canopy and soil development advances, ongoing rehabilitation would introduce additional early and mid-successional forest species. Over time the species from the surrounding forest are expected to colonise naturally via seeding by birds, bats, rats, and other wildlife vectors that are attracted to the developing forest. Since 2017, OTML adopted the Ecosystem Function Analysis (EFA) and Landform Function Analysis (LFA) methodology developed by CSIRO (Tongway and Lindley, 1995) to assess the performance of the revegetation programme. The EFA/LFA monitoring constitutes tracking three landform functions (stability, infiltration, and nutrient cycling) and three ecosystem functions (forest succession, forest structural complexity and cultural plants) and many field attributes under each function. Monitoring data from the last three years has shown positive trajectory towards achieving a self-sustainable vegetation that comprises a diversity of native plants and trees that are of cultural importance. The EFA/LFA methodology also allows for management intervention if the score for a function or any of the attributes within each function is not performing to 137

expectation. The stockpile rehabilitation programme epitomises the 2021 Word Environment Day theme of “Ecosystem Restoration”. More than 30 tree species Over US$600,000 (K2.1 million) per year is spent on the ecosystem restoration programme on the stockpiles and a dedicated rehabilitation team with 15 fulltime national employees manage the programmes from seed germination and seedling care at the nursery yard to tube stock planting in the field. More than 50,000 tree seedlings from over 30 species were produced in the nursery in 2020 of which 33, 860 tube stock trees were planted out to cover 45 ha of the stockpile. Over 200 ha of stockpile of a total of 1,000 ha have been revegetated with 176, 899 tree seedlings between 2010 and 2020. Species selection of the stockpile is based on local community values and importantly functional trait for secondary forest tress that can perform in severely degraded conditions as pioneers to create a conducive microclimate that will promote natural forest succession. OTML is committed to conduct business in a manner that balances the environmental impacts, economic needs of PNG and the expectation of the local community it operates in through continuous improvement in its environmental performance. OTML had spent K3 billion on environmental mitigation and restoration projects since 1998 which is testament to its commitment towards minimising the impacts on the environment and the livelihood of the communities. Source. Story and pictures supplied by OTML Communication and Public Relations Department. The TEK (traditional ecological knowledge) findings published in this resourceful guide for use in the Bige rehabilitation program. It features a photo catalogue of plant species, their common uses and their scientific and local (Awin) names. Source. PNG Chamber of Mines and Petroleum.

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Rogers H & Inaho B. Mining related forest and woodland change across the Ok Tedi and Fly River floodplains of Papua New Guinea. CFA Newsletter # 94 Sept2021 ISSN 1750-6417 200

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Dredge in operation at Bige. Source PNG Chamber of Mines and Petroleum.

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ACRONYMS AAD ACT ACIAR ACLMP AEC AFAP AFS AFPNG AIF AMF ANBG ANGAU ANU APMF APPM ASIO ASOPA AusAID BA BCOF “Beer Time” BFC BGD BNGD BUC C cm CALM CFA CNGT CRE CRE

CSIRO CHAH DASF DBH/ dbh DEPT DIES DPI DOF ENB e.g. Etc FAO

Australian Antarctic Division Australian Capital Territory Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research AusAid funded World Bank Land Mobilisation program. Administrators Executive Committee Australian Foundation for the Peoples of Asia& the Pacific Ltd. Australian Forestry School Association of Foresters of PNG Australian Infantry Forces Australian Military Forces Australian National Botanical Gardens Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit Australian National University Australian Paper Manufacturers Forestry Pty Ltd Australia Paper and Pulp Manufacturers Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Australian School of Pacific Administration Australian Aid Agency basal area British Commonwealth Occupational Force 1945-52 Any time. Bulolo Forestry College Bulolo Gold Dredging Company British New Guinea Development (Company Limited) Bulolo University College Commonwealth Centimetre Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management Commonwealth Forestry Association Commonwealth New Guinea Timbers Bulolo Commander Royal Engineers CRE is a term inherited by RAE from RE and is the term for the Commanding Officer of a RAE unit which is headed by a Lt Col. Although the officer is called the CRE the name is also used for the name of his unit. E.g., CRE Aust Forestry Group or 1(NG Forests). Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria Dept of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries Diameter at breast height Department Department of Information and Extension Services. Department of Primary Industry Department of Forests East New Britain Province. For example et cetera (more of the same) Food and Agriculture Organisation 157

F &TB FIM FMA FPRC FRA FRG FRI Forkol FSP/PNG GAB Gbhob Gubab GIS ha IBRD IFA IFY ITTC ITTO JICA L of N LRRS m3 MCCAF MHA MM MUS NAA NARI NB NDS NFCAP NGM no. NG NGF NGIB NGI NGO NGVR NZ NSW NTSC OIC OISCA OTML P or p PIB PIR

Forest and Timber Bureau Canberra Forest Information System Forest Management Agreement Forest Products Research Centre Hohola Forest Resource Assessment Forest Red Gum Forest Research Institute Lae Bulolo Forestry College Foundation of the Peoples of the South Pacific Girth above buttress Girth breast height over bark Girth under bark above buttress Geographic Information Systems Hectare International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Institute of Foresters of Australia International Year of the Forest International Tropical Timber Council International Tropical Timber Organization Japanese International Cooperation Agency League of Nations Land Resource Soils Survey (branch of CSIRO) cubic metre McCarthy & Associates (Forestry) Pty. Ltd. Member of House of Assembly PNG Military Medal Malayan Uniform System National Archives Australia National Agriculture Research Institute New Britain Northern District Sawmills PNG National Forestry and Conservation Action Plan New Guinea Mainland Number New Guinea New Guinea Forces (relates to plant collection of Lae Herbarium) New Guinea Infantry Battalion New Guinea Islands Non-Government Organisation New Guinea Volunteer Rifles New Zealand New South Wales National Tree Seed Centre PNG Bulolo Officer in Charge Organisation for Industrial, Spiritual and Cultural Advancement International Japan. Ok Tedi Mining Ltd page Papuan Infantry Battalion Pacific Islands Regiment 158

PNG PNGAA PNGAF PNGFA PNGFIA PNGRIS PNGUT POM Q QF RAE RPC RRA SFM SMS SP sq m TAG TSS UK UN Unasylva UNE UNEP UNI UNITECH UNRE UPNG UQ US USA TPNG TUBL TA TA TRP Vol VSF WA WB

Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea Australia Association Papua New Guinea Australian Foresters Magazine Series Papua New Guinea Forest Authority PNG Forest Industries Association Papua New Guinea Resource Information System PNG University of Technology Port Moresby Queensland Queensland Forestry Royal Australian Engineers/Australian Army Royal Papuan Constabulary Rapid Resource Appraisal Sustainable Forest Management Selective Management System Malaysia South Pacific square metres Trade Advisory Group of ITTO Tropical Shelterwood System United Kingdom United Nations Journal of FAO of UN University of New England Armidale NSW United Nations Environment Program University University of Technology Lae PNG University of Natural Resources and Environment University of Papua New Guinea University of Queensland United States United States of America Territory of Papua and New Guinea Territory United Brewery Ltd Timber Area Timber Authority Timber Rights Purchase volume Victorian School of Forestry Western Australia World Bank

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