TheNature ofThings: MedievalArt andEcology, 1100–1550
Howdoesartaffecttheenvironment?Howdoes theenvironmentaffectart? TheNatureofThings: MedievalArtandEcology,1100-1550 responds tothesequestions,unearthingtheconnections betweenpeople,artworks,andthenaturalworld. Focusingonthevibrantmaterialsusedinthe productionofWesternEuropeanartduringthe MiddleAges,theexhibitionincludesfiftysculptures, textiles,andbooksdesignedforsacredand secularspaces.
The“medieval”era(alsoknownastheMiddle Ages)referstothethousand-yearspanbetween thedeclineoftheRomanEmpireinWestern Europe(ca.500CE)andEuropeancontactwith theAmericas(ca.1500CE). TheNatureofThings exploresthesecondhalfofthisera,aperiodof profoundculturalandeconomicchangethat broughtaboutunprecedentedshiftsinhumanity's relationshiptotheenvironment.Medievalartand literaturerevealmuchabouthownatureshaped people’slivesbutalsohowpeoplealteredtheir naturalsurroundings.
Forestry,farming,mining,andquarryingprovidedthe basicbuildingblocksofmedievallife.Thesepractices alsosuppliedtherawingredientsforart:plants, animalproducts,stone,earth,andmetal.Growing, gathering,andtransformingthesematerialsinto artworksaffectedenvironmentsinmedieval Europe,withrepercussionsfurtherafieldin AfricaandAsia.Someoftheseconsequences weretemporary.Othershadlong-lastingeffects thatremainvisibleinthelandscapetoday.
Theartworksgatheredherealsohelpusseehow peoplesofthepastunderstoodandrelatedto theirsurroundingsthroughexperiencesthatmight becouchedinpersonalobservationsorreligious teachings.Someobjectsreflecttheabundanceor scarcityofresourcesorevenrepresenthuman responsestocriseslikeclimatechangeandplague. Othersrevealhownatureinfluencedtheproduction ofartworks,determiningtheirtypes,forms, materials,andwheretheyweremade.
Takingcuesfromecology(thestudyofhowliving thingsrelatetoeachotherandtheirsurroundings), TheNatureofThings considerstheenvironment notasabackdroptoculturebutasaguidingforce withinit.
Anoteonartworkinformation: Geopoliticalboundariesfrequentlyshiftedinthemedievalera. Forclarity,contemporarycountrynamesareusedhere.
Itwasnotacommonpracticeformedievalartiststosigntheir work.Unlessotherwisespecified,themakersoftheartworks intheexhibitionareunknown.
ThisexhibitionisorganizedbyHeatherAlexisSmith,Assistant Curator,PulitzerArtsFoundation.
TheNatureofThings:MedievalArt andEcology,1100–1550 isonview fromMar10–Aug6,2023.
Scanfordigitalexhibitionguide.
TheNatureofThings: MedievalArtandEcology,1100-1550 Forest
Inthe1130sAbbotSugerhadaproblem:heneededtoharvesttwelve exceptionallytalltrees.
ThesoaringtimberswererequiredforhisambitiousremodelofSt.Denis,amonumental churchjustnorthofParis.WhenSugerapproachedlocalwoodsmenforhelp,hewastold “nothingofthekind[can]befoundintheentireregion.”Allthebesttreeshadalready beencutdown.WithdivineassistanceSugereventuallyfoundthetimbersheneeded, buthisstoryrevealstheintensedemandsmedievalsocietiesplacedonforests.
Treeswereessentialtomedievallife.Firewoodwasamajorfuelsource,criticalfor survivalandindustry.Becauseitwasabundant,durable,andeasytoharvest,wood wasalsoimportantforarchitectureandmanyartisticpractices.Forestsbuzzedwith activitieslikelogging,mining,andgrazinglivestock.Thedemandforwoodwassohigh thatsomeforestswerenotabletoregrowrapidlyenough.Asaresult,medieval communitiesenactedsustainabilitymeasurestoreplenishnaturalresourcesor importedwoodwhendemandexceededsupply.
Notonlyweretreesandforestskeytolife,theywerealsoimbuedwithmeaning.Medieval authorscomparedtreeswithhumanbodiesbecausebothhavetrunks,limbs,sap(blood), andbark(skin),andcouldlive,suffer,die,androt.Theseassociations,incombination withwood’scapacitytobecarvedintolifelikerepresentations,lentwoodensculpture auniquepresenceandanimation.
Medievalpeoplealsohadarangeofattitudestowardforests,whichwerereflectedin artandpopularliterature.Sometimesthewoodsstirreduneasebecausetheyweredark, mysterious,andhometofearsomebeings.Yet,forestswerealsoplacesofenjoyment, recreation,andprofoundpersonalorreligioustransformation.
20.French. GodandtheTreeofKnowledge, ca.1250.Stainedglassandlead.Collectionof theNasherMuseumofArtatDukeUniversity
Thisfragmentofastainedglasswindowlikely camefromacathedralinTroyes,France.Its imagerydepictsafoundationalChristian narrative.ChriststandsintheGardenofParadise, gesturingtowardtheTreeofKnowledgeofGood andEvil.Therightsideofthepanel,nowlost,likely depictedthefirstmanandwoman,AdamandEve. AccordingtotheBible,GodforbadeAdamand EvetoeattheTree’sfruit.Aftertheysuccumbed toSatan’spressuretodisobeythisorder,God exiledthemfromtheGarden,condemningthem andtheirdescendantstomortallivesofhardship andtoil.TheTreeofKnowledgeembodiessome ofthecomplexmeaningsmedievalChristian viewersmighthavebroughttotrees.
Stainedglasswasamongthemostimportant artformsoftheMiddleAges.Thesewindows illuminateddarkchurchinteriorsandtheir imageryconveyedBiblicallessons.Medieval writersdescribedthesunshiningthroughin brilliantjeweltonesasamanifestationofGod. Madebymeltingsand,woodash,andmetals athightemperatures,stainedglasswasalso energy-intensive.Scholarsestimatethat between1250and1500themedievalglass industryconsumedmorethantwentybillion poundsoffirewood.
21.English. Panel,15th century.Oak.Philadelphia MuseumofArt:GiftofMr.andMrs.RolandL. Taylor,1940
22.English. TraceryHead,15th century.Oak. PhiladelphiaMuseumofArt:Purchasedwithfunds contributedbyMr.andMrs.RolandL.Taylor,1929
23.English. Panel,15th century.Oak.Philadelphia MuseumofArt:GiftofMr.andMrs.RolandL. Taylor,1940
24.English. Boss,late15th–early16th century. Oak.PhiladelphiaMuseumofArt:Purchased withfundscontributedbyMr.andMrs.Roland L.Taylor,1929
25.English. Boss,15th century.Oak. PhiladelphiaMuseumofArt:Purchasedwith fundscontributedbyMr.andMrs.RolandL. Taylor,1929
26.English. Boss,15th century.Oak.Philadelphia MuseumofArt:GiftofMr.andMrs.RolandL. Taylor,1940
27.English. PanelwithCoatofArms, early16th century.Oak.PhiladelphiaMuseumofArt:Gift ofMr.AndMrs.RolandL.Taylor,1940
28.English. Panel,15th–16th century.Oak. PhiladelphiaMuseumofArt:Purchasedwith fundscontributedbyMr.andMrs.RolandL. Taylor,1929
Woodwasthemostcommonmedieval buildingmaterial.Itwasusedforstructural elementslikebeams,walls,flooring,and roofing,andforinterioradornment. Theoakcarvingsliningthewallsofthis gallery(#21-28,#31-32)oncedecorated thewalls,ceilings,andfurnitureof churchesandhomes.Teemingwith flowers,foliage,andanimals—realand imagined—thesereliefsdemonstratethe richinspirationthatartistsandpatrons foundinthenaturalworld.Theirlively, naturalisticdesignsareahallmarkofthe Gothic,amedievalartisticandarchitectural stylecommonthroughoutWesternEurope fromthetwelfthtosixteenthcenturies.
Deforestationaffecteddenselypopulated placeslikeEngland,wherethesefragments werecarved.Tomeetconstructiondemands, WesternEuropeancommunitiesimported largequantitiesofwoodfromforestsin present-dayPoland,Lithuania,Latvia, andEstonia.Whilethesecarvingscould havebeensculptedfromnative-grown Englishtrees,thebuildingsthatthey decoratedmostlikelyincorporatedat leastsometimbersharvestedthousands ofmilesaway.
29.France. BookofHours,ca.1530. Vellumwithtemperaandgoldleaf.Courtesy GeorgeN.MeissnerCollection,Washington UniversityLibraries
ThispagedepictsSt.FrancisofAssisi (ca.1181–1226),whobelievedthatthe naturalworldembodiedthedivine.He cautionedagainstdeforestation,preached tobirds,andpennedthe Canticleofthe Sun,asongpraisingGodforcreatingall theelementsoftheenvironment.Francisis knowntodayasthepatronsaintofecology.
Francisfrequentlyretreatedtothe wilderness,wherehefeltaprofound connectiontoGod.Thispaintingdepicts amiraculousvisionheexperiencedduring onesuchretreat:anangelappearedwhile hewasprayingandgracedhimwith stigmata,orthefivewoundsofChrist.
30.Germany,UnknownTyroleanMaster. TheVisionofSt.Eustace,ca.1500.Oilon panel.FineArtsMuseumsofSanFrancisco, GiftofJuliusLandauer.70.16
AccordingtoChristianlore,St.Eustace wasaRomangeneralwholivedinthe secondcentury.Whilehuntinginthe woods,heseparatedfromhissoldiersto trackalargestag.WhenEustacecaught theanimal,acrucifixappearedbetweenits antlersandthevoiceofGodcommanded himtoconverttoChristianity.Paintings depictingpivotaleventsinthelivesof saintsprovidedendlessinspirationfor medievalartistsandaudiences,guiding privateprayerandencouragingpiety. Woodwasacommonsurfaceforthese kindsofpaintingsbecauseitwasdurable, portable,andrelativelyinexpensive.
31.English. Boss,15th century.Oak. PhiladelphiaMuseumofArt:Purchasedwith fundscontributedbyMr.andMrs.RolandL. Taylor,1929
32.English. Frieze,15th century.Oak PhiladelphiaMuseumofArt:Purchasedwith fundscontributedbyMr.andMrs.RolandL. Taylor,1929
33.FlandersorFrance. CrucifiedChrist, ca.1500.Woodwithtracesofgessoand polychromy.DetroitInstituteofArts,Giftof RobertH.Tannahill,37.146
Thisfragmentwasoncepartofalarge-scale woodensculpturethatdepictedChrist’s deathontheCross.Hisdownturnedface, liddedeyes,andpartedlipsweredesignedto elicitanemotionalresponsefromtheviewer.
Largesculpturesdepictinghumanfigures, likethisone,weretypicallycarvedfrom thetrunkofatree.Bodypartsthat extendedbeyondthetree’sprofile,like Christ’soutstretchedarmsandextended legs(nowlost),werecarvedseparately. Thenaturalpropertiesofwoodinfluenced howartistsworkedthematerial.Oak,used here,wasappreciatedforitsabundance andsturdiness.Itcanhaveacoarse texture,however,whichisvisiblein Christ’srough-hewnhairandfacial features.Likemostmedievalsculpture, thisobjectwasoriginallypaintedinvivid color,tracesofwhichremainonthebeard andneck.
34.French,PicardieSchool. Virginofthe Annunciation,1275–1300.Oak.TheArt InstituteofChicago,AdaTurnbullHertle Endowment,1967.139
35.German. SaintAnthony,ca.1500.Limewood. PhiladelphiaMuseumofArt:JohnG.Johnson Collection,1917
St.AnthonywasanearlyChristianmonkwho livedasahermitintheEgyptianwilderness aroundthefourthcentury.Hebelieved thattheremotedesertlandscape,freefrom society’spleasures,wouldbringhimcloserto God.AccordingtoaccountsofAnthony’slife, Satantestedhisfaithbymakingbeastsand demonsattackhim.Anthonyovercamethese perilsofthewildernessthroughprayer.Some medievalstoriesdescribehimasaherder andprotectorofswine,explainingthesmall pigathisfeet.
Thislindenwoodsculpturewaslikely displayedagainstthewallofachurch, concealingitshollowback.Atree’score holdsmoremoistureanddriesatadifferent ratethanitsouterlayers.Byremovingthe woodencore,theartistmadethesculpture lighterandmoreresistanttocracking. Lindenwood(alsocalled“limewood”)was apreferredcarvingmaterialinlatemedieval southernGermany,thelindentree’snative environment.Sinceitissoftandhasan extremelyfinegrain,itcanbecarvedwith delicatedetailsasseeninthesinuouscurls ofthesaint’sbeard.Lindenwoodwasalso believedtohavemedicinalproperties, whichmighthaveunderscoredthe sculpture’sspiritualmeaning.
TheNatureofThings: MedievalArtandEcology,1100-1550
Field
Animalsandplantswerekeysourcesformedievalartmakingmaterials. Animalsprovidedskinforparchment,hairforcloth,andboneforsculpture.Plantfibers weretheprimaryingredientinpaper,andtheirflowers,leaves,androotswereusedfor dyesandpaints.Someofthesematerialsweregatheredfromthewild.Otherswere farmed,requiringdedicatedlandandlabor.
Oneofthemostimportantmedievalindustrieswassheepfarming.Sheepwoolwas essentialtotheEuropeanclothmarket.Itwaslikewiseaprizedcommodityintradewith societiesinWestandNorthAfrica,includingEgypt.Sheepskinwasalsoindispensablefor parchment,themainmedievalwritingsurface.Theseanimalsneededlargepastures, whichcouldcausecompetitionfornaturalresources.Sheeptendedtoovergraze,leading toerosion,biodiversityloss,andthereductionoflandforfoodcrops.Around1550one commentatornoted,“Theincreaseofpastureforsheephasdecreasedthetillageofgrain somuchthatuntilitisrestoredthecommonwealthwillgrowpoor…Itisbetterto[lack] woolthangrain.”
Technologieslikesilkproductionandpapermakingcreatednewdemandsontheland. OriginallyinventedinChinaandintroducedtoEuropethroughcenturiesofcontact withtradersandartistsinCentralAsia,WestAsia,andNorthAfrica,theseburgeoning industriesweresuccessfullyadaptedtoEurope'suniqueecosystems.
36.Germany. Coveredchessboxwithdancersand huntingscenes, mid-15th centuryandlater.Bone. FineArtsMusuemsofSanFrancisco,GiftofRuth L.KochfromtheAlfredB.KochJr.Collection. 1979.50.5a-b
37.Venice,Italy.WorkshopofBaldassaredegli Embriachi. Casket,ca.1400.Carvedbone,stained horn,wood,pigment,giltmetal.LosAngelesCounty MuseumofArt,Purchasedwithfundsprovidedby theWilliamRandolphHearstFoundation
38.France,attributedtotheAtelieroftheBoxes (ca.1340-1360). PlaquewithCourtshipScene, 1340–1360.Ivory.ToledoMuseumofArt,Purchased withfundsfromtheLibbeyEndowment,GiftofEdward DrummondLibbey,1957.20
39.Germany. PendantwithVirginandSaints, 15th century.Motherofpearl,giltcopper,silk, glass.DetroitInstituteofArts.BequestofRobert H.Tannahill,70.457
Amanplucksaroseforhislove.Hunterschase preythroughthewoods.SaintsencircletheVirgin Maryagainstafloralbackdrop.Christkneelsina garden,deepinprayer.Theseimagesadornthe delicatesurfacesof#36–39,small-scaleluxury objectscarvedfromivory,bone,andshell.Soft enoughtobecarvedinintricatedetail,these animalbyproductswerefashionedintojewelry andappliedtoboxesandchests.
Ivory(#38)camefromthesavannasofWestAfrica orthejunglesofIndia.Itshighdemandthroughout theMiddleAgesresultedintheslaughterofcountless elephantsfortheirtusks.Afterthemid-fourteenth century,ivorysuppliesdwindledduetochanging traderoutesandperhapsevenclimatechange, whichshiftedelephants'grazingpatterns.Some
artistsrespondedtothedemandforivorylikeproductsby“upcycling”locally-available scrapboneintofashionableobjectslikethe Coveredchessbox (#36)and Casket (#37), reducingcostandwaste.
40.Granada,Spain. FoliofromaPinkQur’an DescribingthePeopleofParadiseand ThoseofHell,SuratYunus(Chapter:Jonah) 10:verses26–7, early–mid-13th century. Coloredinksandgoldonpinkpaper. CincinnatiArtMuseum.GiftofJolynnM. ByronW.Gustin,2016.369a-b
ThispageisfromaQur’an,thesacredtext ofIslam.TheQur’anwascommunicatedto theProphetMuhammadinArabic,revered inIslamasthelanguageofdivinerevelation. Itswrittenformbecameanartofitsown, withrefinedcalligraphicscriptsand delicateornament.
Theversesonthispagedescribethe contrastingeternitiesforsinners(the flamesofHell)andthefaithful(agarden ofparadise).Thegardenwasanimportant metaphorandsymbolofHeavenin medievalIslam.
ThroughouttheMiddleAges,muchofthe IberianPeninsula(present-daySpainand Portugal)wasgovernedbyMuslimrulers andhometolargeMuslimcommunities. Theseareaswereknownas“Al-Andalus.” ThisQur’an’spink-dyedpapermayhave beenmadeinXàtiva,atowninAl-Andalus withanearlytraditionofpapermaking. Paperproductionrequiressubstantial watersupply.Xàtivaiscrisscrossedby rivers,whichwereharnessedtopowerthe millsthatchurnedflaxandhempfibers intopaperpulp.
41.Nasriddynasty;Granadaprovince, Andalusia,Spain. CurtainPanelwithDesign ofHorizontalBandsofGeometricPatterns andArabicInscriptionsinKuficScript,late 14th century.Brocadedsilk.SaintLouisArt Museum,MuseumPurchase
MedievalSpainwasrenownedforthe productionofluxurioussilkclothlike thiscurtain.ThecolorfuldesignsandArabic inscriptions(“beatitude,”“happinessand prosperity”)arecharacteristicofart producedinAl-Andalus(MuslimIberia).
Silkmakingwasgraduallyestablishedin Europethroughtradeconnectionswith China,wherethetechnologyoriginated. Theindustrydependedonfibersspun bysilkworms.NotnativetoEurope,this speciescouldonlythriveinwarmclimates, likethatofsouthernSpain.Thedemand forsilkledresidentstocultivatemulberry trees—theworms’mainfoodsource.As manyasthreethousandsilkwormfarms sprungupinsouthernSpainbythe thirteenthcentury,alteringecosystems andintroducingnewprioritiesforlanduse.
42.Bruges,WestFlanders,Flanders,Belgium. MillefleursTapestry,ca.1500–1525.Wool tapestryweave.CincinnatiArtMuseum,Gift ofMrs.GordonS.Rentschler,1972.358
Thisstyleofwoolentapestryiscalled “millefleurs”(Frenchfor“thousand flowers”)becauseitsbackgroundis studdedwithbrilliantvegetation.Often hungfloor-to-ceilingonwalls,tapestries enlivenedmedievalinteriorsandinsulated buildingsagainstthedampandcold. Tapestriesmayhavebecamepopular partiallybecauseoftheLittleIceAge,a periodofclimatechangethatlastedfrom about1300through1850,causingwet weatherandfrigidtemperatures.
Woolwascoloredwithplantormineral dyesbeforeitwaswoven.Chemicalscalled mordantsboundthedyetothewool.The mostcommonmordantwasalum.This metallicsaltwasminedinAfrica'sSahara desert,theLevant,andcentralItalyand shippedtotextileproducersacross WesternEurope.
43.Franco-Flemish,France(Saint-Omeror Thérouanne). Bestiary,partofaplanned miscellany (folio46v),ca.1270.Tempera colors,goldleaf,andinkonparchmentbound betweenpasteboardcoveredwithbrown morocco.TheJ.PaulGettyMuseum,Los Angeles,Ms.LudwigXV3
Abestiaryisanencyclopediaofrealand mythicalanimalsthatcontainsmoralizing lessons.Thisbestiaryincludesa“Treatise onFlocksandShepherds.”Onthetreatise’s openingpageChristpassesashepherd’s stafftoamonk,symbolizingthemonk’s roleastheleaderofacongregation (representedherebyflocksofsheep andgoats).
InmedievalEurope,thetraitsandbehaviors ofanimalswereofteninterpretedthrough thelensofChristiantheology.Sheepand goatshadopposingconnotationsthat stemmedfromtheBible.Goatssymbolized sinners,whilesheeprepresentedfaithful Christians.Here,thesemetaphorsextend totheanimals’humancompanions:a goatherdsleepsonthejobwhilethe watchfulshepherdprotectstwolambs.
Bookslikethisonewerewrittenon parchment,awritingsurfacemadeof sheep,goat,orcowskin.Christian monasteriesandconvents,wheremonks andnunslivedcommunallyintheservice ofGod,consumedmassivequantitiesof parchmentforbookmaking.
44.Augsberg,Germany.HamsenSchönsperger, GartderGesundheit,1487.ThePeterH. RavenLibraryoftheMissouriBotanical Garden,SaintLouis,Missouri
Medievalpeoplereliedonthebountyof thenaturalworldtosurvive.Bookscalled herbalscontainedinformationonhow plantscouldbeusedtoprevent,treat, andrecoverfromillness.The Gartder Gesundheit (GardenofHealth)wasone ofthefirstherbalsprintedinGerman.It describesthemedicinalusesofnearly fourhundredplants.Hand-coloredimages helpthereaderidentifyeachherb.The Gart’sauthor,physicianJohannWonnecke vonKaub(1450–ca.1503),compiledthe textfromGreco-Roman,Islamic,and medievalEuropeansources.
Theinventionofmoveabletypeby JohannesGutenbergaround1450 revolutionizedthewaybooksweremade. Handwrittenmanuscriptsonparchment eventuallygavewaytotextsprintedon paper,likethe Gart.Paperwasoriginally inventedinChina.Thetechnologyreached Europebythetenthcenturythroughtrade withculturesinCentralAsia,WestAsia, andNorthAfrica. Medievalpaperwas typicallymadefrom discardedcloth. Therags,madeofhempandlinen, wereshreddedinwaterandpressed intomolds.Papermakerstypically establishedthemselvesinplaceswith wetclimatesandruggedlandscapes, wheretheycouldcapitalizeonquickrunningwatertoefficientlypower theirmills.
TheNatureofThings: MedievalArtandEcology,1100-1550 QuarryandMine
Aroundtheyear1000,FrenchchroniclerRodulfusGlaberobserved thatthe“worldwas…reclothingitselfeverywherewithawhiterobe ofchurches.”
Thebuildingspreelastedforcenturies,aidedbyengineeringadvancesandeconomic gains.By1500,overfivehundredmajorChristianchurchesandtensofthousandsof smalleroneswerenewlybuiltacrossWesternEurope.
Millionsofcubicfeetofstonegaveshapetotheseambitiousstructures.Thestonewas typicallyquarriedclosetothebuildingsitebecauseitwasheavyanddifficulttotransport. Quarrierspermanentlytransformedtheland,leavinghugepitsintheearthorflattening hillsidesastheyremovedblocksofstone.Masonsandsculptorsshapedthematerialinto walls,floors,supports,anddecorativeelements.
Spacesofworshipweredesignedasspectacularreligiousofferingsinandofthemselves. Theyalsohousedpreciousceremonialobjectsmadefrommaterialslikecopper,silver, andgold.ThedemandforluxurymetalshelpedspurminingacrossEuropeandbeyond.
Likequarries,minesalteredmedievallandscapes.Workersstrippedtopsoiltodig shallowpitmines,tunneledthroughmountainsides,dredgedrivers,andcrushed massivequantitiesofstone,heatingtherocktohightemperaturestoextractvaluable ores.TheresultingenvironmentalpressuresextendedevenintoWestAfrica,wherethe MaliEmpire(ca.1226–1670)leverageditsrichgoldresourcesfortradetoEurope.The medievalmetaltradedemonstrateshowthedemandforaresourceinoneregioncould driveenvironmentalchangethousandsofmilesaway.
45.German. ReliquaryMonstrance,15th century. Copper-gilt,silver-gilt,glass.TheMetropolitan MuseumofArt,GiftofJ.PierpontMorgan,1917 (17.190.508a)
Thisobjectislocatednearthestaircaseoutside thegallery'sentrance.
Gothicarchitectureinspiredtheformofthis object.Itssoaringspires,tinygargoyles,and multiplewindowopeningsmimicthestructure anddecorationofmedievalChristianbuildings. Thecentrallensofthisreliquarymonstrance likelyonceheldarelic(thematerialremainsof asaint)oraCommunionwafer,whichwouldbe transformedintothebodyofChristduring Catholicmass.
Tohonortheirsacredcontents,objectslikethis oneweremadeoffinematerials.Theupperpart ofthereliquarymonstranceismadeofsilver coveredinathinlayerofgold.Thisgivesthe appearanceofsolidgoldwhileconservingthis preciousmetal.Silverwaslighterandmuchless expensive,whichmadeitanidealbase.Inlate medievalWesternEurope,thelargestdeposits ofsilverwereinGermanyandtheCzechRepublic. Theseregionssuppliedtonsofmetal,butmining ravagedthelandscape,leavingscarsinsome areasthatarestillvisibletoday.Refiningtheore alsorequiredheatingittohightemperatures, consumingmassiveamountsoffirewoodand contributingtodeforestationanderosion.
46.Spain,BartolomeuRubio. TheLord ReprimandingAdamandEve,ca.1362. Alabasterwithtraceofpolychrome.FineArts MuseumsofSanFrancisco,Museumpurchase, M.H.deYoungMuseumSociety.59.40
Thisalabastersculptureshowsapivotal Biblicalevent:GodadmonishingAdamand EveintheGardenofParadiseafterSatan temptedthemtoeatforbiddenfruitfrom theTreeofKnowledge.Aftereatingthe fruit,AdamandEve’sstateofblissful innocencewasimmediatelycorruptedby feelingsofshame,sotheycoveredtheir nakedbodieswithleaves.WhenGod discoveredtheirsin,heexiledthemfrom theGarden,condemningthemandalltheir descendantstomortallivesoftoiland hardship.Imageslikethisreminded medievalaudiencesoftheChristianbelief thatunrepentantsinwouldexcludethem fromheavenlyparadise.
Alabasterisastonethatbecamepopular followingtheBlackDeath,acataclysmic pandemicthatkilledthirtytosixtypercent ofEurope’spopulationbetween1348and 1353.Theresultinglaborshortages promptedartiststoseekmoreeasily accessiblematerials.Alabasterdeposits wereusuallyclosetotheEarth’ssurface, makingitlessdifficulttoquarry.Itsnatural softnessalsoallowedittobecarvedwith lessphysicaleffort.
47.Paris,France. BookofHours, ca.1400. Vellumwithtemperaandgoldleaf.Courtesy GeorgeN.MeissnerCollection,Washington UniversityLibraries
48.GermanyorFrance. BottomofaPainter’s BoxwiththeCrucifixion,ca.1350-1375. Ivory.DetroitInstituteofArts.GiftofRobert H.Tannahill,43.459
Inksandpaintsusedtodecorate(or illuminate)medievalbooksweremade fromplantandmetalliccompounds.Lavish bookslike#47wereilluminatedwithrare andexpensivemetalsincludinggold, poundedthinandgluedtotheparchment, orgroundintoapowdertopaintfinedetails. MedievalgoldoftencamefromtheMali EmpireinWestAfrica,whichcontrolled vastdepositsofthispreciousmetal. Dredgedfromriverbedsandbundled withotherexoticcommoditiesincluding elephantivory,goldtraveledthousands ofmilesacrossdesertandoceanto Europe,whereitwasincorporatedinto worksofart.Thenearbyivoryplaque (#48)mayhaveonceheldmaterials usedtodecoratemanuscripts.
49.Limoges,France. Pyx,1275–1325. Blueandwhiteenamel,giltandenameled copper.ToledoMuseumofArt,Museum Purchase,1931.80A
50.Limoges,France. Chasse (RelicCase), mid-13th century.Copper-gilt,champleve enameloverwoodlining.ToledoMuseum ofArt,PurchasedwithfundsfromtheLibbey Endowment,GiftofEdwardDrummond Libbey,1950.250
Thiscolorfulpyx(#49)andreliquarycase (#50)weremadeintheenamelingcenter ofLimoges,France.Whilethereliquary containedthematerialremainsofasaint, thepyxheldconsecratedwaferstobe transformedintothebodyofChristduring Catholicmass.Thebrilliantcolorsonthe objectswereachievedbymeltingpowdered glass—eitherrecycledormadespecifically forenameling—inshallowchannelscarved intocopperplates.Manymetalsincluding copper,cobalt,tin,andleadwereusedto colortheglass.Golddetailswerethen fusedtothecopperwithmercury.Over eightthousandenameledobjectsfrom Limogeshavesurvivedtothepresent, highlightingthemassiveoutputofthe city’sartists.ThecopperusedinLimoges enamelsmayhavebeenminedlocallyor importedfromfurtherafield.
51.LowerSaxony,Germany. Aquamanilein theFormofaLion, late13th–early14th century.Copperalloy.TheMetropolitan MuseumofArt,GiftofIrwinUntermyer, 1964(64.101.1490)
52.Germany. Censer,ca.1400s.Bronze. SpencerMuseumofArt,UniversityofKansas MedievalGermanyhadrichcopper deposits.Germanmetalworkersreached ahighdegreeoftechnicalskillinthis locally-availablematerial.Theyproduced fineworkslikethislion-shapedaquamanile (#51)andcenser(#52).Aquamaniliaheld waterusedforhandwashingbeforemeals orreligiousservices.Censersheldincense madeofaromaticherbs,resins,andwoods. Thefragrantsmokereleasedbythe burningincensepurifiedthechurch’sair andsymbolizedprayersrisingtoHeaven.
53.ProvenceorRhôneValley,France. Capital withRidersandMenFellingaTree, late12th century.Limestone.CincinnatiArtMuseum. AnonymousGift,1973.295
Thiscapitaloncerestedatopacolumn.It waslikelyoneofsixcapitalsthatdepicted theLaborsoftheMonths,seasonal activitiesthatwerefrequentmotifsin medievalart.Halfofthecapitalshows ridersonhorseback,representingApril. Theotherhalfshowspeoplechopping wood,representingMarch.Thelineson thetree’strunksuggestthewoodhasbeen coppiced,asustainableforestrytechnique thatinvolvescuttingtreesatparticular pointstoencouragethegrowthofmany smallbranches.Thisenablestherepeated harvestingofwoodwithoutcuttingdown thewholetree.Coppicedwoodwasan importantsourceoffuelforcookingand heatinghomesaswellasindustrieslike clothmaking,mining,glassmaking,and ceramics.
54.French. DoubleColumnwithBaseand Capital,ca.1300.Granite.SaintLouisArt Museum,MuseumPurchase
55.SantiagodeCompostela,Spain. Column orColumnarSupportwithThreeApostles: Matthew,Jude,andSimon,ca.1125–1150. Marble.HarvardArtMuseums/FoggMuseum, GiftofTheRepublicofSpainthroughthe MuseoArqueologicoNacionalandProfessor ArthurKingsleyPorter
56.French. CapitalwithanArchitecturalFrieze, mid-12th century.Limestone.TheNelson-Atkins MuseumofArt,KansasCity,Missouri(Purchase: WilliamRockhillNelsonTrust)48-39
57.Nord-Pas-de-Calais,France. Fragmentofa CapitalwithFoliateRinceaux,1153–1163. Limestone.HarvardArtMuseums/Fogg Museum,AlpheusHyattPurchasingFund
Astone’snaturalfeaturesdeterminedhow themedievalsculptorcarvedit.Limestone (#53,#56-57)issturdyenoughtobeused forarchitecturebutsoftenoughtobe carvedwithfinedetail.Marble(#55)is alsosoft,withcolorfulveinsthatcan influencedesign.Granite(#54)isextremely hardandwasthereforedifficulttocarve withpre-modern,handheldtools,limitations whichcouldresultinacoarserappearance.
#53and#56-57originallytoppedcolumns, while#55supportedanaltaratachurchin SantiagodeCompostela,amajorpilgrimage siteinnorthwesternSpain.
TheNatureofThings: MedievalArtandEcology,1100-1550
Earth
Medievalglassandceramicswereusedfortablewareandstoragebut alsoforarchitecturaldecoration.Thesematerialswerevaluedfor theirutility,durability,andinsulatingproperties.
Whetherpracticalordecorative,mundaneorprestigious,glassandceramicsstarted fromhumblegrounds:sandandclayoftendugfromlargepitsnearwaterwaysorin forests.Artistsusedfiretohardentheclayintopotteryandtransformthesandmixture intomoltenglass.
Sincetheseprocessesrequiredhighheat,themanufactureofglassandceramicswas energyintensiveandsometimeslinkedtodeforestation.Apoundofglassrequired severalhundredpoundsoffirewoodtoproduce,andasinglekilnfiringcouldconsume multipletonsofwood.Becausetheartistsrequiredpuresandorclayandfreshwater, inadditiontofuel,theyoftensettledthroughoutthecountrysidewherethesenatural resourcesweremostabundant.Pottersandglassmakersdevelopedinnovationsto conservematerials,however,usingsustainablyproducedfirewoodandinventing techniquesthatrequiredlessenergy.
Theglassandceramicsindustriesalsodependedonmining.Metalsandmetallicoxides lentwarestheirbrilliantcolors.Thesematerialsweresometimesminedhundredsof milesaway,demonstratinghowtheimpactofanartisticpracticeextendedfarbeyond thelocalenvironment.
58.Frechen,NorthRhine-Westphalia,Germany. Bellarmine (Bartmann),ca.1550–1570. Salt-glazedstonewarewithpewter.Ex.NoëlHume Collection,TheChipstoneFoundation2019.76
Bellarmine(orBartmann)jugsfeaturetheface ofabeardedman.Thismotifmayrepresentthe “wildman,”amythical,hair-coveredcreature believedtoinhabitremotewoodlands.Wildmen (andwomen)werebothfearedandcelebrated inmedievalculture.
ThisBartmannismadeofsalt-glazedstoneware, animportantinnovationoflatemedieval Germany. Pottersaddedsalttothekilnwhentheirwares werefiring,whichcreatedathin,pebbledglaze ontheirsurfaces.Theseceramicshadtobe firedonlyonce,greatlyreducingtheamountof fuelconsumed.Theprocessreleasedcloudsof toxicfumes,however, causinghealthhazards andenvironmentalpollution.
Inthemid-sixteenthcentury,someGerman citiesbanishedpottersbecauseofconcerns overpollutionandwoodconsumption.Thisjug waslikelymadeinFrechen,atowninwestern Germanywheremanyexiledpotterssettled.
59.Spain. “Albarello”Vase,15th century.Ceramic. CincinnatiArtMuseum,GiveninhonorofMr.and Mrs.CharlesF.Williamsbytheirchildren,1948.134
60.Manises,Spain. DishwithaBird,1430–1450. Tin-glazedearthenware(maiolica).LosAngeles CountyMuseumofArt,WilliamRandolph HearstCollection
61.CentralEurope,probablyGermany. Beaker withAppliedDecoration,1275–1325. Blownglasswithapplieddecoration. CorningMuseumofGlass
62.Germanyoranadjoiningregiontothesouth oreast. BeakerwithPrunts,1200–1399. Blownglasswithapplieddecoration.Corning MuseumofGlass
63.ProbablyGermanyorSwitzerland. Forest GlassBeaker (Krautstrunk),1500–1525. Blownglasswithapplieddecoration.Corning MuseumofGlass
Between1250and1500medievalartists madearoundeightymillionpoundsof glassforvessels(#61-63)andwindows. Muchglasswasmadeinforests,inclose proximitytoabundantsuppliesofsand andwood.Sincewoodwasinhighdemand bymanyindustriesintheMiddleAges, glassmakingwasheavilyregulated.In someareasaglasshousewasallowed tomakeonlyacertainnumberof productseachyear.
Medievalglassmakersfoundwaysto conserverawmaterialsandincrease thedurabilityoftheirproducts.They sometimesusedwoodthathadbeen coppiced,aforestmanagementtechnique thatinvolvesharvestingsmallbranches ratherthanchoppingdownwholetrees (see#53nearby).Theyalsodeveloped innovationsincludingthe“kick,”asmall conerisingfromaglass’sbasethat reduceditslikelihoodofshatteringwhile coolingaftermanufacture.Glassmakers added“prunts”(spikyknobs),which helpedpeoplegripglasses,preventing breakage.Thesefeatureshelped glassmakersreducewasteandin turn,decreasetheamountoffirewood theyused.
64.Manises,Valencia,Spain. LusteredDisplay Dish,1440–1460.Tin-glazedearthenware. SaintLouisArtMuseum,MuseumPurchase
Spanishtin-glazedceramics(#59–#60, #64)wereproductsofextensivematerial andculturalnetworks.Firstdevelopedinor neartheportcityofBasra,Iraqtoimitate thewhitecolorofChineseporcelain,the tinglazingtechniquereachedSpainbythe twelfthcentury.Recordssuggestthetin usedinmedievalSpanishceramicswas minedinsouthwesternEngland.Some pottersalsoaddedbluedesignsusing cobalt(#59-60).Thismetalwaslikely minedinGermany,Morocco,orasfar awayasIran.
Theshimmeringorangedetailson#59 and#64aretheresultoftheluster technique,firstdevelopedinWest Asia.Pottersusedcoppertocreatethe iridescentsheen.Lusteredceramicshad tobefiredthreetimesandthetechnique waspronetofailure.Fuel-intensiveand difficulttoproduce,lusterwarewas expensiveandprestigious.
Althoughtheywerepurchasedbypeople ofmanyfaiths,tin-glazedceramicsoften incorporatemotifsandformsinspiredby Islamicart.Thisincludesthepalmdesign andtherepeating al-afiya bands(astylized inscriptionoftheArabicwordfor“health” and“happiness”)on#64,aswellasthe concaveshapeof#59,ajarusedby apothecariestostoreherbalmedicines.
65.Toledo,Spain. Tiles,firsthalfofthe16th century.Glazedearthenware.SaintLouis ArtMuseum,MuseumPurchase
66.Paterna,Valenciaregion,Spain. CeilingTile (socarrat) withDesignofaLion,secondhalf ofthe15th century.Slip-paintedearthenware. SaintLouisArtMuseum,MuseumPurchase
67.Paterna,Valenciaregion,Spain. CeilingTile (socarrat) withDesignofaRampantBull, secondhalfofthe15th century.Slip-painted earthenware.SaintLouisArtMuseum, MuseumPurchase
68.Paterna,Valenciaregion,Spain. Ceiling Tile (socarrat) withDesignofaDragon, secondhalfofthe15th century.Slip-painted earthenware.SaintLouisArtMuseum, MuseumPurchase
Ceramictilesdecoratedmedievalhomes, placesofworship,andcivicbuildings.In Spain,tileslike#65linedthelowerparts ofinteriorwallswhile socarrats (#66–68) weresetbetweenceilingbeams.Tocreate theredandblackmotifsonthe socarrats, tilemakersusedpigmentsmadewithiron andmanganese.Theysometimesobtained thesemetalsasscrapsleftoverfromother medievalcraftindustries,reducingcosts andwaste.
