16LIVES THOMAS CLARKE
Helen Litton
16LIVES Timeline
1884, November 1. The Gaelic Athletic Association founded – immediately infiltrated by the Irish
1845–51. The Great Hunger in
Republican Brotherhood (IRB).
Ireland. One million people die and over the next decades millions
1893, July 31. Gaelic League founded by Douglas Hyde and
more emigrate.
Eoin MacNeill. The Gaelic Revival, 1858, March
17. The Irish
Republican Brotherhood, or Fenians, are formed with the express
a period of Irish Nationalism, pride in the language, history, culture and sport.
intention of overthrowing British rule in Ireland by whatever means necessary.
1900, September. Cumann na nGaedheal (Irish Council) founded by Arthur Griffith.
1867, February and March. Fenian Uprising.
1905–07. Cumann na nGaedheal, the Dungannon Clubs and the
1870, May. Home Rule movement founded by Isaac Butt, who
National Council are amalgamated to form Sinn Féin (We Ourselves).
had previously campaigned for amnesty for Fenian prisoners.
1909, August. Countess Markievicz and Bulmer Hobson organ-
1879–81. The Land War. Violent agrarian agitation against English landlords.
ise nationalist youths into Na Fianna Éireann (Warriors of Ireland) a kind of boy scout brigade.
1912, April. Asquith introduces
1913, November 23. James Con-
the Third Home Rule Bill to
nolly, Jack White and Jim Larkin
the British Parliament. Passed by
establish the Irish Citizen Army
the Commons and rejected by
(ICA) in order to protect strikers.
the Lords, the Bill would have to become law due to the Parliament
1913, November 25. The Irish
Act. Home Rule expected to be
Volunteers founded in Dublin
introduced for Ireland by autumn
to ‘secure the rights and liber-
1914.
ties common to all the people of Ireland’.
1913, January. Sir Edward Carson and James Craig set up Ulster
1914, March 20. Resignations
Volunteer Force (UVF) with the
of British officers force British
intention of defending Ulster
government not to use British
against Home Rule.
army to enforce Home Rule, an event known as the ‘Curragh
1913. Jim Larkin, founder of the
Mutiny’.
Irish Transport and General Workers’ Union (ITGWU) calls for a
1914, April 2. In Dublin, Agnes
workers’ strike for better pay and
O’Farrelly,
conditions.
Countess Markievicz and others
Mary
MacSwiney,
establish Cumann na mBan as a 1913, August 31. Jim Larkin
women’s volunteer force dedicated
speaks at a banned rally on Sack-
to establishing Irish freedom and
ville (O’Connell) Street; Bloody
assisting the Irish Volunteers.
Sunday.
170,000
1914, April 24. A shipment of
1914,
35,000 rifles and five million
leave the Volunteers and form the
rounds of ammunition is landed at
National Volunteers or Redmon-
Larne for the UVF.
dites. Only 11,000 remain as the
September.
Irish Volunteers under Eóin Mac1914, July 26. Irish Volunteers
Neill.
unload a shipment of 900 rifles and 45,000 rounds of ammunition
1915, May–September. Military
shipped from Germany aboard
Council of the IRB is formed.
Erskine Childers’ yacht, the Asgard. British troops fire on crowd on
1915, August 1. Pearse gives fiery
Bachelors Walk, Dublin. Three citi-
oration at the funeral of Jeremiah
zens are killed.
O’Donovan Rossa.
1914, August 4. Britain declares
1916, January
war on Germany. Home Rule for
Connolly joins the IRB Mili-
Ireland shelved for the duration of
tary Council, thus ensuring that
the First World War.
the ICA shall be involved in the
19–22. James
Rising. Rising date confirmed for 1914, September 9. Meeting
Easter.
held at Gaelic League headquarters between IRB and other extreme
1916, April 20, 4.15pm. The
republicans. Initial decision made
Aud arrives at Tralee Bay, laden
to stage an uprising while Britain
with 20,000 German rifles for the
is at war.
Rising. Captain Karl Spindler waits in vain for a signal from shore.
1916, April 21, 2.15am. Roger
for twenty-four hours. Hundreds
Casement and his two companions
of copies of The Proclamation of
go ashore from U-19 and land on
the Republic are printed in Liberty
Banna Strand. Casement is arrested
Hall.
at McKenna’s Fort. 1916, April 24, 12 noon, Easter 6.30pm. The Aud is captured by
Monday. The Rising begins in
the British navy and forced to sail
Dublin.
towards Cork Harbour. 22 April, 9.30am. The Aud is scuttled by her captain off Daunt’s Rock. 10pm. Eóin MacNeill as chief-ofstaff of the Irish Volunteers issues the countermanding order in Dublin to try to stop the Rising. 1916, April 23, 9am, Easter Sunday. The Military Council meets to discuss the situation, considering MacNeill has placed an advertisement in a Sunday newspaper halting all Volunteer operations. The Rising is put on hold
16LIVESMAP
16LIVES - Series Introduction
T
his book is part of a series called 16 LIVES, conceived with the objective of recording for posterity the lives of the sixteen men who were executed after the 1916 Easter Rising. Who were these people and what drove them to commit themselves to violent revolution? The rank and file as well as the leadership were all from diverse backgrounds. Some were privileged and some had no material wealth. Some were highly educated writers, poets or teachers and others had little formal schooling. Their common desire, to set Ireland on the road to national freedom, united them under the one banner of the army of the Irish Republic. They occupied key buildings in Dublin and around Ireland for one week before they were forced to surrender. The leaders were singled out for harsh treatment and all sixteen men were executed for their role in the Rising. Meticulously researched yet written in an accessible fashion, the 16 LIVES biographies can be read as individual volumes but together they make a highly collectible series. Lorcan Collins & Dr Ruån O’Donnell, 16 Lives Series Editors
CONTENTS 1. The Early Years 1858-83
15
2. Prisoner Number J464 1883-98 40 3. Freedom and Family 1898-1907 64 4. Shopkeeper and Republican 1908-14 96 5. Planning a Rebellion 1914-15 121 6. The Easter Rising 141 7. Endgame and After 186 Epilogue 212 Notes 227 Bibliography 245 Index 250
14
Chapter One
The Early Years 1858-83
‘I
n a sense, Tom Clarke is a man of one small book, a few letters, and his signature in the 1916 Proclamation.’ This remark by historian Desmond Ryan (who had fought in the GPO) sums up the public image of Tom Clarke.1 A born conspirator, always behind the scenes, Clarke was overshadowed in Easter Rising legend by more charismatic and eloquent figures such as Patrick Pearse, James Connolly and Joseph Plunkett. In recent years new material has become available, and deeper research has begun to alter received ideas about this unassuming-looking man, and to emphasise his absolutely central role in the history of the Rising and the years leading up to it. Tom Clarke had a somewhat unusual background for an Irish revolutionary, who was to become one of Ireland’s most celebrated rebel leaders. English-born, he had a father whose career was spent in the British Army, and who 15
16 LIVES: THOMAS CLARKE wanted his son to follow suit. Tom’s father James, from Errew townland, Carrigallen, County Leitrim, was born in 1830 to James Clarke (or Clerkin), who shared a small farm with his brother Owen, although in his son’s marriage certificate James senior is described as a ‘labourer’. The family was Protestant. When James the younger left school, he worked as a groom, then enlisted as a cavalry soldier on 4 December 1847 in Ballyshannon, County Donegal. His age was given as 17 years and 11 months; he was just under proper age for the army – eighteen – so his first month of service was not counted towards the final total on his discharge.2 He had decided on an army career during the worst years of the Great Famine, when opportunities of employment were few, and a small farm would not have supported a family; his experience with horses made the cavalry a suitable choice for him. James’s regiment was sent to join the Crimean War (18536), in which the English, French and Turks united to fight Russia. This war is mostly remembered now for the Charge of the Light Brigade, and the development of Florence Nightingale’s theories of nursing care. According to his military record, James saw action at the famous battles of Alma, Balaklava and Inkerman in 1854, and the year-long siege of Sebastopol (September 1854-September 1855). He received a medal for the Crimean War, with ‘clasps’ for the three battles and the siege. 16
The Early Years He was later garrisoned in Clonmel, County Tipperary, probably on his return from the Crimean War. Here he met Mary Palmer, from Clogheen, and although she was a Catholic, they were married on 31 May 1857 at Shanrahan Church of Ireland parish church, County Tipperary.The marriage record describes her as ‘of full age’ (meaning over 21); her father was Michael Palmer, a labourer.3 Her mother’s maiden name was Kew, and she had obviously been very well-known in her community. According to some anonymous ‘notes’ for a life of Tom Clarke, Mrs Palmer’s funeral in the 1880s (in either Clonmel or Clogheen) was a big public occasion, and she was the first woman waked in the local Catholic church.4 Soon after the marriage James was transferred to Hurst Castle, Hampshire, England, and here their first child,Thomas James Clarke, was born, on 11 March 1858.5 He was baptised a Catholic; the couple obviously came to some agreement on this, or perhaps James was not too concerned about such matters. Catholics marrying Protestants were obliged to rear their children as Catholics. James must have left the cavalry, because he was now promoted to Bombardier (the lowest rank of non-commissioned officer) in the Royal Artillery in October 1857. He was promoted further, to Corporal, in 1859, and transferred to the 12th Brigade of the Royal Regiment of Artillery. On 9 April 1859, he was sent to South Africa. According to Louis 17
16 LIVES: THOMAS CLARKE Le Roux, who wrote the first authorised biography of Tom Clarke, the little family ‘narrowly escaped drowning during the voyage when the ship on which they were travelling became involved in a serious collision’.6 A note among the Clarke Papers in the National Library of Ireland says that it was a collision with a coal boat.7 The family spent almost six years in South Africa, in various garrisons.The English and the Dutch South Africans (Boers) had been at loggerheads over the ownership of the province since the late 18th century, as it was an important stop on the trade-routes from Europe to India. The Clarke family was living in Natal when Tom’s sister, Maria Jane, was born on 23 December 1859, and young Tom began attending school there. Natal, annexed by the British from the Boers in 1845, had been separated from the colony in 1856, and granted its own autonomous institutions. It was later one of the four provinces of the Union of South Africa, established in 1910. James was promoted to Battery Sergeant at the end of 1859, in the Cape of Good Hope. He then re-engaged himself for a period of nine years, starting on 21 March 1860. He and his family returned to Ireland in March 1865, and James was appointed Sergeant of the Ulster Militia. Its headquarters were in Charlemont Castle, County Tyrone. As the barracks accommodation was inadequate to house a growing family, the family moved into Anne Street in Dungannon, the nearby town. 18
The Early Years A son, Michael, was born to James and Mary Clarke, in Clogheen, County Tipperary, Mary’s native place, on 9 May 1865. The birth was registered by Bridget Palmer. His father is described as a soldier, ‘resident in Portsmouth’. Mary, who must have travelled from South Africa while pregnant, had probably gone to stay with her family while James, temporarily based in England, arranged the move to Dungannon. Michael must not have lived very long, as he is not part of the family history, but no official record of his death can be found. James and Mary’s second daughter, Hannah Palmer Clarke, was born in Dungannon on 24 August 1868, and on 26 December of that year James Clarke, Soldier No. 694, claimed his discharge from army service. The record states, ‘Discharge proposed in consequence of his having claimed it on termination of his second period of limited engagement’. James had served for 21 years and nine days, and his discharge was approved, and carried out at Gosport. On 12 January 1869, he was admitted as an out-pensioner of the Royal Hospital, Chelsea, London, aged 39, on a pension of one shilling and 11 pence per day. This was later increased to two shillings and eight pence per day. He is described in his discharge papers as of swarthy complexion, with dark eyes and hair, with no marks or scars, and 5 feet 7 and a half inches in height. The papers note that his behaviour has been ‘Very Good’. He had two Good Con19
16 LIVES: THOMAS CLARKE duct Badges before his first promotion to Bombardier; he had no entries in the regimental ‘Defaulters’ Book’, and had never been tried by court martial.8 The day after his discharge, 13 January, his records state that he was appointed a Sergeant on the permanent staff of the 6th Brigade, Northern Ireland Division, and the family remained in Dungannon. 9 Here Alfred Edward was born, on 24 May 1870, in Anne Street. James is described as ‘Sergeant, Tyrone Artillery’. A further birth took place, that of Joseph George, on 16 November 1874; the family was now living in Northland Row. Sadly, Joseph George died on 22 November, having suffered convulsions. His death was registered by James Clarke.10 Tom Clarke was eight years old when his family came to Dungannon, and thus spent almost all of his formative years in the town. A bright boy, he attended St Patrick’s National School. His first teacher was Francis Daly, followed by Cornelius Collins, who employed Tom as an assistant teacher or ‘monitor’. Le Roux says this continued until the school closed in 1881, but Tom had left for the USA in 1880.11 Tom was restless and energetic, and it seemed unlikely that he would remain a schoolteacher for long. A later witness statement says that he failed to move higher than a monitor when he refused to teach Catechism on Sunday mornings. ‘He had no objection to teaching Catechism, but reckoned that Sunday was not included in a teacher’s working week.’12 20
The Early Years Tom’s best friend was William or Billy Kelly, who assisted Louis Le Roux with his biography of Tom, and also left his own memoir.13 Dungannon, a linen and brickmaking town with a population of about 4,000 in 1881, provided a microcosm of social conditions in Ulster. 14 The industries were owned and run by Protestants, and employment for Catholics was limited. There was a clear demarcation between the prosperous homes of Protestants, and the areas where Catholics lived in dreadful conditions, in mud cabins outside the town or tenements within it, and where tuberculosis was rife. Riots between Catholics and Protestants were frequent, when one side would attack the other’s parades or religious processions. The town had been a focus of reform activity in February 1782, when the Dungannon Convention took place. This gathering of delegates from Volunteer militia corps was looking for parliamentary reform, and drew up a list of demands for government, the ‘Dungannon Resolutions’. The delegates were mostly Protestant, but the thirteenth resolution welcomed a recent relaxation in the Penal Laws which had given more legal rights to Catholics. This movement ultimately led to the establishment, in April 1782, of an independent parliament for Ireland, known as ‘Grattan’s Parliament’. Dungannon’s contribution to legislative freedom made it a gathering-point for local nationalist activity during the nineteenth century. The Fenians or Irish Repub21
16 LIVES: THOMAS CLARKE lican Brotherhood (IRB) were reorganising and recruiting after two abortive rebellions in 1865 and 1867, and Dungannon had its own District Circle of the IRB. Tom Clarke, witnessing the inequality and discrimination around him, came to the conclusion that British rule was destroying Ireland, and must be cast off. He was drawn more and more to republicanism, and rejected his father’s plan that he should join the British Army. James Clarke, according to Le Roux, ‘regarded the British Army with superstitious awe, as an unconquerable force, and as the guardian of an unique civilization’. Another statement says that Tom’s father had told him he would be knocking against a stone wall if he tried to fight Britain. ‘Tom Clarke said he would knock away in the hope that some day the wall would give, and in that he forecast the life of poverty, endurance, hardship and singlemindedness that was to be his.’15 The Dungannon District Circle of the IRB met under cover of the Catholic and Total Abstinence Reading Rooms and Dramatic Club. Tom was an active member of this club, but not yet a member of the IRB, when in 1878, when Tom was twenty-one years old, Dungannon was visited by John Daly. Daly, from Limerick, had taken part in the Fenian rising of 1867, and subsequently escaped to America, returning to Ireland in 1869 as a full-time IRB organiser.The IRB was growing, and would soon be an important force within the Land League, the movement for land reform. It would 22
The Early Years also have some dealings with the Irish Parliamentary Party and its leader, Charles Stewart Parnell. By the mid-1880s it had almost 40,000 members, and 10,000 firearms. Daly addressed the local IRB groups on Drumco Hill, outside the town. Tom was greatly impressed by him, and resolved to join the IRB. According to Louis Le Roux, he did so in 1882 when, his teaching career having ended, he travelled to Dublin with Billy Kelly and Louis McMullen, his closest friends. The O’Connell Monument, a massive statue to honour Daniel O’Connell, the nineteenth-century lawyer and politician who had espoused non-violent politics and achieved Catholic Emancipation, was to be unveiled in Sackville Street (now O’Connell Street) with great ceremony. On August 14, the day before the unveiling, says Le Roux, John Daly swore Tom Clarke, Billy Kelly and four others from Dungannon into the IRB. This story cannot be correct; when the O’Connell Monument was unveiled in 1882,Tom and his friends had already been in America for two years. They probably travelled to Dublin in 1879 or 1880, and were sworn into the IRB at that time. Billy Kelly does describe them as travelling for the O’Connell Monument unveiling, but he gives the date of this trip as 1879, and says they met John Daly and Michael Davitt, an ex-IRB man who devoted himself to the cause of land reform. They travelled to Dublin as members of the Reading 23
16 LIVES: THOMAS CLARKE Rooms and Dramatic Club, which had organised the excursion. Tom seems to have been quite active on the drama side of the club: ‘The fame of his performance as “Danny Boy” in Dion Boucicault’s “Colleen Bawn” reached Dublin, and Tom refused an invitation by Hubert O’Grady, then a famous actor-manager, to join his touring company’.16 But Tom’s interests lay elsewhere; he was appointed First District Secretary of the Dungannon IRB Circle soon after joining it.The Dramatic Club probably served as a good cover for his activities; his father would undoubtedly have disapproved of them, and might even have betrayed him. Tom later laughed over his efforts at acting; he never took it very seriously, but much of his later life required him to act the part of a harmless little shopkeeper, and he did it very successfully.17 John Daly, who travelled Ireland advising and encouraging IRB groups under cover of being a commercial traveller, visited Dungannon again, probably in 1879. He advised the Tyrone IRB on drilling, training and arming, so that they could defend themselves and others against the activities of the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC). A defining moment in Tom Clarke’s life took place in a sectarian context, when a Catholic ‘Lady Day’ parade, celebrating the Feast of the Assumption, took place on 15 August 1880.The parade was attacked by a crowd of Protestants, and stones were thrown at the RIC. The Riot Act was read, and the police then opened fire on the crowd with live ammu24