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Psychology of Learning and Motivation
Exam Preparation Guide
Course Introduction
Psychology of Learning and Motivation explores the fundamental principles underlying how individuals acquire new knowledge, skills, and behaviors, as well as the factors that drive and sustain their motivation to learn. The course examines major theories and models of learning, including classical and operant conditioning, social learning, and cognitive approaches, while also addressing intrinsic and extrinsic motivational processes. Students will analyze the interplay between cognitive, emotional, and social factors in learning environments, evaluate empirical research, and consider practical applications for education and personal development. This course provides a comprehensive foundation for understanding the mechanisms of learning and the psychological determinants of motivation across the lifespan.
Recommended Textbook
Evolutionary Psychology Neuroscience Perspectives concerning Human Behavior and Experience
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Chapter 1: Introduction to an Evolutionary Perspective
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Sample Questions
Q1) The _____ combines the study of evolution by natural selection as developed by Darwin with the study of genetics as developed by Mendel.
Answer: modern synthesis
Q2) The metaphor for the Standard Social Science Model is
A) consciousness as the tip of an iceberg.
B) the mind as a blank slate.
C) the species as an organism.
D) thought processes as computations.
Answer: B
Q3) _____ is the study of animals and what they do; it involves the naturalistic observation of behavior in an organism's natural environment.
Answer: ethology
Q4) _____ is a measure of how much a behavioral pattern contributes to the survival of the offspring.
Answer: fitness
Q5) The model of human behavior that assumes experience plays the major role and views the mind as a blank slate is known as the _____.
Answer: Standard Social Science Model
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Chapter 2: What Is Evolution
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Sample Questions
Q1) The _____, located in the temporal lobe, is a complex set of brain structures for making, recognizing, and discriminating between facial expressions.
Answer: fusiform face area or FFA
Q2) Discuss the roles of natural selection and sexual selection in the evolution of species.
Answer: -Natural selection: variation gives some individuals a survival advantage; these are more likely to reproduce and hence pass on those advantages to their offspring.
-Sexual selection: individuals within a species tend to display patterns of preference in the characteristics of mates, and these preferences shape the opposite sex. For example, peahens prefer peacocks with bright feathers.
-Sexual selection can explain evolution of traits that are not obviously advantageous for survival. For example, bright feathers make peacocks more visible to predators.
Q3) The tendency for ideas that are presented together in time to be mentally called forth together is known as _____.
Answer: associationism
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Chapter 3: Evolution and Genetics
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Sample Questions
Q1) The _____ can sometimes be used to trace the ancestry of an individual. One famous example of this Genghis Khan.
A) mtDNA
B) Punnett square
C) telomere
D) Y chromosome
Answer: D
Q2) Which of the following has NOT been demonstrated by mitochondrial DNA analysis?
A) All humans have a common female ancestor.
B) Dogs were domesticated from wolves 15,000 years ago.
C) Neandertals and early humans may have mated.
D) Neandertals are not closely related to humans.
Answer: D
Q3) The "central dogma" of molecular biology states that genes
A) are carried on chromosomes.
B) are not changed by experience.
C) can express more than one phenotype.
D) do not exist to give us diseases.
Answer: B
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Page 5
Chapter 4: Evolution of Brain and Function
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Q1) The depressions or fissures on the surface of the brain are called _____.
Q2) Researchers have found that absolute brain size is not a good predictor of mental abilities; rather, we need to consider brain weight in relation to body weight, a measure known as the _____.
Q3) Compare and contrast the mental module model with the alternative to the mental module model. In what sense do they make similar predictions?
Q4) _____ is the preferred term in referring to the ancestral species related to humans because it is more precise.
A) Hominid
B) Hominin
C) Human
D) Humanoid
Q5) The front of the brain is referred to as _____.
Q6) When a similarity between two species is due to an independent evolutionary history, this is called _____ similarity; bat wings and bird wings are an example.
Q7) The _____ model suggests that the brain contains a number of modules devoted to specific tasks; thus, there would be a module for language, a module for spatial abilities, and so forth
Page 6
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Chapter 5: Developmental Processes
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Q1) The term _____ is often used to describe conditions in which processes are open to modification during development.
Q2) Research suggests that newborns come into the world with mechanisms that predispose them to look at A) colors.
B) faces.
C) shapes.
D) women.
Q3) Belsky suggests that different infant _____ styles may be productive in difficult environments and may adapt children to life in a world where people and resources are unpredictable, leading to different mating and parenting strategies than are found in children raised in more supportive environments.
Q4) _____ refers to the emergence of new structures and functions during the course of development; its rules relate to the manner in which environmental influences can impact the expression of the genome without directly changing the DNA, even though these patterns of gene expression can be passed on to future generations.
Q5) _____ refers to an individual's particular characteristics, especially behaviors that are consistent over time.
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Page 7
Chapter 6: Emotionality
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Sample Questions
Q1) Darwin made a number of important observations about emotions. Which of the following is NOT one of them?
A) Emotions are discrete.
B) Emotions are expressed on the face.
C) Emotions are multidimensional.
D) Emotions are not unique to humans.
Q2) Darwin suggests that although facial expressions are universal, gestures
A) are even more expressive of emotion.
B) depend more on particular circumstances.
C) may be specific to a given culture.
D) vary somewhat from person to person.
Q3) In the baby talk used by caregivers, it is the _____ and exaggerated _____ patterns that interest infants rather than the meaning and grammar.
A) gestures, speech
B) melodic, rhythmic
C) sounds, emotional
D) vocal, pitch
Q4) Discuss the various areas of the brain involved in emotional expression and recognition.
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Chapter 7: Language
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Q1) Discuss pidgins and creoles. What do they suggest about the nature of language?
Q2) Discuss the relationship between genetics, the brain, and language processing. Include a discussion of the FoxP2 genes and the various kinds of aphasia.
Q3) Current research suggests that there are a number of parallels between language learning in humans and song learning in birds. In both cases, learning results from a(n)
A) gradual unfolding of a set of instinctual processes.
B) interaction of internal programs and specific experiences.
C) long process of shaping and reinforcement.
D)suite of constraints and formal parameters.
Q4) In an amazing manner, a human infant can acquire any of the more than _____ existing languages on earth.
A) 60
B) 600
C) 6,000
D) 60,000
Q5) Chomsky proposed that all humans have a set of innate principles and parameters guiding the acquisition, production and comprehension, which he called _____.
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Page 9
Chapter 8: Sex and Gender
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Questions
Q1) Competition between males can take the form of outright fighting, as in the case of elephant seals or reindeer; at other times, it is to determine who has the brightest colors, as in a variety of male birds and fish. Females, on the other hand, A) also compete, but this is less overt. B) are rarely impressed by these displays. C) can be even more aggressive. D) do not need to compete for mates.
Q2) Research done at Israeli kibbutzim, which are communal societies, show that individuals brought up together from early childhood show a(n) _____ sexual desire toward each other even when they are not related. A) aberrant B) increased C) reduced D) unrequited
Q3) What is the Red Queen hypothesis? In what way is sex like a lottery?
Q4) In the 1970s, Geoff Parker suggested that if two or more males mate with the same female, their sperm could compete with one another to fertilize the egg; this process has been referred to as _____
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Page 10
Chapter 9: Sexual Selection
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Q1) It has been shown that just the act of smelling a female's t-shirt will increase a male's _____ levels, and if the t-shirt is from an ovulating woman, the increase will be even greater.
Q2) According to Susan Hrdy, primate females, including humans, evolved a tendency to seek extragroup mates. Females seek males for extra relationships who are most unlike their own mates genetically, and the extra mating allows for improvement in their offspring. Thus, the females benefit from _____ mating.
Q3) Research has shown that females are more likely than males to seek a mate who is wealthy; wealthy females place _____ emphasis on the financial status of their mate. A) about the same B) even more C) practically no D) somewhat less
Q4) _____ theory proposes that males and females have different mating preferences depending on the perceived length of the relationship. For long-term relationships, males seek fertile mates, and women seek mates with resources; for short-term relationships, males seek sexual access, and women seek mates with good genes.
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Chapter 10: Kin and Family Relationships
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Q1) Female _____ bias suggests that more altruistic behaviors will be shown by the mother than by the father because it is easier to know exactly who the mother of an infant is than to know who the father is.
Q2) Because it is easier to know who the mother of an infant was than the father, it is more likely that more _____ behaviors will be shown by the mother.
A) altruistic
B) cooperative
C) selfish
D) social
Q3) The question of why organisms would perform actions that benefited others but not themselves is referred to as _____.
Q4) Why is the prevalence of altruism a problem for traditional evolutionary theory? How does Hamilton explain altruism in evolutionary terms? According to Hamilton's theory, under what conditions would we expect to observe altruistic behavior? Does Hamilton provide a complete account of altruism?
Q5) According to Hamilton's theory, _____ will increase as relatedness increases between kin; that is to say, family members will help each other in relation to their genetic relatedness.
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Chapter 11: Social Relations
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Q1) A variety of observations in the wild suggest that monkeys use _____ to get what they desire.
A) deception
B) denigration
C) deprecation
D) deprivation
Q2) One strategy for playing the prisoner's dilemma is called _____. It has only two rules: (1) On your first move, you should cooperate; and (2) on every move after that, do what the other person did on the last trial.
Q3) A honeybee worker will sting an intruder to save the group, even if this results in the death of the bee. Because the cost of this prosocial behavior is so great, it is called _____.
Q4) Giving someone the time of day is an example of helping behavior, but because the cost to you is virtually nothing, this act should be considered a form of _____.
Q5) Trivers suggests that _____ is hiding truth from the conscious mind in order to hide subtle facial expressions that could give away the fact we are lying.
Q6) Discuss the social brain hypothesis and the evidence to support it.
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Page 13
Chapter 12: Making Social Decisions
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Q1) Among the moral emotions, one distinction that has been made is that _____ is associated with the desire to undo aspects of the self, whereas guilt involves the desire to undo aspects of behavior.
Q2) It has been suggested by a number of researchers that the availability of _____ is one set of circumstances that reduces the incidence of killing.
A) mates
B) resources
C) social support
D) weapons
Q3) Simon suggested that one could learn about human decision making by noting how the environment in which these decisions must be made can allow for simplifications in adaptive decision making. _____ was the term he chose to reflect this process lying between the rational and the psychological.
Q4) Similar body movements, including gaze aversion, smiling, head movement, self-touching, and grooming are seen in nonhuman primates in appeasement displays, in which one individual seeks to pacify the other and keep the social bond intact; thus, the social emotion of _____ may have had its origins in appeasement.
Q5) Discuss the evolution and function of social and moral emotions.
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Chapter 13: Health and Disease
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Sample Questions
Q1) According to the social shaping hypothesis (Taylor and Gonzaga, 2006), early social relationships have three functions. Which of the following is NOT one of these?
A) Social relationships calibrate how systems involved in stress responses will develop.
B) Social relationships regulate the stress response of day-to-day experiences.
C) Social relationships serve as a source of information about the environment.
D) Social relationships teach stress-coping skills and stress-avoiding behaviors.
Q2) Some _____, such as those that protect against malaria, also allow for other disorders such as sickle cell anemia.
A) defects
B) defenses
C) designs
D) diseases
Q3) Canon (1915) developed the concept of _____ to refer to the manner in which a physiological system tended to center on a set point, similar to the way a thermostat regulates the temperature in a building.
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Chapter 14: Psychopathology
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Q1) What are personality disorders? What is the evolutionary perspective on these disorders? Consider both reproductive strategies and the concept of "cheaters."
Q2) Hughlings Jackson believed that in mental disorders such as schizophrenia, the higher systems were no longer _____ the lower ones, resulting in illusions, hallucinations, and delusions, a process he called "dissolution of the nervous system."
Q3) According to Bowlby, a disruption of a relationship is experienced as a loss and results in withdrawal and depressed mood; this loss of _____ leads to depression, which protects the individual from further hurt until mental healing can take place.
Q4) _____ is characterized by repetitive thoughts and feelings, usually followed by repetitive behaviors; these often involve avoiding contamination, aggressive impulses, sexual content, somatic concerns, and the need for order.
Q5) _____ reflect a rigid, manipulative approach to dealing with social relationships, two common types being psychopaths and hysterics; from an evolutionary perspective, these people clearly qualify as "cheaters."
Q6) _____ symptoms of schizophrenia include hallucinations, delusions, and bizarre thoughts.
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Page 16
Chapter 15: Culture
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Q1) One pathway of cultural learning comes from genetically evolved _____ adaptations that support our tendency to imitate those who have resources, fame, and status; in thinking about culture from this standpoint, you would use the logic of natural selection with its emphasis on adaptation and survival.
A) behavioral
B) physiological
C) psychological
D) social
Q2) A variety of researchers from various fields have begun to study how organisms can modify their environment and how this changes evolutionary selection pressures. This approach has been referred to as the _____ perspective, and it suggests that humans may be more active in sharing their own evolution than traditionally thought.
Q3) The basic research strategy of _____ focuses on an examination of cognitive and neural differences across cultures. These studies examine the manner in which individuals from different cultures process the same information in different ways, or else they study the manner in which individuals from a single culture process information from different cultures differently.
Q4) Discuss the seven characteristics of culture as determined by Flinn (2005).
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Page 17