Research Journal
2019 ― Volume 11.02
Research Journal 2019 ― Volume 11.02
Editors: Ajla Aksamija, Ph.D., LEED AP® BD+C, CDT Kalpana Kuttaiah, Associate AIA, LEED AP® BD+C Journal Design & Layout: Kalpana Kuttaiah, Associate AIA, LEED AP® BD+C
Acknowledgements: We would like to extend our appreciation to everyone who contributed to the research work and articles published within this journal.
Perkins and Will is an interdisciplinary design practice offering services in the areas of Architecture, Interior Design, Branded Environments, Planning and Strategies, and Urban Design.
Research Journal 2019 ― Volume 11.02
Research Journal
2019 ― Volume 11.02
Journal Overview The Perkins and Will Research Journal documents research relating to the architectural and design practice. Architectural design requires immense amounts of information for inspiration, creation, and construction of buildings. Considerations for sustainability, innovation, and high-performance designs lead the way of our practice where research is an integral part of the process. The themes included in this journal illustrate types of projects and inquiries undertaken at Perkins and Will and capture research questions, methodologies, and results of these inquiries. The Perkins and Will Research Journal is a peer-reviewed research journal dedicated to documenting and presenting practice-related research associated with buildings and their environments. The unique aspect of this journal is that it conveys practice-oriented research aimed at supporting our teams. This is the 22nd issue of the Perkins and Will Research Journal. We welcome contributions for future issues. Research is systematic investigation into existing knowledge in order to discover or revise facts or add to knowledge about a certain topic. In architectural design, we take an existing condition and improve upon it with our design solutions. During the design process we constantly gather and evaluate information from different sources and apply it to solve our design problems, thus creating new information and knowledge. An important part of the research process is documentation and communication. We are sharing combined efforts and findings of Perkins and Will researchers and project teams within this journal.
Perkins and Will engages in the following areas of research: njnj Practice related research njnj Resilience and sustainable design njnj Strategies for operational efficiency njnj Advanced building technology and performance njnj Design process benchmarking njnj Carbon and energy analysis njnj Organizational behavior
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Editorial This issue of the Perkins and Will Research Journal includes four articles that focus on different research topics, such as explorations with net-zero energy design in office buildings, digital design processes and fabrication, design strategies to mitigate incidents in vertical transportation, and design factors that decrease noise levels in urban areas. “Revolutionizing the Office Paradigm: The Future Net-Zero Energy Office Building” explores net-zero energy design for an office building in Washington, DC. The article discusses site planning, zoning, building massing strategies, energy systems, facade and structural system, renewable energy sources and resilient design strategies for future office buildings through this case study. It concludes with recommendations and considerations for developing netzero commercial buildings. “Genesis of Design and Form: Active Fabrication of Plywood and Latex Composite” investigates biophilic design and fabrication of a composite material. The article explores digital design process, form-finding and geometry exploration, structural performance of this composite material and digital fabrication. The final prototype of the material was used to manually assemble an installation, which is presented in the article. “Escalator Safety within an Outpatient Clinic: A Review of Escalator Incidents and Possible Mitigation Strategies” presents a research study that investigated users’ behavior and circulation around escalators in a healthcare facility to improve movements around this type of vertical transportation. The research methods included site visits and observations, which provided insights into users’ behavior and potential risks. The article suggests possible upgrades and passive design techniques that can be employed. “Sound Parks: Invisible Agents of Urban Well-Being” discusses relationships between sound pollution and parks, and design factors that decrease noise levels in urban areas. The article discusses four urban parks in New York City, where sound measurements were conducted. The results indicate that urban parks effectively decrease noise levels. The article concludes with strategies that should be included into future designs of urban spaces, which consider auditory conditions. Ajla Aksamija, PhD, LEED AP® BD+C, CDT Kalpana Kuttaiah, Associate AIA, LEED AP® BD+C
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Contents Journal Overview
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Editorial
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01: Revolutionizing the Office Paradigm: The Future Net-Zero Energy Office Building
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Carl Knutson AIA, NCARB, LEED AP®
02: Genesis of Design and Form: Active Fabrication of Plywood and Latex Composite
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Anna Beatriz de Barros
03: Escalator Safety within an Outpatient Clinic: A Review of Escalator Incidents and Possible Mitigation Strategies
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Kristen McDaniel, LEED AP® BD+C Andrew Koska, AIA, LEED AP® BD+C
04: Sound Parks: Invisible Agents of Urban Well-Being
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Maria Debije Counts, ASLA Galen Newman, PhD, ASLA, APA
Peer Reviewers
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Authors
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01 Revolutionizing the Office Paradigm: The Future Net-Zero Energy Office Building Carl Knutson, AIA, NCARB, LEED APÂŽ, carl.knutson@perkinswill.com
Abstract What is the future of the net-zero building? It is not a super-tall tower predicated on technology that does not exist, but instead a more thoughtful integration into the existing urban fabric that considers people, communities, and density. This new building typology will be prevalent where governments are encouraging resilient zoning overlays, developers are creating new neighborhoods focused on sustainable development, and progressive clients understand the significance of communicating their value with other like-minded innovators. These conditions might not exist where height is the solution to the economics of population growth, but these ingredients to net-zero do exist in cities like Washington, DC, where regulations are encouraging density over height and innovation from early adopters. It is upon this stage that we envision the workplace of the future. This article explores the opportunities and considerations to achieve a next generation net-zero office building, and uses a project developed for a global environmental group in Washington, DC as a case-study. The article provides actionable results and recommendations that should be considered for other similar projects. Keywords: net-zero energy, future workplace, zoning influence on sustainability, density and height
1.0 Introduction The world has a crisis of urban population growth, centered around cities both large and small1. The current 2019 world population of 7.7 billion has roughly 51 percent of people living in cities. By 2050, population is predicted to increase to 9.0 billion, with about 70 percent living in cities2. To satisfy these demands for urban living and workspace, we need to build a city the size of Chicago (6.5 million urban dwellers) each month to accommodate the influx of people. The demands required to build a city this size each month cannot solely be resolved with expensive, tall, mixed-use buildings, but perhaps a more thoughtful solution could be found within a more common mid-rise urban habitat. The five to fourteen story tower provides a case study in the economics of
solving our habitat challenges layered with some unique benefits that improve the overall urban environment. Is it in this context of the “short buildings� that we can find the economic, efficiency, and constructability drivers we need to satisfy population growth while also achieving net-zero energy buildings? Washington, DC provides an interesting case study to explore these needs and their resulting environmental challenges because of its fixed height limits, height uniformity characteristics, and desired densities. By focusing on the correlation of urban habitat and net-zero energy buildings, we imagine a people-centric design solution focused on resolving our future workplace needs. Figure 1 shows the case study building that was used in this study.
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Figure 1: Revolution: changing the office paradigm.
2.0 The Paradigm to Net-Zero
energy consumption and ultimately using less energy from renewable and non-renewable sources. Having a clear understanding of these assessment tools enhances opportunities. In addition, it is also essential in this pre-assessment phase to understand the geographic limitations of the site, both at a macro and micro level, that will limit the environmental impacts including local climate considerations, neighborhood opportunities, energy sources, and access to resources.
Changing the paradigm to achieve net-zero energy consumption in buildings requires a multi-step approach that starts with energy conservation and reduction. Success is identifying ways to reduce energy consumption prior to starting design. Assessing the current best-in-practices in sustainable design includes exploring LEED v.4 guidelines, WELL building certification, Passive House strategies, resilient urban development strategies, and existing case studies. Evaluating these assessment tools helps to focus on what shared opportunities will have a larger impact on achieving both the net-zero paradigm and a highperformance building. For example, a synergy might include using Passive House enclosure guidelines to reduce heating and cooling loads, shrinking the size of the mechanical system while decreasing the overall
3.0 Background to This Study When this study began, the goal was to achieve a new paradigm for the office building that revolutionized sustainability. Achieving these goals would allow this client to reflect a culture and values within the building and set an example for current partners and future
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constituents. The client, who is an environmental stewardship association headquartered in Washington, DC, recognized that their future business model would depend on revolutionizing the typical office building to achieve greater environmental goals. The project was also championed by a commercial development partner who wanted to differentiate the typical office product in the competitive Washington, DC metropolitan market. It was further bolstered by a series of local governmental regulations and regulators which, with the changing climate landscape, understand the buildings in their community will need to be more resilient and future flexible.
from market forces. In addition, the Washington, DC metropolitan region also benefits from the 4th highest level of GDP per person in the United States4 contributing to its overall economic stability and ability to “take risks.” Prior to the selection of the building location, the client engaged a commercial brokerage team to assess potential opportunities in the entire Washington, DC metro area with both an economic and environmental lens. This process led the client to find the appropriate commercial developer for these net-zero specific goals. The development had to be urban and well connected, and had to be desirable in its neighborhood amenities, have residential and mixed-use overlays, and general walkability. The selected developer, Forest City/Brookfield, had master planned and redeveloped “The Yards” over the last two decades in the Southeast quadrant of Washington, DC through a series of incremental steps that began by building community infrastructure first and then adding residential and office buildings over time as market forces allowed5. Through this deliberate development approach, Forest City recognized that flexibility in the master plan timeline was beneficial to the project to allow it to adapt over time. They also understood that holistic neighborhood strategies were important to the project’s sustainable success.
To achieve this new urban commercial habitat, the building needed to promote the health and wellbeing of its occupants while also benefitting the local people and community. The client’s core goals centered around providing an adaptable work environment that enhanced accessibility but could also “flex” with the ever-evolving workplace to respond to new technologies and the needs of its occupants throughout its predicted fifty-year lifetime. This new office type must provide an environment to facilitate its intended use as a workspace for collaboration but also enhance entrepreneurship, innovation, and discovery. Further requirements must include comfort to all occupants, provisions for heating, ventilation, dehumidification, and cooling while minimizing the baseline 2019 office building energy consumption. Beyond this one project and its occupants, the process recognizes that significant consideration should be given to leveraging synergies between multiple buildings to support the creation of sustainable neighborhood overlays, which requires working with a development partner who knows this is essential to their future commercial strategy.
After an initial assessment on the neighborhood advantages, the developer offered two sites for consideration. Each site was analyzed and assessed regarding its size, efficiency, and energy potential. While choosing the most appropriate site is an opportunity not usually afforded to a project team, the building location and site geometry does factor as an important part in achieving net-zero goals. Larger building sites, lower zoning densities, and flexible urban master plans do allow the design team to more carefully consider the orientation and building form, and the impact on energy generation and shaping the design strategy. For this opportunity, the development team was offered two adjacent sites. Both sites were studied for building area, building shape, solar energy, connectivity to infrastructure, and neighbor solar shading potential. Ultimately, site “G” was selected due to its increased solar potential, square-shaping, and reduced neighborhood shading, shown in Figure 2.
4.0 A Convergence of Factors Washington, DC values and promotes opportunity and innovation through governmental, NGO’s, and educational frameworks. The region is home to several universities with graduates who join the local organizations and associations with the general optimism to transform the world3. These forward-looking associations are willing to take on complex projects because they are supported by federal governmental incentives and can operate semi-independently
The site selected for the project design is part of a planned urban development (PUD) that provides specific
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Figure 2: Neighborhood site analysis.
zoning constraints in height and urban density that ultimately were essential to achieving our project goals. The development zoning allows the project to maximize height (130’ for Washington, DC) while providing a lower floor area ratio (FAR) that reduces the site density. The zoning also specifies that the first and second level must be fixed to 80 percent of the property line to encourage urban street wall edges while also mandating setbacks at the upper levels to provide relief from the urban solar “canyon” effect. This allowed the massing to take advantage of the solar orientation and avoid shading from adjacent neighbor buildings. The Yards master plan also specifically recognized the ratio of site dimensions to commercial floor plate efficiency to allow for floor plate
sizes of 20,000 to 30,000 SF, shown in Figure 3. Creating an efficient and functional floorplate is significant to the economic success of the project. In addition to the advantageous zoning, the Department of Energy and Environment for the city (DDOE) and DCWater also put regulations and incentives for developers and owners to promote sustainable goals including responding to the DC climate adaptation plan 6. The resilience guidelines in the DC Climate Adaptation Plan recognize the need to reduce the potential of climate change impact on people, buildings, and infrastructure. These guidelines helped formulate our community sustainable strategies.
Figure 3: Plan diagram options.
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In 1910, the United States Congress passed the Height of Buildings Act that mandated buildings could not be taller than the US Capitol7. Indirectly, this act also created an interesting 21st century catalyst for net-zero building design. The maximum building height of 130’ on major avenues and 110’ on secondary streets provided every building parcel greater solar energy potential by reducing the energy demand of each site because of the reduced building density. The height limit also eliminated the shading of roof solar photovoltaic panels from neighboring buildings because no building could be significantly taller than the adjacent. In addition, the uniform building heights and street widths code mandated gracious separations between buildings8, which allows today’s modern buildings to use solar PV panels in a vertical façade orientation due to the reduced solar “canyon” effect. These early century maximum and uniform building height codes effectively opened the opportunity for solar photovoltaic energy
generation on both the roof and exterior wall surfaces while also improving the overall street-level daylight pedestrian experience, thus establishing a framework to utilize 21st century technology to achieve net-zero energy in Washington, DC office buildings. The client’s program requirements and building economics—including the size of the plot, floor area ratio (FAR), and the building height—required a commercial office building of 250,000 gross square feet (GSF), which was of an achievable scale that would work for both practical leasing and pragmatic net-zero energy economics. Achieving a net-zero building requires lower site FAR and density allowing the building to be shaped and formed. Based on commercial office building economics, the preliminary design accommodated ten floors at 24,000 GSF, with building core efficiencies of 90 percent, as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Typical 24,000 GSF office plan.
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Figure 5: Average commercial office building consumption in 2019 (kWh/SF).
A calculation of preliminary energy consumption of this 250,000 GSF office building indicated that the typical energy consumption of 22 kWh/sf for average (2019) commercial office space would need to be reduced to 6 kWh/sf in hopes of achieving net-zero energy consumption. For reference, typical energy usage in new office buildings has reduced significantly in recent years due to newer energy code requirements 9, but the average rate of new and old office buildings in the United States is still close to 22 kWh/sf based on the most recent US energy Information administration survey10. Figure 5 shows the average energy consumption for office buildings.
With the implementation of Passive House and efficient distribution strategies, energy consumption on this building would need to be 40 percent of a typical commercial building with a target EUI (Energy Use Intensity) of 19-21 kBtu per square foot, which will get a total building energy consumption of approximate 5,261,522 kBtu/year or 1,542,000 kWh/year, as seen in Figure 6. Based on a massing design strategy that includes integrated PV panels, the building could generate the total energy required to run per year using horizontal and vertical solar arrays. Additionally, if the building implements other energy production and/or savings strategies, such as eliminating inverters by using
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direct current (DC) to power lighting and equipment, the new office building comes close to net-positive energy.
cities to continue to function. Cities that are not resilient will not be able to adapt to climate change and must establish infrastructure that can reassure community continuity during shocks and stressors. For this project, resilience strategies included providing this Southeast community a building in The Yards that could operate “off-grid� including a system of redundant and sacrificial spaces that allowed for continuity of use. Using the Climate Ready DC resiliency plan, which included strategies specific to Ward 6, the project integrated design solutions for flooding, heat, green infrastructure, and stormwater 6. Within the building, the design included ground-level community spaces that could rely
The neighborhood and community resilience of the project is also important. Using guidelines from the DC Climate Adaptation Plan and specific opportunities targeted for this location factored into the overall resilience strategy. As the resilience of cities, neighborhoods, and buildings becomes more important, institutions including the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat are recognizing that designing resilient buildings will be essential to the growth of the urban environment11. We will need systems that allow us to respond to these environmental pressures and allow
Figure 6: Energy comparison (Baseline 250,000 GSF building versus High Efficiency Building).
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on on-site renewable power, placement of mechanical and life-safety systems that would not be subject to flooding, daylighting, and natural ventilation that could allow the building to operate off-grid.
Using Passive House 12 enclosure strategies that are highly efficient but that can also breathe with minimal input from mechanical systems, is a simple first step that reduces loads. This includes mandating higher R-value (thermal resistance) facades and enclosures with a maximum of 40 percent glass, which has a lower thermal resistance than solid insulation products, shown in Figure 7. Minimizing elevations oriented east-west because of gain and glare and the use of self-shading facades reduces solar heat gain and, thus, overall heating and cooling energy consumption.
Achieving net-zero energy means making the building operation net neutral to the electrical grid or even a net positive contributor. Getting to net-zero energy begins with conservation. Conservation includes setting enclosure goals that exceed ASHRAE 90.1 standards and, thus, require a much more environmentally airtight façade.
Figure 7: Passive House building section.
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Figure 8: Self-shading design strategies.
Additional energy conservation strategies include optimizing the building leasing depths, integrating daylighting and LED lighting into occupied spaces and reducing zonal heating demands. Using liquid instead of air volume to distribute heating and cooling with outdoor air for ventilation and exhaust can reduce zonal energy-use demands. In addition, flexibility on the enduser controls allows for individual adjustability but can also easily evolve as new technologies become available.
For solar PV renewable power, the design included a rooftop solar canopy that benefited from being unobstructed by adjacent buildings, along with a full south-facing solar façade that included both 60 percent high-performance PV panels and 40 percent integrated photovoltaics in vision glass. The building height and street width were beneficial in optimizing the energy potential of the south façade. On the east and west façades, with the optimized building shape to maximize self-shading potential (as shown in Figure 8), the façade included diagonal integrated PV solar shades that enhanced the energy potential and reduced solar glare (as shown in Figure 9). The rooftop photovoltaics provided potential of 854,813 kWh/year, the south façade 282,595 kWh/year and the innovative east and west façade 236,666 kWh/year. This combination of photovoltaic strategies allowed the building to be close to energy independent.
For a 250,000 SF office building, achieving net-zero energy does require the introduction of renewable power that is integrated on the building or by expanding neighborhood or district generation strategies. Initial options explored for onsite power generation included solar PV power, solar hot water, and wind power. Solar PV power was deemed a viable solution based on the location, whereas, due to low hot water demand, solar hot water was minimized onsite. Through various studies, wind power generation was proven ineffective at this building scale and is also less effective in this geographic location.
A fuel cell system was also considered but eliminated as an energy solution based on the sustainability of its power source, which would be either bio-mass pellets or
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Figure 9: East-west exterior with integrated diagonal PV solar shades.
natural gas. Although not specifically generating power, a geothermal system was also considered and rejected due to the small urban footprint, but wastewater heat recovery was accepted as a viable solution. Wastewater heat recovery utilizes the existing sanitary sewer system beneath the streets as a means to reject heat in the summer and a source from which to pull heat in the winter. The sewer effluent is brought through a heat exchanger as a means to add or extract heat from a separate closed loop system13. While the sewer water temperatures are not as ideal as a traditional geothermal well system, they provide a more efficient system operation compared to cooling towers with the added benefit of not requiring water treatment or make up water. Fan energy associated with cooling towers is also eliminated. Studying adjacent street utilities determined that the 12’ diameter large sewer water discharge provided an abundant source for heat exchange. DCWater, in recognizing the need to innovate, has allowed new developments to take advantage of this technology to reduce energy use14.
involved reducing the amount of carbon consumption of the building during its operation but also during its construction. This included assessing the embodied energy (EE) of the materials and energy sources used within the building during its lifetime. The manufacturing and construction phase of a building causes the most intense carbon emissions in the building’s life cycle. The selection of the appropriate lower EE materials for the major construction systems, including a mass timber structure, reduced the total embodied energy of the building and embedded carbon within its structure. A hybrid mass timber wood structure is an appropriate choice for buildings of this scale because of fire and life safety codes, repetitive structural modules, and speed of construction, as seen in Figure 10. 80 percent of all commercial buildings in the United States are 5-14 stories15, which directly benefits from the economics of mass timber construction. The use of mass timber in this project included a volumetric efficiency study that compared the perimeter-to-floor area and the core factor to achieve reasonable leasing rates for market rate commercial space. Recognizing that using
Part of achieving net-zero energy consumption
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Figure 10: Hybrid structure building section.
mass timber requires different column spacing, beam depths, and exterior wall conditions were properly considered as a part of each option. Working with mass timber structural engineers in the design provided strategies for prefabrication, optimal floor-to-floor heights, and potential construction efficiencies. The use of a hybrid structural system recognized current code limitations for building heights but also included preliminary discussions with District life safety code officials who indicated a willingness to consider revisions to IBC type IV construction for 202116.
building systems. It needs to be simple, functional, and durable, which requires examination of existing technologies and methodologies already adopted by the construction community. njnj Sustainability: The new paradigm must combine strategies to reduce energy loads and maximize efficiency, while also promoting health and wellbeing. The building's performance will be measured and designed for flexibility to new technologies. njnj Resiliency: With a changing environment, the building must be adaptable, providing safety to its occupants during shocks and stressors and providing shelter, social connections, and respite to the surrounding community.
5.0 Revolutionizing the Paradigm To successfully deliver on this net-zero energy goal, the design study identified four complementary characteristics that all needed to work in tandem to revolutionize the office paradigm. These four characteristics are:
njnj Desirability: Creating the office of the future requires that the building be desirable so that occupants and visitors are drawn to and respond positively to the aesthetics of the urban experience, the public space, the workplace, and ultimately user comfort. The building will not be considered a success unless it is desired by its occupants.
njnj Efficiency: Revolutionizing the office building requires that it be efficient in design, structure, and
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Figure 11: West elevation of the case study building.
6.0 Future Thinking
and height uniformity. This includes adjusting zoning constraints to leverage the energy potential of each site while creating renewable energy code overlays in existing and future planned urban districts.
In considering the future office typology, our movement towards urban environments must rely on a broad systems approach that reduces consumption by integrating clients, neighborhoods, developers, and governmental institutions into a larger urban ecosystem. Key takeaways for consideration in exploring the future of this building typology include:
3. Establishing partnerships with innovative local partners who are advocates for new technologies can assist in early adaptors of innovative solutions, such as wastewater heat recovery systems. Jurisdictions also need to promote systems that benefit carbon reduction, such as the next generation of mass timber life safety codes.
1. There must be a focus on how the synergy between neighborhood and the building are interdependent to achieving net-zero. This broad interrelated view can help target a more holistic design approach to projects that are future flexible. These abundant commercial projects must leverage existing adjacent infrastructure, operational and construction embodied energy.
4. Creating synergistic relationships between governments and commercial development partners can also create integrated neighborhoods that view net-zero design holistically at a broader scale and share infrastructure and energy resources. This will ultimately create a framework of buildings, neighborhoods, and cities that promote health and wellbeing with a focus on improving the human condition and our relationship with the planet.
2. The urban population explosion needs to involve like-minded clients who can work with jurisdictional constraints to improve the neighborhood’s sustainable development strategy. Zoning constraints need to evolve to put a value on the energy potential of each individual building site, its zoning density, adjacencies,
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Acknowledgments
[9] Davies, M., (2019). “Benchmarking Commercial Building Energy Use Per Square Foot”, Iota Communications, Retrieved on 11/2019 from https:// www.iotacommunications.com/blog/benchmarkingcommercial-building-energy-use-per-square-foot/.
Thank you to the Perkins and Will project team including Ken Wilson, Rod Letonja, Armando Nazario, Keegan Wilson, and Siyu Tian. In addition, thank you to the client for a vision, the brokerage team, the development team, and our engineering consultants.
[10] Sharp, T. (1996). “Energy Benchmarking in Commercial Office Buildings”, Proceedings of the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE) Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, Retrieved on 9/2019 from https://www.aceee.org/files/proceedings/1996/ data/papers/SS96_Panel4_Paper33.pdf.
References [1] United Nations, (2018). “68% of the World Population Projected to Live in Urban Areas By 2050”, Retrieved on 9/2019 from https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/ news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanizationprospects.html.
[11] Judah I., and Cousins, F. (2015). “The Resilient Urban Skyscraper as a Refuge”, Proceedings of the Council for Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) 2015 Conference, Retrieved on 9/2019 from https://global. ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/2464-theresilient-urban-skyscraper-as-refuge.pdf.
[2] United Nations, (2017). “World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision”, Retrieved on 11/2019 from https:// www.un.org/development/desa/publications/worldpopulation-prospects-the-2017-revision.html.
[12] The Passive House Alliance, (2019). Passive House Principles, Retrieved on 9/2019 from https://www.phius. org/what-is-passive-building/passive-house-principles.
[3] Robbins, N., (2018). “Where are College Students Going after They Graduate?”, Retrieved on 9/2019 from https://democratizeopportunity.com/whereare-college-students-going-after-they-graduate30b2b68eb795.
[13] Meggers, F. (2011). “The Potential of Wastewater Heat and Exergy: Decentralized High-Temperature Recovery with A Heat Pump”, Energy and Buildings, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 879-886.
[4] Bureau of Economic Data, (2017). GDP by Metropolitan Area, Retrieved on 9/2019 from https://www.bea.gov/ data/gdp/gdp-metropolitan-area.
[14] Perry, G., and Patke, S., (2017). “AGU Seeks International Best Practices for Sewer heat Exchange”, Retrieved on 9/2019 from https://building.agu. o rg /2 01 7/03/2 9/a g u - s e e k s - i n t e r n a t i o n a l - b e s t practices-for-sewer-heat-exchange/.
[5] Smith, B., (2016). “From Contaminated to Revitalized: The Story of the Yards”, Retrieved on 9/2019 from https:// blog.epa.gov/2016/12/20/from-contaminated-torevitalized-the-story-of-the-yards-2/.
[15] Burian S., Brown, M., and Velugubantla, S., (2002). “Building Height Characteristics in Three U.S. Cities”, Proceedings of the 4th AMS Urban Environment Conference, Retrieved on 9/2019 from https://digital. library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc925826/.
[6] District of Colombia, Department of Energy and Environment (DDoE), (2016). “Climate Ready DC”, Retrieved on 9/2019 from https://doee.dc.gov/ sites/default/files/dc/sites/ddoe/service_content/ attachments/CRDC-Report-FINAL-Web.pdf.
[16] Breneman, S., Timmers, M., and Richardson, D., (2019). “Tall Wood Buildings in the 2021 IBC: Up to 18 Stories of Mass Timber”, WoodWorks, Retrieved on 9/2019 from https://www.woodworks.org/wp-content/ uploads/wood_solution_paper-TALL-WOOD.pdf.
[7] National Capital Planning Commission, (2013). “Historical Background on the Height of Buildings Act 1910”, Retrieved on 9/2019 from https://www.ncpc. gov/heightstudy/docs/Historical_Background_on_the_ Height_of_Buildings_Act_(draft).pdf. [8] Code of the District of Columbia, (2019). Street Width to Control Building Height, Retrieved on 9/2019 from https://code.dccouncil.us/dc/council/code/ sections/6-601.05.html.
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02 Genesis of Design and Form: Active Fabrication of Plywood and Latex Composite Anna Beatriz de Barros, annabeatriz.barros@perkinswill.com
Abstract This article questions the direct connections between geometry and material behavior of plywood and latex composite, and its structural performance relevance employing an architectural solution. Biology makes use of only remarkably few materials; thus, this investigation works with simple morphological fibers differentiation, density and arrangement to create form with performance, just as successfully observed in nature. The CNC milled plywood patterns are applied to the pre-stretched latex sheet form, which results in curvature upon tension release. This method uses the logic built inside the material, based on its embedded properties and behavior. The manifested form, which appears as a result of the interaction between materials, its internal rules (2D patterns) and external (forces). This morphogenetic process of differentiation and arrangement of fibers is displayed by digital simulations that try to predict the behavior of composites. Finally, we made comparisons between both sets of experiments, digital and physical, which support the aim of designing with less component-based systems and encourage the development of interactive homogeneous materials. Keywords: smart materials, form-finding, morphogenesis, composite material, membranes
1.0 Introduction 1.1 Background
together, allow for variable scenarios of stiffness. Their structural performance is a result of the integration of properties during the fabrication process. Hence, the material system has closer resemble to natural systems since it is not “an assembly line, but as something that may come from within the materials”2. This research investigates and tries to compute and predict the bending properties of plywood sheets impregnated with 2D patterns, reacting with the stretch conditions of latex membranes.
The presented research focuses at understanding the material and morphological principles of arthropods, as a source of exploration for a novel design approach that supports the integration of material, form and performance. Biologists have investigated the exoskeletal of the lobster; its fiber orientation, fiber arrangement and associated layers thickness 1. The stoning function, integration and performing capacity of natural systems are a result of the morphological differentiation of fiber density, orientation, and fiber arrangement.
This investigation does not come unprecedented. For example, the term "form-finding" attributed to Frei Otto, unfolds from material behavior. As he put it, “form results from the organization of matter in space, the arrangement of elements according to a number of
The composite material system under development is based on two flexible materials that, when working
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1.2 Method
embedded rules”3. If we understand the rules, can we assume to understand material performance? Moreover, can we predict its behavior?
The development of this project involved a combination of physical testing, digital tools and simulations. The 2D patterns were designed using associative modelling in Rhino and Grasshopper platform and fabricated in plywood sheets with a CNC milling machine. Figure 2 shows pattern study in 2D. The negative cut plywood was then bonded with pre-stretched latex sheets and released after dried. In each physical experiment, the curvature was measured to inform and evaluate the digital model using Strand7. Numerous tests were carried out to associate and establish a relation between 2D patterns and behavior to predict the resulted 3D form.
Similarly, in today’s context of computational design, simulations and digital fabrication, we seek to explore the role of technology in architecture shifting from a mechanically to biologically informed design, based on the synthesis of form, material, structure, and performance that goes beyond the traditional hierarchy. “It is the complex hierarchies of materials within natural structural from which their performance emerges"4. This work seeks to employ an integrated biological design for a material organization, whereas a composite system leads to performance without the necessity of any mold. Figure 1 shows abstracted fiber arrangements from biological models. It may come as a surprise that almost all load-bearing biological structures are, in fact, fiber composites. Nature only uses a minimal range of materials to do this, “cellulose in plants, collagen in animals, chitin in insects and crustaceans, and silk in spiders”4. Although very basic, “they are successful not so much because of what they are, but because of the way that they are put together”5.
The design approach is based on the premise that material, form, and structure become inseparable entities that relate and depend on geometry. Therefore, the experiments conducted link physical testing alongside digital simulations to predict the composite behavior, depending on which pattern is applied or which final form does one seeks to reproduce.
Figure 1: Abstracted fiber arrangements from biological models.
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2019 ― Volume 11.02
Figure 2: 2D pattern logic study.
2.0 Material System, Design and Patterns The use of a composite material promoted a local nonhomogenous behavior and a global parallel to generate curvature, within this material system. Global curvature, shown in Figure 3, allows the material system to become
structurally efficient, while local curvature, shown in Figure 4, produces additional folding and form for the structure.
Figure 3: Global parameters.
22
Genesis of Design and Form
Figure 4: Initial studies illustrating the pattern’s simulation logic.
The process of translating the physical phenomena of stress, strain, and gravity into a curved geometry relies on the elements to buckle. The achieved result is due to the material's ability to stretch, allowing interaction of the neighboring patterns.
of patterns: firstly intersecting lines, giving more strength in both directions, secondly longitudinal lines parallel to the plywood fibers allowing high degrees of curvature and lastly, horizontal lines, causing local deformation as a consequence of the vertical fiber directionality of the material. The combination of these three distinct pattern types allow curvilinear development of the composite structure and assembly logic when designing a more massive and complex organization, as shown in Figure 6.
Informed by biological principles, the 2D patterns, shown in Figure 5, establish a parametric relation between material arrangement, fiber density and orientation, and surface curvature. The use of computational and algorithm tools determined the 3D surface, which resulted from its 2D pattern shown in Figure 5. The primary design parameters that were used included the number of intervals, frequency, curve directionality, and transitions. As a result, it is possible to identify three types
The outcome of the entire process can be seen as a semiautonomous, bottom-up form-finding procedure, which increases the structural capacity of two fragile materials by leveraging the energy and bending action of two separate elements within a single composite structure.
Figure 5: Computational pattern studies and 3D simulations of pattern behavior.
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Figure 6: Pattern logic and physical models.
2.1 Material System and Experiments
The result of these experiments confirmed our underlying hypothesis that by utilizing buckling in a controlled way, we could achieve a bi-stable material behavior and produce complex curved geometries at an architectural scale with the use of a simple set of rules. Buckling occurs as a result of stiff members in the pattern bending in reaction to the force induced by the stretched membrane, as shown in Figure 9. Figure 10 shows simulation results of deformations for different curvatures, while Figures 11 and 12 show the final assembly.
To fabricate and test the performance of the latexplywood composite panels, the latex sheets were first stretched using a jig with nautical locks and ropes. Then, the membrane was manually stretched up to 150 percent of its original area in both directions, and contact glue was applied so that the milled panel could be placed. After release from tension, the composite panel transforms from flat to doubly curved with local complex geometries, as seen in Figures 7 and 8. “The feedback loops, from pattern to form and from form to pattern, construct a mathematical model of morphogenesis as a dynamic process from which form emerges”6. “Form and behavior have an intricate relationship”7.
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Genesis of Design and Form
Figure 7: Diagram of the fabrication process.
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2019 ― Volume 11.02
Figure 8: Fabrication process of latex-plywood composite panel.
Figure 9: Physical experiment of latex-plywood composite panels.
26
Genesis of Design and Form
Figure 10: Digital simulations of deformations and its possible predictions using Strand7.
Figure 11: Installation assembly.
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2019 ― Volume 11.02
Figure 12: Ceiling installation of panels.
3.0 Conclusion
to achieve a full shape arch-like structure, but rather a straightforward hanging installation. As previously mentioned, this bi-stable state of this system, still must be properly digitally computed, calibrated and explored, to gain control of the physical result.
The design exploration, digital studies and experiments discussed in this article explore a modular material system, which promotes local, regional and global curvature to improve structural performance.
Some of the experiments shown here have demonstrated that the designer can draw out the surface curvature from 2D patterns. Nevertheless, we found that the join conditions between panels need to improve, to develop the final geometry. To accomplish this connection, digital tools must improve accounting for the multiple varying conditions of the fibrous material and pattern optimization, following by understanding the entire geometry and join solutions, where the final form only emerges on the very end.
The form-finding method and fabrication that allow flat patterns to gain curvature and stiffness (pre-stretching, bonding and release) have been shown and illustrated. Notably, the fabrication process used in this research does not rely on any type of molds but emerges from the design process and experimentation. The initial set of experiments utilized an isotropic material, and when replaced by plywood, the complexity of the system increased and consequently its capabilities multiplied. Consequently, it was not possible
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Genesis of Design and Form
Although the material system enables us to design on a scale on the digital and physical realm, the final assembly was manually conducted. Using robotic fabrication tools can improve fabrication, increase precision, assembly time and efficiency.
References
Although this work is still in progress, the article illustrates that explorations of fabrication, material and geometrical expression have potential to improve form finding and structural performance. This work aims to create solutions which are materially efficient and at the same time architecturally expressive.
[2] DeLanda, M., (2012). Rob|Arch 2012: Robotic Fabrication in Architecture, Art and Design, Vienna, Austria: Springer Science & Business Media.
[1] Menges A., (2012). ICD/ITKE Research Pavilion 2012, Retrieved on 04/12/19 from http://www.achimmenges. net/?p=5561.
[3] Otto, Frei, Finding Form, Edition Axel Menges, Berlin, 1995 [4] Hensel M., Menges A., Weinstock M., (2010). Emergent Technologies and Design: Towards a Biological Paradigm for Architecture, Oxon, UK: Routledge.
Acknowledgments
[5] Jeronimidis, G., (2012). Biomimetics: Smart Geometr y at Work, Retrieved on 08/10/19 from h t t p s : / / w w w. s m a r t g e o m e t r y. o r g / biomimetics-smart-geometry-at-work.
This work has been carried out by the author in collaboration with the Emergent Technologies and Design Course at the Architectural Association School of Architecture, directed by Dr. Michael Weinstock. This research would not have been possible without the initial enquiries conducted by Sally-Al Badry, Giorgos Berdos, Ekaterina Bryskin and Cesar Cheng on the lobster shell. The author would also like to wish thank to Manja van de Worp and Evan Greenberg for their valuable input, and Dr. George Jeronimid is for his inspiring words and dedicated teaching.
[6] Weinstock M., (2011). “Morphogenesis and the Mathematics of Emergence�, in Computational Design Thinking, Menges, A., and Ahlquist, S., eds., Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 158-167. [7] Weinstock M., (2010). The Architecture of Emergence: The Evolution of Form in Nature and Civilization, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
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03 Escalator Safety within an Outpatient Clinic: A Review of Escalator Incidents and Possible Mitigation Strategies Kristen McDaniel, LEED AP® BD+C, kristen.mcdaniel@perkinswill.com Andrew Koska, AIA, LEED AP® BD+C, andrew.koska@perkinswill.com
Abstract In the U.S., the average rate of escalator incidents per year equals 0.221 accidents per escalator; 0.442 accidents per escalator pairing1. Campus wide, a large medical center in the southern United States has reported 19 separate escalator incidents between July 2018 to July 2019—with 9 of those incidents occurring within an on-campus outpatient care clinic. At almost 18 times the national rate, the incidence of escalator events within the clinic is a cause for concern for staff, patients and visitors. This study sought to understand possible user behaviors that may contribute to the incidence of these events as well as propose possible design and operational strategies to reduce their occurrence. Site visits and observations helped provide insight into user behaviors on escalators, the potential risks associated with this type of vertical transportation in healthcare environments, as well as implementable mitigation strategies. A baseline feasibility analysis was conducted for each strategy proposed. While removing the escalators was recommended as the only sure way to fully mitigate the occurrence of these incidents, a myriad of escalator safety upgrades and passive design techniques were proposed—with the caveat that once implemented, a follow-up impact study must occur to gauge the success of these strategies. Keywords: escalator, safety, incidents, healthcare, elevators
1.0 Introduction 1.1 Context
1.2 Incident Log
The clinic studied is an outpatient cancer care clinic within the southern United States. It is comprised of two sides: East Clinic and West Clinic. Each side contains a set of escalators and several elevators (West: 1 bank of 3; East: 2 banks of 2) which services the main clinic spaces on Level 2. East Clinic serves as the main entry for the clinic and was the predominate area of concern for this study.
Between July 2018 and July 2019, 9 separate safety incidents occurred within the outpatient clinic, some of which affected multiple visitors. Figures 1 and 2 map the incident log provided by the care clinic over the course of the year along with the “harm score” assigned to each incident by the recording staff member.
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Escalator Safety within an Outpatient Clinic
08.14
11.14
Building: Location: N/A Harm Score: 3 Direction: Up
JUL
AUG
Building: Location: East Harm Score: 5 Direction: Up *Multiple Injured
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
JAN
FEB
MAR
07.16 Building: Location: East Harm Score: 5 Direction: Down
08.14
Building: Location: East Harm Score: 5 Direction: Up
07.26
Building: Location: East AUGHarmSEP Score: 5 OCT Direction: Down
JUL
DEC
07.26
JAN
FEB
MAR
Harm Score: 5
MAY
Building: Location: East Harm Score: 5 Direction: Up
3: No Evidence of Physical Harm or Otherwise 4: Emotional Distress or Inconvenience
not feel well. Sat down 5: Additional Treatment and Two Incidents
Two Incidents
passed out.”
6: Temporary Harm
11.14.18
Building: Location: East Harm Score: 4 Direction: N/A
Harm Score: 5
escalator ...in shock mode with multiple because the whole wheeled family bags. was
4: Emotional Distress or Inconvenience
One Incident
One Incident
JUL
“Found “(Users)visitor were riding sittingup onthe the
“(Users) were riding up the “The student donated blood. Incident Occurrences//Month Harm Score When coming down escalator3: No Evidence of Physical Harm or Otherwise No Incidents Incident Occurrences//Month Harm Score with multiple wheeled bags. she stated to her friend she did No Incidents
JUN
06.03
04.03 Harm Score: 3
Building: Location: N/A Harm Score: 4 Direction: Down
*Multiple Injured
APR
08.14.18
07.26.18 Building: Location: East Harm Score: 5 Direction: Down
07.10
Building: Location: East Harm Score: 6 Direction: Up
Building: Location: N/A Harm Score: 4 Direction: Up
*Multiple Injured
NOV
05.30
03.27
11.14
Building: Location: N/A Harm Score: 3 Direction: Up
5: Additional Treatment
Bag got stuck...resulting in
Bag got Aunt injured. stuck...resulting tripped ...made in
6: Temporary Harm
(user) falling backwards.”
the (user) whole falling family backwards.” off balance.”
Figure 1: Incident log timeline.
05.30.19
08.14.18
07.26.18 Harm Score: 5
Harm Score: 3
11.14.18 Harm Score: 6
“(Users)visitor “Found were riding sittingup onthe the
“(Users) were riding up the
“The student donated blood.
06.03.19 03.27.19 Harm Score: 5
escalator ...in shock mode
When coming down escalator
“Domino effect of a family because the whole family was with multiple wheeled bags.
she stated to her friend she did
with multiple wheeled bags.
not feel well. Sat down and
Bag got stuck...resulting in
injured. tripped ...made Bag got Aunt stuck...resulting in
passed out.”
(user) falling backwards.”
the whole family off balance.” (user) falling backwards.”
member and patients at
“Patient sustained fall on
Patient brought back to “3 years old boy fell down pre-op area for assessment by
upward escalator...slipped with his right arm under his
escalator with grandmother... PA and RN. Three skin tears
body. Noted multiple bleeding
noted, no other injuries.”
lacerations.”
“(Users) “(Patient) were repor ri
tripped on her s
upward escalator near
with multiple down the escala w
elevator S...sustained injury to
area. No active bleeding. No
Bag gother hitting stuck... left w
other injury noted.” 07.16.19
(user) falling ba
Harm Score: 6
07.10.19 Harm Score: 4
Harm Score: 4
Harm Score: 5
“Domino effect of a family
“3 years old boy fell down
“(Users) were “(Patient) reported ridingthat up the she
“(Patient) said she lost her
member and patients at
escalator with grandmother...
tripped on her shoes going
balance, her husband was just
upward escalator near
small cut over the left temporal
down the escalator andbags. fell with multiple wheeled
behind her... Noticed small
elevator S...sustained injury to
area. No active bleeding. No
hitting left wrist and in left Bag gother stuck...resulting
bruising over left lower leg
head and rib cage.”
other injury noted.”
(user) falling backwards.”
with minimal bleeding.”
Harm Score Harm Score
“Patient fell on escalator.
07.10.19 Harm Score: 5
small cut over the left temporal
head and06.03.19 rib cage.”
05.30.19
04.03.19 Harm Score: 4
Harm Score: 4
3: No Evidence of Physical Harm or Otherwise
3: No Evidence of Physical Harm or Otherwise
4: Emotional Distress or Inconvenience
4: Emotional Distress or Inconvenience
5: Additional Treatment
5: Additional Treatment 6: Temporary Harm
6: Temporary Harm
Figure 2: Incident log recorded descriptions.
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1.3 Site Observations
During both site visits, the design team utilized the form in Figure 3 to count user traffic on both the escalators and elevators within East Clinic and West Clinic, as well as document observed user behaviors on escalators. Site observations occurred in the morning between 7 a.m.-11 a.m., and counts were conducted within 15minute increments. Three members of the design team were present and stationed at the observation locations illustrated in Figure 4.
During project meetings, staff members provided insight into user behaviors observed on escalators as well as information on current clinic operations (e.g. operating hours, peak use times, perceived elevator vs escalator usage, current escalator safety signage efforts, etc.). The design team utilized this preliminary information to inform both of their on-site visits.
Figure 3: Traffic count example form.
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Escalator Safety within an Outpatient Clinic
ELEVATORS R
MT
WAITING
ELEVATORS P RECEPTION
WAITING WAITING
JA
KM
ELEVATORS S
WAITING
WEST CLINIC
EAST CLINIC
ELEVATORS R
EAST CLINIC ELEVATORS P VALET VALET
JA
WEST CLINIC
KM SECURITY SECURITY ELEVATORS S
VALET VALET
Figure 4: Observation locations, level 1 (below) and level 2 (above).
In addition to documenting traffic counts and user behaviors on escalators, the design team observed the circulation patterns within the clinic illustrated in Figure 5. Based on traffic counts during both site visits, it was determined that 89 percent of users utilized the East Clinic entry and vertical transportation options versus 11 percent utilizing West Clinic. In addition, 33 percent of
users were utilizing the elevators from the below-grade garage levels in East Clinic while 67 percent of users traveled on the elevators and escalators from levels 1 and 2 between East and West Clinic. These percentages were utilized in the design team’s recommendations and calculations for vertical handling capacity needed to accommodate visitor traffic to the clinic.
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RECEPTION
WEST CLINIC
SCULPTURE
EAST CLINIC
Escalator Elevator Major Vertical Circulation Secondary Vertical Circulation
EAST CLINIC
VALET VALET
Staff
WEST CLINIC
Patient
Visitor
Major Horizontal Circulation Paths
89%
Secondary Horizontal Circulation Paths
11% VALET VALET
Campus
Car
Major Vehicle Transit Paths Secondary Vehicle Transit Paths
Figure 5: Circulation patterns, level 1 (below) and level 2 (above).
Tables 1 and 2 illustrate the compiled observations from the design team for incoming and outgoing traffic during site visits—including elevator and escalator usage totals, observed escalator risk behaviors, as well as total vertical transportation demand during each 15-minute observation period. Peak usage was observed on both visits between 7:58 a.m.-8:13 a.m. with an observed peak
of 180 users per 15-minute period. It is important to note that a large percentage of users demonstrated one or more of the risk behaviors observed by the design team while utilizing the clinic escalators. Table 3 illustrates the percentage of users that exhibited one of the three top risk behaviors observed. On average, 68 percent of users exhibited a risk behavior per 15-minute period.
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Escalator Safety within an Outpatient Clinic
Table 1: Site visit September 10th, 2019.
Total Elevator Usage
7:05-7:20a
7:23-7:38a
7:43-7:58a
7:58-8:13a
8:18-8:33a
8:33-8:48a
8:53-9:08a
9:08-9:23a
10:40-10:55a
Elevator Total: 57
Elevator Total: 68
Elevator Total: 80
Elevator Total: 85
Elevator Total: 80
Elevator Total: 48
Elevator Total: 64
Elevator Total: 62
Elevator Total: 68
Escalator Total: 53
Escalator Total: 75
Escalator Total: 83
Escalator Total: 81
Escalator Total: 73
Escalator Total: 49
Escalator Total: 95
Escalator Total: 85
Escalator Total: 55
Total Usage: 110
Total Usage: 143
Total Usage: 163
Total Usage: 166
Total Usage: 153
Total Usage: 97
Total Usage: 159
Total Usage: 147
Total Usage: 102
Phone Usage
Carrying an Item
Cane/Walker
Earphone Usage
No Handrail Use
Total Escalator Usage
Peak Time
Table 2: Site visit September 18th, 2019..
Total Elevator Usage
7:05-7:20a
7:23-7:38a
7:43-7:58a
7:58-8:13a
8:18-8:33a
8:33-8:48a
8:53-9:08a
9:08-9:23a
10:40-10:55a
Elevator Total: 55
Elevator Total: 68
Elevator Total: 79
Elevator Total: 80
Elevator Total: 76
Elevator Total: 46
Elevator Total: 65
Elevator Total: 63
Elevator Total: 45
Escalator Total: 50
Escalator Total: 69
Escalator Total: 99
Escalator Total: 100
Escalator Total: 102
Escalator Total: 51
Escalator Total: 97
Escalator Total: 73
Escalator Total: 55
Total Usage: 105
Total Usage: 137
Total Usage: 178
Total Usage: 180
Total Usage: 178
Total Usage: 97
Total Usage: 162
Total Usage: 136
Total Usage: 100
Phone Usage
Carrying an Item
Cane/Walker
Earphone Usage
No Handrail Use
Total Escalator Usage
Peak Time
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Table 3: Site visit September 10th, 2019, observed escalator risk behaviors. Observed Behaviors (People/15 min)
7:05-7:20a
7:23-7:38a
7:43-7:58a
7:58-8:13a
8:18-8:33a
8:33-8:48a
8:53-9:08a
9:08-9:23a
10:40-10:55a
Phone Usage Carrying an Item No Handrail Usage
7 27 5
11 28 3
16 27 16
18 22 16
10 28 13
7 29 8
14 27 20
10 24 13
7 16 13
Total Risk Behavior
39
42
59
56
51
44
61
47
36
Total Escalator Use
53
75
83
81
73
49
95
85
55
74%
56%
71%
69%
70%
90%
64%
55%
65%
% / Total with Risk Behavior
Average Departure Interval 45 seconds (or less)
180
/ 15 min. = 100% Observed Peak
180
/ 15 min. x 1.25 = 225
225
/ 15 min. = 125% Observed Peak
During peak 15 minutes of traffic, on average, an elevator from each group should depart from the main lobby (Level 2) every 45 seconds, or less.
Handling Capacity 100% of Expected Demand (or greater) During the peak 15 minutes of traffic, the vertical transportation groups must have available capacity to handle 100%, or greater, of the traffic demand.
Mimimum Design Performance Criteria
/ 15 min.
Minimum Design Handling Capacity
Figure 6: Minimum vertical transportation design criteria.
Using the peak user demand gleaned from site observations, the design team calculated a minimum handling capacity for vertical transportation needed within the clinic as well as minimum performance criteria
for any elevators added to the clinic’s design. These calculations are illustrated in Figure 6 and were used to inform the design team’s recommendations.
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Escalator Safety within an Outpatient Clinic
2.0 Recommendations
and passive design strategies to help direct traffic towards existing elevators in East Clinic.
2.1 Recommendations Matrix and Diagrams
Strategies in which escalators are not removed would require follow-up study to verify their success at mitigating the occurrence of safety incidents on escalators.
Based on stakeholder feedback and the previously stated site observations, the design team compiled a list of possible recommended mitigation strategies illustrated in Table 4. The recommended strategies range from removing the escalators and adding elevators, upgrading existing escalators with safety improvements,
These options are illustrated within Figures 7-10 and Tables 5-7 below.
Table 4: Recommended strategies.
Strategies Description of proposed strategy.
A B
Escalator Safety Improvements
C
East//Remove Escalator & Add Two Elevators East//Reconfigure Entry Vestibule at Level 1* & Add Elevator Lighting
Estimated Design & Construction Timeline
Estimated Cost
Follow-Up Study Required
Low:Mid:High
Months
$
Yes:No + Timeframe
High
$2,434,550
18 months
Design Team Recommendation Yes:No + Explanation.
No
Yes. Removing the escalators entirely & adding two elevators to help manage the additional user load & average interval would eliminate the occurrence of escalator safety incidents.
Owner Decision Accept:Reject TBD
Mid
8 months
$304,065
Yes at 12 months
Maybe. While this strategy would help direct users to elevators, it may not fully reduce the occurrence of escalator incidents.
Low
< 3 months
N/A
Yes at 12 months
Yes. Existing comb lighting on escalators is currently non-functioning. While no longer a code requirement, restoring this feature would be beneficial.
TBD
Yes at 12 months
Yes. Existing comb segments are an aluminum color. While it may not fully mitigate incidents, coloring comb segments to yellow would help improve their visibility.
TBD
Yes. Based on the ASME A17.1 code in effect at time of installation, step demarcation lights were likely required & included with these escalators. While no longer a code requirement, restoring this feature would be beneficial.
TBD
TBD
TBD
Additional Strategies
1 2 3
Restore Comb Lighting
Color Comb Segments Restore Step Demarcation Lighting
Low
Low
< 3 months
$8,000
< 3 months
N/A
Yes at 12 months
4
Step Demarcation Strips
Low
< 3 months
$200,000
Yes at 12 months
Yes. Currently, only some steps have demarcation on the sides. No steps have demarcation at the rear. Provide new escalator steps, with plastic (replaceable) demarcation strips at rear & sides of each step. Step nose may also be painted.
5
Column Traffic Lights
Low
4 months
$52,000
Yes at 12 months
Yes. Adding column traffic lights at the entry & exit of each escalator would help provide greater visibility to users.
TBD
Yes at 12 months
Maybe. Audio messaging may become “white noise” to reoccurring clinic users & visitors. May not have as great of an affect as other proposed strategies.
TBD
Yes. Could help provide valuable insight into the occurrence of incidents as well as “near misses” prior to the implementation of more invasive design strategies
TBD
Maybe. Design team observed limited use of signage on site visits, however signage could be simplified with a singular “Stop” message for clarity. More permanent semi-transparent signage could also be ceiling hung at Level 1.
TBD
Yes at 12 months
Maybe. While lighting may help increase the visibility of elevators, it should be combined with an additional design strategy for greater impact.
TBD
Yes at 12 months
Maybe. Design team observed security sometimes directing patients to elevators during on site visits, however a greeter advising users to utilize elevators & escalator handrails full-time may be more effective.
TBD
6 Passive Strategies
Intervention Level
7 8 9 10
Cautionary Audio Message
Install Cameras
Update Signage
Elevator Lighting Hire Greeters To Direct Users to Elevators.
Low Low
Low
Low Low
< 3 months
$20,000
< 3 months
$15,000
< 3 months
$5,000
< 3 months
$20,000
< 3 months
N/A
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No
Yes at 12 months
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2019 ― Volume 11.02
ADD ELEVATOR
ELEVATORS R
REMOVE ESCALATOR ELEVATORS P
ADD ELEVATOR ELEVATORS S
WEST CLINIC
EAST CLINIC
HOLCOMBE
ADD ELEVATOR
ELEVATORS R
EAST CLINIC ELEVATORS P
REMOVE ESCALATOR
WEST CLINIC
ELEVATORS S
ADD ELEVATOR
Figure 7: Strategy A, remove escalators and add two elevators, level 1 (below) and level 2 (above).
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Escalator Safety within an Outpatient Clinic
STRATEGY A Baseline Handling Capacity
DESCRIPTION
225 persons
Remove Escalators / Install Two Elevator Banks General Requirements Demo Escalators Infill Escalator - Floor Structural Upgrades Infill Escalator - Structural Slab Haul/Dispose
per 15 minute period
125% of observed peak
East Clinic
East Lobby: two (2) groups of three (3) elevators//Elevator Banks R and S. - Average Interval: 34.9 seconds - Handling Capacity: 154 persons
Designed Handling Capacity
Sawcut/Demo for New Elevator - 6 levels Elevator Steel New Elevator Electrical Revisions - New/Reno HVAC Revisions Fire Protection Revisions Fire Alarm Revisions Finishes
308 persons per 15 minute period
171% of observed peak
Figure 8: Elevator design criteria breakdown for strategy A.
Table 5: Estimated cost breakdown for strategy A.
STRATEGY A
sons period
ved peak
roups of three r Banks
34.9 seconds 154 persons
rsons period
ved peak
DESCRIPTION
QTY
Remove Escalators / Install Two Elevator Banks General Requirements Demo Escalators Infill Escalator - Floor Structural Upgrades Infill Escalator - Structural Slab Haul/Dispose
1,600 1 4 1,600 1,600 1 6 2 12 1 1 1 1 6
Sawcut/Demo for New Elevator - 6 levels Elevator Steel New Elevator Electrical Revisions - New/Reno HVAC Revisions Fire Protection Revisions Fire Alarm Revisions Finishes
39
UNIT
UNIT COST
sf ls ea sf sf ls
$ 40,000 $ 18,000 $ 30.00 $ 15.00 $ 15,000.00
$ $ $ $ $
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
floors shaft stop ls allow allow allow floors
15,000 150,000 45,000 125,000 25,000 20,000 20,000 60,000
EXTENSION
TOTAL
40,000 72,000 48,000 24,000 15,000
90,000 300,000 540,000 125,000 25,000 20,000 20,000 360,000 Subtotal $ 1,679,000 Total w/ Markups $ 2,434,550
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2019 ― Volume 11.02
ACCENT LIGHTING
ELEVATORS R
ELEVATORS P
ACCENT LIGHTING ELEVATORS S
WEST CLINIC
EAST CLINIC
ACCENT LIGHTING
ELEVATORS R
EAST CLINIC
ELEVATORS P
12’
WEST CLINIC
22’ Clearance 10’
VESTIBULE UPDATE SECURITY DESK
Figure 9: Strategy B, reconfigure entry vestibule at Level 1 (below) and add elevator lighting.
40
ELEVATORS S
ACCENT LIGHTING
#1
#2
Escalator Safety within an Outpatient Clinic
Table 6: Estimated cost breakdown, strategy B.
STRATEGY B DESCRIPTION
QTY
900 1 1 1
Reconfigure Vestibule General Requirements Select Demo Existing Vestibule Walls/Doors Haul/Dispose New Vestibule Curtainwall New Doors - Automatic Slider Miscellaneous Steel Support Concrete Patch/Repair Electrical Revisions Mechanical/Plumbing/Fire Protection Strategy #1 Finishes
Strategy #1 Strategy #1
Strategy Strategy #4#2 Strategy #4
Strategy #2 Strategy Strategy #4#2
Strategy #5#3 Strategy Strategy #5
Strategy #1
UNIT
sf ls ls ls
35 lf 2 ea 1 ls 900 sf 1 ls 1 allow Strategy Strategy #4#2 900 sf
Strategy #5#3 Strategy
Strategy #3 Strategy #5#3 Strategy Figure 10: Strategy C, escalator safety improvements.
#3
41
UNIT COST
EXTENSION
$ $ $
25,000 $ 10,000 $ 5,000 $
$ $ $ $ $ $ $
1,120 $ 39,200 30,000 15,000 $ 20,000 $ 20,000 10.00 $ 9,000 20,000 $ 20,000 20,000 $ 20,000 Strategy #5 35 $ 31,500 Subtotal $ Total w/ Markups $
TOTAL
25,000 10,000 5,000
Strategy #4
209,700 304,065
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Table 7: Estimated cost breakdown, strategy C.
STRATEGY C DESCRIPTION
1
TOTAL
$
-
Color Comb Segments
$
8,000
Restore Step Demarcation Lighting*
$
-
Restore Comb Lighting* *No fee, feature already included.
2 3
*No fee, feature already included.
4
Step Demarcation Strips
$
200,000
5
Column Traffic Lights
$
52,000
2.2 Not Recommended Strategies Matrix During this study, several design strategies were considered and recommended by the owner, design or
consultant teams. Table 8 illustrates the strategies that were not recommended at this time for various reasons.
Table 8: Estimated cost breakdown, strategy C.
Strategies Description of proposed strategy.
D
East & West//Remove Escalators East//Add One Elevator & Reroute Traffic
E
East & West//Remove Escalators West//Add Two Elevators & Reroute Traffic
F
East & West//Remove Escalators & Reroute Traffic
G
East & West//Remove Escalators &
H
East//Remove Escalators & Fill-In Floors
I J
Add Grand Stairs
with Additional Program
Intervention Level
Estimated Design & Construction Timeline
Estimated Cost
Follow-Up Study Required
Low:Mid:High
Months
$
Yes:No + Timeframe
High High
High High
High
15 months
$$$$$
18 months
$$$$$
14 months
$$$$$
14 months
$$$$$
18 months
$$$$$
East//Remove Escalators & Add Elevators in Place
East & West//Add Narrower Escalators
High
High
24 months
$$$$$
8 months
$$$$$
No
Design Team Recommendation No + Explanation. No. Design team recommends the addition of two elevators to accommodate user loads, unless appropriate operational protocols are followed to reroute some traffic to West Clinic. Owner does not want reroute traffic at this time.
Owner Decision Accept:Reject TBD
No
No. Design team recommends this strategy due to ease of implementation, but it comes with considerable traffic rerouting to West Clinic. Owner does not want reroute traffic at this time.
TBD
No
No. Design team recommends this strategy due to ease of implementation, but it comes with considerable traffic rerouting to West Clinic. Owner does not want reroute traffic at this time.
TBD
No
No. Design team does not recommend adding staircases in place of escalators due to research pointing to a potential increase in safety incidents.
No
No. Owner to consider options presented but currently, this strategy is outside the parameters of this study.
TBD
Yes at 12 months
No. Design team analyzed this option & concluded it is not feasible without great cost & site intervention/interruption.
TBD
Yes at 12 months
No. While this strategy seems to have success in other campus locations based on staff perceptions, owner does not want to explore this option at this time.
TBD
TBD
TBD
of Escalators
Mid
6-8 months
$$$$$
Yes at 12 months
No. After analyzing lobby & escalator clearances in East Clinic, design team concluded this option is infeasible without considerable investigation into the current lobby & vestibule configuration
L
Remove Sculpture
Low
< 3 months
$$$$$
Yes at 12 months
No. Owner does not want to explore this option at this time.
TBD
11
Escalators for Staff Usage Only
Low
< 3 months
$$$$$
Yes at 12 months
No. While this may help mitigate the occurrence of some escalator incidents, the log also includes staff incidents.
TBD
TBD
K
East//Add Reception Desk In Front
12
Escalators for Departure Only
Low
< 3 months
$$$$$
Yes at 12 months
No. While this may help mitigate the occurrence of some escalator incidents, the log also includes some incidents in the upward direction of travel.
13
Add Traffic Light: Newel or Floor Plate
Low
< 3 months
$$$$$
Yes at 12 months
No. These options may not be available for retrofit on the current escalator models.
TBD
14
Slow Escalator Speed
Low
< 3 months
$$$$$
N/A
No. This is not a code compliant strategy & is only used to conserve energy when the escalator is not in use.
TBD
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Escalator Safety within an Outpatient Clinic
3.0 Relevant Research and Clinic Application
handrails. Previous research study found that handrails are often not used on escalators4. The study observed 83 people at a set of commercial mall escalators, and found that over 25 percent of users did not hold either handrail while ascending, and over 40 percent did not hold either handrail while descending escalators. Additionally, less than 20 percent held both handrails while ascending, and less than 80 percent held both while descending. The study concluded that it is generally difficult to change consumer behavior through safety information such as signs, although explicit or implied enforcement may be enough to increase compliance for handrail usage4. While the design team recommended some operational strategies to help enforce safer escalator usage amongst clinic visitors (e.g. hiring a greeter or marshal), these strategies would need a follow-up assessment to test their impact on decreasing safety incidents.
3.1 Escalator Risk Factors According to an analysis of outpatient falls conducted by Nagoya University Hospital in Nagoya, Japan, researchers found that escalators were the second greatest risk location for fall incidents within the hospital—comprising 10 percent of all outpatient falls in the year 20182. Older adults bear the greatest risk: according to another study on escalator safety, researchers found that the number of escalator-related injuries suffered by older adults more than doubled, resulting in nearly 40,000 elders being injured on escalators between 1991 and 20063. Balance issues, vision issues with moving floors, lack of edge contrast on escalator stairs, and difficulty stepping on and off escalators were all factors associated with the increase of escalator incidents in older populations4. While the studied outpatient clinic serves a variety of patient populations, the design team observed that many visitors seemed to be adults between 40-75 years of age.
3.2 Escalators vs Stairs Safety Statistics If escalators were removed, the design team recommends adding elevators and infilling the residual space instead of adding stairs. Figure 11 illustrates a compilation of safety statistics for both escalators and stairs—highlighting the heightened risk stairs could bring to the outpatient clinic. While these statistics are not specific to healthcare environments, they provide insight into how stairs could potentially increase the occurrence of safety incidents.
As previously stated, an average of 68 percent of users exhibited one or more risk behaviors while utilizing the studied outpatient clinic escalators, possibly contributing to the increased incidence of escalator events within the clinic. One way to minimize the risk of falling (either the likelihood of falling, or the severity of outcome in case of a fall) is to hold onto escalator
Escalator Statistics
Stair Statistics
There are an estimated 35,000 escalators in operation in the U.S.
1,077,558 patients treated in emergency departments for stair-related injuries annually⁵
- Annually, there are 7,000 – 11,000 escalator-related injuries in the U.S. resulting in a trip to the emergency department.¹,⁷ - 8% of escalator related injuries result in further hospitalization after evaluation in an emergency department⁸ - The average rate of incidents is 0.221 accidents per escalator, annually¹ - The rate of injuries is 0.362 injuries per 10,000 persons¹,⁷
- 93.8% are treated and released⁵ - 5.7% of patients are further hospitalized⁵ - 61.2% of incidents occur in the home⁵ - 7.9% of incidents happen outside the home⁵ - 30.9% of incidents – location is not specified⁵ - The rate of injuries is 37.8 injuries per 10,000 persons⁵ Annually, there are 12,000 deaths from stair-related accidents⁶
Figure 11: Stairs vs. Escalator safety statistics.
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4.0 Conclusion
[4] Ayres, T., and Schmidt, R., (2008). “Age-Related Risk Patterns for Escalators”, Report, Retrieved on 10/2019 from http://hp-research.com/sites/default/files/ publications/Ayres & Schmidt (2008, CybErg).pdf.
While escalators may be an efficient mode of vertical transportation within buildings, their application in healthcare environments should be carefully considered. There are approximately 10,000 escalator injuries that take place on the 35,000 escalators in the United States each year—compared with the 900,000 elevators in the United States with a total number of 7,000 injuries 9,1. While over-capacity elevators and mechanical failings can present a danger, the lack of human error on elevators solidifies them as the safest vertical transportation option—especially in healthcare environments. Since humans come into direct contact with an escalator's moving parts, it is much easier to become accidentally injured as a result; coupled with improper use as well as heightened risk factors associated with older populations and users with diminished physical capabilities, escalators will continue to pose a risk to users.
[5] Blazewick, D., Chounthirath, T., Hodges N., Collins C., and Smith, G., (2018). “Stair-Related Injuries Treated in United States Emergency Departments”, American Journal of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 608-614. [6] Myers, A., (2019). “Stairway Injuries: Safety Statistics & Causes”, Retrieved on 10/19 from https://attorney-myers. com/2016/02/stairway-injuries/. [7] Unites States Consumer Product Safety Commission, (2019). “Know the Steps to Safety When Using Escalators”, Retrieved on 10/19 from https://www.cpsc.gov/ Newsroom/News-Releases/2008/Know-the-Steps-toSafety-When-Using-EscalatorsSome-shoes-more-likelythan-others-to-pose-risk. [8] Indiana University, (2008). “Rate of Escalator Injuries to Older Adults Has Doubled”, Retrieved on 10/19 from https://www.sciencedaily.com/ releases/2008/03/080313110337.htm
Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge individuals and organizations who contributed knowledge and expertise in the different areas explored in this article: Lerch Bates, Jeff Ainsley, Mike Thompson, Project Cost Resources, and Robert Hansen.
[9] Schminke, L., Jeger, V., Evangelopoulos, D., Zimmerman, H., and Exadaktylos, A., (2013). “Riding the Escalator: How Dangerous is it Really?”, Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 141-145.
References [1] McCann, M., (2013). “Deaths and Injuries Involving Elevators and Escalators”, The Center for Construction Research and Training, Retrieved on 10/2019 from https://www.cpwr.com/sites/default/files/publications/ elevator_escalator_BLSapproved_2.pdf. [2] Kobayashi, K., Ando, K., Suzuki, Y., Inagaki, Y., Nagao, Y., Ishiguro, N., and Imagama, S., (2018). “Characteristics of Outpatient Falls that Occurred in Hospital”, Nagoya Journal of Medical Science, Vol. 80, No. 3, pp. 417-422. [3] O’Neil, J., Gregory K., Steele, C., and Smith, G., (2008). “Escalator-Related Injuries among Older Adults in the United States, 1991-2005”, Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 527-533.
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04 Sound Parks: Invisible Agents of Urban Well-Being Maria Debije Counts, ASLA, maria.counts@perkinswill.com Galen Newman, PhD, ASLA, APA, gnewman@arch.tamu.edu
Abstract Urban areas are often times subject to elevated levels of noise pollution. Urban noise levels exceeding 55 decibels (dB) can result in negative public health outcomes through chronic/long-term exposure. The design of urban open spaces and parks has been shown to help decrease noise pollution. What remains unclear is to what extent parks attenuate noise pollution and what design factors best lower noise levels. This research compares measurements of sampled noise in four urban parks in New York City: Paley Park, Bryant Park, Washington Square Park, and Brooklyn Bridge Park Pier 3-4 Uplands. Auditory conditions were measured using a combination of advanced digital measuring devices and then displayed using 2D and 3D information visualization techniques. Results show that different design strategies account for a 22 dB reduction of sound, on average. Moreover, the sound is reduced around 1dB per every 5 foot of linear space within the interior of urban parks. Findings from this research imply that the sound measurements should be included in the inventory and analysis phase of the design process. Strategies are suggested to be employed into future designs to best integrate sound into future design concepts and schemes. Keywords: soundscapes, public health, noise, site design, urban landscape
1.0 Introduction Noise pollution can be understood as any unwanted sound. It has been found to contribute to negative human health impacts and the degradation of occupiable spaces. In fact, noise pollution is considered one of the primary sources of pollution in contemporary urban environments1. In 1972, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared urban noise as an official pollutant,2 due to its negative effects on human health3. If exposure to noise is chronic and exceeds certain levels, then negative health outcomes including annoyance, sleep disturbance, cardiovascular disease, and impairment of cognitive performance in children can result4. While there is a growing number of contemporary electric-powered mobility and transportation options that are quieter than traditional automobiles, the largest contributor to environmental pollution remains noise emanating
from traffic,⁵ the dominant mode of transportation within the urban context. In contrast, parks can help counteract urban noise pollution¹ and thus, improve not only the experience of, but factors contributing to public health in cities where decibel levels are not the sole indicator of noise pollution—quality also matters. Moreover, access to and time-spent sensing natural sounds have been linked to increased health and wellbeing⁶. The design elements of parks and the degree to which they perform as noise mitigation, however, remain relatively understudied and misunderstood. This study asks to what extent can urban parks attenuate noise pollutants, and what design factors have the ability to naturally lower decibel levels, and generate healthy and acoustically comfortable soundscapes?
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To answer these questions, we focused on testing decibel levels and their associations to park design elements in four exemplary, but typologically different parks. The sites under investigation are located in New York City: Washington Square Park, Bryant Park, Paley Park, and Brooklyn Bridge Park Pier 3-4 Uplands. All case studies are highly urban parks with significant unhealthy context noise levels above the WHO’s threshold for the onset of negative health effects from environmental noise of 55 decibels⁴. Through our analysis, we evaluated nuisance noise sources and noise reduction design elements through comparing decibel levels within and outside of each park, as well as their degree of change.
urban park. More appropriately scaled for landscapebased solutions with proactive noise mitigation include a variety of interventions that range from planting enmasse to earthworks, such as sound berms and structural designs barrier configurations and hybrid interventions. For example, Amsterdam’s landscape at Schiphol Airport, designed by West 8, included four “layers”, including runway verges, green route, infill planting and visual access to mediate the soundscape. To mitigate noise, the scheme included over 80 acres of park area with grassy hedges and pyramid-shaped landforms that trap the soundwaves and significantly reduce the airport noise13. In the case of rail, high-performance materials are able to dampen the concentrated noise at the source of the infrastructure associated with rail lines. The ground can also attenuate noise, depending on how it is shaped, its overall size, and the distance it is from the source of sound. In Western Europe, noise barriers and earth berms have been used to mitigate noise along railways and highways since the 1970's, especially when located near existing residential neighborhoods. Urban parks have also been found to be effective tools for noise mitigation14.
At least one major contributor to environmental noise pollution, such as urban traffic (road, rail, and air) that has been primarily linked to public health issues related to urban noise,⁷ was evaluated at each site in terms of the extent to which it was attenuated by the landscape design. As green spaces have been proven to have a positive effect on noise pollution at the local scale8 and have been shown to contribute to numerous positive public health outcomes,9 we selected only publicly accessible spaces that are considered urban parks. In addition, all selected case studies are located within densely populated areas, and serve as advantageous sites for investigating and testing sound fluctuations and how landscape design can play a role in effective altering these changes10.
These examples reveal environmentally-based noise reduction strategies; however, they mostly remain focused on planning-scaled efforts, and due to their size and approach, are not appropriate for most urban park designs. Sounds that emanate from the landscape vary spatially and temporally15. There is a need for further investigation into how these solutions and others can be re-appropriated to fit the urban pedestrian-scaled site within the context of the city where environmental pollution is often well-above the health threshold and where people seek opportunities for social engagement. Moreover, noise from car traffic, rail, air traffic and highways are environmental noise contributors projected to increase with population growth and urbanization in the future16. As a profession, the practice of landscape architecture impacts the “health, safety, and welfare of the public”17, which can fundamentally make spaces safe for people, or not. Although sounds are invisible and often undervalued, they ought to be designed with, for, and without, in order to truly realize the best possible environments for people.
1.1 Existing Landscape Methods in Noise Mitigation Understanding a particular location through its soundscapes or acoustic environment—all of the sounds audible to a person in a given location11—is an underrepresented field of study in landscape architecture 12. This presents a growing need for landscape architects to develop methods for evaluating elements in the landscape that impact experience, well-being and opportunity to design with and around sound. While a variety of noise mitigation walls such as outdoor sound curtains, absorptive panel systems and a variety of other noise barriers exist, their applicability, scale and design are not typically suited to the scale of the
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2.0 Methods
of recording on-location, within occupiable zones, in 3D, and at the level that sounds become audible.
In order to generate a preliminary assessment of sound sources and how they are mediated through landscape design in urban parks, recording techniques involving both direct-point-source and binaural recording strategies were employed in this research. This approach involves collecting sonic data within urban park settings through field recording devices, followed by investigating sound frequencies and other variables to assess overall soundscape quality of each park’s performance as a sound mitigator. While there are a growing number of sound capture devices and technologies available to record and assess outdoor environments, a growing body of knowledge in landscape research for human well-being and a growth in the technologies available to better measure theses associations, a large gap remains in the current literature. Soundscapes, the human perception of the acoustic environment,18 are subjective by nature. To increase objectivity, we used a multicombinational model for measuring and visualizing sound to evaluate each park site’s performance at the scale of individual station points. For each point, we captured sounds using technologies that were capable
Field recordings were recorded at their source as individual clips as well as lengthier recordings of the larger acoustic environment. As a meas to establish a context baseline, areas around the park were also measured. Interior station points representative of each major programmatic zone within each park were then selected as noise sampling areas. We analyzed each occurrence of audible sound and displayed these outputs using both 2D and 3D information visualization techniques. Sounds were processed, visualized and mapped using digital software to provide the ability to determine the decibel levels, frequencies and overall characteristics as they relate to audible areas for people within case studies. The classification includes geophonies (comprised of non-biological sounds), biophonies (biological sounds such as birdsong or talking), and anthrophonies (made by technological devices), as seen in Figure 1. A comparative analysis and calculation of the existing conditions to the change in decibel levels, type and quality within the case study sites were evaluated to test the extent of the noise
Figure 1: Visual diagram of the soundscape as perceptible by a human, and classification of those elements found within each type.
Figure 2: On-site field recording devices illustrating different equipment types and capabilities used for recording landscape soundscapes both surrounding parks and within each park.
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2.1 Sound Recording
attenuation and unique design elements performing this function.
While each park varies in contextual spatial configuration and design program, the amount of change and design features were examined across all sites using an identical methodology. On-site field recording equipment was used to capture different soundscapes and individual sound sources to capture both sounds at their source, as well as sounds as close the human perception of sound as possible. Recordings were paired with photographs and video as a reference for temporal conditions. The individual sound source recordings were conducted with Tascam DR-05 and DR-40 stereo recorders and Tascam headsets. For the omnidirectional soundscape recordings, an Ambeo Sennheiser headset (mic embedded in ear buds) with Apple iPhone and Sennheiser Ambeo VR 3D microphone on an Atlas Sound MS-20E mic stand and Zoom F4 multi-track field recorder was paired with the Tascam headphones. Photography and video included the use of a DSLR Canon EOS 80D camera on Magnus VT-300 video tripod with fluid head. Windjammers, including the Rycote Windjammer and Movo WS-G9 outdoor windshield, were added to the recording equipment to reduce noise. An overview of the selected equipment can be seen in Figure 2 and the photographs of recording on-site can be seen in Figure 3 below.
It should be noted that low frequencies scatter unpredictably and need to be partially absorbed, while higher frequencies typically reflect off surfaces and travel greater distances. Landscapes that place forms or related barriers between sound sources and humanexperience zones help to absorb or reflect noise. The impact depends on whether it is a low or high frequency. Variability in ability to absorb or reflect sound is primarily based on proximity to the source, overall volume and material composition 19. Our study included testing volume in terms of decibel (dB) levels and frequencies in terms of Hertz (Hz) over time. Plants have been found to reduce noise in myriad ways depending on factors such as massing, density, foliage and stems to absorb, reflect, refract and scatter sound20. Soil is also able to attenuate sound based on its design and its permeability. Therefore, planted areas within the individual park designs were also examined as design factors that perform to create comfortable acoustic zones for people in otherwise undesirable and unhealthy spaces. Other elements, such as walls (embedded and stand-alone) and water features, were also studied. All parks were drafted digitally in AutoCAD from measured base-plans in plan and section-elevation. All major surfaces, plantings, material changes, architectural components and features, and site furniture (permanent and movable) were included. The drawings were drafted at 1:1, with the ability to zoom in for detailed analysis and ability to identify individual elements and features, as distinguishable from larger earthwork or planted form site choreography but scaled for comparative analyses.
In total, over 20 site visits, over 400 photographs, and over 100 field recordings were captured for this research project. Field recording was conducted on-site, in person, on days that the parks were being used actively, and on sunny days where the weather was not inclement. Direct-point-source recorders were used to capture individual sounds and their respective properties and binaural recorders with multiple-channels and
Figure 3: Photographs of field recordings on-site in New York City in Fall of 2018.
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multi-directional capabilities were used to record acoustic environments of human occupiable and programmed areas within each site. This research was, by design, conducted to capture sounds as closely to what humans hear with mechanical equipment. Because decibels are logarithmic, a reduction by 10 decibels is described in the literature equivalent to a 10fold decrease experientially21. So, while it may sometimes seem like a park reduces noise by a few decibel levels, the impact is perceptually 10 times more powerful for the human experience when in the soundscape itself.
and in this study Reaper, Ambeo A-B plugin, ReSample, Sonic Visualizer, AbletonLive, Praat and Adobe After Effects were used. Figure 4 illustrates the workflow from collection through visualization. Sound files were processed in a way that did not alter the recording, but instead made visible what is otherwise not observable. Files were processed to provide a means for playback compatible with smartphones, laptops and speakers with both mono, stereo, binaural, and VR capabilities. The processing was conducted to provide critical data, needed to assess findings at each park and within each sound file.
2.2 Sound Processing
2.3 Sound Visualization
In order to get a baseline for assessing park performance to mitigate noise through comparative analysis, captured sound recordings were visualized using a variety of sonic digital tools. Processing of the field recordings make use of different software programs,
Clips for processing and assessment were selected based on their ability to best exhibit at least one instance of each different type of soundscape within the park; nine unique locations are illustrated for each park. Sound
Figure 4: Workflow sound processing illustration showing sound capture to processing and data visualization for assessment.
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clips were taken and clipped to eight second intervals. The types of sound images include soundwaves, formant, intensity, and frequency. For the purposes of this study, we focused on the findings for the intensity and frequency, as they reveal decibel level change and the visible characteristics of the soundscapes to assess park performance. Intensity visualizations and frequencies were used to examine the decibel levels for each field test. Intensity diagrams reveal the range of 0-100 decibels (dB). The frequency analysis of spectrograms included a range of 0-20,000 Hertz (Hz), all frequencies that are known to be audible to humans.
varying degrees of success. Results show that each park is able to impact the overall park soundscape through landscape design and features. In all cases, objects alone are not the primary feature of noise attenuation, suggesting that, for parks, achieving acoustically healthy environments is achievable through the shaping of space, site choreography, and planted form. The addition of sound elements, such as water features and healthy ecologies that attract animal species that make their own sounds, also plays a role in the soundscape of parks contributing to the overall perceivable sounds and health within a given area.
2.4 Soundscape Mapping Interpretations
3.2 Paley Park
In order to relate loudness and sound-type with physical site design layout, each sound-test was coded to a measured and scaled digitized section and plan. Sound maps were based on grading, planting, and features using technical drawing information in AutoCAD in plan, and then converted to section drawings based on site measurements and 3D information. The overall site layout, topography, and choreography play an important role in each park; each are related to the distance and ability to attenuate noise from their unique context. Layouts were conducted both in plan (layout) and section across through each site. The identified elements were then illustrated in color on top of the measured black-and-white drawings to indicate the overall findings of the sound classifications, source locations (in section) and field recording stations (in plan). Key plans and a graphic chart were then generated in order to indicate the overall location of the elements, as well as the total range of decibel change from context to inner park. The results are discussed in the next section.
3.1. Overview
Paley Park, located at 3 E 53rd street in New York, is a small pocket park designed by Zion and Breen Richardson Associates, as seen in Figure 5. It was first opened to the public in 1967. The park is approximately 4,200 square feet (less than one acre) and situated between three buildings, with one face open to 53rd street, a busy one-way (west-bound) street in Midtown. It is situated between 5th Avenue to its west and Madison Avenue to its east. The main landscape features of the park include a quincunx arrangement of 12 Honey Locust trees (Gleditsia triacanthos), an elevated plaza made of granite setts, and moveable seating elements including tables and chairs. The inner-most area within the park is set roughly sixty feet back from the busy street and its primary traffic-related noises. However, noise from a water wall is sampled with the loudest natural acoustic element in the park, almost matching that of the street level at 65 dB. While this may seem negative in terms of sound, the water wall not only serves as a visual amenity to the park and backdrop to the entire site, but serves as noise cancellation, muffling street noises, for the interior of the park. This suggests that the decibel range while above the healthy zone, does not deter people from engaging socially and that they type of noise should be factored to determine its potency in impacting wellbeing for people in the outdoor setting.
In each analyzed urban area, the noise pollution at the street level and overall street experience is well above what is considered a “normal” or healthy level due to congestion, construction, and sirens. The parks show to be spaces that, through their basic design elements and features, mitigate perceivable contextual noise in
The decibel level range along the street is in the high 60’s to low 70’s, above the threshold of 55 dB for contributing negatively to health from noise exposure⁴. Detected traffic-noises from the context include sirens from emergency vehicles and heavy traffic. The park is removed both horizontally and vertically from the street:
3.0 Results
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Figure 5: Park Soundscape Mapping Interpretations—Plan and section elevation site-scaled sound maps illustration of Paley Park.
horizontally, there is an acoustic separation of roughly 30 feet and five trees, and vertically, roughly two feet above street level. On average, the interior of the park is in the 50 dB range. The total reduction in decibel levels from the source (street) is reduced by 5-18 dB levels in the interior park spaces. The site is also flanked by walls on the east and west side that serve as vertical lawns covered in English Ivy (Hedera helix), creating an intimate space. Paving comprises just over 70 percent of the site in the form of rough-hewn unit pavers and granite pavers. Shrubs surrounding the site make up roughly 15 percent of the site in addition to the vertical green walls.
is not attenuated through this design, but instead, that it serves as a background “white noise.” Although the decibel range reaches 65 dB at the source (10 dB above the healthy threshold), there is evidence of people engaging social interaction as depicted in the spectrograms in Figure 6. This suggests that users may not perceive these sounds as bothersome nuisance, and that they able to engage with one another depending on the types of sound and programmatic opportunities, not necessarily by volume or necessarily the threshold of what is considered to be harmful or not. This implies that healthy noise levels may be less about a number and more about a relationship between context and interior space, or type and quality not just loudness. While much of the interior areas within the park are filled with sound from the water wall (roughly 8 percent of the entire site), which fall within the nuisance sound threshold, the sound samples reveal that people were engaging socially in this area, despite the decibel level.
From the street level, the park’s elevation change (mass) and trees reduce sound in the inner courtyard by roughly 1 dB / 10 ft. The frequency for the most prominent sound recorded is of the water and occurs in the 7,000- 12,000 Hz range, remaining relatively constant throughout the park. Therefore, it can be inferred that the water sound
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The spectrogram analysis, as seen in figures 6 and 7, revealed that the water frequencies, when visualized, were of consistent texture that served as a background to people chatting and otherwise engaging socially.
with the main study area located in the park area west of the New York City Public Library. The stacks of the library are located underneath the park. Major urban arterial streets surround the park, creating nuisance noises from heavy traffic. The context decibel levels range in the 70's around the park. A number of train stops for the underground subway, which can be heard from street level, also surround the park, influencing the soundscape.
3.3 Bryant Park Bryant Park, located between 40th and 42nd Streets and 5th and 6th Avenues in New York, is an above-ground elevated lawn surrounded by formal tree plantings, as seen in Figure 8. The park was originally designed by Lusby Simpson in the 1930’s, but was recently updated and re-opened in 1996 with a design by Laurie Olin and Dennis McGlad. The size is approximately 9 acres,
As noted, the decibel level along the street are in the mid-70's range, and include a high volume of automobiles, multiple underground subway lines, taxis and sirens. The park itself is removed vertically above the main street level with several ramps and staircases,
Figure 6: Acoustic Environment Analysis. Decibel levels and spectrogram analysis studies of Paley Park at nine locations ranging from the exterior to the interior of the park at all major soundscape areas. Numbers correspond with sample location as indicated on the plan, in Figure 5.
Figure 7: Color spectrograms—spectrograms with color filter adjusted to reveal most about the character of the sounds sampled within three select recordings on-site. Left: Car horn beeping and water from water wall, Center: People chatting with water in background, Right: Cars and construction.
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with the most prominent entry on the west side of the park along 6th Avenue, the busiest of the adjacent streets. The occupiable path areas within the park range between a 10-20 feet horizontal distance from the street, with roughly five feet vertically to the main park elevation along the west and north sides closest to 6th avenue, a gradual elevational change across the site. The north and south entries along 42nd and 40th streets are approximately three feet above the street level, but are less noisy and are one-way streets, with the New York Public Library to the east portion of the main Bryant Park green. The total reduction in decibel levels from the source (street) is +/- 20 dBs, even in areas with close horizontal distance to the street— the primary source of context noise.
elevation and 0.5 dB / 1 ft, where there is approximately 2-3 feet of grade change. See Figure 9 for decibel level analysis. This suggests a relationship between the amount of landscaped grade change and attenuation of context noise. The frequency for the most prominent sound recorded is of the water fountain, and is 56 dB at the source in the 12,000 Hz range, dissipating as one moves away. Because the park is not enclosed, it does not remain a “white noise” throughout the park. Sound clips reveal distinctively different characteristics throughout the park. This is most likely due to the level of noise mitigation from the elevated nature of the park, dissipation of the water fountain, and highly programmed interior spaces that invite opportunities for social activities. Context noise is approximately 70 dB outside the park, and in the mid-50's inside the park, making room for other activities, some of which can be seen in Figures 9 and 10. For example, a harmonica plays in the foreground while cars honk on the street,
From the street level, the park’s design using elevation changes (mass) and trees reduce the upper circulation routes and seating area noises by 1 dB / 1 ft with 5 feet
Figure 8: Plan and section elevation site-scaled sound maps illustration of Bryant Park.
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as seen in Figure 9. The park essentially inverts the sounds of foreground and background through its design. The prevalence of the individual human-made sounds in higher frequencies reveals that there is clearly an audible acoustic zone for people to occupy within the park. Other examples of additional noise factors include recreational undertakings such as ping pong, the carousel, juggling, story times, dining, and a number of individuals appearing to be working-on-thego on business calls, working on their laptops or using mobile devices in the movable seating along the edges of the park.
acerifolia), which are located on the primary level of the park, with the central fountain, and then the main green (roughly 10 percent of the site), roughly 1-2 feet below the allee. The main green is surrounded by 300 feet long garden beds and borders comprised of a variety of woody shrubs and perennials (roughly 15 percent of the site), which provide additional acoustic attenuation from the street in planted mass and material form. The roughly one-acre green is located in the center of the park, with the quietest area recorded in the center of the lawn around 50 dB. Movable seating can typically be found on and around the lawn. The paths are a combination of granite and decomposed granite. The paved areas are comprised of bluestone and gravel paths (roughly 7 percent of the site). The water feature makes up roughly 1 percent of the overall site.
Besides the elevational change that doubles as acoustic separation from the street and room for the library stacks underground, Bryant Park is known for its formal arrangement of London Plane Trees (Platanus x
Figure 9: Decibel levels and spectrogram analysis studies of Bryant Park at nine locations ranging from the exterior to the interior of the park at all major soundscape areas. Numbers correspond with sample location as indicated on the plan, in Figure 8.
Figure 10: Color spectrograms—spectrograms with color filter adjusted to reveal most about the character of the sounds sampled within three select recordings on-site. Left: automobile brakes, Center: Harmonica, Right: Cars beeping from street.
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3.4 Washington Square Park
The park is surrounded by vehicular streets, with an average decibel range of around 80 dBs. As one enters the park, one is immediately surrounded by planting areas of large beds with large canopy trees to the east and west, or wide paved paths, all directing to the site’s center. Most of the higher-level noises emanating from the street are a result of construction or emergency vehicles, with one-way traffic surrounding the park on all sides. Washington Square does not have a noticeably significant vertical topographic change but has approximately 14 feet of gradual grade change from west to east. The average change in dB from exterior to interior is 1 dB / 9 ft. See Figure 12 for decibel analysis.
Washington Square Park is located in Greenwich Village, New York as seen in Figure 11. The park is located at Washington Place between Washington Square North and Washington Square South, surrounded by buildings that are primarily New York University. Robert Moses was the first to renovate the site into an urban renewal project in 1934, expanding its size and use from predominantly the arch and fountain. A temporary arch was originally built to honor the inauguration of George Washington, and later a permanent Washington Square Arch designed by Standford White. The park was most recently renovated by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, and opened in 2009. While the arch, fountain and sculptures throughout the park serve as historical and visual keystones of the site, the planting around the site, gentle grade change and overall design scheme provide opportunities for acoustic separation from the context and multiple soundscapes within it.
A series of micro-plazas recordings reveal this difference. In addition, programmed outdoor rooms having a variety of distinct sounds are collected, such as in Figures 12 and 13 within the park ranging from specified uses such as playgrounds to the northeast and southwest, to more flexible open plazas spaces where students can be found
Figure 11: Plan and section elevation site-scaled sound maps illustration of Washington Square Park.
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rehearsing plays, singing, or other public gatherings and impromptu musical events. This highlights the number of distinctly different soundscapes within one site. These programmed spaces were recorded in the high 30's to low 40's decibel range. This is evidence of areas that were acoustically comfortable for children and adults to activate and were located within 80-100 feet horizontally from the street. The site is relatively fluid in its choreography with 42 percent of the site being paved and roughly 56 percent of the site being planted with large canopy trees and planted beds and green lawns. About 2 percent of the site is the water feature and an architectural element. The series of paths provide an
acoustical separation from the street noise. With the exception of the edges of the park where the vehicular traffic is most audible, the central fountain is the loudest part of the site that was recorded at 66 dB at the source. As one approaches the fountain, the noise is loudest. The permanent seating elements surrounding the fountain are in the high 30 dB range, and the furthest (besides being in the actual fountain) from the street noises. General lawn areas located between the street areas and the fountain at the center are used as areas for people to relax on the grass, and in some instances as off-leash dog areas with an average dB level of 30.
Figure 12: Decibel levels and spectrogram analysis studies of Washington Square Park at nine locations ranging from the exterior to the interior of the park at all major soundscape areas. Numbers correspond with sample location as indicated on the plan, in Figure 11.
Figure 13: Color spectrograms—spectrograms with color filter adjusted to reveal most about the character of the sounds sampled within three select recordings on-site. Left: birds chirping, swings, children, and an airplane, Center: Sirens, Right: Children singing.
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3.5 Brooklyn Bridge Park Pier 3-4 Uplands
This research focused on the section of the park that includes a soundberm, a longitudinal area within the larger park that was specifically designed to mitigate noise coming from the traffic of the Brooklyn Queens Expressway and park edge along the newly redefined Furman Street. This multi-level highway runs both north and south to the east of the park, and its decibel ranges in the 70-80’s, well above the healthy threshold, as seen in Figure 15. The embedded soundberm was designed with a maximum slope of 1:1 and reaches over 30 feet above Furman Street. It ranges in width from roughly 70 feet to approximately 120 feet. The decibel reduction from Furman street to the inside of the soundberm is
Brooklyn Bridge Park Pier 3-4 Uplands is a five-acre area within the larger 80-plus-acre Brooklyn Bridge Park along the East River in Brooklyn, New York. The park was designed by Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates and was opened in 2014 along the East River on Brooklyn’s waterfront as seen in Figure 14. The new Brooklyn Bridge Park establishes a linear park that relates the park to the waterfront and serves as an inland edge. It is an example of industrial urban land converted to a recreational and leisure space. It is a former inoperative cargo shipping facility, transformed into a civic landscape.
Figure 14: Plan and section elevation site-scaled sound maps illustration of Brooklyn Bridge Park Pier 3-4 Uplands. *Raw construction drawing set provided and adapted from Michael Van Valkenburgh, Inc.
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approximately 7 dB/ 1 foot. The decibel range along the path was in the low 50's to mid-60's. The landscape focuses on attenuating the noise from the context using the soundberm typology, which can absorb low frequencies and disrupt high frequencies (which cannot travel as easily when the sight line is no longer open). The soundberm not only provides noise attenuation, but also embeds a healthy plant ecology that is enlivened by bird songs and people as seen in Figures 15 and 16. In terms of materiality, the sound berm includes over 80,000 cubic yards of fill, and is made of structural fill, drainage aggregate, horticultural soil, planting soil, GeoGrids and jute mesh. It is planted with sedges, forbs and grasses. A variety of tree species surround the base of the sound berm on both sides.
To the west of the main path is a landscaped area that functions as a flexible terrace space with movable seating facing the East River. Between the path and the interior is yet another reduction in sound by roughly 3 dB / 1 ft. This intimate space is defined by a granite stone wall and shrubby planting; this space has the greatest evidence of social interaction. The decibel range within this area is in the low- to mid-40's. Children were found jumping on the stone walls and in and around the narrow paths that circulate throughout, while adults could be heard chatting at individual tables and chairs placed on the granite terrace. Birds were easily visible.
Figure 15: Decibel levels and spectrogram analysis studies of Brooklyn Bridge Park Pier-3-4 Uplands at nine locations ranging from the exterior to the interior of the park at all major soundscape areas. Numbers correspond with sample location as indicated on the plan, in Figure 14.
Figure 16: Color spectrograms—spectrograms with color filter adjusted to reveal most about the character of the sounds sampled within three select recordings on-site. Left: Kids playing and saying “Mom, I got to the top” (of the stone wall), Center: Birds chirping, Right: Kids chasing each other on the upper terrace.
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4.0 Discussion and Conclusion
through its design. The evidence suggests that through a wholistic design approach centered around formmaking, site layout, materiality and program, parks are able to not only attenuate urban noise pollution, but to an extent that renders the sites usable for leisure, recreation and as cultural venues that promote wellbeing and interactivity. The average decibel change from exterior to interior of each park is around 1 dB per every 5 foot of linear space. There appears to be no clear relationship seen between park size and decibel change, especially from exterior to interior. This implies that design elements may be crucial in attenuating nuisance noises than green space alone.
This research seeks to determine the extent to which urban landscape parks can perform as a noise mitigator to reduce environmental pollutants and decrease negative health impacts. The purpose was to determine how cities can provide healthy parks as an amenity within the urban context. Through this evaluation, we exposed the environmental landscape conditions, components, and design elements that contribute towards noise mitigation and lowering decibel levels as well as findings related to their performance. The findings of this study expose a number of site-scaled design elements that can be used to reduce decibel levels for urban parks, as well as typological landscapes promoting social interactivity as evidence of physical and mental engagement. Table 1 describes the major findings of this research. Overall, there is an average of around 75 dB readings in the noises for the context for each site. Within each park, there is an average of around 53 dB of noise. This suggests that the green space designs account for around a 22 dB reduction of sound on average across all four parks. However more important than the aggregate of the reduction of decibels across each park, is the finding that each park can reduce decibel levels relative to its surroundings and
Findings from this research show that parks that mitigate noise pollution and introduce healthy natural sounds through healthy ecologies that not only reduce decibel levels by design, but also provide areas that motivate people to engage socially within outdoor spaces. They achieve this through a variety of general soundscape design principles. Our data collection methods involved the use of sound capture devices and technology that were useful in identifying measurable impacts of landscape elements. Decibel range and frequency were recorded, visualized and analyzed to illustrate the perceivable aspects of a landscape and
Table 1: Summary of research findings for noise reduction capabilities in urban park soundscapes.
PARK NAME
DATE BUILT
Paley Park
1967
DESIGNER
SIZE
Zion and Breen Richardson Associates
4200 sq. ft.
PRIMARY NUISANCE NOISE SOURCES
PRIMARY NOISE REDUCTION DESIGN ELEMENTS
AVG DB RANGE OF CONTEXT
AVG DB OF PARK
AVG DB CHANGE FROM EXTERIOR TO INTERIOR
Vehicular traffic, sirens
Water wall* in rear of park, green walls and trees
60’s-70’s
65
1 dB / 10 ft
Mid 70’s
Mid 50’s
1 dB / 1 ft
Bryant Park
1992; 1996
Laurie Olin and Dennis McGlad
9 acres
Vehicular traffic, trains, sirens
Elevation change from street level, water fountain* adds positive sound, planting, walls
Washington Square Park
2009
New York City Department of Parks and Recreation
9.75 acres
Vehicular traffic, construction, sirens
Water fountain*, earth, landscape surrounding park
High 70’s – Low 80’s
High 30’sLow 40’s
1 dB / 9 ft
Brooklyn Bridge Park Pier 3-4 Uplands
2014
Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates
5 acres
Multi-levels of vehicular traffic, sirens, airplanes
Soundberm, planting, stone
High 70’slow 80’s
Low 50’sMid 60’s
7 dB/ 1 ft
*
Water features served to provide white noise in parks, therefore having a positive impact on the site and overall soundscape quality.
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lessen subjectivity22. This approach aided in increasing the understanding of the acoustic elements that either contribute positively or negatively within a landscape. Through studying the parks this way, we were able to isolate the following recommendations for future park designs and renovations to design with sound:
environmental and social benefits that are tied to human well-being and improved public health outcomes. The extent to which landscapes can mitigate noise depends on a variety of factors including context, size, proximity to sound sources, and unique characteristics and landscape elements. New technologies will most likely emerge for assessing park noise performance, further increasing the capabilities to understand and react to this phenomenon. Landscape architects can create outdoor spaces where people can hear one another and are encouraged to pause and experience (rather than keep moving as one does on the street). Design work should, then, perform the function of mitigating nuisance noises for the people experiencing the space and reducing unwanted and unpleasant noises. Visualizing and interpreting soundscapes, and in particular those frequencies audible to humans, allows us to evaluate, be critical of, and more adequately describe the architecture and landscape architecture of our public outdoor domains. However, it should be noted that one limitation to this research is that the studied frequencies were only within a range of 0-20,000 for human perception and did not include a greater range (although they exist) that could have implications on ecological and animal health.
njnj Earthworks with volume such as a soundberm njnj Integrating landscape architectural features such as walls njnj Planted forms such as large trees, shrubs, and plants massed to provide buffering njnj Increased distance from sound source and occupiable zones njnj Strategic programming of occupiable zones njnj Introduction of water features and other nature sounds njnj Development of healthy rich ecologies that invite birdsong njnj Elevation shift from sound source njnj Inclusion of sound elements that can function as “white-noise”. As environmental pollutants increase, the complexities underlaying such an undertaking can be daunting as social, ecological and technological equity all play a role in generating soundscapes, especially in publicly accessible landscapes. As noise increases, populations grow, and access to nature in the urban context becomes scarcer, there is a need to design healthy parks in cities to become ever more important as key players in providing citizens to healthy soundscapes to promote well-being. Unlike noise-cancelling windows, for example, landscape-based solutions change the noise level for the entire perceivable area, as opposed to only blocking the noise where the device is installed creating a healthy acoustic zone for people to occupy.
Moving forward, a series of strategies should be employed for future designs to best integrate sound into future design schemes. First, designers should develop and integrate a variety of sound recording devices into the site analysis phase of the design process. As shown, proximity to sound sources plays a role in the overall average decibel level for urban sites. The most accurate devices for the human experience seemed to be the binaural headset and omnidirectional recorder set at the level of human condition. Whatever the method, sound evaluations should be included in future inventory and analysis phases in design. Second, it is important to remember that environmental acoustics can overlap. Therefore, it is most helpful to measure sound in areas that capture the primary sources found within that specific portion of the site, not threshold zones where the onset of other noises significantly overlap. Third, dB level is not necessarily always an accurate measure. For example, although Paley Park was louder than the healthy threshold, the white noise blocked nuisance noses and provided a type of positive soundscape background. People were still socializing and the water (although technically “loud”) was used
Landscape-based solutions for noise mitigation are possible in cities and can be much less costly than other structural or engineered devices. More economically conscientious environments can be employed through landscape design if appropriate noise mitigation strategies are applied, when compared to purely engineered approaches. An approach using open space is often less costly than traditional engineering or architectural elements, and simultaneously provides
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References
to reduce noises from the street. This suggests that a more thorough investigation into not only the dB range that is comfortable to humans in landscapes is need, but within different types of parks to include different program, types of sounds and overall context. Decibel level, therefore, is not the only factor contributing to human well-being. In Paley Park, the dB levels fall within that threshold, but they are of a noise cancelling type, so in some cases the threshold of 55 can be inaccurate. Finally, the acoustic environment varies by day and night, across cases and contexts, from season to season, and from region to region. Therefore, temporal elements may play heavier or lighter roles. Further investigations into these issues is necessary to test to what extent what decibel range and type of sound would be a factor across different geospatial climates.
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More cases also need to be studied with a greater range of typologies across parks to get a better sense of averages across the different types of spaces and seasons for generating a complete picture of the noise, sounds, and catalogue of types of sounds that are applicable to each. Future research should examine what do within the context of each typology and the inherent constraints to creating a healthy soundscape. Landscape designers can use this information to determine design impacts and how they shape soundscape noise levels through program locations, planting typologies, planting mass, landform mass, relationship to context, and other related aspects with more complexity to meet the growing challenges of future projects and sites.
[5] Agarwal, Pradeep Kumar, Shah, R., Siddiqui, M., and Agarwal, A., (2017). "Some Basic Concepts for Mitigating Traffic Noise," Journal of Advanced Research in Automotive Technology and Transportation System, Vol. 2, No. 3&4, pp. 26-30. [6] Wilson D., Pettit C., Wayant N., Nykaza E., and Armstrong C., (2017). “Multilevel Modeling and Regression of Community Annoyance to Transportation Noise”, The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 142, No. 5, pp. 2905-2918. [7] Calixto, A., Diniz, F., and Zannin, P., (2003). "The Statistical Modeling of Road Traffic Noise in an Urban Setting", Cities, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 23-29. [8] Margaritis, E., and Kang, J., (2017). "Relationship between Green Space-Related Morphology and Noise Pollution", Ecological Indicators, Vol. 72, pp. 921-933.
Acknowledgements Funding in part for this project was made possible through support from the Independent Projects category of the Architecture + Design Program at the New York State Council on the Arts with the support of Governor Andrew M. Cuomo and the New York State Legislature. Van Alen Institute served as the fiscal sponsor.
[9] Newman, G., Smith, A., and Brody, S., (2017). "Repurposing Vacant Land through Landscape Connectivity", Landscape Journal, Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 37-57. [10] Seeman, T., (1996). "Social Ties and Health: The Benefits of Social Integration", Annals of Epidemiology, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 442-451.
Aly Martori, City College of New York MLA ’19, Graduate Research Assistant
[11] Brown, L., , Gjestland, T., and Dubois, D., (2016). "Acoustic Environments and Soundscapes", in Soundscape and the Built Environment, Kang, J., and Schulte-Fortkamp, B., eds, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 1-16.
Yuanyuan Wang, Clemson University, MLA ’19, Graduate Research Assistant
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[12] Payne, T., Southam A., Arvanitis T., and Viant M., (2009). “A Signal Filtering Method for Improved Quantification and Noise Discrimination in Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass SpectrometryBased Metabolomics Data”, Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry, Vol. 20, No. 6, pp. 1087-1095.
[18] Aletta, F., Kang, J., and Axelsson, O., (2016). "Soundscape Descriptors and a Conceptual Framework for Developing Predictive Soundscape Models", Landscape and Urban Planning, Vol. 149, pp. 65-74. [19] Rice, J., Steele, D., Dumoulin, R., and Guastavino, C., (2017). "A Review of Transport Noise Management Plans in Large North American and European Cities", The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 141, No. 5, pp. 3803-3803.
[13] GeuzeA., and Buijs, M., (2014). “West 8 Airport Landscape: Schiphol, Scenario 04: Building the Urban Forest”, Retrieved on 10/2019 from https:// scenariojournal.com/article/airport-landscape/.
[20] Yang Z., Dai H., Chan N., Ma G., and Sheng P., (2010). “Acoustic Metamaterial Panels for Sound Attenuation in the 50–1000 Hz Regime”, Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 96, No. 4, 041906.
[14] Cohen, B., Bronzaft, A., Heikkinen, M., Goodman, J., and Nádas, A., (2007). “Airport-Related Air Pollution and Noise”, Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 119-129.
[21] Kim, K., Park, S., and Kweon, Y., (2007). "Highway Traffic Noise Effects on Land Price in an Urban Area", Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 275-280.
[15] Cohen, P., Potchter, O., and Schnell I., (2014). “The Impact of Urban Park on Air Pollution and Noise Levels in the Mediterranean City of Tel-Aviv, Israel”, Environmental Pollution, Vol. 195, pp. 73-83.
[22] Aumond, P., Lavandier, K., Ribeiro, C., Gonzalez, E., Kambona, K., D’ Hondt, E., and Delaitre, P., (2017). "A Study of The Accuracy of Mobile Technology for Measuring Urban Noise Pollution in Large Scale Participatory Sensing Campaigns", Applied Acoustics, Vol. 117, pp. 219-226.
[16] Pijanowski, B., Farina, A., Gage, S., Dumyahn, S., and Krause, B., (2011). "What is Soundscape Ecology? An Introduction and Overview of an Emerging New Science", Landscape Ecology, Vol. 26, No. 9, pp.1213-1232. [17] American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA), (2018). Professional Licensure: Definition of Landscape Architectural Practice. Retrieved on 12/19 from https:// www.asla.org/uploadedFiles/CMS/Government _ Af fairs/Public_Polic ie s/Licensure_Definit ion_of_ Practice.pdf.
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Peer Reviewers Carolina Aragon University of Massachusetts Amherst Dr. Bowman O. Davis Kennesaw State University Aneesha Dharwadker University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Dr. Jihun Kim New York City College of Technology Andrew Lyon Pratt Institute Gissette Onorato The Lennar Foundation Medical Center University of Miami Health System Hari Priya Rangarajan Hรถweler+Yoon German Vaisman WSP Yi Wang Vizard Brown University
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Authors 01
Carl Knutson Carl is a Design Principal at Perkins and Will's Washington, DC studio, and has led the design of multiple hospitality, commercial, civic and corporate projects both locally and abroad. Each of the projects is a unique design response to complex program and challenging sites, including design innovation that responds to environmental and economic drivers.
02
Anna Beatriz de Barros Anna is a designer in Perkins and Will's São Paolo studio. She graduated from the school of Belas Artes in São Paulo and holds a graduate degree in Emergent Technologies and Design from the Architectural Association in London. She is interested in the link between rural and urban areas, and she strives to increase the quality of life for communities through her design projects.
03
Kristen McDaniel Kristen is based in at the Perkins and Will Houston studio. She is passionate about socially responsible design focused on community engagement, sustainability, and evidenced based practices. She is interested in how the built environment can best serve our communities and positively influence human behavior, health, and wellness. Kristen has worked on a myriad of research and healthcare projects, including the UT Health Continuum of Care Campus—the first public mental health hospital built in Houston in more than 30 years.
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Andrew Koska
03
Andrew is a dedicated Architect and Project Manager with an acute passion for creating healthier and safer Healthcare environments. After witnessing firsthand how space can influence the overall wellness of patients in hospitals, he makes it a point to approach every project with the perseverance and resolve to create a better healing environment. With over 13 years of professional experience, Andrew is responsible for the progress and completion of a multitude of large healthcare projects.
Maria Debije Counts
04
Maria is a Knowledge Manager for the global Landscape Architecture discipline at Perkins and Will, based in Miami. Her work is informed by principles of accessibility, equability, and living design and employs an integrated approach to design and communication. She focuses on testing design performance, communication capabilities, measuring accessibility, and quantifying the experiential range of design through research, teaching, practice, and applied knowledge to generate solutions to site issues.
Galen Newman Dr. Newman is an Associate Professor, and Associate Department Head in the Department of Landscape Architecture and Urban Planning at Texas A&M University. He is also the Coordinator of the Bachelor of Landscape Architecture Program, and Director of the Center for Housing and Urban Development. His research focuses on both urban regeneration and flood resilient communities. He uses spatial analytics to design, test, and measure community impacts of through his scholarship and teaching activities.
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