World Fertilizer November/December 2025 by PalladianPublications

MAGAZINE | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

03 05 10

Comment News Regional risks in fertilizer production

A catalyst for change

CONTENTS

Gordon Cope, Contributing Editor, addresses growing fertilizer demand in the Middle East and North Africa, confronting the challenges posed by regional turmoil.

Dr Emmanuel Iro and Dr Adrien Serve, UNICAT, discuss how catalyst technologies can be used to optimise the efficiency of ammonia cracking and support ammonia’s role as a hydrogen carrier.

Seven tips for a smooth turnaround

Step change maintenance improvement

Elevated temperature failures in ammonia plant equipment

Dr Emmanuel Iro and Dr Adrien Serve, UNICAT, reveal how catalyst technologies can be used to optimise the efficiency of ammonia cracking and support ammonia’s role as a hydrogen carrier. COVER STORY

Brian Rudary and Mike Aughenbaugh, Swagelok Co., consider how to successfully execute fertilizer plant turnarounds. Prithiv John, TÜV Rheinland, UK, discusses a step change maintenance programme at a phosphate plant in the Middle East.

Milo V. Kral and Daniel J. Benac, BakerRisk, USA, detail the major elevated temperature failure mechanisms common in ammonia plant equipment.

Best practices for corrosion protection

The hidden lever for a low-carbon future

Matthias Walschburger, Knight Material Technologies, debates best practices for corrosion protection during the production of fertilizer. Greg Gedney, Greene Tweed, USA, argues that compressors present an overlooked opportunity to reduce costs and carbon emissions in the fertilizer industry, whilst enabling more sustainable ammonia production.

ne of the most pressing areas of interest today is ammonia (NH3) cracking. Ammonia has emerged as a promising hydrogen carrier due to its high hydrogen density, relative ease of liquefaction, and existing global infrastructure. Transporting and storing hydrogen in the form of ammonia is considerably more practical than handling compressed or liquefied hydrogen. However, to make ammonia viable as a hydrogen vector, efficient, and reliable catalytic systems are required to crack ammonia into nitrogen and hydrogen at the point of use. This process is shown in the following equation: 2NH3(g)→N2(g)+3H2(g) ΔH=+92kJ/mol The development of robust cracking catalysts is therefore central to the broader hydrogen economy. In this context, UNICAT has focused on extending its Magcat® support technology – currently used in 15

Upgrading ammonia plants

Tomohiro Masuda, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Compressor Corp., Japan, analyses how compressor and steam turbine modification or replacement can improve ammonia plant efficiency.

he fertilizer industry faces a permanent balancing act. It must feed the world while cutting its own contribution to climate change. Ammonia, the lifeblood of modern agriculture, is both the solution and the problem. Without it, food security would collapse. With it, vast amounts of energy is burned, mainly in the service of compression. Central to the production of ammonia is the Haber-Bosch process, a catalytic reaction that converts nitrogen and hydrogen into ammonia at high temperature and pressure. Developed in the early 20th century, it uses an iron-based catalyst to drive the gases to react efficiently, and

Shaping tomorrow’s fertilizers

Gabriele Marcon and Ken Monstrey, Technology Team, Casale, examine the application of nitrogen fertilizers and ammonium sulfate finishing technologies and how they can enhance granulation.

Designing for reliability

Precision and quality in fertilizer bagging

The role of water in blue ammonia production

MAGAZINE | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Brett Binnekade, Bagtech International, South Africa, outlines the design requirements necessary to ensure the long-term, safe, and efficient operation of fertilizer plants. David Ranera, PAYPER, explores how to improve efficiency, precision, and quality when bagging fertilizers. Giulia Sporchia and Elisa Brocca, Cannon Artes S.p.a, Italy, examine the importance of the role of water in sustainable ammonia production.

ON THE COVER

UNICAT’s innovative SMR technology, Magcat, optimises NH3 and reduces CO2 emissions in ways that are easily implemented, avoiding equipment investment costs. The unique textured surface facilitates improved heat transfer and gas flow as well as several other benefits that lead to greater efficiencies and improved profitability.

Copyright© Palladian Publications Ltd 2025. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. All views expressed in this journal are those of the respective contributors and are not necessarily the opinions of the publisher, neither does the publisher endorse any of the claims made in the advertisements. Printed in the UK.

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CONTACT US MANAGING EDITOR James Little james.little@palladianpublications.com SENIOR EDITOR Callum O’Reilly callum.oreilly@palladianpublications.com DEPUTY EDITOR Oliver Kleinschmidt oliver.kleinschmidt@palladianpublications.com EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Willow Munz willow.munz@palladianpublications.com EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Ellie Brosnan ellie.brosnan@palladianpublications.com SALES DIRECTOR Rod Hardy rod.hardy@palladianpublications.com SALES MANAGER Ryan Freeman ryan.freeman@palladianpublications.com PRODUCTION Iona MacLeod iona.macleod@palladianpublications.com ADMINISTRATION MANAGER Laura White laura.white@palladianpublications.com HEAD OF EVENTS Louise Cameron louise.cameron@palladianpublications.com DIGITAL EVENTS COORDINATOR Merili Jurivete merili.jurivete@palladianpublications.com EVENTS COORDINATOR Chloe Lelliott chloe.lelliott@palladianpublications.com DIGITAL CONTENT ASSISTANT Kristian Ilasko kristian.ilasko@palladianpublications.com DIGITAL ADMINISTRATION Nicole Harman-Smith nicole.harman-smith@palladianpublications.com JUNIOR VIDEO ASSISTANT Amelie Meury-Cashman amelie.meury-cashman@palladianpublications.com

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COMMENT

OLIVER KLEINSCHMIDT, DEPUTY EDITOR

he year 2025 has been turbulent; tariffs, regional conflict, geopolitical tensions, and the advent of key policy implementations have all impacted the fertilizer industry. In 2025 we witnessed price hikes for different mineral and chemical fertilizers after the Trump Administration implemented tariffs in April; the start of the year also saw the EU announce its new Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) which will be implemented from the 1 January 2026. These developments alone have been enough to create the kind of uncertainty and speculation often seen when industries are on the precipice of massive change. Now, the new US Administration’s trade policies have been largely characterised by the implementation of sweeping tariffs across multiple major sectors with the fertilizer industry seeing most fertilizer exporting countries, with the exception of Russia, facing tariffs of 10 - 15%; some suppliers were struck with tariffs upwards of 30%.1 Global prices on fertilizers increased and several countries began avoiding the US, instead favouring alternative destinations for their supplies. However, it seems that the US Administration has felt the impact of this decision as Executive Order 14257 was modified in November with urea, ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate, UAN, TSP, DAP, and MAP all becoming exempt from the tariffs.1 With luck, this will inject renewed optimism into the industry and see prices stabilise, improving fertilizer affordability. Another contributing factor to the shifts in fertilizer trade has been Russia’s war with Ukraine. Russia is one of the largest producers of fertilizers in the world, producing over 48 million tpy.2 Much of Europe has had to look elsewhere for its fertilizer supply. As the war looks to continue into 2026 the industry has been forced to weather the shocks created by these changes. Even if the war does end, it remains to be seen if NATO and the EU lift the trade embargos placed on Russia and accept imports of Russian fertilizer once again. However, before that happens, the EU has one major change that is right around the corner. Across Europe the fertilizer industry is preparing for the imminent implementation of the CBAM which could have consequences for the entire value chain. The new mechanism acts as a carbon tariff which will see EU businesses having to declare and subsequently pay the cost for the associated carbon emissions.3 The move is meant to encourage further decarbonisation with the cost expected to rise to €140/t CO2e by 2030.4 There are those who deem this to be counter-intuitive however; groups like the Irish Co-operative Organisation Society (ICOS) are calling for this new carbon-based tax on EU imports of fertilizer to be postponed.5 Even with all these changes on the horizon in 2026 the future is still bright. More projects are being commissioned for fertilizer production across the world and more partnerships and alliances are being forged. Some of these projects are even looking at sustainable methods of production using ammonia. Despite the turbulent year the fertilizer sector will bounce back from these challenging times and the market will inevitably adapt.

References 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news-and-insights/latest-market-news/2754656-us-lifts-tariffs-on-mostfertilizer-imports-update https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/fertilizer-production-by-country https://taxation-customs.ec.europa.eu/carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism_en https://www.carbontrust.com/news-and-insights/insights/cbam-and-fertilisers-what-it-means-to-importersand-exporters-to-the-eu https://www.agriland.ie/farming-news/icos-adds-to-calls-for-eu-fertiliser-tax-to-be-stalled/

NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025 | WORLD FERTILIZER | 3

WORLD NEWS

WORLD Global alliance supports ammonia

fertilizer initiative

n alliance of first-mover governments, international organisations, and businesses from the food, agriculture, fertilizer, sustainable fuels, and manufacturing sectors has united at COP30 in Brazil to accelerate scale adoption of low-emission ammonia-based fertilizers through the Low-Emission Ammonia Fertilizer (LEAF) Initiative. Nitrogen fertilizers are essential to global food security, supporting the harvests that feed communities worldwide. Yet conventional ammonia-based fertilizer production accounts for 510 million t of greenhouse gas emissions globally – a footprint comparable to Brazil’s or Germany’s total annual emissions. Reducing these emissions while maintaining essential nutrient supply and safeguarding food security and affordability requires a comprehensive, industry-wide effort underpinned by strong public-private collaboration. The LEAF Initiative is designed to operationalise global efforts advancing collaborative action, particularly the Breakthrough Agenda, as well as the COP30 Plans to Accelerate Solutions, and bilateral partnerships such as the one between the governments of the UK and Brazil. These global initiatives identify core areas for collaboration, all of which are addressed by the COP30 LEAF Initiative and its dedicated Public-Private Action Statement, launched on 8 November 2025. The LEAF Initiative has been championed by the Hydrogen Council and partners, including Breakthrough Agenda, United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), PepsiCo, 3Degrees Low-Emission Fertilizer Alliance, Rocky Mountain Institute, Centre for Green Markets Activation, World Business Council for Sustainable Development, International Fertilizer Association, Mission Possible Partnership, Hydrogen Europe, Ammonia Energy Association. The Public-Private Action Statement identifies three key priorities for collective action: n Accelerate large scale investments by closing the cost gap and activate demand. n Boost investor confidence and reduce transaction costs through standards and market-based mechanisms. n Advance public-private collaboration on policy frameworks and financial instruments.

LATIN AMERICA Brazil Potash mandates BTIG for

financing Autazes project construction

razil Potash Corp., a mineral exploration and development company with a critical mineral potash mining project, the Autazes Project, has announced it has appointed BTIG, LLC as its lead financial advisor to secure an equity investment at the project level to fund construction of the project. Under the mandate, BTIG will attempt to identify and engage new strategic partners to invest directly at the project entity level. This structure enables Brazil Potash to ideally secure substantial construction funding at the project entity level with less direct dilution on existing shareholders. “Engaging BTIG represents an important step forward as we advance toward construction of the Autazes Project,” said Matt Simpson, CEO of Brazil Potash. “If successful, this asset-level financing approach will allow us to bring in new strategic partners at the project level to fund a significant portion of our construction requirements while maintaining our commitment to existing shareholders. BTIG’s mandate covers international markets, complementing our ongoing discussions with select strategic parties in Brazil, China, and select other regions where we have existing relationships.”

NEWS HIGHLIGHTS

IDB Invest approves US$200 million for ATOME’s Villeta Project SAMSUNG E&A secures EPF contract for US low-carbon ammonia plant Cyan H2 signs MoU for Montana fertilizer project QatarEnergy and Mitsui secure a long-term urea supply deal Replenish Nutrients expands production of SuperKS fertilizer

Visit our website for more news: www.worldfertilizer.com

NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025 | WORLD FERTILIZER | 5

WORLD NEWS DIARY DATES Fertilizer Latino Americano 26 - 28 January 2026 Miami, Florida, USA

https://www.argusmedia.com/ en/events/conferences/fertilizerlatino-americano

World Pipelines CCS Forum London 2026 18 March 2026 London, UK

https://www. hydrocarbonengineering.com/ events/world-pipelines-ccs-forum-london-2026/

SOLIDS Dortmund 2026 18 - 19 March 2026 Dortmund, Germany

https://www.solids-recyclingtechnik.de/en/

The Fertilizer Show 25 - 26 March 2026 Tampas, Florida, USA

https://fertilizershow.com/

Argus Clean Ammonia Americas Conference 27 - 29 April 2026 Houston, Texas, USA

https://www.argusmedia.com/ en/events/conferences/cleanammonia-americas-conference

Argus Clean Ammonia Asia Conference 2 - 4 June 2026 Tokyo, Japan

https://www.argusmedia.com/ en/events/conferences/cleanammonia-asia-conference

USA Honeywell helps transform power plant into

fertilizer facility

oneywell has announced that its industry-leading carbon capture technologies will be used by Wabash Valley Resources, LLC (WVR) in an innovative new project to create hydrogen and ammonia fertilizer for America’s farmers. To fund the project, WVR recently secured a US$1.559 billion loan from the US Department of Energy through a programme focused on unleashing American energy dominance by investing in and fully utilising domestic energy infrastructure. The project will restart and modernise a gasification facility in Indiana to build one of the first plants in the US that makes hydrogen and ammonia with less carbon intensity. The West Terre Haute facility in Indiana will implement Honeywell’s carbon capture technology to capture and permanently store nearly 1.65 million tpy of CO2 underground, equivalent to the carbon sequestered by over 1.65 million acres of US forests in one year.

MIDDLE EAST UAE secures micronised sulfur technology

from Sultech

ultech Global Innovation Corp., a Canadian agricultural technology company, has signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with ADNOC Sour Gas to bring commercially proven next-generation micronised elemental sulfur technology to the UAE. The agreement was signed on 3 November at ADIPEC 2025 in Abu Dhabi, with leadership from Sultech Global, ADNOC Sour Gas, and representatives from the Alberta Government, the Embassy of Canada to the UAE, and Calgary Economic Development. The signing marked a milestone moment for Canadian innovation on the world stage, underscoring the strong collaboration between Canada and the UAE in advancing sustainability, food security, and industrial diversification. The partnership will transform sulfur – a by-product of sour gas processing – into a high-value agricultural and clean-technology input. Under the MoU, the companies will conduct a feasibility study and pilot production programme to establish the UAE’s first commercial micronised sulfur manufacturing facility. The initiative will integrate Sultech’s patented micronisation process within ADNOC’s sulfur granulation at the Shah Gas Plant, the world’s largest ultra-sour gas operation.

NIGERIA thyssenkrupp Uhde to licence four urea

granulation units

hyssenkrupp Uhde Fertilizer Technology (UFT) has signed contracts with the Nigerian company Dangote Fertiliser Ltd (DFL) to provide its UFT® Fluid Bed Granulation Technology for four new urea granulation trains as part of four new fertilizer complexes. The scope of supply includes the license, process design package (PDP) and the supply of the UFT’s proprietary equipment including granulators and scrubbers. The four new trains, with a name plate capacity of 4235 tpd each, will increase the total annual urea granules production capacity of DFL from approximately 2.65 million t to more than 8 million t. The new trains will be located in Lekki Nigeria, next to the two existing fertilizer complexes using the UFT Fluid Bed Granulation Technology with a name plate capacity of 3850 tpd each, in operation since 2021. The new granulation plants will be equipped with UFT’s low pressure drop and thereby energy efficient scrubbing system comprising dust and ammonia scrubbing stages to meet the required stringent emission limits.

6 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

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ANNA 2025 REPORT

his year World Fertilizer had the great pleasure of journeying to Omaha, Nebraska, USA, for the 2025 ANNA Conference, where we were able to hear from several industry partners and experts about the ongoing developments in the ammonium nitrate and nitric acid industries. Hosted by the ANNA Exhibitor Group and Chaired by Sam Correnti, the conference offered an exciting agenda of insightful technical presentations as well as engaging round tables. Many key topics were tackled regarding the challenges currently faced by the ammonium nitrate and nitric acid industries with discussions taking place in a friendly and productive way. World Fertilizer’s very own Sales Director, Rod Hardy, attended and had a wonderful time meeting with good friends from across the industry. Divided into two key areas across the five days, the first two days looked at ammonium nitrate while the final three were focused on nitric acid. The first two days not only introduced the event but featured technical sessions on how to improve ammonium nitrate production and render it a more sustainable process, with insights from companies such as Dyno Nobel, Yara, Casale, Stamicarbon, and Rhewum as well as many others. In the final three days attention shifted to nitric acid, where an expansive range of subjects were covered across many technical session. Several sessions focused on how to make nitric acid production greener and how to reduce emissions. Other subjects covered included a discussion on the consequence of coatings, optimising performance through integrated modifications, adapting and optimising reactors, and the integration of digital solutions applied for nitric acid, just to name a few. Discussion on such topics was led by KBR, Nutrien, Heraeus, and more. Across all five days, we were lucky to see a variety of case studies discussing real technologies that are being practically

8 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

tested and applied in plants across the world. Furthermore, the conference provided an excellent chance the hear about the importance of strategies to make the industry more sustainable; for instance at the start of the conference on day one we listened to Stamicarbon discuss solutions for sustainable fertilizer production; on day two LAT Nitrogen discussed the challenges presented in measuring dust emissions; and from day three onward several companies directed the conversation to touch upon how to make nitric acid production greener while others spoke on N2O emissions abatement. Overall, World Fertilizer had an enjoyable time and it was great to see such an excellent turn out from key players across the ammonium nitrate and nitric acid industries. The conference was a great opportunity to see what issues people wished to discuss as well as see what the future of these industries holds. Dating back to 1970, the conference began life as an initiative between fertilizer engineers in the US to overcome pollution problems associated with AN prill towers. Since its inception ANNA has only grown, initially focusing on ammonium nitrate, in 2001 the conference’s scope expanded to include nitric acid and so the conference transitioned from its original name of ANPSG (first Ammonium Nitrate Pollution Study Group, then the Ammonium Nitrate Producers Study Group in 1995) to the ANNA Conference we know today. The conference has continually grown in reach with over 40% of participants being from outside the US and Canada. Subsequently, the conference has spread internationally; the first conference held outside the US was in 2010, in Europe. We look forward to attending the 2026 conference in Bologna, Italy (held from the 6 - 11 September) where we are sure to see even more from industry experts while continuing our partnership with ANNA. To find out more, please visit: https://anna-eu.com/

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Gordon Cope, Contributing Editor, addresses growing fertilizer demand in the Middle East and North Africa, confronting the challenges posed by regional turmoil. he Middle East and North Africa (MENA) are significant consumers and producers of potash, phosphate, and nitrogen fertilizers. However, the Ukraine War and subsequent disruptions to supplies has created regional turmoil in key agricultural sectors. Jurisdictions within MENA are now leveraging their respective advantages in order to develop domestic sources and reduce their vulnerabilities.

Morocco

Morocco, with an estimated 32 billion t of phosphate rock, is pouring billions of dollars into augmenting its production capacity. OCP, the state-owned mining company responsible for phosphate mining and fertilizer production, achieved record exports of 12.7 million t of phosphate and blended fertilizers in 2024. During that year, two new 1 million tpy granulation units came online at Jorf Lasfar; further expansions are expected to boost the company’s production capacity to 16 million tpy by the end of 2025. With demand in major markets in Europe, India and Brazil expanding at a rate exceeding 10% annually, OCP has announced a goal of reaching 20 million tpy total capacity by 2027, and as much as 29 million tpy by 2030.

In late 2024, Australian engineering giant Worley began front-end engineering and design (FEED) works on OCP’s 1 million tpy green ammonia plant in the port of Tarfaya, in southern Morocco. OCP requires ammonia to meet its blended fertilizer needs, but the country has no natural gas production for conventional ammonia production. The US$7 billion plant will use wind and solar power to desalinate sea water then produce hydrogen through electrolysis. Worley estimates that first production will occur in 2027; the plant has the potential to triple production to 3 million tpy by 2032.

Egypt

Egypt has over a dozen major ammonia fertilizer plants operating throughout the country. Major producers include Abu Qir, Kima, MOPCO, and Fertiglobe; urea production amounted to 7.6 million tpy in 2024. While recent gas shortages related to hostilities in Gaza and Iran threatened to shut-in production, the government initiated emergency LNG imports to prevent industrial disruptions. With estimated reserves of 2.8 billion t of phosphate rock, Egypt is also one of the world’s largest phosphate producers, aiming to increase rock exports from

5.2 million tpy in 2024 to 6 million t in 2025, as well as process the resource domestically to add value. The Misr Phosphate Company, Egypt’s largest phosphate exporter, has broken ground on a new 1 million tpy phosphoric acid plant in Abu Tartur in the New Valley Governorate. The site has an estimated 980 million t of ore grading 30% phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5). Construction of the US$1 billion facility will be undertaken by a Chinese consortium; China’s Wengfu Group, one of the largest phosphate producers in the world, has signed a long-term contract to take approximately 500 000 tpy of output.

Jordan

Jordan’s Phosphate Mining Company (JPMC), produced 11.5 million short t of dry phosphate in 2024; the company has been spending US$120 million to produce an additional 2 million tpy of phosphate using a flotation method. In addition, Jordan’s Arab Potash Company (APC), produced almost 2.84 million t of potash in 2024, primarily from mineral-laden water from the Dead Sea. APC has plans to invest US$1.7 billion over the next five years in order to expand its capacity to meet growing demand in its traditional markets in Asia and the EU, as well as expand into South America.

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is one of the largest fertilizer manufacturers in the world, with over 13 million tpy in total. About three quarters of that is in the form of urea, ammonium diphosphate, and ammonium nitrate. SABIC Agri-Nutrients is the country’s major fertilizer company; in 2024, it produced 8.52 million t of a wide range of ammonia agri-nutrients, and is growing at a rate of around 3% annually. Saudi Arabian Mining Company (Ma’aden), has the capacity to produce 6 million tpy of di-ammonium phosphate. In early 2025, it awarded construction contracts for Phase 3, which is expected to increase capacity to 9 million tpy.

UAE

The UAE’s Fertiglobe (now majority-owned by Abu Dhabi National Oil Company, or ADNOC), has a production capacity of 5 million short tpy of urea and 1.5 million tpy of ammonia from facilities located in Egypt, Algeria, and the UAE. In 2024, it operated above capacity, producing 5.1 million t of urea and 1.6 million t of merchant ammonia. Fertiglobe’s focus is on exports; it lists itself as the largest seaborne shipper of urea and ammonia combined.

Qatar

Qatar, with vast natural gas reserves, is best known for its LNG exports, but the Qatar Fertilizer Co. (QAFCO), produces 3.8 million tpy of ammonia and 5.6 million tpy of urea, primarily for export. The company specialises in producing granular urea that is tailored to meet the needs of consumers in strict regulatory requirements.

Green ammonia

While demand for nitrogen fertilizer is growing at approximately 2% annually, a much larger market for ammonia is emerging. In April 2025, the International 12 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Maritime Organisation (IMO) established a legally-binding framework to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions across the global shipping sector to net-zero by 2050; by mid-century, low-carbon ammonia-based marine fuels could add 204 million t of new demand. With its strategic location astride the Suez Canal, Egypt is keen to tap into the trend. Since March 2024, the country has signed over US$30 billion in renewable energy investments in the Suez Canal Economic Zone (SCZone), located 100 km southeast of Cairo on the western shore of the Gulf of Suez. The agreements include a deal between Norway’s fertilizer giant Yara and India’s ACME Cleantech, which involves the latter supplying up to 100 000 tpy of renewable ammonia. In June 2025, Lloyd’s Register and Germany’s DAI Infrastruktur entered into an MOE to develop a largescale, green ammonia plant in East Port Said, Egypt. Project Ra is expected to produce up to 1.65 million tpy of green ammonia when it starts up in 2029. Abu Dhabi is positioning itself as a major international player in low-carbon. In late 2024, ADNOC announced the formation of a new firm with a multi-facet business strategy and deep pockets. XRG, with over US$80 billion in the bank, will focus on producing specialty petrochemicals, natural gas, and low-carbon energy. Saudi Arabia has announced plans to capture a major share of the emerging global sector of low and zero-carbon hydrogen. In late 2024 the creation of the Energy Solutions Company was announced, with US$10 billion in investment capital. The approach has several prongs. In the Eastern Province, Saudi Aramco has been operating the Hawiyah CCS plant since 2015. The plant captures 800 000 tpy of CO 2 and uses it for enhanced oil recovery. Saudi Aramco has already publicly stated its intention to help domestic operators produce up to 11 million tpy of blue ammonia by 2030, using a new CCS facility in Jubail capable of capturing up to 11 million tpy of CO2. SABIC Agri-Nutrients and Sipchem have announced plans to each build plants with 1.2 million tpy capacity of blue ammonia. In the northwest, the NEOM Green Hydrogen Company (NGHC) will leverage abundant wind and solar power to produce green hydrogen through electrolysis, and then convert it to green ammonia for transport. The US$5 billion plant would produce up to 240 000 tpy of green ammonia, starting in 2027. Air Products, which has a 30-year takeaway agreement, announced in June 2025, that the project is 80% complete. The company notes that output is expected to eliminate approximately 5 million tpy of GHG emissions. In late 2024, Saudi renewables developer ACWA Power signed a deal to produce green ammonia in Egypt. The US$4 billion plant, located in the SCZone, will produce 600 000 tpy in the first phase. Later phases could see capacity increase to 2 million tpy. The Omani government established Hydrom in 2020 in order to orchestrate its goal of reaching the country’s commitment to net-zero by 2050. With a US$49 billion budget and 2300 km2 of land for renewable energy development, the government agency has been setting

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the pace for the Middle East. In May 2024, Hydrom signed two new green hydrogen agreements worth US$11 billion. France’s EDF Group and London-based Yamni plan to build a 178 000 tpy green hydrogen plant, with an estimated start-up date in 2030. Output from the plant will be used to produce 1 million tpy of green ammonia in a facility to be built in the Salalah Free Zone. Dubai-based AMEA Power is collaborating with The Sovereign Fund of Egypt (TSFE), to build a 500 MW electrolyser and ammonia plant in Egypt’s Suez Canal Zone. The US$2.3 billion project will be constructed in phases, with the 280 000 tpy pilot phase expected to enter service in 2026. Subsequent phases could see production rising to 3 million tpy.

Problems

The most significant problem facing fertilizer manufacturing in MENA is the plethora of armed conflicts throughout the region. Iran is a major producer of ammonia products, with an estimated capacity of 8.9 million tpy. It is also a major exporter, shipping almost 5 million tpy of urea. After Israeli attacks in June 2025, the country shutdown seven major plants. Other Middle Eastern producers also worried about passing ships through the Strait of Hormuz, a chokepoint for both crude and ammonia fertilizer. Although Iran and its proxies in Lebanon, Gaza, and Syria were temporarily neutralised by Israel, other hostilities continue to foment in Yemen, Libya, Somalia, Morocco, and Algeria. Jurisdictions must divert significant amounts toward defense; analysts estimate that the Middle East spent US$243 billion in 2024 alone on military equipment and personnel, and North Africa a further US$30 billion. As a result, food, education, infrastructure, and social programmes are left under-funded, resulting in civil unrest and high geopolitical risk factors that deter international investment. A spectrum of systemic problems also inhibits fertilizer investment in MENA. While virtually all fertilizer in North America and Europe is produced by private corporations, the vast majority of output in MENA is controlled by state-owned enterprises. In many jurisdictions, stranded natural gas represents a significant cost advantage, yet international capital investment by operators is largely absent. Many jurisdictions in MENA are ideologically opposed to foreign ownership of critical components of the economy; this doctrine extends to energy, financial institutions and fertilizer production. The lack of reliable infrastructure plays a role; disruptions in natural gas deliveries and electricity supply can cause involuntary production shutdowns. Transportation, necessary for the movement of inputs and finished goods, can be unreliable. Water constraints exist in many MENA countries, local populations are wary of seeing their domestic and farming needs undermined by industry. Government inertia, uncertain regulatory regimes and corruption cause delays, uncertainty and potential legal complications. Entrenched, government-owned rivals represent obstacles to establishing domestic customers. 14 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Red tape abounds throughout MENA. In early 2025, Emmerson PLC’s Khemisset open-pit potash project in northern Morocco was suspended. It was seeking to develop an estimated 537 million t of potash with an average grade of 9.24% potassium oxide (K2O). Output from the mine would average 735 000 tpy of muriate of potash (MOP), and 1 million tpy of de-icing salt. The project suffered a major setback when Morocco’s Regional Unified Investment Commission (CRUI) noted its high water consumption was a key issue in delivering an unfavourable opinion on the project’s environmental impact. Emmerson filed an arbitration request with the International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), claiming that Morocco had effectively expropriated the project, and is seeking reimbursement of US$2.2 billion. While countries like Egypt, Oman, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia have developed significant fertilizer consumption, many jurisdictions throughout the region struggle to increase farming applications. The World Bank estimates that usage per hectare in Ethiopia averaged 38 kg of NPK per arable hectare, while Algeria languishes at 21 kg. There are a spectrum of reasons for the disparity, from poor transportation infrastructure preventing delivery at critical times, to poverty, corruption, and mismanagement of government programmes. While governments and international agencies work to overcome obstacles, the industry itself must play a pivotal role. OCP Africa, a division of the state-owned company, has the stated goal of improving agriculture and food security in Africa by providing fertilizer products that have been tailor made to suit regional soils and crops, training in technology, and access to financing and markets. Even when MENA jurisdictions champion green hydrogen investment, external factors inhibit development. The lack of contractual commitment from European utilities and industrial consumers for low-carbon hydrogen, for instance, is holding back financial investment decisions on many projects. While the EU is incentivising industries and utilities to switch from fossil fuels to hydrogen, the slow pace is obliging project planners to constantly revise plans.

The future

Over the course of this decade, MENA’s fertilizer sector will see increased capacity in nitrogen and phosphate facilities (and the development of potash mines). In the long term, low-carbon fuel in the marine and utility sectors will dominate growth in ammonia production. In conclusion, MENA’s fertilizer sector faces significant challenges. Regional hostilities, red tape, low domestic consumption, and opaque regulatory environments increase risk premiums and deter investments. On the other hand, there is significant potential for increased farm consumption, and the growth in net-zero carbon emissions around the world is creating new opportunities for low-carbon ammonia, especially in the marine transport market. The coming decade promises to be replete with both trials and opportunities for the industry.

COVER STORY

Dr Emmanuel Iro and Dr Adrien Serve, UNICAT, reveal how catalyst technologies can be used to optimise the efficiency of ammonia cracking and support ammonia’s role as a hydrogen carrier.

ne of the most pressing areas of interest today is ammonia (NH3) cracking. Ammonia has emerged as a promising hydrogen carrier due to its high hydrogen density, relative ease of liquefaction, and existing global infrastructure. Transporting and storing hydrogen in the form of ammonia is considerably more practical than handling compressed or liquefied hydrogen. However, to make ammonia viable as a hydrogen vector, efficient and reliable catalytic systems are required to crack ammonia into nitrogen and hydrogen at the point of use. This process is shown in the following equation: 2NH3(g)→N2(g)+3H2(g)

ΔH=+92kJ/mol

The development of robust cracking catalysts is therefore central to the broader hydrogen economy. In this context, UNICAT has focused on 15

extending its Magcat® support technology – currently used in steam methane reforming (SMR) – towards a new line of NH3 cracking solutions that can deliver profit-enhancing efficiency and operational reliability.

n Main cracker, as a tubular-fired unit operating at higher temperatures (≈ 700°C), targeting near-complete ammonia conversion. Thermally stable catalyst formulation will be considered here to ensure long catalyst lifetime.

Thermodynamics of NH3 cracking and process layout

Supporting steam methane reforming

Ammonia cracking or decomposition is an endothermic reaction, requiring significant heat input. The equilibrium conversion is strongly temperature-dependent: higher temperatures favour almost complete dissociation, while lower temperatures lead to incomplete conversion unless catalytically enhanced.1 Lower pressure favours higher conversion but plant economics and downstream use of pressure swing adsorption (PSA) requires a certain minimum value to be met. Overall designs for large NH3 crackers consider a pressure range of 30 - 40 bars, and an operating temperature in the vicinity of 700°C. From a process design perspective, UNICAT is considering a two-step reactor layout involving a pre-cracker and a main cracker (see Figure 1):2 n Pre-cracker, as an adiabatic unit operating at moderate temperatures (400 - 650°C), with the aim of achieving partial NH3 conversion by utilising the heat generated from the main cracker firebox. This will require catalyst displaying high activity at lower operating temperatures. Catalyst layout could be of a dual bed configuration with a high temperature catalyst A at the higher temperature zone, and low temperature active catalyst B at the lower temperature zone of the pre-cracker reactor.

Figure 1. Schematic of pre-cracker and main cracker layout.

Figure 2. Magcat structured support. 16 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Magcat is a textured, spherically structured catalyst support technology deployed extensively in over 50 SMR units globally. Its architecture is designed to combine high porosity with enhanced heat transfer and catalyst durability.3 In SMR, the technology has demonstrated improved fuel efficiency and longer operating lifetimes in reactors. Its physical properties, combining high porosity and efficient heat transfer are highly beneficial for endothermic reactions like methane reforming, where it achieves optimum conversion rates for a lower heating input. These attributes are also highly attractive for ammonia cracking, since NH3 cracking is also endothermic and requires efficient thermal management.

Low temperature ammonia cracking

The pre-cracker stage is tasked with initiating ammonia decomposition with the available heat taken from the main cracker flue gas. This is expected to generate a feed gas reactor inlet temperature of 600 - 650°C, which drops to 450 - 400°C at the vessel outlet. This is to make most use of the main cracker flue gas available heat and help reduce its load and size. The pre-cracker feed is about 99.5% NH3 with trace amount of water in the 0.5% mol range. UNICAT has investigated two main catalyst formulations based on Magcat support in this temperature window: n A low content ruthenium catalyst (Ru/Magcat catalyst). n An iron-cobalt bimetallic catalyst (FeCo/Magcat catalyst). Ruthenium is considered the most active metal for NH3 cracking and could benefit from being finely dispersed with Magcat support. Its cost and scarcity (US$33 000/kg) represent a major challenge for widespread use but niche and small volume applications may benefit from its high activity. Reports show that a mixture of iron and cobalt formulation displayed interesting properties toward NH3 cracking due to its lower nitrogen binding energy, which is reported to be the limiting step in the NH3 cracking reaction on base-metal. This supports UNICAT’s research, which observed superior catalyst activity when iron (Fe) is combined with cobalt (Co) compared to Fe only.4 Experimental testing under pre-cracker conditions has shown that: n Ru/Magcat achieves the highest activity at temperatures as low as 420°C which could be a solution offered to push the conversion of NH3 on the lower part of the pre-cracker catalyst bed. n Fe-Co/Magcat requires a slightly higher inlet temperature (> 500°C) but provides stable conversion at intermediate temperatures. Its performance appears to match the precious metal counterpart at temperatures 620°C and higher. n Blank Magcat (support only) does display activity towards NH3 cracking although at a lower magnitude. At high temperatures (> 700°C) activity is high enough to provide almost complete NH3 conversion for all the catalysts tested.

Main cracker unit

The main cracker stage operates at an elevated temperature, typically around 700°C, where thermodynamic limitations are lower and almost complete NH3 conversion is possible. Following the pre-cracker, it is expected that a certain fraction of the inlet NH3 has been converted to nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2). Hence the main cracker conditions not only differ in temperature where heat input will be maintained around 700°C, but in the feed conditions as well where around 30% of the inlet flow is expected to contain N2+ H2 products. Since a high temperature is targeted to ensure maximum conversion, efforts are focused on developing a formulation displaying activity and stability in those conditions. Catalyst activity was also screened at lower temperatures to assess a potential interest in working at temperatures below 700°C. Three products have been evaluated: n Blank Magcat (metal-free support); initial testing demonstrated ‘blank’ support still displayed activity at high temperatures with full conversion obtained at temperatures higher than 700°C. Research aims to assess the impact of the absence of metal on performances when products are present and pressure is higher. n Ni/Magcat: as nickel (Ni) is considered as the standard base-metal for this application, UNICAT investigated the activity and stability of a Ni Magcat catalyst. n Fe-Co/Magcat: this formulation displayed high catalytic activity, even at temperatures lower than 700°C. This may be of interest where the desire is to operate the main cracker reactor at temperatures below 700°C. In main cracker conditions, Fe-Co/Magcat catalyst appears as the most active formulation but is quickly matched by Ni/Magcat as temperature reaches the expected nominal value of a main cracker (670 - 720°C). As Ni/Magcat is derived from an SMR formulation it is readily available. Fe-Co/Magcat is a more advanced formulation which could offer a non-nickel-based solution. Blank Magcat is surprisingly effective, opening the door for a simplified ‘no-metal’ catalyst that leverages only support effects. Further testing must be done to assess its performance and durability at higher pressure to ensure it could perform optimally in a main cracker unit.

Conclusion

Magcat potential for NH3 cracking (Magca ACTS catalysts) was studied internally to assess its performance as pre-cracker and main cracker catalysts. Expected conditions of those units in terms of design temperatures and pressure were shared from available literature. Ru, Ni, and Fe-Co impregnated formulations on Magcat were tested along with a blank support. While Ru-Magcat displayed the highest activity at low temperatures, Fe-Co Magcat displayed interesting potential for intermediate temperatures in the 500 - 670°C. A combined layout of catalysts could prove advantageous in a pre-cracker with an inlet layer of Fe-Co/Magcat followed by a final layer of Ru/Magcat. Ni and Fe-Co/Magcat are strong catalyst candidates for use in a main cracker operated in the vicinity of 700°C. The catalyst’s heat transfer properties should help to reduce the energy input required to crack NH3 in a significant manner, delivering efficiency gains and long-term value for operators.

Figure 3. Performance of Ru/Magcat vs Fe-Co/Magcat in pre-cracker conditions.

Figure 4. Comparative results of blank, Ni/Magcat, and Fe-Co/Magcat in main cracker conditions.

Performance-wise, Fe-Co displayed higher catalytic activity than Ni-Magcat at lower temperatures, with difference fading when approaching a ‘design’ temperature of 700°C. At higher temperatures, all formulations converge toward full conversion of NH3, including the blank sample. This could lead to interesting low/no metal catalyst options for ammonia cracking, providing a pathway to lower cost, sustainable production.

References 1.

2. 3. 4.

TRANGWACHIRACHAI, K., ROUERNHORST, K., LEFFERTS, L. and ALBANESE, J.A.F., ‘Recent progress on ammonia cracking technologies for scalable hydrogen production’, Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 49, p.100945, (2024). KRINNINGER, C., STYLIANOU, E., Nitrogen + Syngas 2024 International Conference & Exhibition (Gothenburg) (4 - 6 March 2024). STUCKEY, M., ‘A step change in catalyst development’, Hydrocarbon Engineering Whitepaper: Catalyst Evolution, (2023). CHEN, S., JELIC, J., REIN, D., NAJAFISHIRTARI, S., SCHMIDT, F.P., GIRGSDIED, F., KANG, L., WANDZILAK, A., RABE, A., DORONKIN, D.E. and WANG, J., ‘Highly loaded bimetallic iron-cobalt catalysts for hydrogen release from ammonia’, Nature Communications, 15 (1), p.871. (2024).

NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025 | WORLD FERTILIZER | 17

Tomohiro Masuda, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Compressor Corp., Japan, analyses how compressor and steam turbine modification or replacement can improve ammonia plant efficiency. mmonia has been widely used in fertilizers and industrial applications. In addition to its critical role in supporting global food production through nitrogen-based fertilizers, ammonia also serves as a key feedstock in the chemical industry, where it is utilised in the synthesis of plastics, explosives, and various cleaning agents.

Figure 1. Prediction of demand for ammonia.

Figure 2. Evolution of compressor efficiency.

Figure 3. Minimum modification required for the capacity expansion project.

Figure 4. High-speed compact design.

20 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

In recent years, as the push towards carbon neutrality has accelerated, there has been growing interest in reducing carbon emissions in conventional ammonia plants (Figure 1), particularly in applications such as bunker fuel, power generation, and hydrogen carriers. Extensive experience has been accumulated in the design and manufacture of synthesis gas (syngas) compressors and associated steam turbine drivers used in fertilizer plants with capacities of up to approximately 3700 tpd. This expertise has also been applied in the modernisation of syngas compressors and steam turbines that have been in operation for several decades. Based on this background, the present study examines a case of syngas compressor train modernisation focused on reducing the overall carbon footprint. In ammonia plants, some older facilities face constraints on their production capabilities due to the use of outdated low efficiency compressors. Those older machines may be equipped with outdated two-dimensional impellers, which are less efficient compared to modern compressors. By replacing these with recent three-dimensional impellers, compressor efficiency will be improved (Figure 2). Replacement with more modern compressor technology not only expands the plant capacity, but also can help customers to improve their operational expenditure (OPEX) via increased efficiency. Updating older plants brings substantial environmental benefits. By using more efficient compressors, energy consumption decreases, leading to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. This allows companies to achieve sustainable operations and fulfill their social responsibilities. When upgrading an existing plant, it is generally advisable to minimise the scope of modifications in order to reduce overall investment costs. It is possible to optimise or limit the required modifications based on the existing plant conditions or specific project requirements. For instance, during a capacity expansion project, applying a conventional design approach may result in the need for a larger compressor, which could require modifications to the existing concrete foundation. However, since such revamp or replacement work typically must be completed during a limited turnaround period – and evaluating the condition of older foundations can be challenging – it is often beneficial to consider design approaches that minimise these changes. By employing compact, high-speed, and customised design solutions, a new compressor can be arranged to fit within the existing foundation. This approach reduces the overall modification scope, supports more efficient project execution, and enables improved operational performance within the existing plant layout, as illustrated in Figure 3.

YOUR PLANNED MAINTENANCE PROFESSIONALS OUR EXPERT SUPPORT ENSURES EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Compressor International provides around the clock field support for mechanical drive steam turbines and centrifugal compressors of all makes and models. Planned or unexpected, our teams mobilize to your site to provide a variety of customized services designed to mitigate risk, improve performance, and reduce outage time frames. With proper forward planning, costs can be reduced by up to 20%. We back all fieldwork through our state of the art repair and service facility, Pearland Works. Along with a full service workshop, we deliver training curriculum customized to meet your equipment needs. Contact sales.mcoi@mhi.com for questions.

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The key aspects of high-speed compact design is introduced focusing on compressor impeller design and rotor dynamics (Figure 4).

High speed impellers

Recent advancements in impeller technology have focused on optimising the thickness of the cover and blades. By adjusting these dimensions, the centrifugal stress of the impeller could have been reduced and its tip speed allows an approximate 20% increase compared to traditional designs. This increase in speed not only enhances the compressor’s efficiency via a higher flow coefficient impeller but also contributes to its compactness, as higher speeds can achieve the desired pressure ratios with the smaller diameter.

High boss ratio impellers

The boss ratio, defined as the ratio of the inner diameter to the outer diameter of the impeller, is a crucial parameter in determining the mechanical stability and dynamic behaviour of the rotor. Implementing a high boss ratio further contributes to the compact design of centrifugal compressors. A higher boss ratio increases the rigidity of the rotor and this advantage enables the compressor to operate at higher speeds in terms of rotor dynamics.

Damping force increase

To further improve mechanical performance at the higher speed compressor operation, the application of high-damping seal patterns and bearings is essential. These components enhance the damping characteristics of the rotor, mitigating vibrations and improving overall stability during operation.

Upgrading ammonia plants Case study 1: capacity expansion and efficiency improvement

Figure 5. Footprint replacement summary for case study 1.

Figure 6. Footprint replacement summary for case study 2.

Figure 7. Historical two tandem turbine. 22 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

This case study presents the experience related to the capacity expansion of an old ammonia plant established in the 1980s. The project aimed to significantly enhance plant capacity by upgrading the original facilities. The original capacity of the plant was 1700 tpd of ammonia, with an internal revamp carried out by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) in 2011. The plant configuration consisted of three case compressors and one steam turbine. In 2023, plant upgrading was carried out and the primary objective of the project was to expand the plant capacity. Since the plant’s capacity was expanded +35% from its original capacity, all of the compressor and steam turbine needed to be replaced with new ones to handle the large capacity. Due to this large capacity, compressor nozzle sizes were increased, and therefore process piping was also changed from its original positioning. However, the new nozzles fit into existing

opening holes without any modifications of the existing foundation. Additionally, the compressor’s baseplates could be re-used. These were achieved by a high-speed, compact, and unique custom design. The advantages of this footprint replacement case study include not only the upgraded plant capacity, but improved efficiency. Even though capacity increase was +35%, an approximate 13% efficiency improvement was achieved by new compressors and steam turbine, and thus power usage increased only +22%. Therefore, footprint replacement with the latest technology is extremely beneficial for plant owners (Figure 5).

Case Study 2: plant renewal and efficiency improvement This section presents a case study of plant renewal and efficiency improvement for an original old ammonia syngas compressor train in the US. The original compressor trains were installed in 1968 on this Figure 8. Improved steam turbine design. historical plant that has operated for over 40 years. Since the plant owner’s requirement was not capacity expansion, but plant renewal with efficiency improvement, three compressors were replaced with new ones and seal systems were updated from a conventional seal oil system to a dry gas seal system. This upgrading was carried out in terms of minimum modification in 2011. The highlight of this case study is efficiency improvement via the Figure 9. Single turbine and two tandem turbine solution. replacement of compressors. By replacing old compressors with new compressors, (> 10 000 RPM) is ideal for the smaller frame size centrifugal compressor power was improved from 22 108 HP to compressors in syngas service, and the higher power is 19 599 HP: approximately an 11% improvement. required as a result of large pressure ratio. Mechanical According to this power reduction, steam design and rotor stability were the main bottleneck of a consumption of the original steam turbine was also single turbine. Splitting the service into two turbines reduced with -15 klb/hr. Assuming US$7 per 1000 lbs as allowed for less challenging rotodynamic designs that steam cost, a total of US$840 000/yr could be saved. could operate at faster speeds. This OPEX improvement indicates that the payback On the other hand, steam turbine technology has period for initial investment cost can be recovered in the improved over time and could have a single turbine short-term, and footprint replacement is one of the best solution for syngas compressor service in an ammonia approaches with minimum investment (Figure 6). plant. As shown in the improved steam turbine design in Figure 8, features such as a shorter bearing span and more Modernisation of syngas steam turbine rigid blades enhance rotor dynamics and enable In older ammonia plants, a two-tandem turbine design was higher-speed operation. Over the years, continuous necessary because suitable steam turbines capable of advancements in last-stage blade design have also handling the required combination of speed and power increased power output and provided a variety of blade were not yet available (Figure 7). The higher speed options to suit different ammonia plant capacities. NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025 | WORLD FERTILIZER | 23

Regarding the equipment and baseplate, both turbine Turbine one casing Turbine two casings configurations require a new baseplate; however, Experience of replacement More None or less (for normal turbine (for two casing turbines the baseplate for the replacement) replacement) two-tandem turbine is larger than that for the Equipment and New turbine with New turbines with new baseplate new baseplate common baseplate single turbine. Sometimes the larger dimension may Piping modification Required Required impact the original (main steam piping) foundation space. On the Piping modification Less More other hand, in the case of (auxiliary piping) a single turbine, Instrument and Less More downside or side Site installation wiring modification extraction piping would Auxiliary equipment Less More be necessary due to the modification space limitation. From an operational Foundation No modification No modification basis and maintenance basis (needs to check foundation (needs to check size) perspective, a single extraction turbine offers substantial piping space) benefits. Its simpler Fair Installation period Fair design means that only one governor is required Operation and Operability and Good (simple) Not good (complicated) for operation, resulting in maintenance controllability (two governors) reduced complexity. Maintainability Good (simple) Not good (complicated) Additionally, maintenance (two turbine casings procedures are to maintain) streamlined for a single Performance Better Worse turbine compared to a CAPEX Fair Higher two tandem turbine. In terms of capital OPEX Fair Higher expenditure (CAPEX), a single turbine has a cost Case Study 3: modernisation of a steam turbine advantage due to fewer parts, leading to lower overall costs This case study introduced footprint replacement of a for steam turbines and spare parts. Performance-wise, this steam turbine for syngas compressor service in an ammonia configuration also positively impacts OPEX. Even when both plant. The original steam turbine, a historical two tandem turbine types are aerodynamically identical in terms of stage type, was originally built in the 1960s such as shown in number and design, a single turbine demonstrates higher Figure 7. The project was initiated in response to the overall efficiency and reduced steam consumption due to customer’s demand for plant renewal with +25% increase in several factors, including: production capacity. To address these requirements, the n Reduce bearing losses (two sets vs four sets). solution identified was footprint replacement. n Decrease steam leakages across shaft ends. For the footprint replacement of the steam turbine, n Lower piping pressure drops between turbines. two potential configurations were studied: a single turbine and a two-tandem turbine arrangement (matching the As summarised in Table 1, a single turbine solution offers original turbine type). While the compressor sizes remained numerous advantages, making it a superior choice for a the same in both cases, the main differences lie in the capacity expansion project. steam turbine design, as shown in Figure 9. Since the project focused on footprint replacement, minimising Conclusion modifications to the existing plant infrastructure was a In conclusion, there has been a recent trend toward key priority. increasing the productivity and reducing the carbon Due to the large power increase, steam turbine size and footprint of current plants. This study can serve as a steam piping were larger than the original. The size and reference for anyone associated with these plants. In positions needed to be changed. As for original turbine addition, this can support new plant stakeholders regarding (two tandem turbine), four steam piping changes were potential opportunities involved in design of a required. On the other hand, a single turbine requires only new plant. three steam piping changes. Single turbine piping changes is a less extensive, more simple solution in terms of piping Notes change work at site during plant turnaround period. OPEX improvement = 15.0 klb/h x US$7 klb x 8000 hpy.

Table 1. Comparison of advantage between single turbine and two tandem turbine

24 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Gabriele Marcon and Ken Monstrey, Technology Team, Casale, examine the application of nitrogen fertilizers and ammonium sulfate finishing technologies and how they can enhance granulation. he fertilizer industry requires a comprehensive suite of finishing technologies for nitrogen-based, complex and phosphate fertilizers. Over the decades companies have developed various portfolios of finishing technologies. Some, like Casale, do this through both in-house technology development and strategic acquisitions. As a result, they can provide the best available technologies for all production stages across the full range of fertilizers. Licensors can even offer a choice of different technologies from their portfolios at various stages of the production process. Additionally, a limited number of companies can manage all stages of a

project in-house, from project development through engineering, procurement, construction, and both off-site and on-site services. Together, clients and technology providers can select the technology that best meets the client’s needs, market requirements, and local regulations. Casale itself offers technologies to produce ammonia, methanol, urea, melamine, nitrates, and phosphates. This feature allows for optimal integration among different processes and a tailored approach to any issue involving various areas of the client’s complex. A full line of technologies is provided, from ammonia to final products.

This article provides an overview of finishing technologies for various processes and grades. Granulation production processes for urea, enhanced urea, nitrates, as well as granular ammonium sulfate fertilizer are highlighted.

Urea finishing applications Fluidised bed granulation With the acquisition of Green Granulation Technology (GGT) Casale’s portfolio includes urea fluidised bed applications. The optimised fluid bed dynamics (OFBD) have proven to be innovative and industry changing. The focus on energy efficiency, that has been directing the urea synthesis process developments during the last few decades, was brought to the finishing process by the introduction of the OFBD. Research and development (R&D) capabilities have further refined the fluidised bed technology, resulting in a broader range of design options by adapting proven design features from other technologies and introducing new, innovative developments. Therefore, depending on the client’s requirements, the focus of a new fluidised bed process for urea fertilizer production can be based on CAPEX or OPEX drivers or a perfect mix of features. These innovations have led to higher design flexibility and the ability to produce special grades such as automotive urea and cattle feed grade urea. As an alternative, or as an additional feature, the fluidised bed process can be designed to produce DEF-grade urea. The granulation unit must operate without the addition of a granulation additive (zero formaldehyde or others), and the Figure 1. Urea – ammonium sulfate (AS) eutecticum graph. biuret content must be kept low enough to enable remelting without exceeding the maximum allowed biuret content of AdBlue. Therefore, the feed concentration to the granulator must be free of contaminants, such as formaldehyde (typically used as a granulation additive for fertilizer grade) and the urea feed concentration must be relatively low to guarantee low biuret content. These factors result in a feed composition likely to lead to poor spraying conditions in the granulation process, high dust production, and short run lengths. This highlights the need for expertise in the urea field that can provide solutions characterised by a urea feed concentration with very low biuret content that matches with the requirements for DEF-grade granulation, including a limited distance between the synthesis and the granulation buildings. Alternatively, a dedicated evaporation section within the granulation battery limits, operating under deep vacuum Figure 2. Urea ammonium sulfate (UAS) double granulator technology. and low temperature conditions, 28 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Enhanced urea finishing applications Urea and AS in the double granulator

Figure 3. Pre-granulator technology. can be foreseen. Both enable sending a feedstock to the granulator that falls within the parameters for water content, guaranteeing a high-quality final product. In the absence of a granulation additive and at low biuret content, the granulation process depends entirely on optimised conditions in the subsequent spraying zones in the fluidised bed. Casale relies on the performance of specially designed hydraulic spray nozzles that are self-atomising without high atomisation air requirements. The Mark II and Mark III hydraulic spray nozzles produce a homogeneous spray pattern with a narrow size distribution of droplets at low atomisation air pressure. The atomisation air merely blows the produced droplets deep into the fluidised bed layer, creating a maximum spray zone height, increasing efficiency, and ensuring a continuous flow of fresh particles towards the spray zones. The OFBD principles adopted in every unit ensure smooth and predictable movement in the bed, providing an optimum alternation of accretion and drying phases during the granulation process. Unlike a bubbling bed granulator, the OFBD operates at a low bed level, reducing the pressure drop over the system and thus reducing the unit’s power consumption. Recent technological innovations focusing on minimising the pressure drop over the product coolers and exhaust air scrubbers have further reduced the specific power consumption. Urea, as a commodity, still accounts for the largest market share of fertilizer applications worldwide. Therefore, Casale continues to focus on further development, deeper research, and finding marginal gains to keep the technology at the top of the innovation pyramid. In 2025, the first application of the new and improved Mark III liquid nozzle with higher operational reliability (fewer splits) and higher operational flexibility was implemented. 30 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Meanwhile, the fertilizer market is shifting towards products that offer more than just a nitrogen source. Adding a sulfur source to urea is a straightforward step to increase efficiency and application field of general fertilizers. Ammonium sulfate (AS) is widely available, even as a by-product of other production processes, such as the ammonia abatement system in the scrubbing section, and it is a low-cost sulfur source. The main challenge when solidifying a mixture of urea and AS is the presence of a eutectic point, where the crystallisation temperature of the mixture drops by approximately 10˚C (see Figure 1). Under such conditions, the temperature in the fluidised bed must be reduced by 10˚C to allow proper crystallisation. Lowering the bed temperature would normally lead to poor water evaporation inside the bed and poor drying of the granules, resulting in off-specification product. Casale has therefore developed and patented the ‘double granulator’ principle, a specific fluidised bed production process for urea ammonium sulfate (UAS) that offers the flexibility to produce standard urea granules or any grade of UAS from 0 - 25% AS content. This, without any loss of quality features and without the need to reduce the bed temperature at any feed composition. The ‘double granulator’ principle allows feeding different melt compositions to different granulator sections, avoiding the eutectic mixture of urea and AS and enabling the production of any UAS composition under optimal granulation conditions, ensuring top-quality product. This flexibility also allows clients to continue production even if the AS supply is compromised or reduced. AS contents higher than 10 wt-% in the urea feed concentration (> 96%) are no longer soluble and lead to slurry, rather than solution, spraying inside the granulator. Therefore, the liquid sprayers must be specially designed to handle the crystals. The scrubbing section can handle a large quantity of crystals and inerts in the airstream without upsetting the process. A dedicated evaporation section ensures that no AS is recycled to the upstream synthesis plant and is designed to prevent AS crystallisation in the evaporation heater. It also offers the advantage of adjusting the final water content in the UAS feed, influencing the crystallisation point and providing a second tool for fine-tuning the system to guarantee optimal conditions in the granulator (Figure 2). The double granulator plant for UAS production was commissioned in 1Q25. The 1200 tpd unit operates on both urea and UAS, with AS contents ranging from 0 - 20 wt-%.

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The commissioning on urea went smoothly. The AS storage and preparation section has been installed and AS addition is to be expected in 4Q25.

Enhanced urea application in the pre-granulator Intense farming over long periods depletes the soil at high rates. Available farmlands are being stripped of valuable elements that crops need to grow sustainably. Standard general fertilizers add macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphate, potassium, sulfur, etc., to the field, which plants need for growth. Growing crops also absorb micronutrients such as iron, boron, copper, zinc, etc. These elements are essential for vegetation, even in small amounts. Each harvest reduces the content of minerals in the soil. Casale offers technology to produce nitrogen-based fertilizers containing micronutrients in various compositions for wide applications or tailor-made ends. The pre-granulator technology (Figure 3) adds micronutrients or other additives to the core of the granule rather than coating

the granule. This is achieved by spraying small amounts of additive on the seeds produced by crushing oversize granules or adding specific seeds to the pre-granulator and covering them with a protective layer to shield them from heat impact in the further process. Adding specific elements to the granule’s core greatly improves the additive’s efficiency and eliminates premature wash-off in the field. The pre-granulator allows adding the additive under mild bed temperature conditions, preserving the additive’s integrity.

Nitrate finishing applications Fluidised bed granulation

With the acquisition of GGT, Casale has also acquired a reference in ammonium nitrate (AN)/calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) fluidised bed granulation. The 1015 tpd AN - 1300 tpd CAN plant was constructed and commissioned during the COVID-19 pandemic and has been in operation ever since. This unit features the unique combination of AN and CAN in a fluid-bed-based plant and [a] can be operated with different granulation additives and stabilisers. Hydraulic liquid spray nozzles ensure prime quality product features and low dust production during the granulation process. The step-by-step cooling is designed to preserve granule integrity throughout the process and prevent hazardous product temperature cycling during production, which may compromise product density and eventually [b] crumble the granules, making them vulnerable to atmospheric pickup or organic contamination. The different crystal transition points of AN and the different influences of product stabilisers on these transition points are accounted for in the process design. Anti-backmixing features and flexible cooling ensure smooth crystallisation of the melt or slurry and controlled cooling to appropriate storage temperature. The process consists of two melt [c] preparation loops that may or may not be integrated depending on the end product. When producing AN grade, the AN loop provides the melt directly to the granulation section without passing through the CAN loop. When producing CAN grades, the AN melt prepared in the AN loop is sent through the CAN loop and brought to appropriate concentrations before being sent to the granulation section. Switching from AN to CAN can be done on the run. For a switch from CAN grades to Figure 4. Fluidised bed granulation: [a] ammonium nitrate (AN) preparation loop, AN, the system needs to be rinsed [b] calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) preparation loop, [c] AN/CAN granulation section. and cleaned, with the collected wash 32 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

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Additionally, nitric or sulfuric acid can be used in the acid scrubbing section to drastically reduce ammonia emissions to the atmosphere. Finally, a granulation agent and coating agent(s) can be used to improve granulation efficiency and guarantee optimal final product quality. The plant is designed to achieve the lowest recycling ratio, depending on product grade, selected raw materials, and the ratio between solid and liquid phases. The plant comprises the following major items: n A rotary drum granulator, in which ANS is sprayed over a moving bed of recycled particles consisting of fines, dust, coarse ground grains, part of recycled final Figure 5. AN/CAN drum granulation plant. products, filler (e.g. limestone or dolomite) and solid raw material, if required (e.g. AS or calcium sulfate). n A rotary dryer with hot air to decrease the residual moisture in the final product. n A screen to separate the on-size product from the small and the oversize one. The latter are crushed, mixed with the former and fed back to the granulator Figure 6. Technology applied in the Villeta Green Fertilizer Project in Paraguay. together with a portion of the final product to keep a constant liquid stored in a shutdown tank for future CAN runs. recycled flowrate. Temperatures in the preparation section are kept moderate to n A fluidised bed cooler for the on-size product. A coating ensure safety while handling hot AN melt. The process stays agent is added in a dedicated drum, to prevent caking. safely away from the 180˚C upper limit, with a safety trip The product is then sent to storage. initiation to ensure safe operation. The fluid bed granulation n A dedusting and scrubbing system, which recovers plant (Figure 4) is usually preferred when large capacity is ammonia and dust from all the gaseous effluents, to required (usually above 1500 - 2000 tpd) and it can be prevent pollution and minimise losses. designed for capacities up to 5000 tpd in a single train configuration. Villeta project Casale’s own drum granulation technology has been recently Drum granulation selected and applied to the Villeta Green Fertilizer Project in In addition to fluidised bed technology, Casale also offers a Paraguay (Figure 6). Located 35 km from Asunción along the flexible drum granulation loop technology for production of Paraguay River, the Villeta project utilises Paraguay’s abundance of high-quality granules with uniform size and durability, hydropower to establish a world scale production facility for well-suited for modern wide spreading on agricultural fields. green fertilizers. This project aims to meet domestic and The drum technology (Figure 5) is used in over 50 plants international fertilizer demand while significantly reducing worldwide and is very versatile, capable of producing a wide greenhouse gas emissions, exemplifying a model for sustainable range of different AN-based fertilizers like high-density industrial development. ammonium nitrate fertilizer (HDAN), CAN, ammonium nitrate Key features include: sulfate (ANS), etc., in the same plant. The resulting granules n A 145 MW power purchase agreement with ANDE. are well-suited for modern, wide spreading on agricultural n Advanced production facilities capable of producing over fields. In view of the above characteristics, drum granulation is 250 000 tpy of CAN. preferred when high product versatility and lower plant n Zero-carbon production processes are powered entirely capacity are requested. Typically, drum granulation can by hydropower. achieve a capacity up to about 2500 tpd in a single line. Together with ammonium nitrate, various raw materials The Villeta project stands out for its reliance on advanced such as dolomite, limestone, calcium sulfate, AS, etc., can be technologies, ensuring high efficiency and sustainability (Figure 7). added to obtain different types of ammonium nitrate-based fertilizers. This allows easy granulation of 33.5% N Drum granulation technology further applications ammonium nitrate, 26 - 27% N ammonium nitrate (such as In addition to AN-based fertilizers, the drum granulation loop CAN), ammonium nitrate sulfate (ANS), and 34.7% technology is applied for both complex fertilizers (i.e. NPK) ammonium nitrate for technical uses. and the production of granular AS fertilizer. This concept 34 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

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allows the possibility to design a single granulation loop able to produce a very wide range of different fertilizers completing all the needs requested from the market. Multi-granulation plants make this process easier and meet this need. A multi-granulation plant is a single drum granulation plant equipped with all necessary equipment for AN-based fertilizers, NPK complex fertilizers, and granular AS fertilizers. It includes dual pipe reactor technology (GPR+DPR), an AS pre-neutraliser, an ANS concentration section, and a common scrubbing system that can work with nitric acid, sulfuric acid, or phosphoric acid.

AS drum granulation Casale’s drum granulation technology suited for the direct production of fertilizer grade granular ammonium sulfate is illustrated in Figure 8. AS is produced by the direct reaction between sulfuric acid and ammonia that takes place in the pre-neutraliser and the granulator pipe reactor. Sulfuric acid is also added in the acid scrubbing section to minimise ammonia emissions to the atmosphere. Finally, a granulation agent and coating agent(s) are used to improve granulation efficiency and guarantee optimal final product quality. The plant configuration and H2SO4/NH3 split between the pre-neutraliser and the granulator pipe reactor is designed to

achieve the lowest recycle ratio, minimising the equipment dimensions and therefore the plant investment cost. The plant comprises the following major items: n Pre-neutraliser + pipe reactor installed in the granulator drum: AS is produced by the chemical reaction between ammonia and sulfuric acid. The reaction takes place in two different pieces of equipment. The first reactor is an agitated vessel, called the pre-neutraliser (PN), and the second reactor is the pipe reactor installed in the granulator drum (GPR). The PN is fed by a portion of ammonia and sulfuric acid; the product is fed to the GPR together with additional raw materials. Ammonia is, thus, split between the PN and GPR. The remaining stoichiometric amount of ammonia is injected directly into the drum granulator through the ammonia sparger. The water, mainly the recycled scrubbing liquor, is mostly fed to the PN to maintain good fluidity of the AS slurry. The balance of the water is fed to the GPR. n Rotary drum granulator, where AS slurry from the GPR is sprayed over a moving bed of recycled particles consisting of fines, dust, coarse ground grains, part of recycled final products. n Rotary dryer fed with hot air to decrease and control the residual moisture in the final product. n Screens to separate the on-size product from small and oversize product. The latter are crushed, mixed with the former and fed back to the granulator together with a portion of the final product to keep a constant recycled flowrate. n Fluidised bed cooler for the on-size product. A coating agent is added in a dedicated drum, to prevent caking. The product is then sent to storage. n Dedusting and scrubbing system, where ammonia and dust from all the gaseous effluents are recovered, to prevent pollution and minimise losses.

Turkmenistan project

Figure 7. 3D rendering of the Villeta Green Fertilizer Plant in Paraguay.

Casale drum granulation technology for granular AS production has been recently selected and applied for Turkmenhimiya, the state-owned chemical company of Turkmenistan, and will be built in Turkmenabat. Once completed, the new complex is predicted to produce: n 100 000 tpy of AS. n 350 000 tpy of granular single super-phosphate (SSP).

Conclusion

Figure 8. AS drum granulation plant. 36 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

By continuing to innovate and optimise finishing technologies for nitrogen-based fertilizers – urea and ammonium nitrates that have enabled the agricultural sector to provide food to the planet for decades – Casale looks ahead to develop new sustainable technologies and new fertilizer grades to meet the requirements of tomorrows’ market and ensure world food supply in the long-term.

Brian Rudary and Mike Aughenbaugh, Swagelok Co., consider how to successfully execute fertilizer plant turnarounds. n any industrial facility, fluid systems endure significant stressors while performing their critical functions. This is especially true in fertilizer plants, where the potentially corrosive effects of ammonia – as well as nitric, phosphoric, or sulfuric acids – often employed in the manufacturing process can damage equipment. The harsh environments these types of applications create call for high-quality components to optimise fluid system performance.

Additionally, most industrial plants will eventually require a turnaround. This process involves identifying ways to improve fluid systems and implementing strategies to ensure a smoother transition (Figure 1). For example, a provider may recommend replacing traditional ammonia sampling elements in a system with pre-engineered, pre-assembled ammonia sampling panels (Figure 2). Systems specifically designed for ammonia sampling can help improve

safety by minimising the operator’s exposure to liquid and vaporised ammonia. They can also enhance consistency while in operation and expedite the sampling process significantly.

Prepare for the unexpected

Figure 1. Engaging with trusted suppliers from the beginning can help streamline processes.

Figure 2. Plant turnarounds offer opportunities to optimise the system by taking additional improvement steps.

No matter how much planning goes into a fertilizer plant turnaround, unforeseen challenges are inevitable. Understanding and accepting these challenges as part of the process will allow operators and technicians to pivot effectively and keep the project on schedule. One example of an unplanned issue is acquiring components. Fertilizer plant fluid system components must be resistant to harsh chemicals and high-pressure tolerances to handle the chemicals coursing through them. Acquiring compatible components may take additional time that could delay the overall upgrade, and it can be difficult to assess in advance exactly when and where in the system these components will be needed. To offset this, it may be beneficial prior to the start of the turnaround to stock a variety of components, including fittings, valves, and hoses. When planned carefully, advance stocking provides sufficient inventory to overcome any unforeseen challenges without being left with excess supply. To determine the right balance, consult providers on whether they have the capacity to stock temporary or consignment inventory for large scale projects like a turnaround. Providers who can support these agreements purchase the parts and make them available as needed on the project. This is especially effective when providers can support the project from local offices to ensure the timely delivery of parts as needed.

Keep a close eye on the installation of critical components

Figure 3. Plant turnaround teams should specify training

and certification protocols to ensure the same baseline of understanding component installation.

Figure 4. Prefabricated assemblies offer convenient installation and require less training for technicians.

38 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

During a full fertilizer plant turnaround, hundreds of technicians may be on-site at any given time, across different firms and disciplines. The level of installation expertise may vary from vendor to vendor, so it is up to the plant’s turnaround team to employ safeguards that ensure proper installation of system components throughout the plant. For example, existing fluid systems with poorly routed tubes may be at risk of vibration fatigue. Under these circumstances, replacing components with the same routing and clamping points does not make sense. With a system overhaul, technicians should have the expertise and design knowledge to reconfigure the tubing to reduce the vibration fatigue threat. They should also have a broad understanding of proper tools to use to complete the work without damaging system components before they are in operation. Proper training is essential. To ensure technicians are properly trained in component installation, the plant’s turnaround team should consider requiring specific levels of training and certification as part of the specifications for the job (Figure 3). This ensures anyone performing work during the turnaround has the same baseline knowledge and is familiar with sound installation practices.

Seek out prefabricated assemblies

In a fertilizer plant, the engineering and design of a well-functioning fluid system can be complicated. Prefabricated, preassembled, and pretested configurations offer a means for a standardised solution whenever possible (Figure 4). Such solutions are more easily installed and require less specialised knowledge, making them an ideal plant upgrade. As mentioned earlier, preassembled ammonia sampling panels present one opportunity to use prefabricated assemblies. A well-designed system can help enhance plant safety by reducing the potential for operator exposure to ammonia, delivering consistent, accurate results and semi-automated process while reducing potential for human error. Another area where prefabrication can streamline installation is in mechanical seal support systems, which are designed to augment mechanical seal longevity (Figure 5). Additionally, prefab analytical subsystems, including fast loops, field stations, calibration and switching modules, sample probes, and fluid distribution headers, can bring efficiency and consistency to operations with simplified design footprints.

Maintain tight quality control

Working with providers that understand what each aspect of a fertilizer plant’s fluid systems requires – and that in turn produce only the highest-quality components for those systems – offers additional value for plant turnaround teams. These providers will help to research,

determine, and specify the components that will work best for the plant (Figure 6). This avoids the possibility of installing inferior products with inconsistent quality across the plant. In turn, it reduces the risk of leaks, poor performance, and premature maintenance needs. Additionally, specifying high-quality components helps to minimise intermixing and interchanging parts from different providers, which minimises performance risks and improves maintenance consistency over the long-term.

Making the plant turnaround a success

Fertilizer plant turnarounds are rarely simple, but following the steps listed above can enhance the success of a smooth turnaround. Facility turnaround teams should work closely with trusted providers that can offer unique insights into system upgrades to optimise the plant’s overall operation.

Benefits of standardising fluid system components in fertilizer production

According to Global Market Insights, the global fertilizer market was valued at US$202 billion in 2023 and is expected to grow at a compounded annualised growth rate (CAGR) of 2.7%, to reach US$257 billion by 2032.1 That means new fertilizer plants are being built regularly around the world, each with their own complex industrial fluid systems to handle the needs of these harsh applications. As in any industry, fertilizer plant managers and owners are looking for ways to control costs,

ensure long-term reliability, and maximise the return on the considerable investments being made to get and keep plants running. An effective step in supporting the overall process is to standardise the fluid system components across all operations. Consolidating the choices of valves, small bore tubing, and tube fittings to one trusted supplier can add up over time. The following section details three reasons for this.

Enables easier installation and lower overall system costs In any industrial plant, fluid systems are key to a successful operation. Standardising the components within those systems helps to control costs by reducing the labour needed to install them as well as providing possible discounts by purchasing components in bulk from one source. In addition, standardised components make installation the same across all the parts, streamlining the work involved and reducing the risk of improper setup (Figure 7). Once technicians learn how to reliably install one type of tube and fitting, it becomes easier to install them across more systems. Though specifying high-quality components may require a higher initial investment, it pays off with reliable performance over the life of the system.

Figure 5. Pre-fabricated mechanical seal support

system assemblies are easier to install than traditional components and offer extended time between replacing mechanical seals.

Keeps installers and technicians on the same page Standardising the components within a plant’s systems allows all technicians to work from the same set of installation instructions, which significantly reduces the possibility of errors. Additionally, it relieves the plant managers of the training costs involved in teaching their technicians to work on multiple systems at once. This can eliminate some complexities during the front-end engineering and design (FEED) stage and set the rest of the project up for success.

Ensures quality across the entire project

Figure 6. Specifying high-quality components within

a fluid system’s design offers peace of mind for facility managers and makes managing installation and maintenance easier.

Figure 7. Leaks in fertilizer plants’ fluid systems can be

deadly. Partnering with a trusted supplier of high-quality components for fertilizer-specific applications ensures the right expertise for facility managers to optimise operation and minimise risk.

40 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Specifying that only high-quality components are used within a fertilizer plant’s fluid systems makes it easier to manage overall operational performance. High-quality components reduce the likelihood of leaks, resist corrosion, and reduce the possibility of creating unnecessary safety hazards. In the long term, these higher-quality parts will mean enhanced performance for the lifetime of their operations. Finally, working with one trusted supplier for all of the plant’s fluid system components allows that supplier the opportunity to help guide the facility manager with the proper selection and maintenance of those parts over time. Suppliers who have a close relationship with facility managers will consider all the options and provide sound advice on which components will best serve the plant’s overall operational objectives.

Reference 1.

PULIDINDI, K. and PRAKASH, A. ‘Fertilizer Market - By Form (Dry, Liquid), By Product (Organic, Inorganic), By Application (Agriculture, Horticulture, Gardening), Forecast 2024 - 2032. Global Market Insights’, January 2024, www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/fertilizer-market

Prithiv John, TÜV Rheinland, UK, discusses a step change maintenance programme at a phosphate plant in the Middle East. brownfield phosphate plant operator in the Middle East required a refocus of its maintenance practices as part of a larger maintenance and reliability improvement programme. As equipment failure or unavailability can negatively affect business objectives, with the consequences of failure for some equipment being more significant than other equipment, part of the programme required a criticality assessment to examine the resulting probability and consequence of equipment failure. This was much of the work involved in the study, with the criticality assessment expected to cover over 40 000 individual assets. The criticality assessment scores equipment against a combination of health, safety, environmental, and business criteria, ultimately to be used as a prioritisation tool for deciding where resources should be best focused to deliver business benefit. The assets covered in the

assessment were spread across nine different plants, covering functions as diverse as power and utilities through to materials handling, encompassing all equipment types except pipework, and spanning a duration of 12 months. This case study explores the challenges and solutions encountered on the journey, from an initial asset register update and ISO 14244 hierarchy creation, through to main function and sub-function criticality reviews.

Solution

The study was completed on a plant-by-plant basis, with four stages of work required for each plant. The output from each stage was fed as the input to the next (Figure 1). The first step validated the client’s asset register and defined the list of assets and scope of the following assessments.

The second step identified hierarchical parent-child associations between the assets while the third stage was a line-by-line assessment of the major equipment and systems. These two steps in conjunction were used to cascade criticality scores from larger to smaller assets, saving a tremendous amount of time given the large number of assets under consideration for the assessment.

Asset register verification The first step was to verify the items in the client’s asset register ensuring data completeness prior to carrying out the more intensive assessments in the later stages. Due to the large number of items involved, the equipment types that were required to be assessed were first agreed with the client, which meant excluding less pertinent equipment types such as pipework, orifices, etc. prior to starting the asset register verification exercise. Once the equipment types for review were agreed, a review of the process and instrumentation diagrams (PIDs) and single line diagrams (SLDs) against the

Figure 1. Critical assessment – process overview.

register was undertaken based on tag number, adding any relevant equipment tags to the register, and marking up the PIDs/SLDs to reflect the required changes. Through this process, the 40 000 equipment items were verified against the PIDs and SLDs, with over 10% new items added from the drawings to the register. These items, both new and old, were then taken forward to the next stage for assessment.

Hierarchy assessment The hierarchy assessment was used to create a tree-and-branch type structure for assets, with the aim to develop a parent-child relationship between equipment in Oracle Enterprise Asset Management (EAM) data where child assets were related to the parent asset primarily through physical or functional associations. This structure would hence be an arrangement of assets, subassemblies, and components that make up the asset. This was accomplished by a review of the PIDs and SLDs against the items in the newly-verified asset register by identifying parents for each item on the list. Different rulesets were developed for each equipment type, with larger equipment such as pumps and tanks being the parents for smaller equipment such as instrumentation. Similarly, smaller instruments were parented to the associated main equipment where applicable. Thus, a large ruleset was developed for each equipment type based on the availability of associated equipment in the PIDs and SLDs to develop parent and child relationships, with the structure of the resulting hierarchy as seen in Figure 2. These relationships developed in the hierarchy assessment were later used in the sub-function assessment to cascade scores from parent equipment to child equipment.

Main function criticality assessment

Figure 2. Asset hierarchy structure.

Figure 3. Main function criticality assessment process. 42 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Following the hierarchy assessment, the next step was to conduct a criticality assessment for the high-level systems and main equipment found across the plants as identified from the hierarchy assessment, with an overview of the Main Function Assessment Process (Figure 3). This would utilise information including, but not limited to, drawings, equipment history, and operating manuals. The information gathered was reviewed with a multi-functional engineering team from the client to assess the consequences of failure along with associated likelihoods of occurrence for each main equipment item against the following criteria: n Safety. n Environmental. n Maintenance/repair costs. n Business/production. Specific word models were used when assigning the consequence and likelihood scores for each criterion.

This then allowed for a criticality score or ranking to be applied to each equipment from AC0 to AC4 (Figure 4), with AC0 assigned to safety critical equipment whose failure, or failure to perform to design specification, had the potential to result in an environmental, health and safety related major accident.

Sub-function assessment Although the main function assessment provided a criticality score for the larger items, this would still only cover less than 10% of the total 40 000 items for assessment. Using an item-by-item approach for assessing the remaining items was considered infeasible due to the time and resources required for completion. Thus, a separate process was developed to assess the sub-functions or smaller equipment associated with main equipment (Figure 5). The process required first grouping the items into equipment types (i.e., LV motor, pressure transmitter, etc.), where the assessment process could rationalise decision-making to a much higher volume of equipment, than for the main function assessment. Next, different rulesets/scenarios were developed on a plant-by-plant basis for the different equipment types so that any items belonging to a specific type in a particular plant could be assessed en-masse. These rulesets were developed by TÜV Rheinland subject matter experts based on discipline and then validated with the client’s engineers from each plant prior to application across the different items. Three distinct approaches were followed when developing the rulesets.

Default approach Any equipment types falling under the default category would be assigned set likelihood and consequence scores under the different criteria and hence have the same criticality e.g., all junction boxes would take a set criticality score of AC4 while all strainers would take a score of AC3. For each equipment type under this approach, these set scores would be backed up by rationale specific to the criticality criteria.

Main function approach The second approach would utilise the business, safety, and environmental consequence scores from the main function assessment and cascade them to the underlying sub-functions using the parent-child associations identified in the hierarchy assessment. For example, an electric motor driving a centrifugal pump would be assigned the same business, safety and environmental consequences as its parent (the centrifugal pump). The assumption used for this approach is that the consequences of failure of main equipment would be the same as consequences of the failure of the underlying sub-functions. For example, failure of an electric motor would have the same consequences as the failure of the driven pump. The likelihood scores for the equipment types under this approach would be assigned set values similar to the default approach however.

Critical function approach The critical function approach was developed to specifically cover instrumentation items.

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This approach was based primarily on the function of the equipment with respect to the operation of the plant and associated equipment. The functions for each instrument were identified and categorised through a thorough review of the PIDs, alarm and trip registers, and cause and effect diagrams. The items were then assigned set criticality scores based on this categorised function, with the highest criticality scores of

AC1 going to instruments that had trip/shutdown functions and the lowest score of AC4 for instruments that had Indication function only. Through a combination of these approaches, the vast majority of the 40 000 items were assessed, with only two weeks or so required for each plant. These scores were also validated in separate workshops with the client’s engineers for each plant to ensure conformity of approach.

Conclusions

Figure 4. Criticality matrix and scoring catagories.

Figure 5. Subfunction assessment – process overview. 44 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Through the overall criticality process detailed above, in particular using the methodology of grouping equipment and cascading scores to smaller equipment from the main equipment, allowed for a tremendous time-saving in performing the assessment as opposed to an item-by-item approach. In addition, this approach also minimised the resources required from the client side, with the year-long study able to be completed and validated fully remotely. Moreover, using rulesets for the sub-functions based on equipment types meant that the assessment could be applied across the different plants while also allowing for modification to suit the custom needs of particular plants as applicable. The initial step of asset register verification, although a tedious task, is an essential requirement not just for a criticality assessment but most asset management, maintenance and reliability related studies as having a complete and valid asset register dictates the accuracy of any future work. In addition, the process also identified a significant number of additional equipment tags, with over 10% of new items added to the register enhancing data quality. Given verifying the asset register against PIDs was found to be both a labour-intensive and time-consuming process, in future, data-scraping tag numbers from the PIDs using artificial intelligence (AI) could very well be a viable option. The hierarchy assessment and the resulting structure and interrelationships produced between equipment would make it easy to locate a particular asset by allowing for a logical navigation through a large data set. In addition, having structured and ordered data within Oracle EAM would allow for the roll-up of reliability information and easier collation of assets which in turn makes for straightforward implementation of reliability techniques such as maintenance application and grouping, fault-finding and failure isolation. In addition, using rulesets based on equipment type ensured a consistent approach and hierarchy structure across the different plants. In general, the completed equipment criticality assessment would be used for decision making for reliability and maintenance, and enable resources to be focused that best support the business objectives. In particular, it was envisaged that the criticality analysis would form the foundational first step as part of a long-term reliability improvement programme that would involve more detailed maintenance-based assessments such as failure modes and effects analysis for high-criticality items.

Milo V. Kral and Daniel J. Benac, BakerRisk, USA, detail the major elevated temperature failure mechanisms common in ammonia plant equipment. mmonia plant equipment operates under extremely demanding conditions: elevated temperatures, aggressive environments, and high applied/residual stress. Thus, it is no surprise that elevated-temperature failure mechanisms can occur. The condition of that equipment or an unknown operating condition can also contribute to failure. This article discusses the major elevated temperature failure mechanisms common to ammonia plant equipment, such as: metal dusting, nitriding, oxidation, stress relaxation cracking, overheating, creep, and high temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA). It is important to understand these elevated-temperature failure mechanisms, their causes, and the types of equipment that are most impacted by them in order to reduce the risk of equipment failure. Failure of ammonia-containing equipment can result in fires, explosions, fatal accidents, and loss of production. These days, plants cannot afford to be down and must operate under required process safety management (PSM) principles or strict regulatory requirements. 45

Common elevated temperature failures in the ammonia process

or aggressive environment at elevated temperatures. The temperature where performance begins to be degraded is At ambient temperatures and in the absence of a corrosive materials-specific. environment, the life of a component in steady-state load Risk from failure is often considered using two separate conditions may be unlimited, provided that operating loads terms – the likelihood that a failure will occur and the do not exceed the yield strength of the material. By consequence of a failure.1 Elevated-temperature failures contrast, the life of a metal component may be limited can have serious consequences that may result in a when subjected to either steady or fluctuating stress, business interruption or possible injury. A plant operator can enable risk reduction by identifying how a component could fail (the mechanism of failure), and ensuring that proper controls are in place to reduce the likelihood of this failure mechanism. Some of these controls involve proper equipment material selection, conducting detailed management of change (MOC) reviews, performing non-destructive inspections and testing, monitoring actual operating temperatures, and safe operating limit alarms. Even so, elevated-temperature failures can still occur due to some unknown condition. To determine what types of elevated temperature failure mechanisms can occur in ammonia processing, BakerRisk reviewed the last 20 years of AICHE Safety and Ammonia Plant and Related Facilities publications.2 Shared information from the members of 2020 - 2023 Ammonia & Fertilizer Joint Industry Program (A&F JIP) facilitated by BakerRisk was also used to provide additional background information.3 The A&F JIP is a collaboration among a significant group of Figure 1. Damage mechanisms in a reformer convection section. ammonia, nitric acid, and ammonium nitrate producers to share materials and corrosion knowledge based on investigations following incidents. These resources were used to identify common high temperature damage mechanisms (DMs). Figure 1 shows the DMs for the reformer convection section of typical ammonia processing equipment found at such facilities. Figure 2 shows the DMs that can be found in the primary reformer, while Figure 3 shows the DMs common to the secondary reformer and water heat recovery section of the process.

Specific elevated-temperature damage mechanisms

Ammonia plant equipment can degrade over time at elevated temperature due to exposure to the environment or process gas streams. Some of these are discussed below:

Oxidation

Figure 2. Damage mechanisms in a primary reforming unit. 46 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Metal alloys, if subjected to high temperatures in the presence of oxygen, can be limited by unacceptably high oxidation rates. The development of alloys for use at elevated temperatures is therefore usually aimed at improving oxidation resistance.

Note that oxidation resistance is not the only temperature-limiting factor. Another issue is creep, which will be discussed later. Chromium is present in all heat-resistant alloys because a thin, adherent chromia (Cr2O3) scale is formed on the metal surface, which limits the rate of further oxidation. Other alloying additions that reduce oxidation include nickel, silicon, aluminium, and rare earths. Continuous operation can be less demanding than intermittent operation, due to thermal cycling. Contaminants in process gases such as such as alkali metal salts can damage the chromia scale.4 Table 1 provides a ranking of selected alloys considering only oxidation in air. API RP 5715 provides estimated oxidation rates for selected alloys from 500°C (925°F) to 1135°C (2075°F). For example, 304 stainless steel has an oxidation rate of ~ 1 mpy [mils per year] (0.001 in./y) up to ~ 750°C (1375°F) but the rate of oxidation increases to ~ 9 mpy if subjected to a temperature of 857°C (1575°F). Oxidation attacks any exposed surface but attacks grain boundaries preferentially, to not only result in general thinning but also intergranular attack of the surface. Figure 4 shows evidence of oxidation and intergranular attack that occurred in a Type 316 stainless steel liner that was inadvertently exposed to hot syngas at elevated temperatures. Oxidation is commonly life limiting in fired heaters and boilers and other combustion equipment that operates in high temperature environments, where the temperature of the metal can easily exceed 538°C (1000°F).

Metal dusting Metal dusting is a catastrophic form of corrosion via carburisation resulting in localised pitting or generalised thinning that occurs in carburising gases and/or process steams containing carbon and hydrogen.6 Corrosion occurs when susceptible materials are exposed to environments with carbon activities ac > 1 in an intermediate temperature range 400 - 800°C (752 - 1472°F). Metal dusting manifests as a disintegration of metal alloys, forming a dust of small metal particles and carbon (graphite). Other reaction products in the form of oxides and carbides may be present depending on the alloy composition, and taken as a whole the reaction product appears as a black powder. If the material, such as iron or low alloy steel, is not protected by an oxide layer, the attack is general, the metal is wasted uniformly, and the dust appears as a thick coating. On materials forming a protective oxide scale (such as stainless steels), a localised pitting attack results in hemispherical pits and holes. In plants, the process gas flow may carry away the metal dust.7 According to API 571, metal dusting has been observed in reforming unit outlets and partial oxidation (POX) units. There is no known solution to metal dusting through alloy selection, although some higher nickel or chromium alloys are considered more resistant such as alloy 800 H/HT, alloy 617, alloy 601, or alloy 602. Refractory coatings and pack aluminising8 can

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be beneficial. Keeping the carbon activity low is the only known prevention. An example of where metal dusting could occur is shown in Figure 5.

Nitriding

Figure 3. Damage mechanisms in secondary reforming and water heat recovery units.

Nitriding is a form of degradation caused by decomposition of high temperature process streams containing ammonia to form nitrogen and hydrogen. Nitriding is a diffusional process – it depends on temperature, concentration gradient of the diffusing species, and also requires time to occur. For nitridation to occur, the temperature must be high enough for the nitrogen compound (such as ammonia) to break down such that nitrogen dissociates and diffuses into the metal. The effect is minimal, below 316°C (600°F), but due to the exponential relationship with temperature, the diffusion rate climbs rapidly and the effects become severe over 410°C (770°F). The diffusion of nitrogen in unalloyed carbon steel forms a hard, brittle layer of iron nitrides (Fe3N or Fe4N) which can crack when stressed. This layer is distinct in metallographic cross sections, appearing as a white, non-etching phase that is sometimes called the ‘compound layer’. Alloys that contain strong nitride-forming elements (such as Cr, Mo, Al, V, or W) also develop grain boundary and fine, very hard intragranular nitride particles. Nitriding is also a purposeful manufacturing process used to harden the surfaces of steel parts. All grades of steel – carbon and stainless – are affected. Alloy 800H outlet pigtails9 and equipment in ammonia converters are known to have been attacked.10 Alloys with high nickel content (> 30%) are less affected.

Ways to mitigate surface interactions

Often, the surface kinetics are determined by the temperature, gas composition, and the alloy used. Because the process conditions often cannot be changed, the material or surface must be changed. To reduce the risk of Figure 4. Oxidation and intergranular attack of a Type 316 stainless steel surface degradation, the following can liner exposed to hot syngas (unetched). be considered: n For oxidation resistance, use more corrosion-resistant Table 1. Selected alloys in order of increasing materials with higher chromium and nickel content. oxidation resistance, adapted from US DOE4 n For nitriding resistance, use alloys with a higher nickel Alloy Operating limit °C (°F) content to avoid the formation of brittle chromium and iron nitrides. Carbon steel 510 (950) n For metal dusting, sometimes a protective layer can be ASTM A 387 Grade 22 650 (1200) used, such as aluminum diffusion treatment. (2.25Cr - 1Mo) 304/304H & 316L

816 (1500)

321

871 (1600)

RA 253 MA, Alloy 800HT, 310

1093 (2000)

Alloy 601

1204 (2200)

48 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Stress relaxation cracking Austenitic stainless steels used to prevent corrosion mechanisms (such as oxidation and metal dusting) can develop cracks when exposed to temperatures

500°C - 700°C (932 - 1292°F). The cracking mechanism is identified as stress relaxation cracking (SRC) when these cracks are found in locations with high residual stresses, or locations with high combined applied and residual stresses, usually in welded structures that are highly constrained and exposed to these temperatures. SRC cracking is also identified by microstructural features. The appearance is typically intergranular, with cracks located along grain boundaries. For austenitic stainless steels and nickel-based alloys, a nickel-rich filament is often found in the grain boundary crack, surrounded by a chromium-enriched oxide layer. The crack zone is usually harder than the bulk material, with Vickers hardness greater than 200 HV. One such crack is shown in Figure 6. SRC occurs in certain metal materials due to stress relaxation from grain boundary strain in the creep temperature range while in service after welding. The SRC mechanism is also referred to as ‘stress induced cracking’, ‘reheat cracking’, or ‘stress-assisted grain boundary oxidation’ (SAGBO). Alloys most susceptible to SRC are precipitation strengthened austenitic stainless steels and Ni-based alloys such as 347/347H and 800/800H/800HT. In ammonia plants, SRC has been observed in a steam reformer inlet system, at T-joint welds, and in the welds between pipes and elbows. It is often observed after 6 months to 2 years of service. To reduce the risk of stress relaxation cracking, post-weld heat treatment and weld design must be considered.11

Creep failures in components of steam reformers Creep is time-dependent strain under a constant applied load. Creep is a diffusion-assisted process and therefore is thermally activated. Diffusional process rates are described by the Arrhenius equation: Rate = Ae-H⁄RT Where A is taken as a constant, H is the activation energy for the process, R is the universal gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. Thus, creep rate is exponentially dependent upon temperature. As a rule of thumb, a material is susceptible to creep when subjected to load at temperature greater than 30% of the material’s absolute melting temperature (TM) in Kelvin. Creep can occur at room temperature, for example, in polyethylene (TM ≈ 393 K (120°C (248 °F)) and pure lead (TM ≈ 600 K (327°C (620°F)), because room temperature (295 K (22°C (71°F)) is more than 30% of their melting points. Creep is a complex process with many contributing micro-mechanisms that depend on alloy composition, grain size, and stress, as well as temperature and time. When creep is active, eventually it will terminate in a stress-rupture fracture, also known as creep-rupture. In ammonia production, steam-methane reformers are used to produce a hydrogen-rich synthesis gas from a mixture of steam and natural gas at high pressures and elevated temperatures. The steam-gas mixture, preheated to between 425 - 650°C (800 - 1200°F), is introduced to the tubes, which in turn heats the gas mixture to

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705 - 1040°C (1300 - 1900°F) while under pressure in the presence of a nickel oxide catalyst to form synthesis gas, a mixture mainly comprised of hydrogen gas and carbon monoxide. Because of the elevated temperature and pressure, heater and reformer furnace tubes and piping such as pigtails and manifolds experience creep conditions. In industrial applications, creep damage accumulates first as microscopic voids, which eventually coalesce into fissures and cracks, and eventually, creep rupture occurs. A reformer tube stress ‘creep’ rupture failure is shown in Figure 7. The stress rupture fracture is identified by minimal bulging, axial crack extension, internal cracking (Figure 8), and microvoid formation (Figure 9). A stress rupture failure can be avoided if the heater tube’s estimated remaining life is known. API Standard 530 ‘Calculation of Heater Tube Thickness in Petroleum Refineries’12 offers guidance on remaining tube life, heater tube design, and wall thickness. Figure 5. Likely locations where creep, overheating, high temperature To reduce the risk of reformer tube hydrogen attack (HTHA), and metal dusting could occur in the primary and failures due to overheating and creep, the secondary reformer regions. following should be considered: n Monitor actual operating temperature and minimise localised hot spots. n Perform dimensioning to determine if deformation (bulging) has occurred. n Perform microstructural analysis or stress rupture testing, comparing good material to material exposed to elevated temperatures. n Perform a life assessment.

High temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA)

Figure 6. An Alloy 800 tube showing stress relaxation cracks along the grain boundaries.

Figure 7. Creep rupture of a reformer catalyst tube. 50 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

HTHA is caused by hydrogen reacting with carbon in steel to form methane in a high temperature environment. When steel is exposed to hydrogen at above 200°C (392°F), molecular hydrogen can disassociate into monatomic hydrogen, diffuse into the alloy, and react with carbon to form methane. The methane does not diffuse out of the metal but accumulates in microscopic pockets, forming voids and fissures (see Figure 10). HTHA (a) decarburises the steel and (b) reduces the fracture toughness of the material, leading to catastrophic brittle fracture. HTHA catastrophic failure in the ammonia synloop has occurred, resulting in fragments being thrown.13 Nelson curves in API Recommended Practice 94114 provide guidance to avoid HTHA. Experiences gathered since the 1940s have established operating limits for steels most commonly used. For a given hydrogen partial pressure, operating temperatures within 10°C (50°F) of the curve values make the material more susceptible as originally discussed by Nelson in 1949.15 For example, if the normal operating conditions are a temperature of 288°C (550°F) and 13.79 MPa (2000 psig) hydrogen partial pressure, the carbon steel in this case is not suitable.

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Figure 8. Cross-section of a reformer tube showing the fissuring and cracking at the ID surface.

To perform an assessment of HTHA susceptibility, the true and accurate operating conditions of the equipment must be known. Also, atypical operating conditions can change the local metal wall temperatures. For example, fouling that could occur in a heat exchanger could increase the actual metal wall temperature. High-strength low-alloy steels (such as C - 0.5 Mo Steels), low-alloy carbon steels and steels without post weld heat treatment are particularly susceptible to this mechanism. Further alloying additions of chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium improve resistance to HTHA. The heat affected zone (HAZ) of the weld often experiences the most severe HTHA. For this reason, the base metal and the HAZ should have HTHA inspections performed to determine whether or not attack has occurred. In some recent HTHA incidents, failures were reported to have occurred at welds that were not stress-relieved.16 If the stress-relieved condition is unknown, HTHA inspections should be performed. Positive material identification (PMI) is used to verify that the material in use or intended to be used is the one specified. During fabrication, installation, or maintenance activities, it is possible to use the wrong material. The practice of PMI has identified incorrect materials in hydrogen service.17 While such mistakes are not a common occurrence, it has happened often enough to warrant the use of a proactive PMI programme. HTHA inspection requires special inspection techniques.18 Inspection methods used for surface corrosion and wall thinning are not adequate for detecting HTHA. HTHA is a subsurface phenomenon and not readily evident on the surface. The optimum method(s) and frequency of inspection for HTHA should be determined for specific equipment. API RP 58619 summarises inspection methods for HTHA, including advantages and disadvantages. High frequency shear wave ultrasonic testing is recommended for detecting and sizing localised HTHA in welds and HAZs.

Summary Figure 9. Microstructure showing the coalescence and

alignment of microvoids and subsurface fissuring at the ID surface (unetched).

Failure of ammonia plant equipment can be prevented through good material selection, process controls, detailed reviews that consider elevated-temperature failure mechanisms, and regular inspection of equipment. Because many of the elevated temperature failure mechanisms are now better understood and inspection methods are more reliable, elevated temperature failures in ammonia plant equipment can be avoided. When proper safety considerations and controls are established, the risk of elevated temperature failures is greatly reduced for ammonia plants.

Acknowledgements

Appreciation is acknowledged for the 2020 - 2023 Ammonia & Fertilizer Joint Industry Programme (A&F JIP) members who helped contribute to this study on high temperature damage mechanisms for the ammonia process.

References Figure 10. HTHA of a carbon steel indicated by fissures

(arrow) within the heat affected zone (HAZ). (Nital etch).

52 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

A list of references can be found at: https://www. worldfertilizer.com/special-reports/19112025/elevatedtemperature-failures-in-ammonia-plant-equipment-references/

Matthias Walschburger, Knight Material Technologies, debates best practices for corrosion protection during the production of fertilizer.

ompanies go to great lengths to minimise corrosion in fertilizer production, since success in this area contributes significantly to the durability and longevity of equipment and plant structures throughout all three operational phases: production, storage, and handling processes. Fertilizer production plants operate under various temperatures and pressures, handling highly corrosive raw materials such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4), phosphoric acid (H3PO4), intermediates and by-products. Sulfuric, phosphoric, and nitric acid are the most essential mineral acids produced worldwide. Nitrogen is the most consumed nutrient in fertilizers, followed by phosphoric acid anhydride. These plants produce sulfuric acid by combustion of sulfur with dry air to form sulfur dioxide (SO2), followed by sulfur trioxide (SO3) production through a 53

catalytic conversion. Finally, sulfuric acid is obtained after the absorption of sulfur trioxide in water in a sulfuric acid plant tower. These conditions make the plants susceptible to significant levels of corrosion and abrasion. As a result, it is essential to understand and control these various chemical acids that form the root cause of corrosive conditions.

Understanding fertilizer plant systems

Proper design of equipment and pipelines, including minimising crevices and ensuring good drainage, can reduce areas throughout the many places in a fertilizer production facility where corrosive substances might accumulate. Consider the plant’s absorption towers, which are typically constructed from carbon steel and lined with acid-resistant bricks to ensure durability and longevity. The use of alloy towers has become more prevalent in the fertilizer industry due, on one side, to the more controlled acid concentration in the process that works very well with alloy towers and their lighter weight, which reduces the need for more significant foundations and initial capital expenditure (CAPEX). Despite their corrosion-resistant properties, specialised stainless silicon steels, like SX®, ZeCor®, or Saramet®, and high-cost nickel alloys are still vulnerable to harsh acidic conditions, especially when exposed to an acid concentration

Figure 1. The main components used in the production of fertilizers.

these alloys were not designed to withstand. Sulfuric acid, for instance, creates a corrosive cell on the metal surface, altering its internal morphology and degrading its physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. A critical aspect of maintaining the integrity of alloy towers is conducting a thorough structural analysis. This analysis helps identify potential weaknesses that could lead to shell buckling above the packing level, especially in plants designed with the blower at the end of the process. One effective method to improve the structural stability of alloy towers is using structured packing, as it reduces pressure drop and, therefore, the compression stresses in the shell. This enhances the performance and operational life span of the alloy towers.

Managing corrosive acid production

Plant systems must be able to withstand the wide variety of caustic and corrosive acids common in fertilizer production. Nitric acid (HNO3), most commonly used in fertilizer production, is a solution of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in water, which is a colourless to light-brown fuming liquid with an acrid suffocating odour. Nitric acid is the second most important industrial acid. It is a highly oxidising agent used widely beyond fertilizer production to manufacture chemicals, explosives, fertilizers, steel pickling and metal cleaning. It is corrosive to metals, forming flammable or explosive gases. Nitric acid also reacts violently with organic compounds. The most commonly used steel in nitric acid towers is Type 304L stainless steel. This low-carbon austenitic stainless steel is preferred due to its good resistance to nitric acid corrosion, especially at 60 - 65% concentrations. For more demanding conditions, such as higher temperatures or the presence of chlorides, more advanced materials may be used. Phosphoric acid is mainly consumed during the manufacturing of phosphate fertilizers or for direct use as an acid in the food and beverage industry. When used in manufacturing fertilizer, representing 80% of its overall use, phosphoric acid requires a lower grade of purity than in the food and beverage industry. The production of fertilizers derived from phosphoric acid has increased significantly during the last 120 years because, among other things, of technical breakthroughs in the field of phosphoric acid and ammonium phosphate manufacturing. In addition, economies of scale have resulted in high-capacity plants, which produce a limited range of products at very competitive prices. Phosphoric acid is commonly stored in rubber-lined steel tanks, although stainless steel, polyester and polyethylene-lined concrete are also used. The rubber linings used include neoprene, butyl and natural rubber. In transportation or shipment, ISO containers or tank carriers are lined with rubber, fluoropolymer, or polymer.

Considering a wide variety of corrosion resistant materials in use

Figure 2. A carbon brick-lined vessel used in phosphoric acid vessels.

54 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

The available literature offers a wide range of optimal materials and practices for handling these types of corrosive acids. While selecting corrosion protection materials might seem straightforward due to the known raw materials and products, the practical application of these systems is complex. The severe and varied working conditions and production environments require careful consideration when choosing and applying the

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appropriate corrosion protection to achieve the best, long-lasting outcomes. Acid-resistant bricks, also known as acid-proof bricks, are made from unique ceramic materials that can withstand acidic environments. They are often used in linings for tanks, reactors, and other equipment. Graphite and carbon bricks are highly effective for acid protection in industrial environments due to their excellent resistance to various corrosive chemicals. Carbon bricks are typically made from high-purity carbon materials, which provide superior resistance to acids such as hydrofluoric acid (HF), phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid (HCl). They are designed to withstand long-term exposure to highly acidic and high-temperature conditions.

resist temperatures up to 260°C, crucial for maintaining performance in harsh chemical environments. In addition, these fluoropolymers offer superior wear resistance, impact toughness, and radiation resistance.

Silicon carbide (SiC)

Methods for control

Silicon carbide exhibits excellent resistance to a variety of acids, including hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and sulfuric acid. This resistance is due to forming a thin, protective layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) on its surface, which acts as a barrier against further corrosion.

Epoxy resins Epoxy resins can offer good resistance to phosphoric acid, especially when cross-linked with suitable hardeners. However, their performance can degrade at higher temperatures and concentrations. Unique formulations and additives can enhance their resistance. The performance of Novolac epoxy resins exposed to concentrated sulfuric acid at medium temperatures using adequate modifiers is excellent.

Vinyl ester resins Vinyl ester resins are highly valued in industrial applications for their excellent chemical resistance, particularly in acidic environments. They offer superior resistance to a wide range of acids, including strong acids and oxidising environments, even at higher temperatures. This makes them ideal for harsh chemical conditions, like phosphoric and nitric acid applications.

Phenolic resins These resins are highly resistant to phosphoric and sulfuric acids. They are often used in tank linings and other applications requiring strong acid resistance and high temperatures. Vinyl ester resins are among the best choices for handling concentrated phosphoric acid and Novolac epoxy resins for sulfuric acid at 90°C. Phenolic resins can also be used; still, their performance may vary based on specific formulations and conditions.

Polyethylene Both high-density (HDPE) and low-density (LDPE) polyethylene resins offer good resistance to phosphoric acid (85%) and sulfuric acid (70%), making them suitable for storage tanks and piping with limitations at higher temperatures.

Fluoropolymers Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE – sometimes known as Teflon), ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE), fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), and perfluoroalkoxy (PFA) are highly resistant to a wide range of corrosive chemicals, including sulfuric and phosphoric acids. PTFE is often used in gaskets, seals, and linings for its excellent chemical resistance. Most of these fluoropolymers 56 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Asphalt This material is not highly resistant to phosphoric or sulfuric acid, specifically when unmodified asphalt is used, and may degrade relatively quickly. However, it can be modified to improve its resistance. Polyphosphoric acid (PPA)-modified asphalt can offer better durability and resistance in such environments. PPA enhances the high-temperature performance of asphalt and can improve its resistance to chemical attack, including phosphoric acid.

Companies, such as Knight Material Technologies, can provide cost-effective solutions for controlling corrosion in fertilizer production facilities. This could include methods such as a membrane with a carbon brick lining to protect the membrane, or an advanced fluoropolymer lining as an alternative to traditional alloys (e.g., stainless steel vessels, towers, or reactors). Various ceramic, organic and polymeric coatings are also used to protect metal surfaces. However, these coatings can develop porosities, allowing hydrogen ions to penetrate and initiate corrosion. Advanced coatings offer improved protection by providing a more uniform and less porous barrier. Coating steel with carefully formulated protective solutions and membranes in less severe corrosive environments can be a viable alternative. Additionally, cathodic or anodic protection methods, which involve applying a protective electrical current to the metal surface, can help to prevent corrosion and extend the service life of simple surface protection systems. This technique is particularly effective in environments where coatings alone are sufficient. But what if corrosion, or depletion of the corrosion protective barrier, has evolved to the point where the steel shell of the equipment has been compromised? To combat this, Knight Material Technologies has developed an injection procedure in which technicians inject a corrosion-resistant resin into the voids created by the depleted membrane and fill those spaces to extend the service life of the equipment.

Conclusions: conquering and controlling corrosive effects

Adequate corrosion protection in fertilizer production is crucial for maintaining the integrity of processing equipment and ensuring continuous, cost-effective operations. By employing a combination of inhibitors, advanced coatings, cathodic and anodic protection, and selecting appropriate corrosion protection materials, the industry can mitigate the adverse effects of corrosion and enhance the longevity of its infrastructure. Implementing a proper corrosion protection system extends the service life of the equipment and reduces maintenance costs, which can be substantial and may require facility shutdowns. The effectiveness of the protection system depends on the appropriate selection of materials, correct surface preparation, and the use of suitable application equipment and trained personnel. Therefore, choosing a protective solution that meets industry standards, such as those set by NACE or ASTM, is imperative.

Greg Gedney, Greene Tweed, USA, argues that compressors present an overlooked opportunity to reduce costs and carbon emissions in the fertilizer industry, whilst enabling more sustainable ammonia production. he fertilizer industry faces a permanent balancing act. It must feed the world while cutting its own contribution to climate change. Ammonia, the lifeblood of modern agriculture, is both the solution and the problem. Without it, food security would collapse. With it, vast amounts of energy is burned, mainly in the service of compression. Central to the production of ammonia is the Haber-Bosch process, a catalytic reaction that converts nitrogen and hydrogen into ammonia at high temperature and pressure. Developed in the early 20th century, it uses an iron-based catalyst to drive the gases to react efficiently,

and despite countless incremental improvements, the fundamentals have remained unchanged for more than a century. Natural gas is stripped for its hydrogen, nitrogen is pulled from the air, and the two are combined under immense pressure to create ammonia. That pressure is generated by industrial compressors the size of houses, running continuously day and night. Compressors are amongst the highest consumers of electricity when compared against of any other piece of machinery on site, and their appetite translates directly into carbon emissions when the power comes from fossil fuels. For years, these machines were overlooked in the debate on decarbonisation. The focus was elsewhere, on the promise of carbon capture, on switching to renewable hydrogen, and on other brand new processes. Yet, hidden in plain sight was an opportunity that could deliver meaningful savings: the performance of compressors themselves.

Why compressors matter

Main air compressors play a critical role in ammonia production. Positioned at the front end of the air separation unit, it pulls in oxygen and nitrogen, setting the pace for the process. These are not small machines. They require tens of thousands of horsepower to operate, and they run for years without a break. Even a marginal improvement can deliver striking savings in large scale ammonia production. Tests on MAN Energy Solutions, now Everllence, centrifugal compressors showed that cutting internal leakage with advanced labyrinth seals delivered about a 1% performance gain, saving roughly US$300 000 in electricity over a single

Table 1. Arlon 4020 labyrinth seal-tooth wear table Tooth

Installation date 8 January 2016

Maintenance Date 12 December 2024

First tooth, seal 1

Ø236.8 mm

Ø236.9 mm

Last tooth, seal 1

Ø224.9 mm

First tooth, seal 2

Ø211.4 mm

Last tooth, seal 2

Ø199.5 mm

Figure 1. Labyrinth seal comparison over time. 58 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

compressor’s life cycle. A labyrinth seal is a precision-engineered ring of interlocking ridges that creates a tortuous path for gas or fluid, minimising leakage and maintaining pressure in high-speed rotating equipment such as compressors and turbines. Across a fleet running 24/7, that figure compounds into millions. A 1% drop in productivity may sound trivial in a meeting room. In the real world, it can mean millions of kWh wasted over a decade. That is why the numbers matter. A 1 - 2% gain in compressor performance translates to annual savings of tens of thousands of dollars, and more importantly, thousands of tonnes of carbon dioxide avoided. Multiply that across an installed base of fertilizer plants worldwide, and the potential becomes obvious. Compressors may not be a glamorous subject, but they are important to manage costs, reduce emissions, and improve reliability. Ignore them, and the industry leaves money on the table and emissions in the atmosphere.

Why has the change been slow?

Reliability has always been paramount. In fertilizer production, a breakdown can shut down an entire plant, breach contracts, and decimate output. That risk keeps engineers loyal to proven designs. Metallic labyrinth seals, enshrined in American Petroleum Institute (API) standards, have been the default choice for decades, trusted to keep compressors running under punishing conditions. Yet the very dependability of these seals has slowed the search for alternatives, even as energy costs and emissions highlighted the case for efficiency gains. The trade-off was accepted. Metal seals require large clearances to avoid galling or rotor damage during upset conditions. Those clearances mean inefficiency, with gas leaking back across the profile. Occasionally, the corrosion problem forced a change. Hydrogen sulfide, chlorine or mercury in process streams would attack aluminium, and operators would switch to stainless steel. That solved the corrosion issue but brought other headaches: more hard surfaces that threatened catastrophic rotor damage. Optimisation barely became part of the discussion.

This well-established caution is understandable. The fertilizer sector draws heavily on practices from the hydrocarbon and chemical industries, where ‘failure is not an option’ is more than a slogan. API specifications serve as the rule book, and procurement teams have strong incentives to choose equipment with a long operating record rather than untested alternatives.

The materials shift

Change came through materials science. Engineers developed advanced thermoplastics with a combination of properties that metals could not match. These new polymers were chemically inert, resistant to high temperatures, and crucially, they did not gall. That Figure 2. Fertilizer plant. allowed for tighter clearances, which in compressor language meant less leakage and more output. and high-pressure loads. Those properties allow designers Greene Tweed’s Arlon® 4020 and related PEEK to tighten clearances and reduce leakage without composites provided an alternative to traditional metal gambling with reliability. This was put to the test with seals. Developed for demanding turbomachinery, the finite element analysis and computational fluid dynamics material offers improved chemical resistance, shrugging (that originated in aerospace) were used on compressors. off corrosive gases such as H2S, mercury, and chlorine. It Every profile was modelled. Laboratory rigs subjected the absorbs virtually no moisture, resists swelling, and seals to cycles of heat and pressure. Gradually, the maintains its shape under continuous high-temperature numbers held up.

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Proving it in practice

The breakthrough came when compressor OEMs put the theory under their own microscopes. A programme with Everllence, became the inflection point. On the test stand in Germany, leakage across metallic seals was measured at around 4%. With thermoplastic seals in place, that figure halved. It was not just theory. Field deployments lasted for nearly a decade. When seals were finally inspected, the verdict was startling: almost no wear, no damage to the rotor, no evidence of distress. Maintenance cycles that once defaulted to five years could now stretch to 10. The economics were equally clear. A 1.5% improvement in energy use translates to US$30 000/yr saved on a single compressor. Throughout its life, the gain was approximately US$300 000. For fertilizer producers using the same integrally geared compressors as those in the energy and chemical industries, the lesson was transferable. They can use the same components that can be specified in new builds or retrofitted into existing machines for similar results. Attitudes began to shift. What had once been a last-ditch option for corrosion resistance became a proactive strategy for efficient compressor performance. Engineers who insisted on maintaining safety clearances began to request tighter tolerances to capture the gains. OEMs built compressors around the new materials. End users specified them as standard rather than exceptions. This was more than a technical change. It marked a shift in industry practices. The fertilizer industry began to accept that efficiency and reliability could coexist. The evidence, accumulated over a decade of test data and field experience, had become too solid to ignore.

Digitalisation adds a layer

At the same time, plants were becoming smarter. Sensors and analytics were spreading across the shop floor, delivering streams of vibration and temperature data. Predictive maintenance systems began to replace calendar-based servicing with condition-based interventions. Advanced materials fit neatly into this environment. Seals that last nine years instead of five give predictive models better data to work with. Monitoring systems confirm their condition, extending intervals further. The two trends reinforce each other: digital tools unlock more value from longer-lasting components, and those components make predictive maintenance more profitable. For operators, the result is fewer surprises, fewer outages, and a smoother relationship between emissions targets and production schedules. The world outside the plant gate is changing just as quickly. Governments are setting stricter targets for carbon reduction. Investors are demanding transparent pathways to net zero. Customers in agriculture and beyond are beginning to ask about the carbon intensity of fertilizers. In that climate, performance stops being a nice-to-have and becomes part of the compliance toolkit. A 1% improvement may not sound like much at first glance, but when multiplied across an installed base, 60 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

it helps meet 2030 or 2050 targets. They also demonstrate a serious willingness to tackle emissions. Cost competitiveness comes as an added advantage. Energy remains the largest variable input in fertilizer production. A plant that consumes less energy has a lower cost base, more resilience against price spikes, and an advantage over rivals who ignore resource optimisation. The attraction is not limited to new projects. Retrofitting has always been the harder sell: operators worry about downtime, compatibility, and re-engineering. Yet thermoplastic seals can often be machined to the same dimensions as metallic predecessors. In many cases, they are a direct swap. In the early days, conservative operators insisted on identical clearances. They wanted corrosion resistance without disturbing the balance of the compressor. As confidence grew, those same operators began to request engineered tolerances, seeking the productivity they had once overlooked. It is an evolution rather than a revolution. Plants do not have to redesign compressors or endure extended outages. They can capture efficiency in the natural rhythm of maintenance cycles, progressively decarbonising their operations without the drama of wholesale replacement.

Ammonia’s future role

The role of ammonia is expanding and it is being studied as a marine fuel, promising carbon-free combustion at sea. It is being positioned as a hydrogen carrier, which is easier to transport and can be cracked back into hydrogen at the point of use. Both paths will demand more from compressors. Pressures will rise, chemistries will shift, lifetimes will stretch further. Advanced materials will not be optional; they will be critical. Already, development work is underway on seals designed for rapid gas decompression and other stresses unique to emerging energy systems. For the fertilizer sector, this is both a challenge and an opportunity. By adopting advanced materials now, producers not only decarbonise their current operations but also prepare for the role of ammonia in the global energy transition. The fertilizer industry cannot avoid its dual challenge. It must produce more and emit less. There will be no single solution. Carbon capture will play a role, as will renewable hydrogen and process redesign. But alongside those headline projects, incremental measures matter. Compressor performance is one of them. It may not be glamorous, but it is practical, proven, and readily available today. Advanced materials show that reliability and efficiency need not be trade-offs. The financial and environmental case is clear. The path to a low-carbon fertilizer future will be paved with many steps, large and small. Compressors may not make the headlines, but they will make a difference. The industry that ignores them risks wasting both money and carbon. The sector that embraces them gains a hidden lever, one that pulls in the right direction for both competitiveness and climate.

Brett Binnekade, Bagtech International, South Africa, outlines the design requirements necessary to ensure the long-term, safe, and efficient operation of fertilizer plants. n fertilizer production, reliability is not an optional feature. Plants must operate continuously, often in harsh and corrosive environments, while maintaining precision and safety. When downtime occurs, even for a few hours, it can disrupt supply chains, delay deliveries, and cause significant financial losses. Designing for reliability means anticipating these challenges long before a machine ever reaches a production site. Reliability is not something achieved through maintenance alone. It must be built into every part of the system, from the structural design and surface protection to the electrical grounding and control logic.

Designing for harsh, corrosive environments

Few industries expose equipment to conditions as aggressive as fertilizer production. The combination of dust, humidity, and chemical exposure accelerates corrosion and wear. Unprotected steel structures can begin to deteriorate within weeks if not properly treated. Reliable equipment design begins with the right surface preparation and coating system. Typical approaches include grit blasting, to achieve a

clean and roughened surface, followed by multiple coats of chemically resistant epoxy and a UV-stable polyurethane topcoat. Every exposed component, from fasteners to junction boxes, requires the same attention as the main structure. A strong focus on surface protection greatly extends the life of a fertilizer plant and reduces the need for unplanned maintenance. This is a key part of Bagtech International’s design philosophy, where protection against corrosion is treated with the same importance as electrical or mechanical safety.

Mechanical design that withstands real conditions

Mechanical reliability depends on more than material strength. It is about how loads are distributed, how components are aligned, and how wear is managed over time. Critical mechanical design principles include: n Ensuring even stress across hoppers, frames, and supports to prevent long-term fatigue. n Reducing dependency on precision alignment during installation to avoid cumulative errors. n Designing predictable wear paths with replaceable liners or components where abrasion is unavoidable.

Modular construction allows for easier transport, faster assembly, and simplified maintenance. In fertilizer plants, where throughput demands are high and shutdowns are costly, this type of mechanical foresight ensures consistent operation over years of service. Reliability in this context is not only about strength, but also about predictability. Equipment should behave the same way after 10 000 cycles as it did after 10.

The silent threat: EMI and electrical reliability

One of the least visible yet most damaging threats to reliability in modern fertilizer plants is electromagnetic interference (EMI). As automation has advanced, plants now rely on variable-speed drives, servo motors, load-cell weighing systems, and high-speed communication networks. These technologies bring precision, but also vulnerability. Electrical noise and stray currents can cause subtle and unpredictable problems, such as: n Fluctuating or unstable weight readings. n False signals in sensors or PLC inputs. n Unexplained shutdowns or drive faults. n Premature bearing wear caused by high-frequency currents. While corrosion weakens steel, EMI erodes electrical integrity. It can slowly degrade cables, connectors, bearings, and sensors, leading to faults that appear random but stem from the same underlying cause. To design against EMI, engineers must think in terms of current paths, shielding, and grounding, not just voltage or control logic. Effective mitigation strategies include: n Using shielded cables and ensuring proper bonding at one controlled point. n Physically separating power cables from low-voltage signal lines. n Installing ferrite cores or filters on drive outputs to limit high-frequency noise. n Ensuring all metallic structures are properly bonded to a common earth reference. Even the routing of conduits and the placement of junction boxes influence EMI behaviour. Reliability depends on viewing electrical design as an integrated system rather than a collection of individual devices. Bagtech International’s design teams treat EMI control as a primary reliability factor. Field data has repeatedly shown that noise management improves weighing stability, reduces motor maintenance, and prevents nuisance alarms. In short, electrical cleanliness is just as important as mechanical precision.

Automation and instrumentation for stable operation

Figure 1. EMC compliant electrical automation controls. 62 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Automation has transformed fertilizer blending and bagging by providing repeatable dosing accuracy, traceability, and safety interlocks. However, with increased automation comes increased dependence on signal integrity and communication reliability.

To achieve this, systems must be designed with: n Redundant measurements or smart diagnostic tools that can isolate faults. n Robust software filtering that smooths out electrical noise without delaying process response. n Clearly defined fail-safe conditions that allow the plant to stop safely during faults rather than abruptly. When control logic and instrumentation are engineered for resilience, operators can trust that readings, commands, and alarms represent real conditions, not electrical disturbances. This level of confidence is vital for both productivity and safety.

Figure 2. Newly designed corrosion resistant structure.

Maintenance-friendly design

No system remains reliable if it cannot be easily maintained. Design-formaintenance is a critical yet often underestimated discipline. The more accessible a component is, the more likely it will receive proper care. Examples include: n Positioning inspection panels where technicians can reach them safely. n Using standardised components and quick-release connectors to simplify replacements. n Designing modular sections that can be serviced individually while the rest of the plant remains operational.

Figure 3. Stainless steel electronic weld cleaning for corrosion. These small considerations accumulate into significant long-term reliability. Plants that are easy to inspect and repair tend to Predictive models based on operating history can identify remain in service longer and perform more consistently. abnormal patterns and alert operators to emerging issues such as bearing wear, cable fatigue, or electrical interference. Quality assurance and documentation When combined with cloud-based dashboards, these insights In modern engineering practice, documentation is a reliability turn into measurable data. tool. Every change, inspection, and test adds to the plant’s The ability to monitor equipment health remotely also memory. A well-documented system allows traceability when reduces travel and downtime, allowing service teams to focus issues occur and supports future upgrades or retrofits. only where attention is truly needed. Structured design reviews at multiple stages, material traceability, and factory testing before shipment all contribute Conclusion to reducing field risk. Quality gates ensure that reliability is not Reliable fertilizer plant design is achieved through foresight assumed but verified. and engineering discipline. It requires a deep understanding of At Bagtech International, this approach is embedded in environmental stress, electrical interference, and human ISO-aligned workflows, ensuring that lessons from one project interaction with equipment. strengthen the next. Reliable design is not a single event but Each bolt, cable, and circuit contributes to a system an evolving process of refinement. whose success depends on how well every part works together. The next stage: predictive reliability As the fertilizer industry continues to evolve, the most The next frontier in fertilizer plant reliability is predictive successful plants will not only produce efficiently, but will do analysis. With sensors now monitoring vibration, temperature, so consistently and safely for decades. In that sense, reliability and load trends in real time, it is possible to detect small is more than a technical goal. It is the foundation of deviations before they lead to failure. sustainable and responsible production. NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025 | WORLD FERTILIZER | 63

David Ranera, PAYPER, explores how to improve efficiency, precision, and quality when bagging fertilizers. he global fertilizer industry faces increasing challenges in a market where agricultural demand continues to grow, driven by the need to ensure food security worldwide. In this context, the fertilizer bagging process has become a critical stage in the production chain. A small error in weighing, poor sealing, or inadequate protection during transport can result in economic losses, customer complaints, and safety issues in the handling of these products. Furthermore, as the agricultural sector expands and the variety of crops increases, the demand for different fertilizer formulations grows, making precision and consistency in

bagging even more vital. This makes the bagging process not just a logistical necessity but a key factor in maintaining global food supply chains and sustaining agricultural productivity across regions.

Bagging: a key process in the fertilizer industry

Fertilizer, in its various formulations, requires precise and safe handling to ensure it reaches the market in optimal condition. Unlike other products, fertilizer has physical characteristics that can affect the bagging process, due to its density and particle size. In addition, proper bagging protects the environment and workers

by minimising dust emissions and potential chemical exposure, aligning the process with actual safety and environmental standards. Therefore, the bagging process has not only logistical implications, but also strategic ones, as it ensures that products maintain their properties and are not lost in transit. Well-designed bagging solutions enhance brand reputation and customer satisfaction by ensuring consistent quality, while reducing potential losses due to spills or damage during transport.

The challenges of bagging in the fertilizer industry

Bagging fertilizers presents unique challenges that must be addressed with specialised solutions in order to maintain product quality, ensure operational efficiency, and meet safety standards.

Product variability Fertilizers are not homogeneous; they vary in texture, size, and chemical composition, which means that each type of fertilizer requires a different approach. Some fertilizers, such as granules, have a higher density, while powdered fertilizers can generate dust, posing health and safety risks to operators. Managing these

differences requires adaptive machinery and process control that can handle diverse formulations without compromising efficiency. Selecting the correct equipment for each fertilizer type is critical to reduce downtime and avoid contamination. Variations in physical properties directly affect how fertilizers behave during bagging: some may flow too quickly or too slowly, while others may clog the filling system, making it essential to fine-tune bagging parameters for each product type.

Environmental conditions Handling fertilizers in environments with high humidity, dust, and extreme temperatures can affect both product quality and the machinery used. Bagging solutions must be designed to operate in these environments without compromising the accuracy or durability of the equipment. For instance, high humidity can lead to clumping in powdered fertilizers, while dusty conditions may accelerate wear on mechanical components if protective measures are not in place.

Traceability and regulatory compliance requirements Fertilizers, as products that directly affect agricultural production, are subject to strict regulations, especially in international markets. This requires highly accurate weighing and labelling systems that ensure regulatory compliance and enable traceability at all times. Traceability is not only a legal requirement but also a competitive advantage, allowing manufacturers to quickly address recalls or quality issues and strengthen customer confidence.

Advanced technology for fertilizer bagging

Fertilizer bagging has evolved significantly thanks to the integration of new technologies. Subsequently, companies like PAYPER have developed advanced solutions to address these challenges. The key to success in this field lies in the implementation of automated, accurate, and robust systems that adapt to the diverse characteristics of fertilizers and production conditions. These systems are designed to maintain consistency, improve efficiency, and reduce errors in the bagging process, ensuring that operations remain reliable and well-controlled.

Figure 1. PAYPER ASSAC F-20 stainless steel FFS bagging machine.

High-precision weighing control Accurate weighing of each bag is essential in the fertilizer industry, where margins of error can be costly. Weighing controllers, like PAYPER’s MSX, have the ability to operate with highly corrosive and dusty fertilizers, ensuring accuracy without compromising process efficiency. In addition, intuitive interfaces allow for real-time adjustments, optimising workflow and reducing operational errors. High-precision weighing ensures that each bag contains the exact amount required, which protects profit margins, prevents under or over-filling, and maintains compliance with labelling regulations. In large scale operations, even minor weighing errors can translate into substantial financial losses; making precise measurement is a critical competitive advantage.

Flexible and customised bagging solutions Figure 2. Fertilizers need tailored bagging solutions. 66 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

The fertilizer market is diverse, so bagging solutions must be able to adapt to different types of products.

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Equipment corrosion protection

Corrosion is a determining factor in the fertilizer industry due to the aggressive chemicals present in the products. PAYPER has implemented innovative solutions to mitigate this problem by using stainless steel in critical parts of its machines. This choice of materials not only extends the service life of the equipment, but also reduces maintenance costs and unplanned downtime, allowing plants to maintain a constant production rate. In addition, protective components and careful design contribute to the long-term reliability of the equipment, helping plants operate efficiently even under continuous, high-volume conditions.

Digitisation as a competitive advantage

The fertilizer industry is moving towards digitisation, and bagging is no exception. In this regard, PAYPER has developed PULSAR, an all-in-one digital platform that centralises the control and supervision of the entire bagging line. With this tool, operators can: n Anticipate potential failures in advance, due to the predictive maintenance system, recognising signs of wear at an early stage, planning maintenance tasks, among other things. n Quickly manage spare parts, from orders to inventory and deliveries. All from a single digital platform accessible from anywhere. n Receive immediate customer service with omnichannel support.

Figure 3. PAYPER double-gripper robotic palletiser. Open-mouth baggers, for example, are ideal for granular or fine powder fertilizers, with a throughput of up to 1800 bags per hour (45 tph). Form-fill-seal (FFS) bagging machines, on the other hand, allow for fast and efficient bagging of coarser fertilizers, reaching up to 2600 bags per hour (65 tph). In addition, valve bagging machines ensure an airtight seal that minimises dust emissions, with a productivity of up to 500 bags per hour per spout, up to four spouts in a row for 2000 bags per hour (50 tph). At the same time, the growing demand for big bags for bulk export should be met by well-designed filling stations, which reduce manual handling and facilitate the logistics of large volumes. Choosing the right bagging technology for each type of fertilizer and distribution channel is key to optimising performance. Rather than a one-size-fits-all solution, each system is tailored to the physical properties of the product, packaging format, and production targets. This targeted approach helps reduce operational issues such as dust, spillage, or product degradation, while ensuring efficiency and safety across the bagging line.

Optimising storage space with advanced palletising The palletising process is crucial to ensuring the stability of bags during transport and storage. A poorly formed pallet not only makes loading and unloading difficult, but can also compromise product safety. Companies should offer automated palletising solutions that optimise storage space and facilitate handling, improving logistics efficiency and reducing the risk of product damage. These solutions would help ensure consistent pallet formation, simplify handling, and reduce the risk of injury, which is particularly important in operations where pallets must be moved or transported over long distances.

68 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

Digitisation not only increases operational efficiency, but also opens the door to a model of predictive maintenance, resource optimisation, and data-driven decision-making. This not only improves operational efficiency, but also gives companies a competitive advantage in an increasingly demanding market. Digital monitoring and analytics also help manufacturers adapt quickly to shifts in demand, ensuring timely delivery to key markets and minimising waste.

Complete bagging lines and integrated solutions

One of the advantages of these solutions is the total integration of the bagging line. From dosing, weighing, and bag filling to palletising and final pallet protection, these solutions – made as a full liner – ensure that all stages of the process are perfectly synchronised. This integration allows plants to operate more efficiently, with less manual intervention and greater continuity in production, even under high demand conditions. Fully integrated lines also reduce the potential for human error, improve quality control, and facilitate faster response times when changes in production schedules are required.

Conclusion

The fertilizer bagging process is much more than just a simple stage in the production process: it is a crucial link that affects product quality, operational efficiency, and customer satisfaction. With advanced weighing, bagging, palletising, and pallet protection solutions, companies can ensure that their products reach the market in optimal condition. By integrating precision, automation, and digital oversight, companies such as PAYPER, can ensure that every bag leaving the production line reflects the highest standards of accuracy and safety, ultimately contributing to global food security and sustainable agricultural practices.

Giulia Sporchia and Elisa Brocca, Cannon Artes S.p.a, Italy, examine the importance of the role of water in sustainable ammonia production. raditional ammonia (NH3) production is associated with a large environmental impact because of the related emissions and the water consumption. Cannon Artes’ experience in water treatment for ammonia-producing facilities enabled an evaluation of the water impact typically associated with this process. As outlined in the April 2025 issue of World Fertilizer, grey ammonia production requires approximately 18 t of water per tonne of NH3 (divided into demineralised water, cooling water, and utilities water) and generates more than 2 t of CO2 per tonne of NH3. Blue ammonia and

green ammonia are valid alternatives for reducing CO2 emissions. However, their impact remains relevant in terms of water use. Focusing on blue ammonia, increasingly becoming adopted in new fertilizer production facilities, it is possible to evaluate the additional water demand, as well as the wastewater generated per tonne of CO2 captured.

Overview of blue ammonia production

Blue ammonia production consists of adding a carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology to conventional Haber-Bosch synthesis. With the conventional (grey) ammonia production process, CO2 is emitted from two main streams, which can both be targeted with CCS: n Process CO 2 from syngas: formed during steam methane reforming (SMR) as: CH4 + 2H2O → CO2 + 4H2 n CO 2 from flue gas: resulting from burning natural gas, necessary for energy production. CCS is commonly carried out with an amine-based solvent absorption, a process where water plays a crucial role for both the desired intake and the wastewater treatment requirements.

Table 1. Cooling water requirements Compound

Concentration

Turbidity

5 NTU

TSS

5 ppm

Salinity

50 - 500 ppm

TOC

1 ppm

Figure 1. Main water contributions to the CCS process.

70 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025

The amine absorption-based carbon capture process (Figure 1) is composed of the following main steps: n Direct contact cooler: a packed column in which gas (syngas/flue gas) is put into direct contact with cooling water. The gas is cooled to remove excess heat and water vapour. n CO2 absorber tower: the absorber is where CO 2 in its gas phase is absorbed into an aqueous amine solution. n Stripper for amine regeneration: the regenerator following the cross-exchanger is where, thanks to the exchanged heat, CO 2 gets separated from the sorbent, leaving the reusable stream behind. n Solvent reclaiming: this step is necessary to remove amine degradation products and limit impurities before recirculating the stream back to the absorber. n CO2 dehydration: removing moisture from the CO 2 stream helps limit corrosion in the pipelines and meet CO2 requirements. Commonly, this step is done using a glycol absorbent system such as triethylene glycol (TEG). The scheme (Figure 1) highlights the main inlet water requirements and the main wastewater streams – needing treatment – involved in the plant. The following sections analyse, in more detail, the single streams and the related required treatments.

Water requirements in each process step

As shown in Figure 1, the main water streams required in the CCS process are: cooling water for the direct contact cooler (DCC), wash water for the CO2 absorber tower, water for steam used in stripping, and cooling water for exchangers. Depending on different specific technologies, the total

amount of required water varies between 2 - 5 t per tonne of CO2 captured.

Table 2. Demi water requirements Compound

Concentration

Cooling water for DCC

Conductivity

0.1 - 0.5 μS/cm

The first step of a carbon capture system involves cooling the gases generated by the process to improve CO2 absorption into the amine sorbent, limit sorbent losses and reduce loss of moisture with the exhaust gases. This is accomplished by installing a DCC. The water involved in the cooling process should be low in suspended solids and organic matter and should not include high concentrations of dissolved ions. Depending on the chosen technology, water consumption usually varies between 1.5 and 2.5 t of water per tonne of CO2 captured. Table 1 outlines the typical water quality requirement for this stream type. Accordingly, producing cooling water from a fresh-water source can involve treatments like coagulation, filtration and, in case of high salinity, single-pass reverse osmosis.

Sodium

10 - 50 ppb

Silica

10 - 50 ppb

Wash water for CO2 absorber tower

Once the flue gas temperature has been lowered, this stream is sent to the absorber, where it makes contact with the amine-based sorbent. In the tower the amine solution absorbs CO2, and demi water is used as wash water to rinse the flue gas to remove other impurities. In this case, the water requirement is more stringent than that of cooling water makeup. Not only it is required to remove suspended solids and organics present, but also to achieve low levels of dissolved solids, reaching demineralised water quality. The wash water requirement is often in the range of 0.2 - 0.6 t of water per tonne of CO2 captured. A typical characterisation of a demi water stream is displayed in Table 2. For this reason, the treatment train described for cooling water makeup should be followed by a reverse osmosis and an electrodeionisation (EDI) to polish the water to low conductivity values.

Water for steam in amine regeneration The amine-rich stream should be regenerated in the solvent reclaiming section for it to be reused. This step requires using steam, which is obtained from demineralised water. If this stream cannot be obtained from water reuse inside the plant, producing it involves the same treatments already described for wash water in the absorber tower, and the water quality reference can be seen in Table 2. This stream is often associated with a requirement of around 0.5 - 1.5 t of water per tonne of CO2.

Cooling water makeup One last contribution to the plant’s water requirements is that of cooling water makeup. Cooling water is required in different parts of the process, as highlighted in Figure 1. The water quality required for these streams should have limited salinity and no suspended solids. For this reason, a typical process train may be the same one described for DCC cooling water.

Table 3. Typical DCC condensate characterisation Compound

Concentration

Ammonia

5 - 50 ppm

CO2

10 - 30 ppm

Methanol

10 - 70 ppm

Formic Acid

5 - 50 ppm

Wastewater streams and treatment

The carbon capture process generates additional wastewater streams compared to grey ammonia production. Defining them is necessary for determining how to deal with these streams during disposal or, whenever possible, reuse. As shown in Figure 1, the main wastewater streams are condensate streams from DCC, water from stripper systems (purge water and excess water) and TEG waste water.

Condensate stream from DCC This stream is the primary source of wastewater generated and is a continuous stream. The condensate quality depends on impurities in the inlet gas and any chemical that might be added prior to the treatment with DCC. Ammonia is used to remove NOx in a selective catalytic reduction (SCR), so it is often found in this stream. CO2 will also be present in the condensate stream as HCO3, CO3 or CO2, depending on pH. An example of a typical DCC condensate characterisation is shown in Table 3. The suggested treatment train for this stream depends on the use that is desired. If the objective is simply to discharge the water, a general treatment might involve removing TSS (for example through filtration), followed by removing ammonia and pH adjustment. Ammonia removal can be achieved through different technologies depending on the inlet concentration and the stream’s flow rate. Depending on the concentration to be removed, some available possibilities are breakpoint chlorination, biological treatment, ammonia stripping, or using a membrane contactor. Membrane contactors are a valid technology for ammonia removal. The process is based on transmembrane chemisorption. In particular, feedwater is kept at a high pH to ensure that all ammonium ions are converted to gaseous ammonia (NH3). The wastewater flows in the outside of the fibre while a sulfuric acid solution flows counter-current of the hollow fibre. This process results in the gaseous NH3 transferring through the membrane, leading to the removal of NH3 from the wastewater and the formation of an ammonium sulfate solution as a by-product. NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2025 | WORLD FERTILIZER | 71

Table 4. Typical stripper wastewater characterisation Compound

Concentration

Amines (dimethylamine, methylamine)

5 - 100 ppm

CO2

Saturated

Table 5. Typical TEG wastewater characterisation Compound

Concentration

TEG

50 000 ppm

Stripper wastewater As previously described, the amine reclaiming system is used to prevent impurities from building up in the system. Furthermore, excess water coming from the reflux drum is generated in this step. A typical characterisation of these streams can be found in Table 4. This stream’s treatment depends on the concentration and on the design philosophy of each plant. Depending on the case, it might be possible to have a biological process or to use ion exchange resins.

TEG wastewater TEG is typically utilised to dehydrate the carbon dioxide stream. A full analysis including all the impurities that may be in the TEG wastewater stream is often not available, making it difficult to determine the suitability of various technologies to handle all the different present impurities. The basis of the analysis is provided in Table 5.

Reuse opportunities

Opportunities for reuse in these types of plants are interesting to both limit the inlet requirements and, at the same time, decrease the generated effluent. The main possibilities for reuse concern the DCC condensate stream. DCC condensate, the most abundant and continuous stream generated from the package, can be reused in different parts of the plant depending on the technologies used for its treatment. For instance, recycling it as cooling tower makeup water involves removing TSS, ammonia, and a pH adjustment step; using this stream as boiler makeup water demands, in addition, the complete removal of the present TDS with reverse osmosis or ion exchange process. In this case, a further pH adjustment or a temperature regulation might also be needed.

Conclusion

Switching to blue ammonia mitigates the CO2 emissions linked to conventional production, contributing to the plant’s sustainability. However, the water impact of a carbon capture system should be carefully evaluated. Carbon capture not only requires significant amounts of water for cooling, absorption, and solvent regeneration, but also generates multiple wastewater streams. Water treatment becomes, therefore, fundamental in the journey towards a more sustainable ammonia production. Not only does it ensure compliance with quality requirements, but also allows re-utilisation of waste streams in the plant, decreasing the amount needing disposal and limiting the requirement for inlet raw water.

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