TheForgottenStoryofEuropean PeaceinaChanging TransatlanticOrder
By Jaya Kumar (Edited by Rhea Phuri)
PostwarWesternEuropeisoften portrayedasapoliticalandeconomic successstory,characterizedbyexpansive welfarestates,increasinglyopenborders, anddeepeconomicintegrationculminating intheEuropeanUnion(EU).Thisoutcome, however,emergedfromaregionalcontext longdefinedbyinstabilityratherthan cohesion.IntheaftermathoftheGreatWar, Europefacedprofoundeconomicand politicalfragility,asreparations,sovereign debt,anddestroyedindustrialcapacity underminedrecoveryacrossthecontinent.¹ Theseconditionswerestarklyevidentin postwarGermany,wherehyperinflationin theearly1920serodedmiddle-classsecurity, andlaterinthewidespreadunemployment anddeflationbroughtonbytheGreat Depression.²Againstthisbackdrop, Europeanleadersduringtheinterwarperiod pursuedvariousprojectsofregionalunity, yettheseeffortsachievedonlylimited success,constrainedbythepersistent tensionbetweennationalsovereigntyand collectivesecuritydespitebroadintellectual andscholarlysupportforEuropeanpolitical andeconomicintegration.¹Itwasonlythe unprecedentedtraumaofWorldWarII, combinedwiththeurgentimperativesof economicreconstructionandglobal competitiveness,thatdecisivelyweakened theseconstraints,enablingEuropeanand globalleaderstoinstitutionalizecooperation asadurablestrategyforpeaceand
prosperity.Thispiecearguesthatpostwar Europeanintegrationwasnota self-sustainingachievement,butrathera contingentpoliticalprojectmadepossibleby thecombinedeffectsofwartimetrauma, economicinterdependence,andsustained Americansecurityguarantees,theerosionof whichnowthreatenstoexposestructural vulnerabilitieswithintheEuropeanorder.
Inadditiontofinancialinstabilityof theinterwarperiod,economicdesperation erodedtrustinliberaldemocratic institutions,layingthegroundworkfor extremistpoliticalideologiesthatpromised orderandnationalrestoration.Thusariseof aggressivenationalismdevelopedintandem withtheeconomiccollapsethroughout variousEuropeannations.Asopposedto turningattentiontowardfosteringa collectiverecovery,Europeannations pursuedpoliticalstrategiescenteredon sovereignty,territorialrevision,andethnic identity.InGermany,theTreatyofVersailles wasrejectedasanationalhumiliation, fuellingvengefulpoliticsthatsought territorialrevision,ultimatelyempowering extremistmovements.Thiswidespread senseofpoliticalbetrayalandeconomic injusticeerodedpublicconfidenceinliberal democraticinstitutions,particularlythe WeimarRepublic,whichcametobe associatedwithnationalweaknessand foreigndomination.Asmoderatepolitical forceslostlegitimacy,radicalideologies promisingrestoration,sovereignty,and economicrevivalgainedtraction,further destabilizingbothGermanyandthebroader Europeanorder.³SimilarlyinItaly,fascist ideologyunderMussoliniemphasizedethnic
unityandnationalexpansion,framing imperialconquestasameansofrestoring nationalprestige.³AsEuropeannationalist governmentsprioritizedisolationistpolicies, thecontinentcontinuedtodescendinto escalatingrivalry,ultimatelyculminatingin WorldWarII.
Itwasn’tuntiltheaftermathofWorld WarII,whichlefttensofmillionsdead, citiesdestroyed,andeconomiesagainin ruins,thatthecatastrophiccostsofpolitical fragmentationanduncheckednationalism runningrampantthroughEuropewere recognizedasindesperateneedof rehabilitation. InhisEUfoundersspeechin Strasbourgin1949,RobertSchuman,a FrenchstatesmanandfounderofEuropean integration,deliveredapleaforunityashe detailedhisidealisticvisionofapolitically unifiedEurope,freeofhegemony,declaring that “TheEuropeanspiritsignifiesbeing consciousofbelongingtoaculturalfamily andtohaveawillingnesstoservethat communityinthespiritoftotalmutuality.”¹
Severalstepsdefinedthecementing oftheEU,butamongthefirstcamein1952, withtheadventoftheEuropeanCoaland SteelCommunity(ECSC).Thefoundingof theECSCboundtogetherthecoalandsteel industriesofsixfoundingcountriesofthe EU,France,WestGermany,Belgium,the Netherlands,Luxembourg,andItaly,in ordertoequalizeaccesstotheprimary resourceinputsthatdroveEurope’s industrialeconomies.Bypoolingcontrol overthesestrategicsectors,theECSC reducedthelikelihoodofinterstateconflict andestablishedtheprinciplethateconomic interdependencecouldensurepolitical stability,markingthefirstpost-WorldWarII
supranationallegalorderinEuropedesigned tocreateadurableframeworkofcollective governance.Aprimarycomponentofthe EUwastheprincipleofeconomic integration,underpinnedbythebeliefthat countrieswithintegratedeconomieswould findnobenefitingoingtowarwithone another,thusminimizingpotentialsources oftensionoranimosityleadingto continentalconflict.Thus,collective governanceinthecoalandsteelsectorlater expandedbeyondindustrytointernational tradeandmonetarypolicy,culminatingin adavantofasingleEuropeancurrency,the Euro.⁴ Theimplementationofaunified currencyaimedtodeepeneconomic integrationacrossthecontinent,suchthat nationaleconomiesweresointertwinedthat politicalfragmentationwouldbecome economicallycostly,reinforcingthe overarchingaimofEuropeanunity
AmericaninvolvementinEuropean integrationemergedatthesametime, however,notablyasanoffshootofColdWar policychoicesratherthaninresponsetothe Europeanprojectitself.Inthelate1940s, U.S.officialsviewedWesternEurope’s economicrecoveryandpolitical coordinationasessentialtokeepingSoviet influenceatbay,inadditiontopreventinga returntointercontinentalconflict.Programs suchastheMarshallPlanin1948provided billionsofdollarsinU.S.financialaidfor Europeanreconstruction,contingentupon therequirementsthatrecipientstates coordinateeconomicplanning.Additionally, theestablishmentofNATOin1949formally committedAmericantroops,nuclear deterrence,andcollectivedefense guaranteestothesecurityofWestern
Europe.⁵ Fromthispointon,earlyEuropean integrationinitiatives,whichwouldlater evolveintotheEU,developedalongsidethis American-co-signedsecurityframework.
Incontrasttotherivalrythatdefined interwarEurope,postwarWesternEurope hasexperiencedanunprecedentedperiodof stability,economicgrowth,andpolitical moderation.Thistransformationemerged throughEuropeanintegrationandsustained Americansecuritybacking,makingclear thatpostwarstabilityrestednotonlyupon economiccooperationandpolitical coordination,butalsouponaless acknowledgedyetvitalsponsor,theUnited Statesanditssecurityguaranteesprovided throughNATO.Throughinternal agreementswithinNATObywhichU.S. militarypoweriscommittedtothedefense ofWesternEurope,aggressionfromexternal nationsaswellasthelikelihoodofrenewed conflictamongEuropeanstatesthemselves hasbeenmitigatedorhampered.Thisis evidencedbythefactthatsincetheendof WorldWarII,nomilitaryconflictbetween WesternEuropeannationshasoccurred, markingthelongestperiodofpeacebetween Europeanstatesonthemainlandinrecorded history.Additionally,sincetheendofWorld WarII,WesternEuropeancountrieshave experiencednoinvasionsbyothermajor powersonEuropeansoil.⁶
Thisfortifiedsenseofexternal militarysecurityhasaffordedtheEuropean governmentsoperatingwithintheEUthe abilitytodivertresourcesawayfrom defensespendingandtowardwelfarestates, infrastructure,culturalandpolitical integration,anddeepereconomic
integration,resultinginmoreexpansive socialsecuritypolicy,suchasuniversal healthcareandheavilysubsidized post-secondaryeducation,alongside historicallylowlevelsofintra-European conflict.Ultimately,thismodernEuropean outcomeillustratesthatpeaceandprosperity werenotsolelyself-generatedachievements, buttheresultofdeliberateEuropean integrationreinforcedbysustainedsupport fromexternalguarantors.Thedurabilityof EUsecurityhasthereforebeeninseparable fromcontinuedAmericaninvolvementin theregion.Giventhedecisiverolethat AmericansupportthroughNATOhasplayed inshapingtheEU’spoliticalandeconomic stability,itisnowessentialtorecognizehow shiftsinU.S.engagementmayalterthese foundations.
Inrecentyears,theUnitedStateshas signalledagradualretrenchmentfromits traditionalroleastheEU’sprimarysecurity guarantorthroughNATO.SuccessiveU.S. administrationshaveincreasingly questionedthesustainabilityofbearinga disproportionateshareofEurope’sdefense burden,oftenemphasizing “burden-sharing,”criticizingEuropeanallies forfailingtomeetagreed-uponannual defensespendingtargets.TheU.S. 2025 NationalSecurityStrategyoutlinesamajor shiftinAmericanprioritiesbywarningthat Europefaces“civilizationalerasure”andby callingforEuropetotakeprimary responsibilityforitsowndefensewhile endingtheperceptionofNATOasa permanentlyexpandingalliance,implying anupcomingreducedU.S.commitmentto Europe’scollectivesecurity ⁷ This declarationrepresentsaseismicshiftin
Americanstrategicrecalculations,andraises acrucialquestion:howwilltheEUadaptto risingdefenseobligationsandrenewed pressuresonnationalsovereigntyas Americaninvolvementrecedes?Facedwith mountingdomesticspendingconstraintsas wellasever-changingglobalrivalries, primarilyfocusedinAsia,theUnitedStates hasbeguntoreassesswhereitsmilitaryand politicalresourcesaremosturgently required.
CentraltothisAmericandefense spendingandEUsupportreassessmentisthe U.S.pivottowardAsia,drivenlargelybythe riseofChinaasitsprimarycontemporary globalrival.Unlikethepostwarperiod, whentheSovietUnionposedadirectand proximatethreattoAmericansecurity, therebyreinforcingthenecessityofrobust militarydefenseanddeepalliance commitmentswithinEurope,U.S.strategic attentionhasincreasinglyshiftedtoward ChinaandthebroaderIndo-Pacific,wherea raceforregionalhegemonynowshapes Americanforeignpolicypriorities.Inthis context,economicrivalry,technological competition,andtheheightenedriskof militaryconfrontationdemandsustained U.S.engagementbeyondthetraditional Euro-Atlanticstage.⁸ Asaresult,Europehas becomelesscentraltoU.S.grand internationaldefensestrategythanitwas duringtheColdWar,whentheSovietthreat madethecontinenttheprimarysiteof geopoliticalcompetition.Consequently, Americanwillingnesstoindefinitelyfortify Europeansecurityatitsowneconomic expensehasdiminished.
Whilethisshifthasintensifiedover thepastdecadealongsidetheriseofChina asatechnologicalandstrategiccompetitor, ithasexposedlong-standingEuropean vulnerabilitiesthatwerepreviouslymasked bysustainedAmericanmilitarysupport, particularlychronicunderinvestmentin defensecapabilities.Fordecades,many Europeanstatesoperatedunderthe assumptionthatAmericanprotectionwould remainconstant.Defensebudgetstherefore stagnatedanddevelopmentofstrategic capabilities,suchasartificialintelligence, logistics,andpowerprojection,laggedas theyremainedheavilydependentonU.S. support,leavingEuropeandefensecapacity stifledandunevenacrossthecontinent.
AsconcernsmountaboutU.S. engagementintheregion,theseweaknesses becomeincreasinglyglaring.EUmember statesarecurrentlystrugglingtoreconcile risingdefensedemandswithseverefiscal constraints,asmanygovernmentsfacehigh debtlevelsthatlimittheirabilitytofund militaryexpansionfromnationalbudgets. DespiteproposalsbytheEuropean CommissionPresidenttorelaxfiscalrules fordefensespending,countriessuchas France,Italy,Spain,andGreeceremain burdenedbydeficitsexceeding100percent ofGDP,highlightingthetensionbetween Europeansecurityambitionsandeconomic reality.⁹ Inadditiontofiscalconcernsthat mayinhibitmilitaryreinforcement,many Europeannationsfaceinternalpolitical fragmentationandrisingnationalistic populistmovements,bothofwhich complicateindividualnations’abilityfor collectiveactionacrosstheEU.These divergentnationalthreatperceptionsfurther
underminecoherentdefenseplanning. Examplesofthesemovementscanbe observedinGermany'sAlternativefor Germany(AfD)party,whichgrownintoa majorparliamentaryforce,promoting nationalsovereignty,Euroscepticismtoward theEU,skepticismtowardNATO,anda moreaccommodatingstancetowardRussia, therebychallengingGermany’straditional Atlanticistforeignpolicy,aswellasin France’sNationalRally,whichhasrecently shiftedfromechoingEuroscepticismto seekingtoreshapetheEUfromwithin, advocatinga“Europeofnations”and reducedrelianceonNATOwhileprioritizing nationalcontroloversecurityandmigration policy.¹⁰
Fordecades,Americansecurity guaranteesthroughNATOhaveservedasa stabilizingbackdropthatminimizedsecurity competitionamongEuropeanstates.Asthat externalguarantorbecomeslessreliable, individualgovernmentsmaybegin prioritizingnationalsurvivalstrategiesover collectiveEuropeancommitments.These pressuresarealreadyvisibleinthegrowing geopoliticalfragmentationamongEU nationsintheirresponsestoRussiaand Belarus.Whilesomenationsadvocate strongerconfrontationandsanctions,others, mostnotablyHungary,havetakenamore conciliatorystance,evenastheEU collectivelymovestowardsaphased withdrawalfromRussianoilimports followingMoscow’sinvasionofUkraine.¹¹ FurtherfragmentationoftheEUwould likelyunfoldunevenly,withlargerstates suchasFranceandGermanyattemptingto assertleadershiporpursuestrategic autonomy,whilesmalleroreasternmember
statesmayseekseparatesecurityassurances fromtheUnitedStatesorotherexternal actors.Overtime,economicandpolitical integrationcouldweakenassharedrules becomehardertoenforcewithoutacommon strategicvision.Suchdynamicsechothe interwarperiod,whentheabsenceofa crediblesecurityarchitectureencouraged rivalryratherthancooperation.Whilea returntolarge-scalewarisunlikely,renewed geopoliticalcompetition,armsbuildup,and diplomaticfrictionwouldrepresenta significantdeparturefromthepostwar Europeanmodel.ReducedU.S.presence thusthreatensnotcollapse,buttheslow unravelingofthecooperativeorderthathas definedEuropesince1945,harkeningback toEurope’stumultuousinterwarexperience.
Ongoingdiscoursesurrounding AmericanretrenchmentfromEuropeis oftenregardedasamatterofshifting prioritiesratherthanhistoricalconsequence, yetitrepresentsa“forgottenstory”,by exposingunderlyingEuropeanconcerns. ThestabilityoftheEUhaslongbeentreated asaself-sustainingmiraculousachievement, obscuringtheextenttowhichitwasenabled bysustainedU.S.engagementthrough NATO.AsAmericanattentionbeginsto relocate,thisunderlyingdependency becomesnewlyvisible,andEuropean nationsbecomedisillusionedbythepostwar EUutopia.Understandingthisoverlooked foundationisessentialgoingforward,as Europe’sfuturecohesionmayhingenoton idealsalone,butonwhetheritcanreplace thesecurityconditionsthatoncemadeunity viable.
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TheFinalFrontier:ASliceofthe GlobalSouthintheHeartofthe GlobalNorth
By Alex Borgert (Edited by Rhea Puri)
AttheedgeoftheArcticcircleliesa vastexpanseofmountains,rivers,and forestsrichinnaturalresourcesyet persistentlyunderservedandoverlooked. ThisfrontierwaspurchasedfromRussiafor $7.2millionin18671 andisnowastrategic fulcrumforU.S.Arcticmilitaryoperations.2 Withthisinmind,onemightexpectthis frontiertocommandsustainedpoliticaland infrastructuralinvestmentYetnearlytwo hundredyearsremovedfromitsacquisition bytheUnitedStates,itremainsisolated, unevenlydeveloped,andstrikinglyabsent fromnationalpoliticaldiscourse,actingasa reminderthateventhewealthiestnationon earthcontainsitsownforgottenmargins. ThisisthestoryofAlaska,astatelikeno otherthatdefiesconventionalpolitical patterns,pioneerssolutionstomodern democraticchallenges,anddemonstrates thatdiversecommunitiescancollaboratively coexist.
Duetowidespreadunfamiliaritywith theLastFrontier,abriefreviewisnecessary beforeassertingitsstatusasaforgotten story AlaskabordersCanada’sYukon TerritoryandprovinceofBritishColumbia totheeastandliesjust55milesawayfrom
1 ANCSARegionalAssociation.“AbouttheAlaska NativeClaimsSettlementAct”AccessedFebruary 2026
https://ancsaregionalcom/about-ancsa/
2 AlaskaPublicMedia “AlaskaHighlightedinNew DepartmentofDefenseArcticStrategy”July29, 2024
https://alaskapublic.org/news/2024-07-29/alaska-high lighted-in-new-department-of-defense-arctic-strategy
RussiaattheBeringStrait.Coveringover 1.5millionsquarekilometresoflandmass, Alaskapossessesthelargestlandareaofany stateintheU.S.,yetitspopulationofjust over700,000makesitthethirdleast populousandmostsparselypopulatedstate. About32,000ofitsresidentsliveinthestate capitalofJuneau,onlyaccessiblebyboat andplane,whilenearly40%ofthestate’s populationresidesinAnchoragealongthe southerncoast.Alaska’sothernotable populationcentrecanbefoundinFairbanks, withapopulationof32,000.Thehighest proportionofanystate’spopulationat22% identifyasNativeAmerican.3 Thestate’s abundanceofnaturalresourceshaveled Alaskatohaveoneofthehighestpercapita incomesintheUnitedStatesdespiteits smallpopulation.Additionally,withmore thanhalfofAlaska’slandareabeing federallyowned,nationalparksandwildlife refugesallowforavibranttourismindustry.4
3 AlaskaPublicMedia “MajorityofAlaskansVoted AcrossPartyLinesin’22Primary,StudySays” April11,2024
https://alaskapublicorg/news/2024-04-11/alaskans-vo ted-across-party-lines-more-than-any-other-state-stud y-says.
4 AlaskaPublicMedia,2024
YetnoneofthisiswhyAlaska shouldbepaidmoreattentiontoonthe nationalandinternationalstage.Rather,the statehaslargelydefiedapoliticaltrendthat hastroubledmanydemocraciesinrecent years:polarization.Whilesplit-ticketvoting hasdeclinedacrosstheUnitedStates, Alaskahasmostlyresistedthisshift.Since thebeginningofthetwenty-firstcentury, Democrats,Republicans,andindependents haveallbeenelectedtovariousstatewide offices,attimesonthesameballot.In2008, Alaska’sthreeelectoralvoteswereawarded totheRepublicanparty’spresidentialticket ofJohnMcCainandSarahPalin,then governorofthestate.Onthesameballot, RepublicanCongressmanDonYoungwas re-electedwhileDemocratMarkBegich, thenmayorofAnchorage,waselectedtothe U.S.Senate 5 Twoyearslater,Republican LisaMurkowski,afterlosingherparty’s primarytoTeaPartychallengerJoeMiller, wasre-electedtotheU.S.Senateasa write-incandidate.6 IndependentBillWalker replacedRepublicangovernorSeanParnell in2014,anotherwisestrongyearforthe Republicanparty.7 AfterDonYoung’sdeath
5 NewYorkTimes,“Alaska-ElectionResults2008TheNewYorkTimes,”TheNewYorkTimes, November18,2008, https://archivenytimescom/wwwnytimescom/electi ons/2008/results/states/alaska.html?action=click&mo dule=ELEX results&pgtype=Interactive®ion=Pas tResultsFooter.
6 HumaKhan,“LisaMurkowskiMakesHistory, WinsAlaskaSenateRacebutJoeMillerNot Conceding,”ABCNews,November18,2010, https://abcnewscom/Politics/lisa-murkowski-wins-al aska-senate-race-joe-miller/story?id=12164212
7 PatrickTemple-West,“IndependentWalkerWins AlaskaGovernor’sRace-Politico,”Politico, November14,2014, https://www.politico.com/story/2014/11/bill-walker-a laska-governors-race-2014-sean-parnell-112922
in2022,DemocratMaryPeltolawona specialelectionthatAugusttofilloutthe remainderofhisterm,defeatingformer governorand2008Republican vice-presidentialcandidateSarahPalin, beforebeingelectedtoafulltermthat November.8 Onthesameballot,Alaskans re-electedLisaMurkowskitotheSenate overTrump-backedRepublicanchallenger KellyTshibaka.9 WithAlaska’sother RepublicanSenatorDanSullivanupfor re-electionthisNovember,Peltolarecently announcedhercampaigntounseathim, underthecampaignslogan“Fish,Family, andFreedom”.10
Alaska’stendencytowardsplit-ticket votingandrelativeresistancetopolarization maybeconnectedtoitsadoptionofanew electoralsystem.In2020,votersnarrowly approvedaballotreferendumtoreplace partyprimarieswithanopenprimaryand ranked-choicevotinginmoststatewide elections.11 Underthisnewsystem,all
8 DeepaShivaram,“DemocratMaryPeltolaTops SarahPalintoWinUS HouseSpecialElectionin Alaska,”NPR,September1,2022, https://wwwnprorg/2022/08/31/1120327126/palin-pe ltola-begich-alaska-special-house-election-results.
9 NewYorkTimes,“AlaskaElectionResults2022TheNewYorkTimes,”TheNewYorkTimes, December7,2022, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/11/08/us/e lections/results-alaskahtml
10 CorinneSmithandJamesBrooks,“MaryPeltola AnnouncesRunforAlaskaUS Senate,Challenging IncumbentDanSullivan|AlaskaBeacon,”Alaska Beacon,January12,2026, https://alaskabeaconcom/2026/01/12/mary-peltola-an nounces-run-for-alaska-u-s-senate-challenging-incum bent-dan-sullivan/
11 Ballotpedia,“AlaskaBallotMeasure2,Top-Four Ranked-ChoiceVotingandCampaignFinanceLaws Initiative(2020),”Ballotpedia,November3,2020, https://ballotpediaorg/Alaska Ballot Measure 2, To
candidates,regardlessofpartyaffiliation, participateinablanketprimary.Thefour candidatesthatreceivethemostvotesinthis contestthenadvancetothegeneral election.12 Inthegeneralelection,voters rankthefourcandidateslistedontheballot inorderofpreference.Ifasinglecandidate isrankedasfirstonamajorityoftheballots cast,theyaredeclaredthewinner.13 However,ifnocandidateisrankedasfirst onamajorityoftheballotscast,the candidatewiththefewestfirst-choicevotes iseliminated,andthoseballotsaretabulated onceagain,totheirvoters’secondchoices.14 Thisprocessisthenrepeateduntilasingle candidatesecuresamajorityofthevote.15 Rankedchoicevotingsidestepsthe limitationsoftraditionalelectoralsystems byallowingvoterstoexpressgenuine enthusiasmfortheirpreferredcandidate withoutworryingabout“wasting”theirvote. Althoughagivenvoter’stopchoicemaybe unlikelytowin,theirvoteremains meaningfulthroughthesubsequentrounds oftabulation.Rankedchoicevoting inherentlyrewardsconsensus-buildingover extremismascandidatesmustappeal beyondtheirideologicalbasetosecure second-andthird-placerankings.Asa result,divisivecandidatesareoftenrejected inAlaska,whilecoalition-buildingfigures emergevictorious,something increasingly rare inotherpartsoftheUnitedStates.
Alaska’spoliticaldistinctivenessis furtherrevealedinthecontinuedcoexistence
p-Four Ranked-Choice Voting and Campaign Fina nce Laws Initiative %282020%29
12 Ballotpedia,2020
13 Ballotpedia,2020
14 Ballotpedia,2020.
15 Ballotpedia,2020
ofpowerfulpoliticaldynastiesand influentialIndigenouspoliticalmovements. ProminentAlaskanfamiliessuchasthe MurkowskisandtheBegichshaveoccupied variousstatewideofficesinAlaskafor decades,shapingpolicyacrossgenerations andanchoringstatewidepoliticswithin durable,personal,institutionaland well-establishednetworks.16 Theirinfluence, however,operatesalongsideAlaskanNative communitieswhosepoliticalroleis foundationalratherthanperipheral.Tribal governments,regionalNativecorporations, andIndigenousadvocacygroupshold substantialswayoverlanduse,subsistence rights,economicdevelopment,andelectoral outcomes.17 Theirprioritiesfrequentlyset thetermsforstate-leveldebatesand demonstrateakindofpolitical co-governancerarelyacknowledgedin nationalnarratives.Thisstrikingbalance betweendynasticcontinuityandIndigenous authorityhighlightsapluralisticpolitical ecosystemthatdefiesreductiveportrayals oftenseeninmediacoverageofrural America.
Understandingthesedynamicsis crucialfordeconstructingtheviewof Alaskaasanoverlookedcornerofthe UnitedStatesandcomingtoviewitasit shouldbe:abellwetherforhowdemocracy, diversity,andgovernancecanfunction
16 CarlHulse,“OnCapitolHill,aFamilyBusiness Thrives,”TheNewYorkTimes,December20,2008, https://wwwnytimescom/2008/12/20/us/politics/20w eb-Hulsehtml?hp
17 MurrayJMariel,“AlaskaNativeLandsandthe AlaskaNativeClaimsSettlementAct(ANCSA): OverviewandSelectedIssuesforCongress| CongressGov|LibraryofCongress,”Congressgov, December12,2021, https://wwwcongressgov/crs-product/R46997
outsideofentrenchedpartisanframeworks. Itsinnovativeelectoralsystem,sustained cross-partisancoalitions,anddeeplyrooted Indigenouspoliticalinstitutionsofferarare counterexampletothepolarizationthat definesmuchofcontemporaryAmerican life.Moreover,astheArcticbecomesa centerofglobalstrategiccompetition, climateupheaval,andresourcegeopolitics, Alaska’spoliticaltrajectorycarriesgrowing internationalsignificance.18 TotreatAlaska asforgottenorperipheralistoobscurethe realitythatitsitsonthefrontlinesof emergingglobaltransformations.
Alaska’smarginalizationreveals somethingdeeperabouthownationaland internationalattentionisallocated.Despite itsstrategicimportanceandpolitical complexity,itisroutinelydismissedor caricatured,excludedfromseriousanalysis inawaythatmirrorsthedynamicsoften associatedwiththeGlobalSouth.Alaska functionsasaninternalperipheryillustrating howhierarchiesofattentionoperatewithin powerfulstatestoproduceblindspotsthat distortunderstandingofbothdomesticand globalpolitics.ToexamineAlaskacloselyis toquestionthereasonswhycertainstories areforgottenwhilechallengingthe assumptionsofwhichpoliticalstories,and whichregions,aredeemedworthyof attention.
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Hulse,Carl.“OnCapitolHill,aFamilyBusiness Thrives”TheNewYorkTimes, December20,2008.
https://wwwnytimescom/2008/12/20/us /politics/20web-Hulsehtml?hp
Khan,Huma.“LisaMurkowskiMakesHistory, WinsAlaskaSenateRacebutJoeMiller NotConceding.”ABCNews,November 18,2010
https://abcnewscom/Politics/lisa-murko wski-wins-alaska-senate-race-joe-miller/ story?id=12164212
Pechko,Kiel.“RisingTensionsandShifting Strategies:TheEvolvingDynamicsof USGrandStrategyintheArctic”The ArcticInstitute-CenterforCircumpolar SecurityStudies,February7,2026 https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/risingtensions-shifting-strategies-evolving-dy namics-us-grand-strategy-arctic/ MurrayJMariel,“AlaskaNativeLandsandthe AlaskaNativeClaimsSettlementAct (ANCSA):OverviewandSelected IssuesforCongress|Congress.Gov| LibraryofCongress,”Congressgov, December12,2021.
https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R 46997
NewYorkTimes.“Alaska-ElectionResults 2008-TheNewYorkTimes.”TheNew YorkTimes,November18,2008
https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytim escom/elections/2008/results/states/alas kahtml?action=click&module=ELEX r esults&pgtype=Interactive®ion=Past ResultsFooter
NewYorkTimes.“AlaskaElectionResults2022 -TheNewYorkTimes.”TheNewYork Times,December7,2022
https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/20 22/11/08/us/elections/results-alaskahtml
Shivaram,Deepa.“DemocratMaryPeltolaTops SarahPalintoWinUS HouseSpecial ElectioninAlaska.”NPR,September1, 2022
https://wwwnprorg/2022/08/31/112032 7126/palin-peltola-begich-alaska-special -house-election-results
SightlineInstitute.“NonpartisanOpenPrimaries LetAlaskansChooseValuesOver Party”April3,2024
https://www.sightline.org/2024/04/03/no npartisan-open-primaries-let-alaskans-c hoose-values-over-party/.
Smith,Corinne,andJamesBrooks.“Mary PeltolaAnnouncesRunforAlaskaUS Senate,ChallengingIncumbentDan Sullivan|AlaskaBeacon.”Alaska Beacon,January12,2026
https://alaskabeacon.com/2026/01/12/m ary-peltola-announces-run-for-alaska-us-senate-challenging-incumbent-dan-sull ivan/.
Temple-West,Patrick “IndependentWalker WinsAlaskaGovernor’sRacePolitico.”Politico,November14,2014. https://wwwpoliticocom/story/2014/11/
bill-walker-alaska-governors-race-2014sean-parnell-112922.
US Army/MilitaryReview “WhyAlaskaand theArcticAreCriticaltotheNational SecurityoftheUnitedStates” January–February2018.
https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Journ als/Military-Review/English-Edition-Ar chives/January-February-2018/Why-Ala ska-and-the-Arctic-are-Critical-to-the-N ational-Security-of-the-United-States/
Vox.“AlaskaVotersAdoptRanked Choice VotinginBallotInitiative.”November 19,2020
https://www.vox.com/2020/11/19/21537 126/alaska-measure-2-ranked-choice-vo ting-results
CaughtintheCrossfireforConflict Minerals:ThePlightofCiviliansin theDemocraticRepublicofthe Congo
By Aaniqa Karmali (Edited by Alexandra Duchesne)
TheDemocraticRepublicofthe Congo(DRC)isexperiencingoneofthe deadliestconflictsintheworld,andit’s beingfueledbyinternationalcompetitionfor thecountry’srichmineralreserves.U.S PresidentDonaldTrumphasclaimedto havebroughtpeacetotheregionby brokeringanagreementbetweenRwanda andCongo.19 However,fightinghas persisted,andviolenceremainsrifeinthe DRC.20
TheconflictintheDRChasalong history,datingbacktotheRwandan genocidein1994.TheRwandangenocide sparkedtheFirstCongoWarin1996,which significantlydestabilizedtheregion.Armed conflicthasbeenconstantsincethen, claimingupwardsofsixmillionlivesand displacingsevenmilliontoday.21 Thismakes ittheworld’sdeadliestconflictafterWorld WarII.22
Today,themainperpetratorof violenceintheDRCisanarmedgroup knownasM23.23 M23wasestablishedin 2012atatimeofheightenedregional tensions,andre-emergedin2021.24 Sinceits re-emergence,M23hasremainedactivein theDRC,progressivelytakingover territoriesineasternDRCandmilitarizing miningsitesinparticular.25M23has capitalizedontheregion’srichresourcesby seizingminesandchargingaproductiontax oncoltan,whichisintegraltotheproduction ofsmartphonesandothertechnology 26 Thereisoverwhelmingevidencethat Rwanda,theDRC’sneighbour,supports M23;however,ithaspersistentlydenied doingso.
19 “TrumpSaysHeHasSolvedManyWars.Has He?,”TheBusinessStandard,February24,2026, https://www.tbsnews.net/analysis/trump-says-he-hassolved-many-wars-has-he-1369826
20 “TrumpSaysHeHasSolvedManyWars.Has He?,”TheBusinessStandard
21 “DemocraticRepublicoftheCongoGenocide Emergency,”GenocideWatch,February20,2025, https://wwwgenocidewatchcom/single-post/democra tic-republic-of-the-congo-genocide-emergency-report -february-2025
22“TrumpSaysHeHasSolvedManyWars.Has He?,”TheBusinessStandard
23 LesleyMyers,“CrisisintheDRC:What’s Happening?Peacekeeping,”UnitedNations, February25,2025, https://peacekeepingunorg/en/crisis-drc-whats-happ ening.
24LesleyMyers,“CrisisintheDRC:What’s Happening?Peacekeeping”
25 Ibid,1
26 “DemocraticRepublicofCongo:What’s HappeningandWhyAreM23RebelsFighting?| Reuters,”Reuters,February14,2025, https://wwwreuterscom/world/africa/what-is-happen ing-congo-why-are-m23-rebels-fighting-2025-01-29/
27 EmeryMakumeno,“USSanctionsRwanda’sArmy forViolatingTrump-BrokeredDRCongoPeace Deal,”BBCNews,March3,2026, https://wwwbbccom/news/articles/cr5l7zdnjgpo
Image of M23 rebel forces. Source: Reuters
InFebruary2026,severalmass graveswerefoundinaformerly M23-occupiedareaofeasternCongo, containingatleast171corpses.28 Jean-JacquesPurusi,thegovernorofSouth Kivuprovince,allegedthatM23rebels killedthevictimsaftersuspectingthemof belongingtotheCongolesearmyora pro-governmentmilitia.29
However,militarypersonnelarenot theonlyvictimsofviolenceintheDRC.At theheartoftheconflictiscompetitionfor mineralsessentialtoelectronics,aerospace, andrenewableenergyindustries.30 Various groupshavebeenfightingforcontrolof miningsites,includingM23,otherrebel groups,andinternationalcompanies.Asa result,civilianslivingnearminingsitesare subjecttodisplacement,forcedlabour, torture,andsexualviolence.
Womenandchildrenareamongthe victimsofarmedmilitiasintheDRC. AccordingtoAmnestyInternational,M23 hasraidedhospitals,abductedpatientsfrom theirbeds,andsubjectedthemtoactsof
torture.31 Moreover,humanitarian organizationshavereportedextremelyhigh ratesofsexualviolence,particularlygang rape,beingusedasaweaponofwar. Meanwhile,morechildrenthaneverare beingseparatedfromtheirparents,putting thematriskofkidnapping,recruitmentby armedgroups,andsexualviolence.TheUN reports30%ofvictimstreatedbyUNICEF partnersinoneweekwerechildren.
32
TheWorldHealthOrganizationhas alsodeclaredapublichealth“nightmare.”In Goma,thecapitaloftheNorthKivu province,thereisnorunningwater, electricityhasbeencut,andciviliansare trappedbymilitaryblockades.33 Thishas createdoptimalconditionsforthespreadof manyendemicdiseasesincludingcholera, measles,andmalaria.34 Chronicchild malnutritionhasalsobecomerampantinthe region.
35
Whileciviliansfaceswathesof violencefromM23andotherarmedgroups, therestoftheworldisfocusedongaining
31 “M23’sRampantHumanRightsViolations DemandConcertedAction,”AmnestyInternational, March19,2025, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2025/03/m23 s-rampant-human-rights-abuses-demand-concerted-in ternational-action/.
28Kamale,Jean-Yves,andMarkBanchereau “171 BodiesFoundinMassGravesinEasternCongo,an OfficialSays”APNews,February26,2026 https://apnews.com/article/congo-mass-graves-uviram23-rebels-cbc711ebbb230bced71c3af11cd17a63
29Kamale,Jean-Yves,andMarkBanchereau “171 BodiesFoundinMassGravesinEasternCongo,an OfficialSays”APNews
30 “SpecialReport:ConflictMineralsintheDR Congo,”GenocideWatch,June9,2025, https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/special-r eport-conflict-minerals-in-the-drc
32 “ChildreninEasternDemocraticRepublicofthe CongoIncreasinglyExposedtoSexualViolence, AbductionandRecruitment–UNICEF,”UNICEF, February13,2025, https://wwwuniceforg/press-releases/children-easter n-democratic-republic-congo-increasingly-exposed-s exual-violence
33 “DRCongoCrisis:APublicHealth‘Nightmare’Is Unfolding,WarnsWho|UNNews,”UNNews, January29,2025, https://newsunorg/en/story/2025/01/1159541
34“DRCongoCrisis:APublicHealth‘Nightmare’Is Unfolding,WarnsWho|UNNews,”UNNews.
35Ibid,1
controloftheDRC’snaturalresources. WithinAfrica,Rwanda,Uganda,and Burundiplayacentralroleinsmuggling mineralsoutoftheDRC.36
AccordingtoaUnitedNationsreport from2025,mineralsmugglingintoRwanda hasreached“unprecedentedlevels.”37 Once mineralsenterRwanda,theyaremixedwith localminerals,“effectivelylaunderingthem intothedownstreamsupplychainunderthe guiseofRwandanorigin,”thereport stated.38 MineralsarethensoldtoRwanda’s internationaltradepartners,includingChina, Thailand,Poland,theUnitedKingdom,and Pakistan.39 Whetherknowinglyor unknowingly,thesenationscontributeto M23’smineralsmugglingoperationsoutof theDRC,worseningconditionsforcivilians stuckunderthearmedgroup’srule.
Globalcorporationsarealso involvedintheDRC’sconflictminerals trade.Forexample,theChinese-owned HuayouCobaltisamajortraderofcobalt sourcedfromtheDRCthroughitssubsidiary CongoDongfangMiningInternational (CDM).40 HuayouCobalt’sunethicalmining
36 “SpecialReport:ConflictMineralsintheDR Congo,”GenocideWatch,June9,2025, https://wwwgenocidewatchcom/single-post/special-r eport-conflict-minerals-in-the-drc.
37 “MineralSmugglingfromCongotoRwandaat ‘UnprecedentedLevels’,UnSays.”MINING.COM, July2,2025
https://www.mining.com/web/mineral-smuggling-fro m-congo-to-rwanda-at-unprecedented-levels-un-says/
38“MineralSmugglingfromCongotoRwandaat ‘UnprecedentedLevels’,UnSays”MININGCOM
39 “Rwanda(RWA)Exports,Imports,andTrade Partners,”TheObservatoryofEconomicComplexity, 2025,https://oecworld/en/profile/country/rwa
40“SpecialReport:ConflictMineralsintheDR Congo,”GenocideWatch,June9,2025,
practiceshavebeenlinkedtolarge technologycompaniesintheGlobalNorth, includingApple,Microsoft,LGChem,and Samsung.41 GlobalNorthmediahaslargely beensilentaboutthetiesbetweenthese majorcompaniesandtheconflictmineral tradeintheDRC.
Currently,theUnitedStatesremains reliantonChinaforraremetalsandminerals duetoChina’spresenceintheDRC.U.S. effortstobrokerpeacebetweenthe DemocraticRepublicoftheCongoand Rwandamayreflectgreaterstrategic interestsinsecuringaccesstotheDRC’s naturalresources,includingcoltan,an essentialoreformanyelectronicdevices.42 ThisaccesswouldallowtheUnitedStatesto becomemorecompetitivewithChinainthe varioustechnologyindustriesreliantonthe DRC’sminerals,potentiallyshiftingthe oddsagainstChina’stechnologicalreignin theGlobalNorth.AstheU.Sentersthe region,thereisnoassurancethatthe violencewillcometoanend.43
GenocideWatchwarnsthatmerely labelingconflictminerals,regulatingtrade, andimposingsanctionswillnotputanend totheviolenceintheDRC.7 Rather,thedeep ethnic,cultural,andpoliticalconflictsdating backtotheRwandangenocidemustbe resolvedbeforeconflictsovermineralscan beaddressed.44
https://wwwgenocidewatchcom/single-post/special-r eport-conflict-minerals-in-the-drc
41“SpecialReport:ConflictMineralsintheDR Congo,”GenocideWatch
42Ibid,1
43Ibid
44“SpecialReport:ConflictMineralsintheDR Congo,”GenocideWatch,June9,2025,
Astheworldfightsovermineralsin theDRC,itmustnotforgetthemillionsof livesclaimedbythisdecades-longconflict.
Bibliography:
“ChildreninEasternDemocraticRepublicofthe CongoIncreasinglyExposedtoSexual Violence,AbductionandRecruitment–UNICEF”UNICEF,February13,2025
https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/ch ildren-eastern-democratic-republic-cong o-increasingly-exposed-sexual-violence
“DemocraticRepublicofCongo:What’s HappeningandWhyAreM23Rebels Fighting?|Reuters”Reuters,February 14,2025
https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/w hat-is-happening-congo-why-are-m23-re bels-fighting-2025-01-29/.
“DemocraticRepublicoftheCongoGenocide Emergency.”GenocideWatch,February 20,2025
https://www.genocidewatch.com/singlepost/democratic-republic-of-the-congo-g enocide-emergency-report-february-202 5.
“DRCongoCrisis:APublicHealth‘Nightmare’ IsUnfolding,WarnsWho|UNNews” UNNews,January29,2025
https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/01/11 59541
Kamale,Jean-Yves,andMarkBanchereau “171 BodiesFoundinMassGravesinEastern Congo,anOfficialSays.”APNews, February26,2026
https://apnews.com/article/congo-masshttps://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/special-r eport-conflict-minerals-in-the-drc
graves-uvira-m23-rebels-cbc711ebbb23 0bced71c3af11cd17a63.
“M23’sRampantHumanRightsViolations DemandConcertedAction”Amnesty International,March19,2025.
https://wwwamnestyorg/en/latest/news/ 2025/03/m23s-rampant-human-rights-ab uses-demand-concerted-international-act ion/
Makumeno,Emery “USSanctionsRwanda’s ArmyforViolatingTrump-BrokeredDR CongoPeaceDeal.”BBCNews,March 3,2026
https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cr5l 7zdnjgpo.
“MineralSmugglingfromCongotoRwandaat ‘UnprecedentedLevels’,UnSays” MINING.COM,July2, 2025https://wwwminingcom/web/min eral-smuggling-from-congo-to-rwanda-a t-unprecedented-levels-un-says/.
Myers,Lesley.“CrisisintheDRC:What’s Happening?Peacekeeping”United Nations,February25,2025 https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/crisis-drc -whats-happening
“Rwanda(RWA)Exports,Imports,andTrade Partners.”TheObservatoryofEconomic Complexity,2025. https://oecworld/en/profile/country/rwa
“SpecialReport:ConflictMineralsintheDR Congo.”GenocideWatch,June9,2025. https://wwwgenocidewatchcom/singlepost/special-report-conflict-minerals-in-t he-drc.
“TrumpSaysHeHasSolvedManyWars.Has He?”TheBusinessStandard,February 24,2026. https://www.tbsnews.net/analysis/trump-
says-he-has-solved-many-wars-has-he-1 369826.
ALookintotheSystematic OppressionofEthnicMinorities UndertheIslamicRegimeinIran
By Michaela Cauchi (Edited by Alexandra Duchesne)
WhatbeganasprotestsinDecember of2025throughoutthenationofIran,which havegainedsignificantmediaattentionover thepastseveralmonths,havebecomewhat manyconsidertobearevolutionagainstthe IslamicRegime,whichforthepast47years, hasruledIranunderastricttheocratic dictatorship.
Priortothe1930s,IranwasPersiato theWest,andhistoricallyPersian,however, itisfarfrombeingconsideredanation-state. Iran,whichhasapopulationofroughly80 million,isknownastheethnicterritoryof thePersianpeople,withthecurrentPersian populationbeing61%ofthetotalpopulation andtheother39%consistingofadiverse rangeofethnicminoritiessuchasKurds, Azerbaijanis,Lurs,Turkmen(andother Turktribes),Baluch,andArabs.45
Despitethesizeandrangeofethnic minoritygroupsinthiscountry,thecultural emphasishasbeenexclusivelyonethnic Persians.Thisarticleaimstouncoverhow Iran’sethnicandreligiousminoritieshave beensystematicallydiscriminatedagainst undertheIslamicRepublicandwhytheir experiencesarecentraltounderstanding bothpastandfutureprotestsinIran.
45 Schlaepfer,A.2017.“Iran.”MinorityRights Group
On Jan 3, 2026, activists held a rally in Lafayette Square, across from the White House in Washington, D C , in solidarity with Iranian protesters (Image: Mandel NGAN / AFP via
Protests,whichhavebeenongoing sincetheinceptionoftheIslamicRepublic, abruptlyignitedinDecemberof2025bythe growingdiscontentwiththeIslamicRegime duetoeconomichardshipandrestrictionson personalfreedomthathasbeenontherise foryears.OnJanuary8th,2026,aninternet shutdowninitiatedbytheRegime exacerbatedthealreadycontentiouspolitical climate.46
TheRegimeenforcedtheshutdown supposedlyinthehopethatitwouldbean obstaclefortherioters,butitendedup bringingtheproteststotheforefrontofthe internationalstage,sparkingoutragewithin manydemocraticcountries.47 Thishadledto severallargescaleriotsthathaveforced securityforcestotemporarilyretreatoutof
46 HumanRightsWatch 2026 “Iran:Internet ShutdownViolatesRights,EscalatesRisksto Civilians”HumanRightsWatch
47 HumanRightsWatch.“Iran:InternetShutdown ViolatesRights,EscalatesRiskstoCivilians”
Getty Images)
specificneighborhoodsofTehran,Mashhad, Shiraz,Rasht,andKermanshah.48
ProtestsagainsttheIslamicRegime arenotanewphenomenon.Whiletherecent protestshavebeenspecificallyagainstthe regimeandthedictatorhimself,itcannotbe forgottenthatin2022atidalwaveof protests,knownbytheirslogan,“Women, Life,Freedom,”tooktothestreets.Law enforcementduringtheseprotestswere foundtodisproportionatelyarrestand mistreatprotestersbelongingtoethnic minorities.49 Theproteststhemselveswere initiatedbytheoutrageovertheunlawful deathofIranian-KurdishJinaMahsaAmini, afterherarrestbythemoralitypolicefor allegednon-compliancewithIran’slawson mandatoryhijab.50
SecurityforcesinIranwerefoundto commitvariouscrimesagainstmembersof ethnicminorities,includingunlawfuldeaths, extrajudicialexecutions,unnecessaryuseof lethalforce,arbitraryarrests,torture,rape, enforceddisappearancesandgender persecution–manyofwhichamountto crimesagainsthumanitybytheInternational CriminalCourt.51 Childrenbelongingto ethnicandreligiousminoritieswerefoundto
48 Assadi,Roja,andSarahNamjoo 2026 “Iran protests:Eyewitnessesdescribedeadlycrackdown acrosscountry”BBC
49 UnitedNations.2024.“MinoritiesinIranhave beendisproportionallyimpactedinongoing crackdowntorepressthe“Woman,Life,Freedom” movement,UNFact-FindingMissionsays”United NationsHumanRightsOfficeroftheHigh Commissioner
50 UnitedNations “MinoritiesinIranhavebeen disproportionallyimpactedinongoingcrackdownto repressthe“Woman,Life,Freedom”movement,UN Fact-FindingMissionsays.”
51 InternationalCriminalCourt,2013,3-9
sufferparticularlyegregiousviolations, includingkillingsandmaiming,arrests, disappearances,detention,torture,and rape.52 TheactionsoftheIslamicRepublic donotreflectaproportionateresponsethat hasbeendirectedtowardsethnicand religiousminoritycommunities,nordothey adheretotheprinciplesofjusticeprescribed byinternationallaw.53
TheConstitutionoftheIslamic Regimedoesnotitselfrecognizethevalidity ofanyethnicminorities,andonlyacceptsa smallhandfulofreligiousminorities,which includeChristians,Jews,andZoroastrians.54 Zoroastrianismisthehistorically predominantreligionamongthePersian people,whileJudaismandChristianityare theothertwoofthethreeAbrahamicfaiths alongwithIslam.Itisworthnotingthat thesereligions,whilecertainlyimportantto protect,arenotamongthemostpracticed religiousminoritiesinIran.
Article13oftheConstitutionofthe IslamicRepublicofIranstatesclearly, “Zoroastrian,Jewish,andChristianIranians aretheonlyrecognizedreligiousminorities, who,withinthelimitsofthelaw,arefreeto performtheirreligiousritesandceremonies, andtoactaccordingtotheirowncanonin mattersofpersonalaffairsandreligious education.”55 Thespecificphrasingof,“are free…toactaccordingtotheirowncanonin
52 UnitedNations.“MinoritiesinIranhavebeen disproportionallyimpactedinongoingcrackdownto repressthe“Woman,Life,Freedom”movement,UN Fact-FindingMissionsays
53 UnitedNationsSecurityCouncil nd “Purposes andPrinciplesoftheUN(ChapterofUNCharter)| SecurityCouncil”theUnitedNations
54 TheIslamicRepublicofIran1979,11.
55 Ibid
mattersofpersonalaffairs,”providesthat thelegalstatusofindividualsbelongingto religiousminoritygroupsisprecariously tiedtotheirreligiousstatus,anddelegates themtothestatusofsecondarycitizens, whosebasichumanrightsarenotneither recognizednorprotectedbylaw enforcementandgovernment.
EvenSunniMuslims,whoare specificallyallocatedfullrespectand recognitionbytheConstitution,have additionallyreportedbeingdiscriminated againstbythegovernment,andhavebeen deniedtheirabilitytoworship.Inone instance,theconstructionofanewMosque wasbarredinTehran,contradictingthe Constitution.56 Theregime’spracticeof theocracydistortstheprinciplesofits religiontoclaimitsowndivinerightto power,whichinevitablyismonopolized againstthepeopleandtheirnaturaland internationallyrecognizedrightto self-determination.
ByOctober14th,2022, approximately224oftheprotestersforthe “Women,Life,Freedom,”movementhad beenkilled,andanestimated90%were fromthecountry’sethnicminority populationswithmanythousandsmore beinginjured.57 Regimecrackdownssince havebeenheavilyconcentratedwithin minorityregionsevenbeforethespreadof anyproteststhere,whichcanbeseenasan exampleofprofilingandharassment
56 InternationalFederationforHumanRights 2003 “DiscriminationagainstreligiousminoritiesinIran” InternationalFederationforHumanRights
57 Assadi,Roja,andSarahNamjoo “Iranprotests: Eyewitnessesdescribedeadlycrackdownacross country”
experiencedbymarginalizedminoritiesand allowedbythestate.58Thesoutheastern regionofBalochistanreportsatleast91 people,includingawomanandsixchildren betweentheagesoftwoandfivewere brutallymurderedbyregimeforcesin Septemberof2022.
59
ThewidespreaddiscontentinIran cannolongerbeignoredontheinternational stage,andtheWestcannotturnablindeye tothemarginalizationoftheethnicand religiousminoritiesofIran,aswellasthe ethnicPersians.Themovementagainstthe Islamicdictatorshipthathasbeenterrorizing theIranianpeoplesince1979isnotonlya feministissue,norisitonlyaPersian movement.Thediscriminationfacedbythe ethnicandreligiousminorities,coupledwith theharassmentfacedbythewomenand girlsofIranandthesuppressionofthe culturallegacyofthePersiansqualifiesthis issuetomovebeyondtherealmofprotest.It ismorethanarebellion,itisatransnational movementwhichweareonlyseeingthe beginningof.
58 Hamid,Rahim,andRuthRiegler “AsAnti-Regime ProtestsSwellAcrossIran,EthnicMinorities DemandFreedomandEquality”
59 Hamid,Rahim,andRuthRiegler “AsAnti-Regime ProtestsSwellAcrossIran,EthnicMinorities DemandFreedomandEquality”
Bibliography:
Assadi,Roja,andSarahNamjoo 2026 “Iran protests:Eyewitnessesdescribedeadly crackdownacrosscountry.”BBC, January12,2026
https://wwwbbccom/news/articles/cvgp 70ynx1po.
Hamid,Rahim,andRuthRiegler.2022.“As Anti-RegimeProtestsSwellAcrossIran, EthnicMinoritiesDemandFreedomand Equality.”TheWashingtonInstitute. https://wwwwashingtoninstituteorg/poli cy-analysis/anti-regime-protests-swell-a cross-iran-ethnic-minorities-demand-fre edom-and
HumanRightsWatch 2026 “Iran:Internet ShutdownViolatesRights,Escalates RiskstoCivilians”HumanRights Watch.
https://www.hrw.org/news/2026/03/06/ir an-internet-shutdown-violates-rights-esc alates-risks-to-civilians.
InternationalCriminalCourt.2013.Elementsof Crimes.
InternationalFederationforHumanRights. 2003 “Discriminationagainstreligious minoritiesinIran.”International FederationforHumanRights https://wwwfidhorg/en/region/asia/iran/ Discrimination-against-religious.
TheIslamicRepublicofIran.1979.Constitution oftheIslamicRepublicofIran
Schlaepfer,A 2017 “Iran”MinorityRights Group.
https://minorityrights.org/country/iran/.
UnitedNations.2024.“MinoritiesinIranhave beendisproportionallyimpactedin ongoingcrackdowntorepressthe
“Woman,Life,Freedom”movement, UNFact-FindingMissionsays.”United NationsHumanRightsOfficerofthe HighCommissioner.
https://wwwohchrorg/en/press-releases/ 2024/08/minorities-iran-have-been-dispr oportionally-impacted-ongoing-crackdo wn
UnitedNationsSecurityCouncil nd “Purposes andPrinciplesoftheUN(Chapterof UNCharter)|SecurityCouncil.”the UnitedNations AccessedMarch25, 2026.
https://main.un.org/securitycouncil/en/c ontent/purposes-and-principles-un-chapt er-i-un-charter.
OutsourcedandOverwhelmed:
Kenya’sStruggleinHaiti’s PeacekeepingMission.
By Kayla Yar (Edited by Melissa Cardenas)
WhentheUnitedNationsSecurity CouncilauthorizedtheMultinational SecuritySupport(MSS)missiontoaidHaiti inOctober2023,itwasseenasanecessary responsetoadeterioratingsolution.Instead ofsendingapeacekeepingmissionunderthe traditionalUNmandatethatwouldbe fundedthroughassessedcontributions,the SecurityCouncildecidedonapolicing missionledbyKenya,whichwouldbe fundedvoluntarily.60 Thiswasareflectionof boththesenseofurgencyinthefaceofgang violenceandthereluctanceofgreatpowers toprovidetroopsandlong-termfinancial supportforamissionthat’snotundera conventionalblue-helmetmandate.61
InstabilityinHaitiwasfurther exacerbatedbythe2021assasinationof PresidentJovenalMoïse,whichcontributed tothebreakdownofinstitutionsandthe paralysisofpolitics.GangsinHaiti continuedtoexpandtheirterritory, especiallyinthecapital,Port-au-Prince, affectingtheroutesofhumanitarianaid.62 TheUnitedNationsreportingin2023 indicatedthatthesecuritysituationinHaiti wasworsening,withcriminalgroups
60 UnitedNationsSecurityCouncil, Resolution 2699 (2023),S/RES/2699,October2,2023
61 SophieRutenbar,AdaptingBINUHtoMeetHaiti’s EvolvingChallenges(NewYork:Centeron InternationalCooperation,NewYorkUniversity,July 2024)
62 BBCNews,“HaitiPresidentJovenelMoïse AssassinatedatHome,”July7,2021
controllinglargeareasofthecapitalandthe statepresencebeingweakened.63 The HaitianNationalpolicewasoverstretched andunderfunded,andtheinterim governmentcalledforinternationalhelp.
Kenya’sdecisiontoleadtheMSS missionplacedNairobiontheInternational diplomaticmapasarisingpowerreadyto takeresponsibilityinacomplexsecurity environment.However,theMSSmission structurealsoposesimportantstructural questions.UnlikeotherUNpeacekeeping, theMSSisavoluntarilyfundedmission throughatrustfund,ratherthanreceiving guaranteedassessedcontributions. AccordingtoUNbriefings,therehavebeen fundingshortfallsandprocurement challengesthathaveimpededtherapid deploymentoftheMSS.64 Inafragilestate, suchdelayshaveseriousimplications,as armedgroupscanconsolidatetheircontrol overterritorywhileinternationalforcesare leftill-equipped.
63 UnitedNationsIntegratedOfficeinHaiti (BINUH), Report of the Secretary-General on Haiti, 2023briefingstotheSecurityCouncil
64 KenOpalaandRomainLe-Cour-Grandmaison,“A WastedOpportunity?HaitiontheBrinkasKenya’s AidMissionRemainsParalyzed,” Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime,May14, 2025
Themandateitselfisareflectionof thelargercontradictionintheInternational responsetoHaiti.WhiletheMSSistasked tosupportsecurityoperations,thereisa consistentUNreportthatHaiti’scrisisisone ofgovernancefailure,economic marginalizationandpolitical fragmentation.65 Asecurity-ledintervention thatlacksasimilarlevelofpoliticalsupport mayendupsecuringterritorywithout necessarilysecuringlegitimacy.Securitycan controlviolenceintheshort-term,butit cannotresolvedisputesoverauthorityor rebuildinstitutionsbyitself.
Therearealsocomplexitiesof operationalcoordination.Thereare language,doctrineandtrainingdifferences thatmakeinterservicecooperationbetween KenyanofficersandHaitianforcesdifficult. Moreover,therehavebeenlegaldisputesin Kenyathathavetemporarilyhaltedcertain aspectsofthemission,highlightinghow externallyledmissionsarenotimmuneto politicalandconstitutionaldevelopmentsin theleadstate.66
Therepercussionsofinterventionin Haitiextendbeyondtheimmediatesecurity concerns.Thehistoryofinternational interventioninHaiti,includingtheUnited NationsStabilizationMissioninHaiti (MINUSTAH),hascontributedtothe public’sapprehensionofinternational-led stabilizationefforts.Thepeoplestill rememberthecontroversiessurroundingthis mission,suchasthecholeraoutbreak
attributedtoUNpeacekeepers.67 Toensure thatinternationalengagementssupport domesticgovernanceratherthanreplaceit, anynewinterventioninthisareamust carefullybalancetheconflictbetween urgencyandlegitimacy,
Thus,theKenya-ledmission exemplifiesthegeneralproblemof outsourcingpeaceenforcementwithout attentiontostructuralcoherence.The authorizationofinterventionwithout adequatefunding,politicalalignmentand institutionalsupportmayrelieveimmediate diplomatictension,butdoesnotnecessarily contributetolong-termstability.The experienceofHaitiindicatesthat internationalsecurityassistancemustalign withacomprehensivepoliticalstrategyifit istosucceed.
65 UnitedNations, Report on BINUH
66 Reuters,“Kenyancourtsayspolicecannotdeploy toHaitimission,”January2024
67 UnitedNationsStabilizationMissioninHaiti (MINUSTAH),2004–2017
Bibliography:
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Reuters “Kenyancourtsayspolicecannot deploytoHaitimission”January26, 2024
https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/ke nyan-court-says-police-cannot-deploy-h aiti-mission-2024-01-26/
Rutenbar,Sophie. Adapting BINUH to Meet Haiti’s Evolving Challenges NewYork: CenteronInternationalCooperation, NewYorkUniversity,July2024. https://cicnyuedu/wp-content/uploads/2 024/07/Adapting-BINUH-to-Meet-Haiti s-Evolving-Challenges-July-2024.pdf
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https://docsunorg/en/s/res/2699(2023)
