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Sons Of Revolution member reflects as 250th Approaches
Bill Of Rights
How to celebrate and commemorate America’s semiquincentennial
2026 Chautauqua County History Expo
How America became the land of the free and home of the Brave
A nation gets a name
An era before presidential campaigns
John Tyler - From the tenth president to… 2025?!
Fun Facts about some of the colonies that formed the U.S.
Gettysburg Address
America then and now
Link to the Past
Declaration Of Independence
An enduring, ever-evolving symbol of freedom
Notable facts about the land of the free
If only Hamilton had spellcheck
Historic locales across the United States
‘What Shapes Us’
Ask Not ...
Camels have a unique place in American history
Did you know? — The Library of Congress
American Revolutionary War Trivia
The moral case for a great America
Who Said It?/Guess Who?
“I Have a Dream”
Voter participation is key part of our Republic
The 250 Most Important People in American History
The Symbols of America
America —a year-by-year look
Presidents Of The United States
A date which will live in infamy
100 places that tell America’s Story
By Sara Holthouse sholthouse@post-journal.com
With America’s 250th birthday coming up this July, those locally with connections to the American Revolution, such as Paul Fardink, Sons of the American Revolution vice president, are reflecting not only on their own connection to America’s beginning, but on the importance of reaching this anniversary as well.
Fardink’s ancestor was Thomas Howard from Massachusetts. Howard lived to be 92 years old, and is buried by the Finger Lakes, serving in the Continental Army and at West Point. Fardink is a retired Lieutenant Colonel in the United States Army, so he graduated from West Point as well, saying that that part of the connection is also unique.
“He was there during the Revolutionary
War and helped with a lot of the structure and fortifications at West Point during the Revolutionary War,” Fardink said.
Fardink said he did not know about his connection to the Revolutionary War until he began to investigate his lineage back to Howard, and it became important to him because of Howard serving in the place where Fardink would later go to school for four years at the military academy at West Point. Fardink noted that West Point was not fully in existence until 1802 when Thomas Jefferson was president.
When it comes to America’s upcoming 250th birthday, Fardink said not only his connection but the connection of all of the Revolutionary War veterans buried in Chautauqua County are important to look at, not only now but every year. Fardink is the one who actively works with the
continued on page 7
Sons Of Revolution continued from page 6
Pomeroy Foundation on setting up Patriot Markers in Chautauqua County cemeteries to recognize the Revolutionary War Veterans buried there. This is a passion of Fardink’s and he said 370 Revolutionary War veterans are buried in Chautauqua County.
“I don’t think people really know the great number of patriot soldiers who are buried here,” Fardink said. “What’s also unique is that of those 370, not one was from here.”
Fardink said after the French and Indian War which ended in 1763, King George III in October 1763 followed the Treaty of Paris to end the war with the French and established a territorial boundary following the Appalachian Mountains from Northern New York down to Georgia. Everything on the west side of the line was Indian Reserve and Chautauqua County was included in that reserve, with no settlers in the county at the time as it was mostly those in the Seneca Nation. Fardink said no settlers or white men came to the county until the 1790s or 1800s with the Holland Land Company.
“That just makes it interesting, because a good majority of those veterans were born in the 13 original colonies, but those in New York and Chautauqua County were mainly from Connecticut and Massachusetts, where my ancestor was from,” Fardink said.
Fardink has done a lot of studying on the demographics of the 370 soldiers buried in the county, which has included making a powerpoint presentation that he has presented in a few places, including at the Daughters of the American Revolution’s President’s Day Lunch on February 21. There, he also received the DAR America 250 Commendation Award, something he said he was honored to receive.
“There was a lot going on with the 370,” Fardink said. “My powerpoint talks about who was taken prisoner, who was wounded, where they served, etc.”
Recognizing and celebrating America’s 250th birthday is something that Fardink said is important because he feels that very few people realize the sacrifice that the patriots in the Continental Army went through. When they came home, Fardink said they did not have a Veterans Administration or medical support.
“They were lucky if they came home and their homes hadn’t been destroyed or sold or the land hadn’t gone unattended,” Fardink said. “It was critical too, because of their lack of pay or the use of what they were paid with, which was this useless Continental currency. It became worthless, a nickel on a dollar.”
Soldiers also faced promissory grants that never happened and received no pension. Fardink said they would come home to what was left of their farm that had hopefully been taken care of by their wives and children or neighbors, and it was not until 1818 that Continental soldiers were eligible for a pension. In 1820 it changed to a pension with it needing to be proven that there were needs based requirements.
“In other words you had to appear before a magistrate, which a lot of them did in Chautauqua County, and claim to be destitute,” Fardink said. “How embarrassing and terrible. If they were 20 years old in 1776 they are now 64 years old and they had to go before a magistrate and say ‘I’m destitute, I need a pension.’ That’s why it’s so important. These patriot veterans sacrificed everything to defeat the British and give us our country.”
The hardships that these soldiers went through are one of the most important things people should know about, Fardink said, because they did not come just
during the war but at places like Valley Forge. The Continental Congress had no money to support George Washington or the army, and at Valley Forge things were very destitute. 22 of the Chautauqua County soldiers were at Valley Forge, and Fardink said his personal favorite was Drum Major Barnabus Wellman.
Wellman is buried in Wellman Cemetery on Wellman Road in Busti. Wellman served for four years, not just as a drummer but a drum major, or a senior drummer.
“He was right there with George Washington,” Fardink said. “Drummers would play the different calls, like the call to formation or the charge. That’s how soldiers knew what was going on at the battlefield by what was being played on the drums.”
In his research, Fardink found that things were so bad at Valley Forge that Wellman ended up boiling his shoes and eating shoe leather to survive. Other hardships for the soldiers buried in Chautauqua County included 16 of them being taken prisoner in New York Harbour on Prison Ships, which Fardink said the worst one was known as The Jersey.
“I don’t think people realize, but over 11,000 people, not just the soldiers but
those deemed patriot supporters, would die in New York Harbour, either on the ships or in the prisons there,” Fardink said. “16 of our patriot soldiers in Chautauqua County experienced that, and those are the 16 that survived and were able to move here.”
Being responsible for the Patriot Marker program, Fardink said, he and the SAR have done 15 markers in cemeteries in Chautauqua County. With it being the 250th birthday year, Fardink said the plan is to put up five more this year. Upcoming ceremonies include at Allen Cemetery in Falconer on May 17, Dewittville Cemetery in Dewittville in May, with three others without dates in Tefft Cemetery in French Creek, Greenwood Cemetery in Stockton — with Stockton also being named after a Revolutionary War veteran, Fardink noted — and Redbird Cemetery in Ellery. Fardink said the SAR will always get help from the VFW, American Legion and Jamestown Vietnam Veterans Honor Guard.
“We try to encourage maximum participation by the community, especially kids,” Fardink said. “This is what’s super important is that we involve our youth and that they really understand what the founders of this country went through. Some of them really paid the price.”
AMENDMENT I
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
AMENDMENT II
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
AMENDMENT III
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
AMENDMENT IV
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
AMENDMENT V
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury,
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
AMENDMENT VI
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and
district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
AMENDMENT VII
In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
AMENDMENT VIII
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
AMENDMENT IX
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
AMENDMENT X
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
TheChautauqua County Historian’s Office is pleased to announce the Second Annual Chautauqua County History Expo, scheduled for Sunday, Aug. 2 from 10 a.m. to 7 p.m., at the Town of Chautauqua Community Municipal Building (Old Mayville High School), located at 2 Academy St.
Following a successful inaugural year, the 2026 History Expo will be larger, more interactive, and expanded in scope as part of the nationwide America 250 commemoration, marking the 250th anniversary of the founding of the United States. Meet local historians, explore their exhibits, and connect with the people dedicated to preserving Chautauqua County’s history. Designed to be family friendly, the event offers residents and visitors an expanded opportunity to experience the rich and diverse history of Chautauqua County through exhibits, speakers, music, reenactments, and hands-on activities.
“This year’s expo is about more than just looking back — it’s about understanding how Chautauqua County fits into the broader American story as we approach the nation’s 250th anniversary,” said Norman Carlson, Chautauqua County Historian and chair of the History Expo committee. “We’re expanding the event to reflect that milestone, with more exhibits, more programming, and more ways for families to engage with history.”
The 2026 History Expo will place a special emphasis on America 250, highlighting Chautauqua County’s role in the American Story, from early American history, including the Revolutionary War era and the War of 1812, to more recent exhibits. Featured speakers will include:
— Norman Carlson, Chautauqua County Historian
— Chautauqua County Revolutionary War: Things You Didn’t Know
— Traci Langworthy, Interim Dean of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, SUNY JCC
— Chautauqua County in the War of 1812
— Paul Fardink, National Society Sons of the American Revolution
— Chautauqua County Revolutionary War Veterans and Burial Sites
Music will also be featured throughout the day, including a performance by the Jamestown Harmony Express, coming off a national appearance in Washington, D.C. on July 4, as part of America 250 celebrations.
The History Expo is designed for all ages and will feature:
–- Children’s history-focused activities, including invisible ink, secret message code, and “Revolutionary War spy” activities
— A themed photo booth by Bow Tie
Photo Booths
— Historical reenactments and reenactors in period dress
— Interactive exhibits and demonstrations
Attendees are encouraged to dress in red, white, and blue or in historical attire to help celebrate America 250 and bring history to life.
Organizers are now welcoming exhibitors, and historical organizations to participate. Exhibitors are expected to be wide-ranging and include historical literature, local artifacts, exhibits, displays, authors, municipal historians, historical societies, libraries, genealogy groups, and other history-related organizations.
Exhibitor registration is available online at chqhistoryexpo.com. Display sign-ups require a $20 registration fee.
“The History Expo is a great example of how collaboration strengthens community pride,” said Chautauqua County Executive PJ Wendel. “As we prepare for America 250, this event gives us a chance to celebrate our shared past, support the organizations preserving it, and inspire future generations.”
When President Donald Trump was sworn in as President of the United States for a second time on January 20, 2025, he officially became the forty-seventh president in the nation’s history. With 47 presidents and 50 states, one could not be blamed for thinking most states have a native son who has held the highest political office in the land. But the National Conference of State Legislatures notes that fewer than half the states in the union have been the birthplaces of presidents. In fact, just two presidents were born west of the Mississippi River. Indeed, the following rundown indicates which states have produced presidents and who and how many claim those locales as their birthplace.
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No state has produced more presidents than Virginia, which produced eight men who would go on to become U.S. presidents. Those eight men were:
• George Washington
• Thomas Jefferson
• James Madison
• James Monroe
• William Henry Harrison
• John Tyler
• Zachary Taylor
• Woodrow Wilson
Ohio is second to Virginia in terms of native sons who have gone on to the office of the presidency. Seven U.S. presidents were born in Ohio, and those who claimed the place now affectionately known as “The Buckeye State” as their birthplace include:
• Ulysses S. Grant
• Rutherford B. Hayes
• James Garfield
• Benjamin Harrison
• William McKinley
• William Howard Taft
• Warren Harding
Five U.S. presidents, including current president Donald Trump, were born in New York. President Trump’s fellow New Yorkers to serve as president include:
• Martin Van Buren
• Millard Fillmore
• Theodore Roosevelt
• Franklin Roosevelt
• George H.W. Bush 5 4
Massachusetts was home to many notable events during the American Revolutionary War, so it comes as no surprise that the state has produced four U.S. presidents over the nation’s history. Those four presidents include:
• John Adams
• John Quincy Adams
• John F. Kennedy
States to produce 2 presidents
Various states are the birthplaces of two men who have gone on to serve as President of the United States. Those states include:
• North Carolina: James K. Polk and Andrew Johnson
• Pennsylvania: James Buchanan and Joe Biden
• Texas: Dwight Eisenhower and Lyndon Johnson
• Vermont: Chester Arthur and Calvin Coolidge
produce 1
Thirteen states have sent one native son along to the office of the President of the United States, including:
• Arkansas: Bill Clinton
• California: Richard Nixon
• Connecticut: George W. Bush
• Georgia: Jimmy Carter
• Hawaii: Barack Obama
• Illinois: Ronald Reagan
• Iowa: Herbert Hoover
• Kentucky: Abraham Lincoln
• Missouri: Harry S. Truman
• Nebraska: Gerald Ford
• New Hampshire: Franklin Pierce
• New Jersey: Grover Cleveland
• South Carolina: Andrew Jackson
By Dr. Delaware Arif
July 4 marks the 250th anniversary of the independence of the United States of America. In just 250 years since gaining independence from British colonial rule on this day in 1776, the United States has established itself as a remarkable example of progress in science, technology, education, healthcare, and virtually every other sector around the world. No magic lamp of Aladdin was responsible for these achievements. Rather, the hard work, honesty, perseverance, patriotism, and constant desire to innovate among Americans have served as the driving forces behind this success.
I believe that one of the key reasons for America’s success is its culture of curiosity and inquiry. At the individual, family, community, and national levels, people continuously evaluate every aspect of life, weigh its strengths and weaknesses, and seek ways to improve. The scientific
term for this process may be “research” or the relentless pursuit of innovation. Just as large organizations have Research and Development (R&D) departments, R&D has become an inseparable part of American society and culture.
Whenever I speak about America, I often recall a statement by a renowned South Asian writer Anisul Hoque. Describing America, he succinctly referred to it as “Where the mind is without fear.” This phrase immediately reminds us of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which recognizes freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and freedom of religion as fundamental rights. These freedoms are not merely recognized on paper; they are actively practiced as essential elements of American democracy.
As a result, people can peacefully protest day and night in front of the White House, the residence of the President of the United States. Citizens can openly joke about the ruling party, government
officials, and political leaders in late-night comedy shows without fear. No one suppresses them for doing so. As a student of journalism and communication, I believe this is one of the strongest pillars of American democracy. Therefore, when speaking about freedom and on the eve of every Independence Day, America is often described in just four words: “Land of the Free and Home of the Brave.”
Like many former colonies around the world, America was also once a colony exploited by the British. Although British rule in America lasted nearly half a century less than in the Indian subcontinent, one of the largest colonies, Britain ultimately accepted defeat on this day in 1776, and thirteen British-controlled colonies united to form an independent nation.
economic exploitation and oppression carried out by the British in the Indian subcontinent and their treatment of the American colonies. Following the French and Indian War (part of the Seven Years’ War, which ended in 1763), Britain accumulated enormous debt and imposed heavy taxes on the American colonies. Since the colonies had no representation in the British Parliament, they increasingly protested “taxation without representation.” Over time, this resentment evolved into a struggle for independence.
Because America gained its freedom through movements against oppression and injustice—and because the foundation of its independence was individual liberty and justice—personal freedom, democratic values, and justice remain three central pillars of American society today.
America’s path to independence was far from smooth. Rather, the country’s freedom was won through the American Revolution — also known as the Revolutionary War or the War of Independence — which lasted nearly two decades from 1765 to 1783. The revolution gave birth to what would become the world’s largest democratic nation. The guiding principles of American independence were self-governance and the protection of individual rights and freedoms. There are many similarities between the
Embracing these ideals, Americans continue to recite a pledge of allegiance in schools, government institutions, and social gatherings: “I pledge of allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stand, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.”
Dr. Delaware Arif is a Fredonia resident and an Associate Professor of Multimedia Journalism at the Canisius University in Buffalo. He can be reached at delawarearif@gmail.com
September 9, 1776, may not be the first date Americans think of when pondering their nation’s history, but it’s a significant day nonetheless. According to the National Constitution Center, on September 9, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted a new name for a collective of colonies that had been referred to as the “United Colonies.” The name chosen on that day in late summer 1776, the United States of America, has endured. While the opening sentence of the Declaration of Independence, which was issued on July 4, 1776, refers to the “thirteen united States of America,” it was a little more than two months later when the Congress passed a series of resolutions, including one in which it replaced “United Colonies” with “United States” as the fledgling nation’s new name.
It’s been 250 years since the 13 colonies joined to form the United States of America, but those 13 territories continue to feature prominently throughout the country each and every day. That’s because the 13 stripes on the American flag represent the original 13 colonies.
The American flag serves as a visible reminder of the 13 colonies, and that’s not the only interesting fact about the territories that would become the United States of America.
There was a constitution that predates the United States Constitution.
ConnecticutHistory.org notes that the Connecticut Colony had a framework for government by the mid-seventeenth century not unlike the one that would be spelled out in the U.S. Constitution. The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut were adopted in 1639 and are considered the first written constitution in America. Roger Ludlow of Windsor is believed to have drafted the Fundamental Orders, which consisted of a preamble and 11 orders (or laws) and mirrored trading company charters common at the time. Notably, the Orders did not reference the authority of the crown.
After the restoration of the Stuart monarchy in 1660, Charles II of England took the throne. Money was tight at the time, so Sir William Penn, a British admiral, funded the rebuilding of the Royal Navy out of his own pocket. Charles II was petitioned for repayment by Sir William’s son, also named William Penn, twenty years later. But the younger Penn, who had become a Quaker by this point, requested land in lieu of funds, with a goal toward establishing a place where religious tolerance was rule. The king granted the younger Penn’s request in 1681, and decreed that the territory granted to Penn be named after his father. Thus, Pennsylvania got its name.
Colonial New Jersey was home to a notable rift in a famous family.
Benjamin Franklin was among the most renowned and recognizable of the Founding Fathers of the United States, and his commitment to the ideals of the burgeoning nation did not waver even when the conflict that became the American Revolutionary War divided his family. William Franklin was a son Benjamin fathered outside his common-law marriage to Deborah Read. Though William was raised by his father and Read, father and son did not see eye-toeye on every issue, including the war. William, in fact, served as the thirteenth and final Colonial Governor of New Jersey, and remained a steadfast loyalist throughout the conflict. The prospects of victory were looking dim for loyalists by 1781, and William departed for England in 1782, never to return to New Jersey or the infant nation it became a part of. Curiously, William’s own son from an extra-marital relationship, William Temple Franklin, sided with his grandfather during the conflict, and even served Benjamin Franklin while the latter negotiated a pivotal alliance between America and France.
The colony of New Hampshire was so sparsely populated by the end of the French and Indian War in 1762 that Governor Benning Wentworth came up with a unique way to entice people to move to what’s now known as the Granite State. According to History.com, Wentworth recruited settlers by offering one-acre lots that required annual rental payments of just a single ear of Indian corn payable on December 25.
PRESIDENT ABRAHAM LINCOLN at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania
Nov. 19, 1862
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate— we can not consecrate—we can not hallow—this
ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us— that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
Celebrations of the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the United States of America will unfold throughout 2026. As millions join in the festivities, it can be fun to compare the nation in its infancy to the one that has since firmly established itself as a global leader.
• 1780: 2.8 million*
• 2025: 342 million**
* The National Archives note that the first decennial census of the United States was not taken until 1790, so the figure cited for 1780 is a widely accepted estimate of the burgeoning nation’s population during the opening years of the American Revolutionary War.
** This represents the U.S. Census Bureau population estimate as of late 2025.
According to the National Constitution Center, a series of resolutions passed by the Second Continental Congress in September 1776 officially cited the collective colonies fighting in the American Revolutionary War as the “United States.”
• 1776: 13
• 2026: 50
Debates regarding income taxes may seem like an ever-present component of American life, but colonists did not pay income tax in 1776. Though taxation was undeniably a notable issue throughout colonial America, the Tax Foundation notes the situation was considerably different in 1776 than it is today, when taxes are a highly debated component of American life. In 1776, the British Crown relied on tariffs and excise taxes to fund the American colonies, whereas modern Americans pay federal and, in most states, state income taxes to finance a range of public goods and services.
• 1783: 800,000 sq miles
• 2026: just under 3.6 million sq miles
The Times Atlas of World History indicates that the United States had an area of approximately 800,000 square miles in 1783. The country is considerably larger today, with a rough land mass of just under 3.6 million square miles according to the U.S. Census Bureau. To put that expansion since the nascent days of the nation in perspective, today the combined land mass of the country’s two largest states eclipses the land mass of the entire nation in the early 1780s. Alaska (estimated land mass 571,000 square miles) and Texas (262,000), with roughly 833,000 square miles between them, are larger than the total land mass of the United States in 1783.
• Late eighteenth century: Horses
• 2025: 298.7 million registered vehicles
The Center for the Study of the Presidency and Congress notes that walking was the most common and cheapest mode of transportation in the late eighteenth century. Horses and wagons enabled business and distance travel, but such modes were only available to those who could afford it, greatly limiting who could get around by any means other than their own feet. Getting around in the present day is a little more accessible, and a recent analysis from Hedges & Company found there were 298.7 million registered vehicles in the U.S. in 2025.
As we commemorate and celebrate our nation’s 250th birthday, we recognize how blessed we are to be a part of it.
United we stand, and thank you to all who serve our country!
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By Sara Holthouse
sholthouse@post-journal.com
Steven Boothe, a local Sons of the American Revolution member, has had an interest in genealogical research and a love of learning history dating back to his elementary school days. With his connection to the American Revolution and the upcoming celebration of America’s 250th birthday, for Boothe, it is a time to look back and learn more about those involved in the revolution and what he referred to as a unique foundation for the country.
Boothe said being a member of the SAR and having an ancestor that was involved in the Revolutionary War checks a couple of boxes that he finds interesting; geneal-
ogy, or one’s own family history and the history of the founding of the country and the American Revolution. He first began learning about his family history and his own connection to the Revolutionary War during a grade school project.
“In elementary school we did a very small genealogical project and I had heard that I may have been related to an ancestor that had served in the American Revolution,” Boothe said. “In the early 2000s when I really got into genealogical research I found out that indeed I had a Captain John Deter who had served in the North Hampton County Pennsylvania militia for upwards of five tours of duty in the militia.”
Especially noteworthy, Boothe said, Deter was involved during the time when the
British had captured Philadelphia, which was nearby, and which was also the seat of government for the colonials at the time.
This connection is important to Boothe for a few reasons such as his enjoyment of genealogical research and learning his family history.
“You’ll never know these people,” Boothe said. “You’ll only know a fragment if you’re very lucky about them. But, in this way and learning that I had a Revolutionary War ancestor I was able to tie it to another love of mine, which is the love of history.”
Boothe referred to himself as a child of
1976, when he was in elementary school, and when there were bicentennial celebrations being held that year for America, similar to those happening this year. Growing up in Salamanca, Boothe said he enjoyed these celebrations back then, including an event that was held where teenagers went around and painted fire hydrants to look like soldiers; some in the continental blues of the Americans and others in the red of the Red Coats.
“I’ve always been fascinated by this era in our country,” Boothe said. “It’s a unique founding when you compare it to what other countries have gone through, and it’s just a love that stayed with me all of
continued on page 21
these years.”
Something that has also amazed Boothe about this era that he added that he enjoys is that this specific collection of individuals came together to found a country based on ideas and what they had been through, to form a country to be empowered by the people.
“These goals, these founding principles were so lofty that we really have never been able to completely reach them,” Boothe said. “Yet they remain goals that we strive for and goals and things like the freedoms that we enjoy; freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, it’s those types of things that I think it’s amazing that at one point in time there was this set of individuals, and they decided to found a country on that after having gained their independence through the American Revolution.”
Boothe noted that the 250th birthday celebration of America is also the 250th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, which helps to give people an idea of the reasoning behind why the founders were looking to form a new nation and what that new nation was all about. From a historical perspective, Boothe added that the American Revolution was also the first Civil War that the country went through.
“In some places there were already clans and individuals and maybe families or groups that were at odds with each other and they would take up the opposite sides to take up arms against each other,” Boothe said. “It’s kind of interesting. A lot of historians will tell us that approximately ⅓ of the country were at that point in favor of the Revolution, ⅓ were in favor of staying as part of a colonial outlet of England. And the other third were just going about their lives and didn’t care. So the fact that you had in many cases Americans battling Americans, it really was a Civil War of sorts.”
Celebrating America’s 250th birthday is important, Boothe said, because it is important to go back and learn about history and why things happened. He said the old adage that “history repeats itself” is very true, though it can look a little different 250 years later.
“In essence it’s something we need to understand and I think people need to appreciate the founding from the stand-
point of being able to understand what they were trying to do and why it’s still relevant today,” Boothe said. “A lot of people I believe have this feeling that there is a lack of relevance to these 250 year old documents or ideas, and that couldn’t really be further from the truth.”
Boothe said very few countries have these ideals and founding principles that they have striven for and while they may have freedoms of their own they are not the same as the ones fought for in the American Revolution and baked into the founding documents. He added that he finds it amazing to think that it all started with the founders not even knowing if they would win the war, fighting the superpower of the day in Great Britain, which was one of the top military powers and they still managed to come out on top.
“I think a lot of our freedoms we end up taking for granted because it’s just a routine part of the structure of our everyday life,” Boothe said. “The ability to come and go when we want, the ability to say what we want, the ability to … go to a place and vote on something and have your voice heard. These are all things we really need to pause, reflect on, and celebrate because there’s many people in the world these days that don’t have these rights.”
In some places if people say the wrong thing they may never be heard from again, and people do not have the freedom to practice their religion freely, Boothe said. He added that because of the freedoms Americans have dating back all the way to the founding fathers, Americans are accustomed to believing they are normal.
Boothe said this is why people need to take time to reflect and learn more about this time, adding that something he likes to do anytime he is near a Revolutionary War battlefield is to go visit.
Boothe praised the National Park system for keeping these battlefields preserved, and sometimes he will bring back things from the trip to his fellow SAR members. He added that the SAR is a great group and open to the public, with a focus on history and education.
“I think people should know that our history matters,” Boothe said. “Just because there’s certain ideals that the founders came up with that we haven’t necessarily been able to apply universally or not done a good job in putting it into 100% implementation, they are still relevant today.
As Americans, as citizens of this country, we should cherish these ideas and look
to keep on pushing them forward to the point where we do have everyone covered by these ideals.”
Americans also need to realize the intent behind these ideals to allow people to fully enjoy their freedoms and to also realize the sacrifices made by patriots in those days, Boothe said. While a lot of the focus is on the male patriots back then, Boothe said women had important roles to play too, such as Abigail Adams and others who were actually on the battlefield. He noted that it is not insignificant that the men would have left their farms for their tours of duty and the mother of
the family would be left with the running of the household and fields.
“There were contributions from everyone and I would like to see a day where as we go forward we continue to have contributions from everyone, no matter what your outlook on life, or your politics, or the great issues of our day are,” Boothe said. “Maybe there’s room for us to agree on one thing, and that’s preserving the freedoms that we do have and enjoy and looking to make sure they are justly applied and available for everyone in the country to enjoy.”
IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776. The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America, When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.–That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, –That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new
Guards for their future security.–Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:
For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offenses
For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighboring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is
unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
John Adams
Samuel Adams
Josiah Bartlett
Carter Braxton
Charles Carroll
Samuel Chase
Abraham Clark
George Clymer
William Ellery
William Floyd
Benjamin Franklin
Elbridge Gerry
Button Gwinnett
Lyman Hall
John Hancock
Benjamin Harrison
John Hart
Joseph Hewes
Thomas Heyward Jr.
William Hooper
Stephen Hopkins
Francis Hopkinson
Samuel Huntington
Thomas Jefferson
Francis Lightfoot Lee
Richard Henry Lee
Francis Lewis
Philip Livingston
Thomas Lynch Jr.
Thomas McKean
Arthur Middleton
Lewis Morris
Robert Morris
John Morton
Thomas Nelson Jr.
William Paca
Robert Treat Paine
John Penn
George Read
Caesar Rodney
George Ross
Benjamin Rush
Edward Rutledge
Roger Sherman
James Smith
Richard Stockton
Thomas Stone
George Taylor
Matthew Thornton
George Walton
William Whipple
William Williams
James Wilson
John Witherspoon
Oliver Wolcott
George Wythe
American flag has been recognized across the globe as a symbol of freedom for centuries. The Stars and Stripes is recognizable to billions of people worldwide, but the flag has undergone many changes since the United States gained its independence from Great Britain. According to the National Flag Foundation, the national flag of the United States has been revised 27 times since American colonists fought for and won independence from British rule. Of course, many of those changes occurred when a new state or new states were added to the union. Each time a new state joined the union, the flag would have to be adjusted with the addition of an extra star. The 1777 flag included a star for each of the 13 colonies that eventually became one of the initial 13 states, but the modern flag now features 50 stars as representative of the 50 states. Though the flag certainly underwent many changes since the nation’s inception, the NFF notes the current flag has remained unchanged since 1960, when the 50-star version was officially adopted on July 4 in recognition of Hawaii becoming the fiftieth state in 1959.
The United States of America is often characterized as “the land of the free,” a characterization that serves as a feather in the cap of the nation that will celebrate its two hundred and fiftieth anniversary in 2026. Upon hearing the phrase “land of the free,” it’s understandable if thoughts immediately go to protected rights like freedom of speech, freedom of religion and freedom of the press. But what about the “land” in the land of free? As Americans prepare to celebrate their nation’s semiquincentennial, recognition of various geographical features of the land of the free can underscore why the United States of America is such a unique place to call home.
Climbers who train for years in the hopes of one day making their way up Mount Everest might be surprised to learn the mountain located on the border between Koshi Province, Nepal and the Tibet Autonomous Region is not, in fact, the world’s tallest mountain. While Mount Everest is the highest mountain above sea level, the world’s tallest mountain is Mauna Kea, which is in the Hawaiian islands. According to the American Geography Portal, when measured from its base on the sea floor to its summit, Mauna Kea is more than 32,000 feet tall, topping Mount Everest by a few thousand feet.
Oregon is home to one of the world’s deepest lakes.
With a depth of approximately 1,950 feet, Crater Lake in south-central Oregon is the eleventh deepest lake in the world and the second deepest lake in North America. The National Park Service notes that Crater Lake, fed by rain and snow, is among the most pristine lakes on Earth, making it a popular destination for artists, photographers and sightseers.
Alaska’s location makes it a particularly unique place in the land of the free.
It may surprise no one to learn that Alaska features the northernmost point in all of the United States. But it may raise an eyebrow or two to learn that The Last Frontier contains both the easternmost and westernmost points in the country. The Prime Meridian is an imaginary line that divides the Earth into the eastern and western hemispheres. According to The State of Alaska, the westernmost point in the state, and thus the entire country, is Amatignak Island. Seventy miles away and still in Alaska, but on the other side of the meridian and thus technically in the eastern hemisphere, sits Pochnoi Point on Semisopochnoi Island, which is the easternmost point in the country.
You end up in the “same” place no matter which direction you go when departing Stamford, Connecticut.
Located in southwestern Connecticut, Stamford is in a notably unique geographic location. If you travel due east, due west, due south, or due north when departing Stamford, you will end up entering the same state: New York. This is the only place in all of the United States where traveling along the four compass points will leave you in the same place no matter the direction you choose.
Alexander Hamilton’s legacy rose to new heights in the twenty-first century, a remarkable feat given that the Founding Father passed away in 1804. The debut of the Broadway musical Hamilton in 2015 reinvigorated interest in the American statesman, but even the most ardent fans of Lin-Manuel Miranda’s wildly popular play may not realize that Alexander Hamilton made a notable “mistake” that has endured through the centuries. A careful reading of the United States Constitution reveals that the home state of each delegate is listed alongside his name. The names of the delegates’ states were written into the document by Alexander Hamilton. Benjamin Franklin was the Pennsylvania delegate at the time, and when writing the state Franklin represented next to his name, Hamilton spelled it “Pensylvania.” That spelling notably contains two “Ns” and not the three in the modern spelling of the state’s name used today. But before Americans point a finger at the Founding Father for misspelling the name, it’s worth noting that Hamilton was not necessarily incorrect. Indeed, it was considered acceptable to spell “Pennsylvania” with two or three Ns in the late eighteenth century. Alas, modern readers of the Constitution cannot be blamed for wishing spellcheck had been around when the United States became a nation.
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Americans will celebrate the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the United States in 2026. A semiquincentennial is a notable anniversary, and there’s been no shortage of noteworthy events throughout United States history. The places where many of those events took place have been preserved by local and national historical societies, and visiting such sites can make for a great way to gain a greater understanding of American history. The National Trust for Historic Preservation® works to maintain and revitalize historic sites, and that boasts a number of benefits. History buffs may insist there’s no experience quite like visiting a historic site and feeling an immediate connection to past eras and peoples. And such sites also provide a boost to local economies while helping to establish a shared sense of civic duty and belonging, which ultimately helps to build strong communities. With so much to gain from visiting historic locales, those celebrating 250 years of the United States can visit any of these sites across the country to bolster those celebrations.
The National Trust notes that each of Montana’s 56 counties still features at least one rural schoolhouse, many of which are one- or two-room buildings where generations of school-aged children were educated. A visit to one of these schoolhouses provides incredible context to what life in the state of Montana was like in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Ellis Island National Monument,
The National Trust reports Ellis Island in New York Harbor accommodated more than 12 million immigrants seeking new opportunities in the United States. Perhaps the most telling figure regarding the influence of Ellis Island concerns how many current Americans can trace their ancestry to immigrants who were processed at this globally recognized landmark. The National Trust estimates that at least 40 percent of Americans have an ancestor processed at Ellis Island.
• Ford Piquette Avenue Plant, Detroit, Michigan:
America has long had a love affair with automobiles, so any tour of historical sites in the United States should include a trip to the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant. The birthplace of the Model T, the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant is among the most significant automotive heritage sites across the globe. The museum features more than 65 rare vehicles and enough original automotive artifacts to impress anyone interested in an industry that helped to reinvent the United States and even the world.
• Blandwood Museum, Greensboro, North Carolina:
Designed in 1844 by New York architect Alexander Jackson Davis, Blandwood is
America’s oldest Italianate-style house and museum. John Motley Morehead was the twenty-ninth governor of North Carolina and owner of the house, which was where North Carolina was surrendered during the Civil War, thus ending the conflict in the state. Human rights activist Dorothea Dix was among the many who visited Blandwood over the years, and Dix convinced Governor Morehead to fund a state hospital for people with mental illness.
• Cozens Ranch Museum, Fraser, Colorado:
History buffs with a passion for the era of the pioneers will want to add Cozens Ranch Museum to their travel bucket list.
The Grand County Historical Association notes that former Central City sheriff William Zane Cozens moved to the Fraser Valley with his family in 1874 and soon set to building a residence, among other structures. Countless weary travelers who made it through the Berthoud Pass in the nineteenth century visited Cozens Ranch over the years, making this is a must-visit site for those looking to experience a taste of pioneering life during a much romanticized era in American history.
By Sara Holthouse sholthouse@post-journal.com
With multiple celebrations happening across the state and the nation this year for America’s 250th birthday, Chautauqua County Historian Norm Carlson is reflecting not only on his own connections to the American Revolution, but also the importance of the upcoming celebration.
Carlson has been a member of the Sons of the American Revolution for many years, including serving as a former president. In order to be an SAR member one has to be able to trace their lineage back to an American Revolution patriot. Altogether Carlson said he has found six ancestors of his that fall into this category, including a Daniel Chiles from Maine that he used to join SAR. He also noted his relation to Josiah Bartlet, who is his fifth great-grandfather. Carlson added that there is a
Josiah Bartlet who signed the Declaration of Independence, but this was a different one than his ancestor, as Josiah Bartlet was a common name among the Bartlets back then.
This connection is an important one to Carlson, who said that connections to the past should be important to everyone.
“Why wouldn’t it be?” Carlson said. “Why wouldn’t someone’s heritage and the past of their family, community, be important to them? The past is what shapes us and gives us the information that we act on today.”
As a part of the America 250 celebrations, Carlson said New York State is strongly encouraging each county to celebrate the American Revolution. The overall Revolution lasted from 1775 to 1783 when the Treaty of Peace was signed, so Carlson said that anniversary will be celebrated in 2032. Specifically for this year it is the
250th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, and Carlson said the state is providing counties with funds to help celebrate this anniversary such as for speakers and exhibits, and to overall help counties to celebrate properly.
America’s 250th anniversary is important,
Carlson said, because it is in the human mind and habits to review or reminisce on past years with numbers that stand out, such as 250. This will also be the first time many people alive today will have the opportunity to consider and celebrate this
continued on page 31
Mattie Silleman, Kennedy Thurston, and Blake Case, students participating in Chautauqua County’s America 250: Chautauqua County’s Story project stand with County Executive PJ Wendel and County Historian Norman Carlson outside the Chautauqua County Courthouse, a featured filming location that highlights the county’s ongoing connection to America’s story and civic history.
‘What Shapes Us’ continued from page 30
anniversary on a grand scale, with multiple organizations nationwide hosting events.
“It’s a splendid opportunity to learn about the past, though anytime is a good time to learn,” Carlson said. “If we’re not learning from the past, then what are we learning from?”
Also when celebrating the 250th anniversary, Carlson said he would like to see people ask the deeper questions. This includes areas such as continuing the revolution and expanding the franchise. In this case, Carlson said he would like to see people question if expanding the franchise helps produce a better government or makes it worse? He also noted the importance of voting, and that people who do not watch the news or read the newspaper still vote, and to not take for granted things like that as everyone who is able to vote is expected to be able to make wise choices. Carlson added that this is also a good time to reflect on the freedoms that people had before the Revolution that people today might not have, and what freedoms people have today that those in the time of the Revolution did not.
Carlson said people should also be reflecting on the history of democracy during this anniversary, which was first instituted in Ancient Greece by Cleisthenes, known as the father of Athenian democracy. Carlson noted that in the 1770s the idea of democracy was a radical one, as some people thought it would not work because it did not work well in Athens. In the Athenian democracy, Carlson said
some things were different, such as specific rules on voting, including all adult male citizens had to vote, and a steering committee ruled, though the steering committee was not voted on, rather chosen by a lottery.
“Democracy is complex and difficult to make work,” Carlson said. “We should use this anniversary to ask deeper questions, and not just to continue advancing our ideological views.”
As the county historian, Carlson is chairman of the 2026 History Expo Committee. The history expo is set for August 2, which Carlson noted is the day after the book and paper show, and the day before Ken Burns is set to speak at Chautauqua Institution. The history expo will be heavily America 250 themed and include a lot of history. The Jamestown Harmony Express will be there, along with speakers and a few other things still in the works. Kids activities will be included, such as learning how spies operated during the Revolution. The day will include parking, food, and education. Everything is free and it will take place at the old Mayville school.
Carlson will also be in Mayville’s July 4th parade, and has been doing and will continue to do numerous repetitions of two speeches: Chautauqua County’s Connections to the Revolutionary War and George Washington’s Connections to Chautauqua County. Carlson said both are very pointedly not the same old thing people have heard before, and not what people will expect. He encouraged everyone to come out and join in to the History Expo and other America 250 events.
To those people in the huts and villages of half the globe struggling to break the bonds of mass misery, we pledge our best efforts to help them help themselves, for whatever period is required – not because the communists may be doing it, not because we seek their votes, but because it is right. If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.
To our sister republics south of our border, we offer a special pledge – to convert our good words into good deeds – in a new alliance for progress – to assist free men and free governments in casting off the chains of poverty. But this peaceful revolution of hope cannot become the prey of hostile powers. Let all our neighbors know that we shall join with them to oppose aggression or subversion anywhere in the Americas. And let every other power know that this Hemisphere intends to remain the master of its own house.
To that world assembly of sovereign states, the United Nations, our last best hope in an age where the instruments of war have far outpaced the instruments of peace, we renew our pledge of support – to prevent it from becoming merely a forum for invective – to strengthen its shield of the new and the weak – and to enlarge the area in which its writ may run.
Finally, to those nations who would make themselves our adversary, we offer not a pledge but a request: that both sides begin anew the quest for peace, before the dark powers of destruction unleashed by science engulf all humanity in planned or accidental self-destruction.
We dare not tempt them with weakness. For only when our arms are sufficient beyond doubt can we be certain beyond doubt that they will never be employed.
But neither can two great and powerful groups of nations take comfort from our present course – both sides overburdened by the cost of modern weapons, both rightly alarmed by the steady
spread of the deadly atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of terror that stays the hand of mankind’s final war.
So let us begin anew –remembering on both sides that civility is not a sign of weakness, and sincerity is always subject to proof. Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate.
Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us.
Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals for the inspection and control of arms – and bring the absolute power to destroy other nations under the absolute control of all nations.
Let both sides seek to invoke the wonders of science instead of its terrors. Together let us explore the stars, conquer the deserts, eradicate disease, tap the ocean depths and encourage the arts and commerce.
Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah – to “undo the heavy burdens . . . (and) let the oppressed go free.”
And if a beachhead of cooperation may push back the jungle of suspicion, let both sides join in creating a new endeavor, not a new balance of power, but a new world of law, where the strong are just and the weak secure and the peace preserved.
All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin.
In your hands, my fellow citizens, more than mine, will
rest the final success or failure of our course. Since this country was founded, each generation of Americans has been summoned to give testimony to its national loyalty. The graves of young Americans who answered the call to service surround the globe.
Now the trumpet summons us again – not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need –not as a call to battle, though embattled we are – but a call to bear the burden of a long twilight struggle, year in and year out, “rejoicing in hope, patient in tribulation” – a struggle against the common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease and war itself.
Can we forge against these enemies a grand and global alliance, North and South, East and West, that can assure a more fruitful life for all mankind? Will you join in that historic effort?
In the long history of the world, only a few generations have been granted the role of defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger. I do not shrink from this responsibility – I welcome it. I do not believe that any of us would exchange places with any other people or any other generation. The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light our country and all who serve it – and the glow from that fire can truly light the world.
And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country.
My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man. Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you. With a good conscience our only sure reward, with history the final judge of our deeds, let us go forth to lead the land we love, asking His blessing and His help, but knowing that here on earth God’s work must truly be our own.
Jefferson Davis’s name is inextricably linked to the American Civil War, during which the politician who represented Mississippi in the United States Senate served as president of the Confederate States. But Davis’s influence on the United States predated the nation’s civil war, and he even played a notable role in one of the more unique events in American military history. While serving as Secretary of War in 1855, Davis ordered Brevet Major Henry C. Wayne to arrange for the importation of camels to be used for military purposes. Davis had urged Congress to establish a United States Army Camel Corps. for years, and even formally introduced measures to establish such a unit in the early 1850s, efforts that ultimately proved unsuccessful. Though few might associate camels with the United States, Davis’s campaign to bring camels into the American military
fold was not as eccentric as it might seem in modern times. According to the Army University Press, the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, which officially ended the Mexican-American War upon its signing in 1848, added more than half a million square miles of land to the United States, a significant portion of which included desert lands in what is now the American southwest. The discovery of gold in California around this same time also increased traffic in this new region of the country, which remained dangerous even after the signing of the treaty. Advocates of a camel corps insisted the animals would allow the U.S. Army, tasked with keeping the region safe, to do their job more effectively. Though the camel experiment ultimately failed due to a number of variables, it remains a unique and lesser known event in American military history.
The Library of Congress
An act of the United States Congress approved in 1800 continues to have an impact even today, when it’s still paying dividends for lawmakers, librarians, scholars, and the general public. As Congress prepared to move the national government from Philadelphia to Washington in 1800, founding father and then-President of the United States John Adams approved an act allocating $5,000 for books to be used by Congressmen. Thus marked the beginning of what is now known as the Library of Congress, which has since become the largest library in the world as well as the home of the U.S. Copyright Office. In 1802, President Adams’s successor, Thomas Jefferson, made the job of Librarian of Congress a presidential appointment, and it remains so today.
The Library of Congress continually adds to its collection, which currently consists of millions of books in roughly 470 languages.
• On which day were the battles at Lexington and Concord fought?
Answer: April 19, 1775
• True or False: Bunker Hill was fought on Bunker Hill.
Answer: False. Despite its name, the Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17, 1775, was fought on Breed’s Hill.
• The mercenary-like forces hired to fight alongside the British during the American Revolutionary War were known as what?
Answer: Hessians. Though soldiers from various German states were hired and deployed by the British during the conflict, the troops were principally drawn from the German state of Hesse-Cassel.
• This infamous figure was a decorated American military officer who rose to the rank of Major General during the American Revolutionary War.
Answer: Benedict Arnold. Though Arnold is today widely remembered as a turncoat, he accomplished much for the Americans before defecting to the British in 1780, including leading the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in 1775.
• Which of these notable rivers did George Washington lead his troops across on December 30, 1776?
A. The Hudson River
B. The Delaware River
C. The Rubicon
D. The Charles River
Answer: B. The Delaware River
• This Founding Father famously declared “Give me liberty, or give me death!” during a speech to the Second Virginia Convention in 1775.
A. Benjamin Franklin
B. Thomas Jefferson
C. John Adams
D. Patrick Henry
Answer: D. Patrick Henry
• True or False: The American Revolutionary War is the longest conflict in American military history.
Answer: False. While the eight-year-long conflict between the colonists and Great Britain that began in 1775 remained the longest war in American military history for nearly 200 years, the Vietnam War, in which America was engaged between 1960 and 1975, displaced it atop that list in the middle decades of the twentieth century. The invasion of Afghanistan, which began in 2001 and continued until 2021, has since become the longest conflict in American military history.
• True or False: Fewer than half of all colonists favored fighting for independence from Great Britain.
Answer: True. Though specific figures are hard to confirm, various historians estimate that only about 40 percent of colonists supported the American Revolutionary War, while roughly one in five identified as loyalists to the crown. The remaining 40 percent are believed to have held moderate views.
• This treaty, signed in 1783, marked the end of the American Revolution.
A. The Treaty of Versailles
B. The Treaty of Paris
C. The Treaty of Tordesillas
D. The Treaty of Accession
Answer: B. The Treaty of Paris.
• True or False: The Continential Congress declared its independence from Great Britain on July 2.
Answer: True. Though Americans annually celebrate the nation’s independence on July 4, the Continential Congress declared its independence on July 2, two days before signing the Declaration of Independence.
By MICHAEL DEE and SCOTT AXELSON
The word “patriotism” might mean different things to different people. It might refer to defense of the State like in Nazi Germany, or defense of the Communist Party in the USSR. It might mean supporting the Crown, like in Great Britain. It might mean supporting a Theocracy like in Iran.
Or it might mean defending an eternal principle, like in the United States.
The unique historical significance of America is made clear by our founding principle stated in the Declaration:
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”
This single sentence defines what it means to be American: Not race. Not religion. Not birth. Just the principle of Natural Rights and personal responsibility. This is why our service oath is to the Constitution, not the Party, not a person, and not the
Government. This statement differentiates America from all other nations.
Perhaps the principle of Natural Rights is why America has been so successful in creating the biggest and wealthiest middle class in history, while advancing human flourishing like no other country ever did or could. Without Natural Rights we are just another bunch of disparate groups fighting each other for control of the people.
It is the related principles of Natural Rights and limited government that deserve our patriotism. This means allowing people to make their own choices and requiring the Government to defend that right — rather than the Government making our choices for us. It has worked magnificently for 250 years, especially compared to the alternatives.
Where America has failed – it was because of the Government violating these principles. We assume our Natural Rights by virtue of our existence, but we must be eternally vigilant in defense of these freedoms. We only have the freedoms we can defend, as noted by our founders: “A Republic,
Madam, if you can keep it.” Our freedom can be lost in less than a single generation. Beware.
Imagine a world without America and our tradition of Natural Rights. What country would be the beacon of freedom? There is no other. We are unique in the world. The alternative to the American ideal of Natural Rights is human servitude – and back to the swamps.
While other countries have written checks that their ideologies could not cash, America has cashed its checks by allowing individual people to solve their own problems, and to prosper by their own ambitions.
Real Americans don’t wait around for the Government to give them stuff. Anyone who gives it an honest whirl can — and will – “make it” in America. You might get rich – or you might not - but you will live better than your cousins in any other country under any other political system.
We Americans should be proud that we have maintained our Republic for 250 years, and have defeated or outlived Monarchies, Socialism, Fascism, and myr-
iad other threats to human well-being. That’s quite an accomplishment since governments always tend toward totalitarian rule and inevitable economic collapse.
But our enthusiasm and support for our founding principle must never cease. We must be eternally vigilant.
To the naysayers we would ask: Would you rather be Russian? Chinese? Cuban? Venezuelan?
We should take heart that the anti-American narratives and criticisms with which we are constantly bombarded are built on historical falsehoods and half-truths devised by people who are ideologically committed to totalitarian rule (by them).
Be proud, Americans! Our heritagethough under constant siege - is a blessing for those of us who want to live as free adults who would rather die on our feet than live on our knees.
Happy Birthday America! Let freedom ring! Let freedom reign!
Michael Dee is a Silver Creek resident while Scott Axelson resides in Jamestown.
Match the patriotic quote to the speaker
“America is another name for opportunity.”
“Give me liberty, or give me death!”
“Those who expect to reap the blessings of freedom must, like men, undergo the fatigue of supporting it.”
“...there never was a good War, or a bad Peace.”
“Within
the soul of America is freedom of mind and spirit in man. Here alone are the open windows through which pours the sunlight of the human spirit.”
A. Patrick Henry
B. Benjamin Franklin
C. Ralph Waldo Emerson
D. Thomas Paine
E. Herbert Hoover
1. I was born in Virginia on April 28, 1758. I am the last Founding Father to serve as a president as well as the last president of the Virginia dynasty. Wildly popular, I won my second term almost unopposed, and I am known for my stable leadership.
2. I was born in Virginia on February 9, 1773 and went on to become the ninth president of the United States. Mine is known as the shortest presidency in United States history, despite the longest inauguration speech. I was commander in chief for just over 30 days.
3. I was born in Texas on October 14, 1890. I am known for my command of the Allied forces in Europe during World War II, and later for my two terms as President of the United States. During my presidency, I focused on maintaining peace and prosperity through a strong military and alliances.
4. I was born in Virginia on February 22, 1732. I became the commander of the Virginia Regiment during the French and Indian War. I was later instrumental in a movement against the oppression of the American colonists by the British Crown, and became commander in chief of the Continental Army.
Aug. 28, 1963
Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.
But 100 years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself in exile in his own land. And so we’ve come here today to dramatize a shameful condition. In a sense we’ve come to our nation’s capital to cash a check.
When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men — yes, Black men as well as white men — would be guaranteed the unalienable rights of life, liberty and the pur-
suit of happiness.
It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked insufficient funds. But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt.
We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. And so we’ve come to cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice.
We have also come to his hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism.
Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quick sands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God’s children.
It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of the Negro’s legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. 1963 is not an end, but a beginning. Those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual.
There will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is
granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.
But there is something that I must say to my people who stand on the warm threshold which leads into the palace of justice. In the process of gaining our rightful place, we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred.
We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again, we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force. The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. And they have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom. We cannot walk alone. And as we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead. We cannot turn back.
There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, when will you be satisfied? We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities.
We cannot be satisfied as long as the Negro’s basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to a larger one. We can never be satisfied as long as our children are stripped of their selfhood and robbed of their dignity by signs stating: for whites only.
We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote.
No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream.
I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells.
Some of you have come from areas where your quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our Northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed.
Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends.
So even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.
I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.
I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice.
I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today.
I have a dream that one day down in Alabama with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of interposition and nullification, one day right down in Alabama little Black boys and Black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers. I have a dream today.
I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight, and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together.
This is our hope. This is the faith that I go back to the South with. With this faith, we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.
This will be the day when all of God’s children will be able to sing with new meaning: My country, ‘tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. Land where my fathers died, land of the pilgrims’ pride, from every mountainside, let freedom ring.
And if America is to be a great nation, this must become true. And so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. Let freedom ring from the snowcapped Rockies of Colorado. Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. But not only that, let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia. Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee. Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. From every mountainside, let freedom ring.
And when this happens, and when we allow freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God’s children, Black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: Free at last. Free at last. Thank God almighty, we are free at last.
By KIRK L. MILLER
Our country continues to see much infighting. From the several political parties that hold positions of our elected leadership comes great debate over many different issues. One of those seems to be the classification of our true form of government. I hear scholars of political theory coin the phrase Democracy as a hold on how we live in America. But I will explain that this is not true.
Throughout history many civilizations’ felt that democracy was the greatest form of rule. Absolute democracy fails in many ways. The description of true democracy is one where every citizen has a vote and when those votes are tallied the majority is the winner and whatever they envisioned is held as the truth and whatever it describes is followed to the letter.
As you can realize this form of electorate isn’t completely feasible. Because right now you are feeling the second guessing in the back of your mind. Let’s make an example that is followed by a complete
question. At a meeting of the national government a citizen comes forward with an idea that the only shirt citizens are allowed to wear is a long sleeve button down white shirt. And it is this person’s idea that all men and women should wear it, both men and women. He brings this idea to a gathering of people, let’s say a national gathering. On that day explanation is given and supported by a majority in attendance and a vote is taken making it a law. This law will be enforced by the keepers of laws in the land. Let’s say that the punishment for violating the law is painful and invoked immediately upon discovery of its violation. Now let’s say that the very next day the sentiment changes about that rule and is brought up again by a group not supporting the rule and they vote to change it. Under pure democracy the rule is now removed if the overwhelming majority decides that course. This could have a ping pong effect forever.
In America we as recognized citizens knew we didn’t want a monarchy to control us. Where just because of a person’s birth right of a certain family retained power over the land and its people. Our founding fathers saw the problems associated with that style of government, and having been oppressed for so long by its reign of our colonies, they had great disdain for keeping that style of control.
SATURDAY, SEPT. 12TH & SUNDAY, SEPT 13TH
From history they also knew of other colonizations that fell prey to dictatorship or special interest groups seizing control of the government which held the military and so it gave them powers to police the citizens. This became known as the communist government. Where false narrative told the people they were a part of the bigger picture of progress but that in a socialistic way they must share all their earnings with the group for the better good.
Unfortunately, this gave way to corruption through greed by established upper classes in that government. With no incentive to prosper these forms of political movement always fail. Their citizens look at every turn to escape to a freer state.
ent
locations may not agree about everything, sat down to form what many have coined the perfect form of government. It allows all voices to be heard. At some point it gives every citizen a vote. It allows for a difference of opinion for the common good. Checks and balance are instilled to thwart the possibility of complete government corruption or takeover.
Such an idea of grandeur was created and called the Constitution of the United States of America. The plan it lays out in its most adolescent form was to be called a Democratic Republic. It differs drastically from pure democracy.
Under this plan we all have rights given by our creator, this is above and foremost and rule within the constitution created then, now, or in the future. From those initial statements of individual freedoms, the remaining rules and format are now made. Everything is in its proper place and done with such simplicity. It is this document that sets us apart from any other country in the world. It is the basis for all our beliefs, and we choose to protect its words with everything to include our lives. It is also the most copied ideal of government throughout the free world. The American Legion following true allegiance to our constitution defends its purpose through support of our troops abroad and by our own hands and words at home.
FEATURING JURIED CRAFTSMEN
HONORING THE SPIRIT OF AMERICAN ARTISTRY Rain or Shine • 10 am to 5 pm Each Day
I witnessed these attempts when I was a young man in the Army overseas. I saw people of such oppressed lands try at all costs to leave the places where they lived for better accommodation on the opposite side of a wall or fence. I saw guards fire upon families or let loose vicious dogs to chew on the extremities of these freedom seekers. It was inhumane, it was ungodly. The fences used to keep them inside their corrupt country were tall, sometimes electrified and they all were covered with razor wire to slow down or stop the escaping people. These folks wanted our type of freedom so badly they would do almost anything. I watched helplessly as a family of four built a homemade balloon out of coats and sheets, together they harnessed themselves to the balloon that was filled with natural gas and they probably thought they were free floating over the fence when the balloon was shot by machine gun fire and exploded in a ball of flames before reaching the free side of the border. Times like these never make the papers or become the top story on the national news.
Wise men with an understanding of liberty and what it really means and a plan to provide fairness for every citizen with respect for the idea that people of differ-
So, when others cry for pure democracy or call our government a democracy, know the truth that what we have built from 1776 until this newest millennium is far better than a democracy. “The Constitution” a life plan that was created By the People and For the People, and God willing cannot ever be undone.
Kirk L. Miller, past county commander of the Chautauqua County American Legion, 8th District Department of New York.
1. George Washington — George Washington is considered the “Father of His Country,” and for good reason. As commander of the Continental Army, he led an undertrained and underfunded force to victory over Great Britain in the Revolutionary War. He then became the first president of the United States, setting enduring precedents such as a peaceful transfer of power and a voluntary two-term limit. His leadership established the tone and legitimacy of the new republic.
2. Thomas Jefferson
3. John Adams
4. Benjamin Franklin
5. Alexander Hamilton
6. James Madison
7. John Jay
8. Samuel Adams
9. Patrick Henry
10. Thomas Paine
11. John Hancock
12. Abigail Adams
13. Mercy Otis Warren
14. Gouverneur Morris
15. George Mason
16. Richard Henry Lee
17. Roger Sherman
18. Robert Morris
19. Crispus Attucks
20. Paul Revere — Paul Revere became an American legend for his midnight ride in April 1775, warning colonial militias that British troops were advancing toward Lexington and Concord. A skilled silversmith and engraver, he was also an active member of revolutionary organiza-
tions such as the Sons of Liberty. His ride symbolized the courage and urgency that helped ignite the American Revolution.
21. Nathanael Greene
22. Henry Knox
23. Marquis de Lafayette
24. Baron von Steuben
25. Dolley Madison
26. Betsy Ross
27. Phillis Wheatley
28. Judith Sargent Murray
29. James Monroe
30. John Marshall — John Marshall transformed the Supreme Court into a coequal branch of government. Serving as chief justice from 1801 to 1835, he authored landmark decisions that established judicial review and strengthened federal authority. His influence on constitutional law was so profound that many historians consider him the most important jurist in American history.
31. Tecumseh — Tecumseh was one of the greatest Native American leaders in U.S. history. He sought to unite tribes across the Midwest and South to resist American expansion and protect Indigenous lands. Though killed during the War of 1812, his vision of intertribal cooperation and defense of sovereignty made him a lasting symbol of Native resistance.
32. Sacagawea
33. Sequoyah
34. Red Jacket
35. Black Hawk
36. Pontiac
37. Ethan Allen
38. Charles Carroll
39. Elbridge Gerry
40. Haym Salomon
41. Andrew Jackson
42. Abraham Lincoln — Abraham Lincoln guided the nation through the Civil War and preserved the Union during its gravest crisis. His Emancipation Proclamation transformed the conflict into a fight against slavery, and his leadership paved the way for the 13th Amendment. Lincoln’s words and moral clarity continue to define America’s highest ideals.
43. Ulysses S. Grant
44. Theodore Roosevelt
45. Franklin D. Roosevelt
46. Woodrow Wilson
47. James K. Polk
48. Harry S. Truman
49. Dwight D. Eisenhower
50. John F. Kennedy
51. Lyndon B. Johnson Lyndon B. Johnson used his extraordinary political skills to enact the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Great Society programs. Few presidents have had a more direct impact on modern American life, even as the Vietnam War overshadowed his achievements.
52. Richard Nixon
53. Gerald Ford
54. Jimmy Carter
55. Ronald Reagan
56. George H. W. Bush
57. Bill Clinton
continued on page 44
58. George W. Bush
59. Barack Obama
60. Donald Trump
61. Joe Biden
62. Henry Clay
63. Daniel Webster
64. John C. Calhoun
65. Thurgood Marshall
66. Earl Warren
67. Sandra Day O’Connor
68. Ruth Bader Ginsburg
69. Antonin Scalia
70. Martin Luther King Jr. — Martin Luther King Jr. became the moral voice of the civil rights movement, advocating nonviolent resistance to segregation and injustice. His leadership helped secure landmark civil rights legislation and inspired generations to pursue equality through peaceful protest.
71. Frederick Douglass — Born into slavery, Frederick Douglass escaped and became one of America’s most powerful advocates for abolition and equal rights. His speeches and autobiographies exposed the brutality of slavery and challenged the nation to live up to its ideals.
72. Harriet Tubman
73. Rosa Parks
74. Malcolm X
75. W.E.B. Du Bois
76. Booker T. Washington
77. Ida B. Wells
78. A. Philip Randolph
79. Bayard Rustin
80. Cesar Chavez
81. Dolores Huerta
82. Walter Reuther — Walter Reuther transformed the United Auto Workers into one of the nation’s most influential unions. He helped secure better wages, pensions and health benefits while also supporting civil rights and environmental causes, linking labor progress to broader social justice.
83. Ella Baker
84. Fannie Lou Hamer
85. Medgar Evers
86. John Lewis
87. Coretta Scott King
88. Bryan Stevenson
89. Frances Perkins
90. Clara Barton
91. Mary McLeod Bethune — Mary McLeod Bethune founded Bethune-Cookman University and advised President Franklin Roosevelt. She championed education as the pathway to advancement and became one of the most influential Black women leaders of the 20th century.
92. Margaret Sanger
93. Dorothea Dix
94. Carter G. Woodson
95. Wilma Mankiller
96. Russell Means
97. Vine Deloria Jr.
98. Harvey Milk
99. Marsha P. Johnson
100.Shirley Chisholm
101.Benjamin Banneker
102.Colin Powell — Colin Powell rose from humble beginnings in the Bronx to become one of the most respected military and diplomatic leaders in modern American history. A decorated Vietnam veteran, he later served as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff during the Gulf War, helping oversee a swift coalition victory. In 2001, Powell became the first African American Secretary of State, representing the United States on the world stage during a pivotal period after the September 11 attacks. Known for his leadership, discipline and emphasis on public service, Powell remained a widely admired figure across political lines.
103.Henry Kissinger
104.Madeleine Albright
105.Hillary Clinton
106.George C. Marshall
107.George S. Patton
108.Douglas MacArthur
109.Omar Bradley
110.Chester Nimitz
111.William Tecumseh Sherman — William Tecumseh Sherman’s campaigns in the Civil War, particularly his March to the Sea, helped break the Confederacy’s capacity to continue fighting. His use of total war tactics changed military strategy and hastened Union victory.
112.Robert E. Lee
113.Stonewall Jackson
114.Winfield Scott
115.John J. Pershing
116.Hyman Rickover
117.Curtis LeMay
118.Norman Schwarzkopf
119.David Petraeus
120.Thomas Edison
121.Alexander Graham Bell — Alexander Graham Bell revolutionized human communication by inventing the telephone. His work laid the foundation for modern telecommunications and transformed business, journalism and personal life.
122.Nikola Tesla
123.Henry Ford
124.Andrew Carnegie
125.John D. Rockefeller
126.Cornelius Vanderbilt
127.J. P. Morgan
128.Eli Whitney
129.Samuel Morse
130.Orville Wright
131.Wilbur Wright — Wilbur Wright, working alongside his brother Orville, helped achieve the first controlled, powered airplane flight in 1903. Though both brothers were essential, Wilbur was often regarded as the chief theoretician and strategist behind their efforts. Their success launched the aviation age and forever changed travel, commerce and warfare.
132.Robert Fulton
133.Cyrus McCormick
134.George Westinghouse
135.Charles Goodyear
136.Philo Farnsworth
137.Grace Hopper
138.Bill Gates
139.Steve Jobs
140.Steve Wozniak
141.Jeff Bezos — Jeff Bezos transformed global commerce by founding Amazon, which began as an online bookstore and grew into one of the world’s largest companies. His innovations in e-commerce, cloud computing and logistics reshaped consumer behavior and business practices across the globe.
142.Elon Musk
143.Larry Page
144.Sergey Brin
145.Mark Zuckerberg
146.Katherine Johnson
147.Neil Armstrong
148.John Glenn
149.Sally Ride
150.Carl Sagan
151.Jonas Salk — Jonas Salk developed the first successful vaccine against polio, a disease that once paralyzed or killed thousands of children each year. Introduced in 1955, the vaccine became one of the greatest
public health breakthroughs in history.
Salk refused
patent it, saying, “Could
you patent the sun?”
152.Benjamin Spock
153.Norman Borlaug
154.Vannevar Bush
155.J. Robert Oppenheimer
156.Enrico Fermi
157.Gordon Moore
158.Andy Grove
159.Sam Walton
160.Ray Kroc
161.Estee Lauder — Estée Lauder built one of the world’s most successful cosmetics companies from a small family business. Through innovative marketing and a keen understanding of branding, she transformed the beauty industry and became one of America’s most influential female entrepreneurs.
162.Warren Buffett
163.Walt Disney
164.Mark Twain
165.Walt Whitman
166.Emily Dickinson
167.Ernest Hemingway
168.F. Scott Fitzgerald
169.John Steinbeck
170.Toni Morrison
171.Maya Angelou — Maya Angelou’s autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings and her poetry gave voice to themes of resilience, dignity and justice. As a writer, performer and civil rights activist, she became one of the most important literary and cultural figures of modern America.
172.Langston Hughes
173.Bob Dylan
174.Elvis Presley
175.Louis Armstrong
176.Duke Ellington
177.Miles Davis
178.Aretha Franklin
179.Johnny Cash
180.Bruce Springsteen
181.Michael Jackson
182.Madonna
183.Beyoncé
184.Oprah Winfrey
185.Walter Cronkite — Walter Cronkite became the most trusted voice in American journalism during a period marked by war, political turmoil and technological triumph. His reporting on the Vietnam War, the assassination of President Kennedy and the Moon landing shaped the public’s understanding of history as it unfolded.
186.Edward R. Murrow
187.Steven Spielberg
188.George Lucas
189.Martin Scorsese
190.Clint Eastwood
191.Marilyn Monroe
192.Tom Hanks
193.Denzel Washington
194.Meryl Streep
195.Robin Williams
196.Fred Rogers — Fred Rogers used children’s television to teach kindness, empathy and emotional intelligence. Through Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood, he created a safe and thoughtful space that influenced generations of children and parents.
197.Norman Rockwell
198.Andy Warhol
199.Georgia O’Keeffe
200.Frank Lloyd Wright
201.Maya Lin
202.Jackie Robinson — Jackie Robinson broke Major League Baseball’s color barrier in 1947, opening the door for countless Black athletes. His courage, dignity and athletic excellence made him a pivotal figure in both sports and the broader civil rights movement.
203.Babe Ruth
204.Hank Aaron
205.Jack Johnson
206.Muhammad Ali
207.Michael Jordan
208.LeBron James
209.Kobe Bryant
210.Serena Williams
211.Tiger Woods — Tiger Woods revolutionized golf with his extraordinary talent and global appeal. His dominance expanded the sport’s popularity and inspired a new generation of athletes from diverse backgrounds.
212.Tom Brady
213.Joe Montana
214.Billie Jean King
215.Arthur Ashe
216.Jesse Owens
217.Simone Biles
218.Jim Thorpe
219.Bo Jackson
220.Peyton Manning
221.Derek Jeter
222.Sojourner Truth — Born into slavery, Sojourner Truth became one of the nation’s most powerful voices for abolition and women’s rights. Her “Ain’t I a Woman?” speech remains one of the defining statements of American reform.
223.Nat Turner
224.John Brown
225.Eugene V. Debs
226.Angela Davis
227.Claudette Colvin
228.Alice Paul
229.Betty Friedan
230.Gloria Steinem
231.Jane Addams — Jane Addams founded Hull House in Chicago and pioneered the settlement house movement. Her work improved the lives of immigrants and the urban poor and helped establish the profession of social work in the United States.
232.Rachel Carson
233.Ralph Ellison
234.James Baldwin
235.Harriet Beecher Stowe
236.Louis Sullivan
237.Margaret Mead
238.Roberto Goizueta
239.Sandra Cisneros
240.Toni Stone
241.Bill Russell
242.Roberto Clemente
243.George Washington Carver
244.Lou Gehrig
245.Ralph Bunche
246.Ella Fitzgerald
247.Charles Drew
248.Daniel Boone
249.George Rogers Clark
250.Davy Crockett — Davy Crockett embodied the rugged frontier spirit that became central to America’s national mythology. A hunter, soldier, congressman and storyteller, he rose from humble beginnings in Tennessee to national fame through his larger-than-life personality and colorful exploits. Crockett served in Congress, where he opposed some of Andrew Jackson’s policies, including the Indian Removal Act. He later joined the Texas Revolution and died at the Battle of the Alamo, cementing his status as one of the nation’s enduring folk heroes.
The American flag is perhaps the nation’s most recognizable symbol, representing unity, sacrifice and freedom. Its 13 stripes honor the original colonies that declared independence from Great Britain, while its 50 stars symbolize the states that now make up the Union. From battlefields to classrooms, from the moon landing to moments of national mourning, the flag has served as a powerful reminder of both the country’s ideals and the sacrifices made to defend them.
Chosen as the national emblem in 1782, the bald eagle symbolizes strength, courage and freedom. Found only in North
America, the eagle’s soaring flight and commanding presence made it a fitting image for a young nation determined to chart its own course. Though once endangered, the bald eagle’s recovery through conservation efforts also reflects America’s growing commitment to protecting its natural heritage.
The American bison became the national mammal in 2016, recognizing its deep connection to the nation’s history, ecology and Native American cultures. Once numbering in the tens of millions across the Great Plains, the bison helped sustain Indigenous peoples and shaped the landscape of the American West. Its near extinction in the 19th century and later recovery symbolize both the consequences of unchecked expansion and the power of conservation.
The Great Seal appears on official government documents, passports and the one-dollar bill, representing the sovereignty and ideals of the nation. The bald eagle clutching arrows and an olive branch symbolizes America’s desire for peace while remaining prepared to defend itself. The shield represents the unity of the states, while the motto “E Pluribus Unum” reflects the idea that many states and peoples form one nation.
Adopted as the national motto in 1956, “In God We Trust” reflects the role faith has played in the nation’s history and culture. The phrase appears on U.S. currency and in many public institutions. Though interpretations vary among Americans of different beliefs, the motto represents the
idea that moral principles and spiritual values have long influenced public life in the United States.
“E
Latin for “Out of many, one,” “E Pluribus Unum” has symbolized American unity since the nation’s founding. Originally referring to the joining of the 13 colonies into one nation, the phrase has come to represent the blending of diverse peoples, cultures and backgrounds into a shared national identity. It reflects the ongoing American experiment of unity amid diversity.
Written by Francis Scott Key during the War of 1812, “The Star-Spangled Banner” became the national anthem in 1931. Inspired by the sight of the American flag still flying after the bombardment of Fort McHenry, the song captures themes of resilience and patriotism. It is performed at sporting events, ceremonies and national observances, uniting Americans in moments of celebration and remembrance.
The rose was designated the national flower in 1986 and symbolizes beauty, love and resilience. Roses have appeared in American gardens, ceremonies and traditions for generations. Their wide variety of colors and meanings reflects the diversity and spirit of the American people.
Named the national tree in 2004, the oak represents strength, endurance and stability. Oaks have long played an important role in American history, from providing timber for ships and homes to serving as landmarks in communities across the
nation. Their deep roots and long lifespan make them fitting symbols for a country that values perseverance and growth.
Gifted to the United States by France in 1886, the Statue of Liberty stands as a global symbol of freedom and democracy. For millions of immigrants arriving through New York Harbor, “Lady Liberty” represented hope and opportunity in a new land. Her torch, held high above the harbor, continues to symbolize the promise of liberty and the enduring belief that America is a place where people can pursue a better future.
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The Liberty Bell, housed in Philadelphia, has become one of the nation’s enduring symbols of independence and equality. Though originally cast to commemorate the 50th anniversary of William Penn’s Charter of Privileges, it became associated with the ideals of the American Revolution. Its famous crack only added to its legend, and abolitionists later embraced the bell as a symbol of the fight against slavery and for civil rights.
Uncle Sam emerged during the War of 1812 and evolved into the personification of the United States government and the American people. Often depicted in a star-spangled top hat pointing directly at the viewer, Uncle Sam became especially famous through military recruitment posters during World Wars I and II. The image represents patriotism, national duty and the idea that citizens themselves are part of the nation’s strength.
The Minutemen were colonial militia members prepared to fight at a moment’s notice during the American Revolution. Their actions at Lexington and Concord marked the beginning of the Revolutionary War. As symbols, the Minutemen represent ordinary citizens stepping forward to defend liberty and self-government.
The White House has served as the residence and workplace of every U.S. president except George Washington. More than simply a home, it symbolizes the executive branch of government and the continuity of American democracy. Through wars, economic crises and celebrations, the White House has remained a visible reminder of stable leadership and the peaceful transfer of power.
The U.S. Capitol stands at the heart of the nation’s legislative branch and symboliz-
es representative democracy. It is where Congress debates laws, declares war, certifies elections and addresses issues facing the nation. Its iconic dome has become one of the most recognizable images in America, representing the idea that government derives its authority from the people.
Ratified in 1788, the Constitution created the framework for the American system of government and remains the oldest written national constitution still in use. It established checks and balances among branches of government while protecting the rights of citizens. The Constitution’s ability to adapt through amendments has helped the nation navigate enormous changes while preserving democratic principles.
Adopted on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence announced America’s separation from Great Britain and articulated the ideals upon which the nation was founded. Its assertion that “all men are created equal” and possess unalienable rights has inspired democratic movements around the world. Though the nation has struggled to fully live up to those ideals, the document remains a moral compass for generations of Americans.
The Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791, guarantees many of the freedoms Americans cherish most deeply, including freedom of speech, religion, press and assembly. These first 10 amendments limit government power and protect individual liberties. They remain central to debates about civil rights, privacy and justice, reflecting the nation’s enduring commitment to personal freedom.
Built to honor George Washington, commander of the Continental Army and the nation’s first president, the Washington Monument symbolizes leadership, sacrifice and the founding of the republic. Rising prominently above the National Mall, the obelisk serves as a reminder of Washington’s role in guiding the young nation through its earliest and most uncertain years.
The Lincoln Memorial honors President Abraham Lincoln and his leadership during the Civil War, one of the nation’s greatest crises. It also became a symbol of civil rights, most famously serving as the site of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech in 1963. The memorial represents unity, equality and the ongoing pursuit of freedom.
The Mayflower carried Pilgrims from England to the New World in 1620, becoming a symbol of early settlement and religious freedom. The Mayflower Compact, signed aboard the ship, established principles of self-government that influenced later democratic ideas in America. The voyage remains central to the story of colonial America and the nation’s origins.
The cowboy symbolizes the frontier spirit, independence and rugged individualism often associated with the American West. Though romanticized in books, films and television, cowboys played a real role in cattle drives and western expansion during the 19th century. The image of the cowboy remains tied to ideals of hard work, self-reliance and adventure.
Known as the “Mother Road,” Route 66 connected Chicago to Los Angeles and became a symbol of mobility, freedom and opportunity. During the Dust Bowl and Great Depression, families traveled the highway seeking better lives in the West. Later, it embodied the spirit of road trips, adventure and the open road that became deeply woven into American culture.
Completed in 1937, the Golden Gate Bridge symbolizes American engineering, innovation and ambition. Spanning the entrance to San Francisco Bay, it became an icon of the American West and the possibilities of modern construction. Its graceful design and towering presence continue to represent progress and imagination.
Mount Rushmore features the carved faces of Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln, each chosen to represent different chapters of American history. The monument symbolizes the nation’s founding, expansion, conservation and preservation of the Union. Though admired by millions, it also prompts discussion about Native American history and the complexities of national memory.
1777
The Continental Army endured Valley Forge and American forces won at Saratoga, a turning point that helped persuade France to back the Revolution.
1778
The Treaty of Alliance with France brought the United States its most important foreign partner in the Revolutionary War.
1779
John Paul Jones won fame aboard the Bonhomme Richard, answering surrender demands with defiance during a dramatic naval battle.
1780
The treason of Benedict Arnold shocked the Patriot cause and made his name a lasting synonym for betrayal.
1781
British General Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown, effectively ending major fighting in the American Revolution.
1782
Preliminary peace articles between the United States and Great Britain recognized American independence in principle.
1783
The Treaty of Paris formally ended the Revolutionary War and recognized the United States as an independent nation.
1784
The Confederation Congress ratified the Treaty of Paris, completing the legal end of the war for independence.
1785
Congress adopted the Land Ordinance of 1785, establishing a system for surveying and selling western lands.
1786
Shays’ Rebellion exposed weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation and helped build momentum for a stronger national government.
1787
Delegates met in Philadelphia and wrote the United States Constitution, creating the framework still used today.
1788
New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the Constitution, putting the new federal government into effect.
1789
George Washington took the oath of office as the first president of the United States in New York City.
1790
The first federal census counted nearly 4 million people in the young United States.
This is the scene as about 6,000 persons gathered before the SubTreasury building in New York City, Sept. 25, 1941, for the opening of the three-month celebration marking the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights. (AP Photo/Carl Nesensohn)
1791
The Bill of Rights was ratified, adding the first 10 amendments to the Constitution.
1792
The Coinage Act created the U.S. Mint and established the dollar as the nation’s standard unit of money.
1793
Eli Whitney’s cotton gin was introduced, transforming agriculture and deepening the nation’s dependence on enslaved labor.
This image provided by the National Archives shows the 19th century engraving “Drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, 1859” by Alonzo Chappel which depicts of the the committee chosen to draft a declaration of independence. The five members are, from left, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Philip Livingston and Roger Sherman. One of the nation’s founding fathers -- but never president -Franklin was born to a soapmaker and earned his wealth as printer, publisher and inventor. (Alonzo Chappel/ National Archives via AP)
1794
The Whiskey Rebellion tested federal authority under President Washington and ended when militia forces marched into western Pennsylvania.
1795
The Treaty of Greenville opened much of present-day Ohio to American settlement after conflict in the Northwest Territory.
1796
George Washington’s Farewell Address warned against permanent foreign alliances and bitter partisan division.
1797
John Adams became the second president, marking the first peaceful transfer of executive power under the Constitution.
1798
The Alien and Sedition Acts ignited a national debate over civil liberties, immigration and federal power.
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1799
George Washington died at Mount Vernon, prompting nationwide mourning for the Revolutionary War leader and first president.
The election of 1800 produced the first peaceful transfer of power between rival political parties in American history.
1801
Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated and called for unity after one of the nation’s most divisive early elections.
1802
Congress passed the Enabling Act of 1802, beginning the process that led to Ohio becoming the first state formed from the Northwest Territory.
1803
The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States and opened vast western lands to American expansion.
1804
The Lewis and Clark Expedition set out to explore the newly acquired Louisiana Territory and the route to the Pacific.
This message from the National Archives from President Thomas Jefferson describes Lewis and Clark’s discoveries during their expedition.
1805
Lewis and Clark reached the Pacific Ocean, completing one of the most famous exploratory journeys in U.S. history.
1806
Zebulon Pike began an expedition that helped map parts of the West and later gave his name to Pikes Peak.
1807
Congress passed a law ending the legal importation of enslaved people into the United States effective in 1808.
1808
The federal ban on importing enslaved people took effect, though slavery itself continued in much of the country.
James Madison became president as tensions with Great Britain continued to rise.
1810
The United States continued expanding into the Mississippi Valley as tensions grew over Spanish control of nearby territories.
1811
William Henry Harrison’s forces fought Tecumseh’s confederacy at the Battle of Tippecanoe in Indiana Territory.
1812
The United States declared war on Great Britain, beginning the War of 1812.
1813
Oliver Hazard Perry won the Battle of Lake Erie, giving the United States control of the lake during the War of 1812.
1814
British troops burned public buildings in Washington, D.C., while defenders at Fort McHenry inspired the future national anthem.
1815
Andrew Jackson’s victory at the Battle of New Orleans became a legendary American triumph, though the peace treaty had already been signed.
1816
Indiana entered the Union as the 19th state.
1817
Construction began on the Erie Canal, a project that would transform transportation and commerce in the young republic.
1818
Illinois became the 21st state, expanding the Union deeper into the Old Northwest.
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1819
The Supreme Court’s McCulloch v. Maryland decision strengthened federal power and protected the national bank from state interference.
1820
The Missouri Compromise admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, temporarily balancing sectional tensions.
1821
Missouri entered the Union as the 24th state.
1822
Authorities in Charleston claimed to uncover a slave revolt plot allegedly led by Denmark Vesey, intensifying Southern fears of rebellion.
1823
President James Monroe announced the Monroe Doctrine, warning European powers against new colonization in the Americas.
The presidential election ended without an Electoral College majority and was decided by the House of Representatives.
1825
The Erie Canal opened, linking the Great Lakes with the Hudson River and helping make New York a commercial powerhouse.
1826
John Adams and Thomas Jefferson both died on July 4, the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence.
1827
New York abolished slavery within the state, a major step in Northern emancipation before the Civil War.
1828
Andrew Jackson won the presidency in an election that signaled the rise of mass democracy and modern campaigning.
1829
David Walker published his Appeal, one of the era’s most forceful antislavery writings.
1830
Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, leading to forced removals of Native peoples from their homelands.
1831
Nat Turner’s rebellion in Virginia became one of the most significant uprisings by enslaved people in American history.
1832
South Carolina’s nullification crisis challenged federal authority over tariffs and foreshadowed later sectional conflict.
1833
The Compromise Tariff of 1833 helped defuse the nullification crisis between South Carolina and the federal government.
1834
The Whig Party began to emerge as a national opposition movement to Andrew Jackson’s Democrats.
1835
The Second Seminole War began in Florida, becoming one of the longest and costliest Indian wars in U.S. history.
1836
Texas won independence from Mexico after the battles of the Alamo and San Jacinto.
1837
Michigan became the 26th state, and the Panic of 1837 triggered a severe economic depression.
1838
The forced removal of the Cherokee on the Trail of Tears became one of the darkest episodes in American history.
1839
The Amistad case began after Africans aboard a Spanish schooner seized control of the ship, leading to a landmark freedom case.
1840
William Henry Harrison’s log-cabin campaign helped usher in a new age of popular presidential politics.
1843
The Oregon Trail carried thousands of settlers westward in what became known as the Great Migration of 1843.
1844
Samuel Morse sent the famous telegraph message ‘What hath God wrought’ from Washington to Baltimore.
1845
Texas was annexed by the United States, intensifying tensions with Mexico and the debate over slavery.
1846
The United States went to war with Mexico, and Iowa entered the Union as the 29th state.
This print from the Library of Congress shows a scene from the Battle of Monterrey, led by General Zachary Taylor and General William J. Worth, during the Mexican-American War.
1847
American forces captured Mexico City during the Mexican-American War.
1848
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American War and added vast western territories to the United States.
1849
The California Gold Rush drew thousands of fortune seekers west and accelerated California’s path to statehood.
1850
1841
William Henry Harrison died after only a month in office, making John Tyler the first vice president to become president by succession.
1842
The Webster-Ashburton Treaty settled boundary disputes between the United States and British North America.
The Compromise of 1850 admitted California as a free state and toughened the fugitive slave law.
1851
Abolitionist Sojourner Truth delivered her famous “Ain’t I a Woman?” speech in Ohio, becoming one of the most influential voices for both racial equality and women’s rights.
1852
Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin became a publishing sensation and sharpened national debate over slavery.
1853
The Gadsden Purchase added land in present-day Arizona and New Mexico for a southern railroad route.
1854
The Kansas-Nebraska Act reopened the slavery question in the territories and helped lead to the creation of the Republican Party.
1855
Bleeding Kansas violence escalated as proslavery and antislavery settlers fought over the territory’s future.
1856
Preston Brooks caned Senator Charles Sumner on the Senate floor, symbolizing the collapse of civility over slavery.
1857
The Supreme Court’s Dred Scott decision denied citizenship to Black Americans and inflamed sectional tensions.
1858
The Lincoln-Douglas debates made Abraham Lincoln a national figure in the struggle over slavery’s expansion.
1859
John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry intensified fears and hopes surrounding the coming conflict over slavery.
In this March 4, 1861 file photo made from a painting, Abraham Lincoln takes the oath of office as the 16th president of the United States administered by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney in front of the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. (AP Photo)
1860
Abraham Lincoln was elected president, prompting the first Southern states to move toward secession.
The Civil War began with the firing on Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor.
The Homestead Act opened western land to settlers, while the Battle of Antietam led to the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.
1863
Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, West Virginia became a state, and the Battle of Gettysburg marked a turning point.
1864
Lincoln won re-election as Union armies pressed toward victory in the Civil War.
1865
The Civil War ended, the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery, and Abraham Lincoln was assassinated.
1866
Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, asserting citizenship rights for formerly enslaved people.
1867
The United States purchased Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million.
1868
1869
America — a year-by-year look continued from page 50 continued on page 54
The Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed birthright citizenship and equal protection under the law.
The first transcontinental railroad was completed at Promontory Summit, Utah.
1870
The Fifteenth Amendment prohibited denying voting rights based on race, color or previous condition of servitude.
1871
The Ku Klux Klan Act strengthened federal efforts to combat racial violence during Reconstruction.
1872
Yellowstone National Park was established, beginning America’s national park idea.
1873
The Panic of 1873 triggered a long economic depression and deepened political unrest during Reconstruction.
1874
The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union was founded, becoming a powerful force in social reform and Prohibition politics.
1875
The Civil Rights Act of 1875 sought to protect equal access to public accommodations, though it was later struck down.
1876
The United States celebrated its Centennial while the disputed Hayes-Tilden election exposed deep postwar divisions.
This photo shows Main Street in Richmond, Va. in 1865. The city is undergoing reconstruction from the fires set in April 1865 during the city’s evacuation just before the Confederate surrender at the end of the American Civil War. The spire of Second Baptist Church can be seen in the background. (AP Photo)
1877
Federal troops withdrew from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction.
1878
The Bland-Allison Act revived limited silver coinage amid national debate over money and debt.
1879
Thomas Edison demonstrated a practical incandescent electric light, helping launch the electric age.
1880
James A. Garfield won the presidency in an election that reflected the power of post-Civil War party loyalties.
1881
President Garfield was assassinated, and Chester A. Arthur became president.
1882
The Chinese Exclusion Act became the first major federal law to bar immigration based on nationality.
1883
The Pendleton Civil Service Act began replacing patronage with merit-based federal employment.
1884
Grover Cleveland was elected president, becoming the first Democrat to win the White House after the Civil War.
1885
The Statue of Liberty arrived in New York Harbor in pieces from France.
1886
The Statue of Liberty was dedicated, and the Haymarket affair shook the American labor movement.
1887
The Dawes Act divided Native American tribal lands into individual allotments, with devastating effects on tribal sovereignty.
1888
Benjamin Harrison won the presidency despite losing the popular vote to Grover Cleveland.
1889
North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Washington all entered the Union.
1890
The Sherman Antitrust Act gave the federal government a tool to challenge monopolies and restrain corporate power.
Congress created the forest reserve system, an early milestone in federal conservation policy.
1892
Ellis Island opened as the nation’s main immigration station in New York Harbor.
The World’s Columbian Exposition opened in Chicago, showcasing American industry, architecture and ambition.
The Pullman Strike became a national labor crisis and brought federal troops into a conflict between workers and railroads.
Booker T. Washington delivered the Atlanta Exposition address, shaping debate over Black advancement after Reconstruction.
The Supreme Court’s Plessy v. Ferguson decision upheld racial segregation under the doctrine of ‘separate but equal.’
Stampeders, loaded with gear, wait in line starting up Chilkoot Pass during the Klondike Gold Rush in this photo from the National Park Service.
The Klondike Gold Rush drew thousands of Americans and Canadians toward Alaska and the Yukon.
The Spanish-American War made the United States a global power with new overseas possessions.
The Philippine-American War began, raising fierce debate over empire and self-determination.
The Galveston hurricane became the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history.
Theodore Roosevelt became president after William McKinley was assassinated in Buffalo.
The Newlands Reclamation Act promoted irrigation projects that transformed parts of the American West.
The Wright brothers achieved powered flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
A steam shovel used for excavating and loading French dirt cars is shown in Culebra Cut, Culebra, in the Panama Canal Zone in 1904. (AP Photo)
The United States began work on the Panama Canal after backing Panama’s separation from Colombia.
The Industrial Workers of the World was founded in Chicago as a radical labor union.
The Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act marked major victories for Progressive Era reform.
Oklahoma entered the Union as the 46th state.
Ford introduced the Model T, putting automobile ownership within reach of millions of Americans.
1909
The NAACP was founded to fight racial discrimination and defend civil rights.
1910
Angel Island immigration station opened in San Francisco Bay, processing many immigrants from Asia.
1911
The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in New York killed 146 workers and spurred workplace safety reforms.
1912
Arizona and New Mexico entered the Union, completing the 48 contiguous states.
1913
The Sixteenth Amendment authorized a federal income tax, and the Seventeenth Amendment provided for direct election of senators.
The Panama Canal opened, dramatically shortening ocean travel between the Atlantic and Pacific.
1915
The first long-distance telephone call connected New York and San Francisco.
1916
Congress created the National Park Service to manage and protect the nation’s growing park system.
1920
The Nineteenth Amendment was ratified, guaranteeing women the right to vote nationwide.
1921
The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier was dedicated at Arlington National Cemetery.
1922
The Lincoln Memorial was dedicated in Washington, D.C.
President Warren G. Harding died in office, and Calvin Coolidge was sworn in by his father in Vermont.
The Indian Citizenship Act granted U.S. citizenship to Native Americans born in the United States.
The Scopes Trial in Tennessee put evolution, religion and public education at the center of national debate.
Route 66 was established, eventually becoming one of America’s most famous highways.
1927
1929
The stock market crash of 1929 marked the beginning of the Great Depression.
1930
The Smoot-Hawley Tariff raised import duties and worsened international trade tensions during the Depression.
1931
The Star-Spangled Banner officially became the national anthem of the United States.
Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected president after promising a New Deal for the American people.
The New Deal began, and the Twenty-first Amendment repealed Prohibition.
The Securities and Exchange Commission was created to regulate Wall Street after the market crash.
Social Security was enacted, creating a lasting federal safety net for older Americans.
The Golden Gate Bridge opened, becoming an engineering landmark and an American icon.
1938
The Fair Labor Standards Act established a federal minimum wage and restrictions on child labor.
The New York World’s Fair opened as war began in Europe, showcasing visions of America’s future. America — a year-by-year look continued from page 54 continued on page 56
Charles Lindbergh completed the first solo nonstop flight from New York to Paris.
1928
Herbert Hoover was elected president just before the nation entered the Great Depression.
In this June 13, 1917 file photo, U.S. Army General John J. Pershing, center, inspects French troops at Boulogne, France during World War I. After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917, its standing army of 127,500 became an armed force of 2 million within 1 ½ years. (AP Photo, File)
1917
The United States entered World War I after years of neutrality.
1918
American troops helped turn the tide on the Western Front, and the war ended with the armistice of November 11.
1919
The Eighteenth Amendment was ratified, paving the way for national Prohibition, and the Nineteenth Amendment was sent to the states for ratification.
People gather on the sub-treasury building steps across from the New York Stock Exchange in New York on “Black Thursday,” Oct. 24, 1929. Thousands of investors lost their savings in the worst stock market crash in Wall Street history on Oct. 29, 1929, after a fiveday frenzy of heavy trading. Too much speculation with borrowed money had inflated market values unrealistically. Huge buying orders, hastily erected by powerful financial interest, finally checked the most frantic sell-off experienced by the securities markets. The Great Depression followed thereafter. (AP Photo)
Jesse Owens won four gold medals at the Berlin Olympics, challenging Nazi racial ideology before the world.
In this aerial photo provided by the U.S. Navy, smoke from the burning battleship Arizona spreads a pall over Pearl Harbor naval base, Dec. 7, 1941, as a Japanese plane dodged through antiaircraft fire to drive home the Japanese attack that launched a war on the U.S. (AP Photo/U.S. Navy)
1940
Franklin Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term as the world crisis deepened.
1941
Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, bringing the United States into World War II.
1942
Japanese Americans were forced into internment camps under Executive Order 9066.
1943
Allied victories in North Africa and Italy marked a turning point in World War II.
1944
Allied forces landed at Normandy on D-Day, beginning the liberation of Western Europe.
1945
World War II ended, and the United Nations was founded with the United States as a central member.
1946
Winston Churchill delivered his ‘Iron Curtain’ speech in Missouri, helping define the emerging Cold War.
1947
The Truman Doctrine signaled a new American policy of containing communism as the Cold War emerged.
1948
President Truman ordered the desegregation of the U.S. armed forces.
1949
NATO was founded, binding the United States to a peacetime military alliance with Western Europe.
1950
The Korean War began, drawing U.S. forces into a major Cold War conflict.
1951
The Twenty-second Amendment limited presidents to two elected terms.
1952
Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected president after commanding Allied forces in World War II.
1953
The Korean War armistice ended active fighting on the peninsula, though no formal peace treaty followed.
1954
The Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education decision declared public school segregation unconstitutional.
Rosa Parks, left, who was fined $10 and court costs for violating Montgomery’s segregation ordinance for city buses, makes bond for appeal to Circuit Court, Dec. 5, 1955. Signing the bond were E.D. Nixon, center, former state president of the NAACP, and attorney Fred Gray. Gray hinted that the ordinance requiring segregation will be attacked as unconstitutional. (AP Photo)
1955
The Montgomery Bus Boycott began after Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat.
1956
The Federal-Aid Highway Act launched the Interstate Highway System.
1957
Federal troops escorted the Little Rock Nine into Central High School, enforcing school desegregation.
1958
NASA was created in response to the space race with the Soviet Union.
1959
Alaska and Hawaii became the 49th and 50th states.
1960
John F. Kennedy won the presidency after the first televised presidential debates helped reshape modern campaigns.
1961
Alan Shepard became the first American in space, and the Freedom Rides challenged segregation in interstate travel.
1965
The Voting Rights Act became law after the Selma campaign exposed violent resistance to Black voting rights.
1966
The National Historic Preservation Act strengthened protection for historic places across the United States.
1967
Thurgood Marshall became the first Black justice on the U.S. Supreme Court.
1968
Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy were assassinated during one of the nation’s most turbulent years.
1969
Apollo 11 landed on the Moon, and Neil Armstrong became the first person to walk on its surface.
1970
The first Earth Day was held, and the Environmental Protection Agency was created later that year.
1971
The Twenty-sixth Amendment lowered the voting age to 18.
Newsmen wait in line outside the White House press office their copies of the transcript of White House tapes related to the Watergate break-in. One of the large volumes is shown being passed over reporters hands. (AP Photo/John Duricka)
1972
The Watergate break-in began the scandal that would bring down a president.
1962
John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth during the Mercury-Atlas 6 mission.
1963
Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his ‘I Have a Dream’ speech, and President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas.
1964
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed segregation in public accommodations and banned employment discrimination.
1973
The Paris Peace Accords ended direct U.S. military involvement in the Vietnam War.
1974
Richard Nixon resigned the presidency, and Gerald Ford became president.
1975
The Vietnam War ended with the fall of Saigon.
The United States celebrated its Bicentennial with national commemorations of 200 years of independence.
1977
Jimmy Carter became president and emphasized human rights as a theme of American foreign policy.
1978
The Camp David Accords were negotiated with U.S. mediation, leading to peace between Egypt and Israel.
The Iran hostage crisis began when Americans were seized at the U.S. Embassy in Tehran.
The U.S. Olympic hockey team defeated the Soviet Union in the ‘Miracle on Ice.’
Ronald Reagan became president and survived an assassination attempt in Washington, D.C.
President Ronald Reagan waves and then looks up before being shoved into the President’s limousine by secret service agents after being shot outside a Washington hotel, March 30, 1981.
The Vietnam Veterans Memorial was dedicated in Washington, D.C.
1983
Sally Ride became the first American woman in space.
1984
Geraldine Ferraro became the first woman nominated for vice president by a major U.S. political party. 1985
The first version of Microsoft Windows was released, foreshadowing a transformation in personal computing.
The space shuttle Challenger exploded after launch, killing all seven crew members.
President Reagan challenged Mikhail Gorbachev to ‘tear down this wall’ during a speech in Berlin.
George H. W. Bush was elected president after serving eight years as vice president.
The Berlin Wall fell, symbolizing the approaching end of the Cold War.
The Americans with Disabilities Act became law, expanding civil rights protections for people with disabilities.
A U.S.-led coalition liberated Kuwait in the Gulf War.
The Twenty-seventh Amendment, first proposed in 1789, was finally ratified.
The North American Free Trade Agreement was signed into law, reshaping trade among the United States, Canada and Mexico.
The Violence Against Women Act became law as part of a major federal crime bill.
A residential area lies in ruins after an Iraqi Scud missile attack in Tel Aviv, Israel on Friday, Jan. 18, 1991. The Iraqi missile attack came one day after U.S. forces launched Operation Desert Storm - the Gulf War - against Iraq. (AP Photo/Martin Cleaver)
The Oklahoma City bombing killed 168 people and became the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in U.S. history.
Atlanta hosted the Summer Olympics, bringing the Games back to the United States.
Madeleine Albright became the first woman to serve as U.S. secretary of state.
John Glenn returned to space aboard the shuttle Discovery at age 77.
The Senate acquitted President Bill Clinton after his impeachment trial.
The disputed presidential election was ultimately resolved by Bush v. Gore, leading to George W. Bush’s election as the 43rd president of the United States.
The Sept. 11 terrorist attacks killed nearly 3,000 people and reshaped American security and foreign policy.
The Department of Homeland Security was created in response to the Sept. 11 attacks.
The United States invaded Iraq, beginning a long and controversial war.
The National World War II Memorial was dedicated in Washington, D.C.
Hurricane Katrina devastated New Orleans and the Gulf Coast, exposing major failures in disaster preparedness.
Twitter was launched, becoming part of a new era of social media and public communication.
The iPhone was introduced, accelerating the smartphone revolution in American life.
Barack Obama delivers his victory speech at his election night party at Grant Park in Chicago, Tuesday night, Nov. 4, 2008. (AP Photo/David Guttenfelder)
Barack Obama was elected the first Black president of the United States.
continued on page 59
Mr. Vice President, Mr. Speaker, Members of the Senate, and of the House of Representatives: Yesterday, Dec. 7, 1941 – a date which will live in infamy – the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.
The United States was at peace with that nation and, at the solicitation of Japan, was still in conversation with its government and its emperor looking toward the maintenance of peace in the Pacific.
Indeed, one hour after Japanese air squadrons had commenced bombing in the American island of Oahu, the Japanese ambassador to the United States and his colleague delivered to our Secretary of State a formal reply to a recent American message. And while this reply stated that it seemed useless to continue the existing diplomatic negotiations, it contained no threat or hint of war or of armed attack.
It will be recorded that the distance of Hawaii from Japan makes it obvious that the attack was deliberately planned many days or even weeks ago. During the intervening time, the Japanese government has deliberately sought to deceive the United States by false statements and expressions of hope for continued peace.
The attack yesterday on the Hawaiian islands
has caused severe damage to American naval and military forces. I regret to tell you that very many American lives have been lost. In addition, American ships have been reported torpedoed on the high seas between San Francisco and Honolulu.
Yesterday, the Japanese government also launched an attack against Malaya.
Last night, Japanese forces attacked Hong Kong.
Last night, Japanese forces attacked Guam.
Last night, Japanese forces attacked the Philippine Islands.
Last night, the Japanese attacked Wake Island.
And this morning, the Japanese attacked Midway Island.
Japan has, therefore, undertaken a surprise offensive extending throughout the Pacific area. The facts of yesterday and today speak for themselves. The people of the United States have already formed their opinions and well understand the implications to the very life and safety of our nation.
As Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, I have directed that all measures be taken for our defense. But always will our whole nation remember the character of the onslaught against us. No matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people in their righteous might will win through to absolute victory.
I believe that I interpret the will of the Congress and of the people when I assert that we will not only defend ourselves to the uttermost, but will make it very certain that this form of treachery shall never again endanger us.
Hostilities exist. There is no blinking at the fact that our people, our territory, and our interests are in grave danger.
With confidence in our armed forces, with the unbounding determination of our people, we will gain the inevitable triumph – so help us God.
I ask that the Congress declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by Japan on Sunday, December 7th, 1941, a state of war has existed between the United States and the Japanese empire.
America — a year-by-year look continued from page 57
Sonia Sotomayor became the first Latina justice on the U.S. Supreme Court.
The Affordable Care Act was signed into law, reshaping health insurance and health policy.
Construction continues on the National September 11 Memorial at the World Trade Center site, Tuesday, May 10, 2011 in New York. On the left is 1 World Trade Center, also known as the Freedom Tower. (AP Photo/Mark Lennihan)
U.S. forces killed Osama bin Laden in Pakistan nearly 10 years after the September 11 attacks.
Hurricane Sandy struck the East Coast, causing severe damage from the Caribbean to New York and New Jersey.
The Boston Marathon bombing killed three people and injured hundreds at one of America’s most famous races.
The National Sept. 11 Memorial Museum opened in New York City.
The Supreme Court’s Obergefell v. Hodges decision recognized same-sex marriage nationwide.
Donald J. Trump was elected the 45th president of the United States.
A total solar eclipse crossed the United States from Oregon to South Carolina, drawing millions of viewers.
The First Step Act became law, marking one of the most significant federal criminal justice reforms in decades.
The U.S. women’s national soccer team won its fourth World Cup title.
The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted American life, and a presidential election produced record turnout.
Juneteenth became a federal holiday, recognizing the end of slavery in the United States.
Ketanji Brown Jackson became the first Black woman to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court.
The United States marked 247 years of independence while preparing for the coming semiquincentennial.
People watch as the moon partially covers the sun during a total solar eclipse, as seen from Eagle Pass, Texas, Monday, April 8, 2024. (AP Photo/Eric Gay)
A total solar eclipse crossed parts of the United States, drawing national attention to science and skywatching.
President Donald J. Trump began his second term in office.
The United States celebrates its semiquincentennial, marking 250 years since the Declaration of Independence.
1. Independence Hall — Inside this redbrick building, delegates approved the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and later drafted the U.S. Constitution, laying the foundation of American self-government.
2. Liberty Bell — Once used to summon lawmakers, the cracked bell became an enduring symbol of liberty, abolition and civil rights in America.
3. Jamestown Settlement — Founded in 1607, Jamestown marked the beginning of permanent English settlement in North America and the roots of colonial America.
4. Plymouth Rock — Though symbolic more than certain, the site represents the Pilgrims’ arrival and the story of religious freedom in early America.
5. Mayflower II — The carefully crafted replica helps tell the story of the perilous Atlantic voyage that brought the Pilgrims to New England.
6. Colonial Williamsburg — Restored streets, homes and shops immerse visitors in the political debates and daily life of colonial America.
7. Mount Vernon — The plantation home of George Washington reveals the life, leadership and contradictions of America’s first president.
8. Monticello — Thomas Jefferson designed this mountaintop estate while shaping many of the ideals that defined the new nation.
9. Valley Forge National Historical Park — The harsh winter encampment tested the endurance and resolve of Washington’s Continental Army during the Revolution.
10. Bunker Hill Monument — Though technically a British victory, the battle proved colonial forces could stand against the world’s most powerful army.
11. Boston Tea Party Ships & Museum — The protest against British taxation without representation helped push the colonies toward revolution.
12. Old North Church — Lanterns hung in the church steeple warned patriots of approaching British troops before the Revolution’s opening battles.
13. Paul Revere House — The preserved home tells the story of one of America’s best-known Revolutionary War patriots.
14. Minute Man National Historical Park — The “shot heard ’round the world” was fired along these roads and fields in April 1775.
15. Federal Hall — George Washington took the first presidential oath here as the new republic began to govern itself.
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100 places that tell America’s story continued from page 60
16. Ellis Island — More than 12 million immigrants passed through the island in search of opportunity and a new American life.
17. Statue of Liberty — France’s gift to the United States became America’s greatest symbol of hope, democracy and immigration.
18. Gettysburg National Military Park — The Union victory here halted Confederate momentum and inspired Lincoln’s most famous speech.
19. Antietam National Battlefield — The staggering casualties of America’s bloodiest day gave Lincoln the opportunity to issue the Emancipation Proclamation.
20. Fort Sumter National Monument — Confederate cannon fire against the federal fort in 1861 officially began the Civil War.
21. Appomattox Court House National Historical Park — Robert E. Lee’s surrender to Ulysses S. Grant here effectively ended the Civil War.
22. Ford’s Theatre — Abraham Lincoln was assassinated here just days after the Civil War ended.
23. Lincoln Memorial — The towering memorial honors Lincoln’s role in preserving the Union and ending slavery.
24. United States Capitol — The Capitol has served as the center of American democracy and debate for more than two centuries.
25. White House — Home and workplace of U.S. presidents, the White House symbolizes executive leadership and national power.
26. National Museum of American History — From the Star-Spangled Banner to presidential artifacts, the museum preserves the objects that shaped the American story.
27. National Museum of African American History and Culture — The museum chronicles centuries of struggle, resilience, achievement and cultural influence.
28. National Archives Building — America’s founding documents are safeguarded here under heavy protection and public trust.
29. Arlington National Cemetery — Rolling hills filled with white headstones honor generations of military sacrifice.
30. Vietnam Veterans Memorial — The black granite wall quietly lists the names of more than 58,000 Americans lost in Vietnam.
31. Korean War Veterans Memorial — Lifelike statues and memorial walls honor those who fought in the often-forgotten Korean War.
32. World War II Memorial — The memorial pays tribute to the Americans who fought and worked to secure victory in World War II.
33. Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial — Quotes and towering stone honor the pastor whose leadership transformed the civil rights movement.
34. Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail — The route traces the courageous marches that helped secure voting rights protections for Black Americans.
35. Edmund Pettus Bridge — Images of peaceful marchers beaten here on Bloody Sunday shocked the nation and accelerated civil rights reforms.
36. Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site — Federal troops escorted nine Black students into the school during a pivotal desegregation battle.
37. Lorraine Motel — Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated outside Room 306, forever linking the site to the struggle for equality.
38. Stonewall National Monument — Protests following a 1969 police raid here launched the modern LGBTQ+ rights movement.
39. Alcatraz Island — Beyond its prison history, Alcatraz became a symbol of Native American activism during a 19-month occupation.
40. Golden Gate Bridge — The massive suspension bridge became an icon of American engineering, ambition and the Pacific Coast.
41. Gateway Arch — Rising above the Mississippi River, the arch commemorates America’s westward expansion and the pioneers who pushed toward the frontier.
42. Oregon Trail Interpretive Center — Through wagons, diaries and exhibits, the center tells the story of settlers risking everything to move west.
43. Bent’s Old Fort National Historic Site — The reconstructed adobe fort illustrates trade, travel and cultural exchange along the Santa Fe Trail.
44. The Alamo — The former mission became legendary after Texan defenders died fighting Mexican forces in 1836.
45. Pearl Harbor National Memorial —
The devastating Japanese attack here in 1941 thrust the United States into World War II.
46. Rosie the Riveter/World War II
Home Front National Historical Park — Factories and shipyards here honor the millions of civilians, especially women, who powered America’s wartime industry.
47. Cape Canaveral Space Force Station
— America’s earliest space launches lifted off here as the nation raced to explore space during the Cold War.
48. Kennedy Space Center — From Apollo moon missions to modern launches, the center remains at the heart of America’s space program.
49. Johnson Space Center — Mission Control guided astronauts through triumph and tragedy, including the Apollo moon landings.
50. Wounded Knee Massacre Site —
The killing of hundreds of Lakota men, women and children here symbolized the violent close of the Indian Wars.
51. Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument — Lakota, Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors defeated Lt. Col. George Custer here in one of the West’s most famous battles.
Workers continue work carving the Crazy Horse memorial in the Black Hills of South Dakota on April 15, 1998. The project, begun 50 years ago, would be the largest sculpture on Earth when finished. The stone carving of Crazy Horse sitting atop his stallion will be 563 feet high and 641 feet long. (AP Photo/Charles Bennett)
52. Mesa Verde National Park — Ancient cliff dwellings carved into canyon walls preserve the history of the Ancestral Pueblo people.
53. Cahokia Mounds — The sprawling earthworks reveal the remains of a sophisticated Native American city that thrived centuries before Columbus.
54. Taos Pueblo — The multistory adobe community has been continuously inhabited for more than 1,000 years.
55. Trail of Tears National Historic Trail — The trail remembers the forced relocation and suffering endured by Native American tribes removed from their homelands.
56. Fort Laramie National Historic Site — Once a frontier outpost, the fort served fur traders, pioneers, soldiers and settlers heading west.
57. Homestead National Historical Park — The park tells how millions sought opportunity through the Homestead Act and transformed the Great Plains.
58. Mount Rushmore — The giant stone faces of four presidents symbolize America’s founding, expansion and preservation.
59. Crazy Horse Memorial — Still under construction, the monument honors Native American culture and resistance.
60. Harpers Ferry National Historical Park — Abolitionist John Brown’s raid here intensified tensions that pushed the nation toward civil war.
61. New Orleans French Quarter — The historic district reflects the blending of French, Spanish, African and American influences that shaped the Gulf South.
62. Preservation Hall — The intimate venue helped preserve traditional New Orleans jazz for future generations.
63. Graceland — Elvis Presley’s mansion reflects the rise of rock ’n’ roll and the global influence of American music.
64. Sun Studio — Music legends including Elvis Presley, Johnny Cash and Jerry Lee Lewis recorded here during rock music’s formative years.
65. Woodstock Museum at Bethel Woods — The museum preserves the story of the 1969 festival that became a
Presley with his girlfriend
at
Charles Lindbergh’s Spirit of St. Louis hangs on display at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., on Nov. 27, 2018. Lindbergh made the first nonstop solo flight between New York and Paris, taking off from New York on May.17, 1927. (AP Photo/Gene J. Puskar)
defining symbol of the counterculture era.
66. Hollywood Walk of Fame — The stars embedded in the sidewalks celebrate entertainers who shaped global popular culture.
67. Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum — Historic aircraft and spacecraft chronicle America’s achievements in flight, exploration and innovation.
68. Kitty Hawk — The Wright brothers achieved the world’s first powered airplane flight on these windswept dunes in 1903.
69. Transcontinental Railroad Golden Spike Site — The ceremonial driving of the golden spike united the country coast to coast by rail in 1869.
70. Hoover Dam — Built during the Great Depression, the massive dam showcased American engineering and economic recovery efforts.
71. Grand Coulee Dam — The New Deal-era megaproject brought electricity, irrigation and industrial growth to the Pacific Northwest.
72. Route 66 Hall of Fame and Museum — Exhibits celebrate the famous highway that embodied road trips, migration and roadside Americana.
continued on page 63
100 places that tell
73. Times Square — Bright lights, giant billboards and crowds turned the intersection into a symbol of American entertainment and commerce.
74. Wall Street — America’s financial markets grew here into a driving force of global capitalism.
75. Chicago Board of Trade Building — The towering exchange became synonymous with American agriculture, commodities trading and economic power.
76. Empire State Building — Completed during the Great Depression, the skyscraper symbolized optimism and modern American ambition.
77. Brooklyn Bridge — The groundbreaking suspension bridge transformed transportation and engineering in the modern city.
78. Faneuil Hall — Fiery speeches and protests here earned the marketplace its nickname as the “Cradle of Liberty.”
79. Salem Maritime National Historic Site — The waterfront preserves the story of America’s early shipping trade and global commerce.
80. Fort McHenry — Watching the fort withstand British bombardment inspired Francis Scott Key to write “The StarSpangled Banner.”
The Empire State Building in New York City, world’s tallest building, is pictured from 27th Street and Fifth Avenue, on May 31, 1951. The skyscraper, located at 34th Street and Fifth, was recently sold by the John J. Raskob estate to a syndicate, including Roger I. Stevens and the Chicago Crown family. (AP Photo/Bob Wands)
81. Chesapeake and Ohio Canal — The canal reflects the era when waterways powered commerce and westward development.
82. Erie Canal — Linking the Great Lakes to the Atlantic transformed trade and fueled New York’s rise as an economic giant.
83. Sutter’s Mill — Gold discovered here in 1848 triggered a rush that rapidly transformed California and the American West.
84. Deadwood — The rough mining town became legendary for gamblers, gunslingers and Wild West lore.
85. Dodge City — Cowboys, cattle drives and frontier justice made Dodge City a lasting symbol of the Old West.
86. Tombstone — The infamous gunfight at the O.K. Corral cemented the town’s place in Western legend.
87. Pullman National Historical Park — The company town and labor strikes here became defining chapters in the history of unions and workers’ rights.
88. Yellowstone National Park — Established in 1872, Yellowstone became the world’s first national park and a model for conservation.
89. Yosemite National Park — Yosemite’s granite cliffs and giant sequoias inspired generations of environmental preservation efforts.
90. Grand Canyon National Park — Carved by the Colorado River, the canyon became one of America’s most aweinspiring natural landmarks.
91. Great Smoky Mountains National Park — America’s most-visited national park preserves Appalachian traditions, forests and wildlife.
92. Denali National Park — Vast wilderness surrounding North America’s tallest peak reflects the scale and ruggedness of the American frontier.
93. Muir Woods National Monument — Towering coastal redwoods helped inspire America’s conservation and national monument movements.
94. 9/11 Memorial & Museum — The memorial and museum honor the victims and recount the events of the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks.
95. Flight 93 National Memorial — The site remembers passengers who fought hijackers and prevented further destruction on Sept. 11, 2001.
96. Oklahoma City National Memorial — The memorial honors the victims of the 1995 bombing that shocked the nation.
97. Manzanar National Historic Site — Barracks and exhibits preserve the story of Japanese Americans imprisoned during World War II.
98. Angel Island Immigration Station — Often called the “Ellis Island of the West,” the station processed immigrants arriving from Asia and the Pacific.
99. Seneca Falls Convention Site — America’s first women’s rights convention convened here in 1848, launching the organized suffrage movement.
100.Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site — The site honors the pioneering Black military aviators whose success challenged segregation in the armed forces.
