16LIVES ROGER CASEMENT
Angus Mitchell
16LIVES Timeline
1884, November 1. The Gaelic Athletic Association founded – immediately infiltrated by the Irish
1845–51. The Great Hunger in
Republican Brotherhood (IRB).
Ireland. One million people die and over the next decades millions
1893, July 31. Gaelic League founded by Douglas Hyde and
more emigrate.
Eoin MacNeill. The Gaelic Revival, 1858, March
17. The Irish
Republican Brotherhood, or Fenians, are formed with the express
a period of Irish Nationalism, pride in the language, history, culture and sport.
intention of overthrowing British rule in Ireland by whatever means necessary.
1900, September. Cumann na nGaedheal (Irish Council) founded by Arthur Griffith.
1867, February and March. Fenian Uprising.
1905–07. Cumann na nGaedheal, the Dungannon Clubs and the
1870, May. Home Rule movement founded by Isaac Butt, who
National Council are amalgamated to form Sinn Féin (We Ourselves).
had previously campaigned for amnesty for Fenian prisoners.
1909, August. Countess Markievicz and Bulmer Hobson organ-
1879–81. The Land War. Violent agrarian agitation against English landlords.
ise nationalist youths into Na Fianna Éireann (Warriors of Ireland) a kind of boy scout brigade.
1912, April. Asquith introduces
1913, November 23. James Con-
the Third Home Rule Bill to
nolly, Jack White and Jim Larkin
the British Parliament. Passed by
establish the Irish Citizen Army
the Commons and rejected by
(ICA) in order to protect strikers.
the Lords, the Bill would have to become law due to the Parliament
1913, November 25. The Irish
Act. Home Rule expected to be
Volunteers founded in Dublin
introduced for Ireland by autumn
to ‘secure the rights and liber-
1914.
ties common to all the people of Ireland’.
1913, January. Sir Edward Carson and James Craig set up Ulster
1914, March 20. Resignations
Volunteer Force (UVF) with the
of British officers force British
intention of defending Ulster
government not to use British
against Home Rule.
army to enforce Home Rule, an event known as the ‘Curragh
1913. Jim Larkin, founder of the
Mutiny’.
Irish Transport and General Workers’ Union (ITGWU) calls for a
1914, April 2. In Dublin, Agnes
workers’ strike for better pay and
O’Farrelly,
conditions.
Countess Markievicz and others
Mary
MacSwiney,
establish Cumann na mBan as a 1913, August 31. Jim Larkin
women’s volunteer force dedicated
speaks at a banned rally on Sack-
to establishing Irish freedom and
ville (O’Connell) Street; Bloody
assisting the Irish Volunteers.
Sunday.
170,000
1914, April 24. A shipment of
1914,
35,000 rifles and five million
leave the Volunteers and form the
rounds of ammunition is landed at
National Volunteers or Redmon-
Larne for the UVF.
dites. Only 11,000 remain as the
September.
Irish Volunteers under Eoin Mac1914, July 26. Irish Volunteers
Neill.
unload a shipment of 900 rifles and 45,000 rounds of ammunition
1915, May–September. Military
shipped from Germany aboard
Council of the IRB is formed.
Erskine Childers’ yacht, the Asgard. British troops fire on crowd on
1915, August 1. Pearse gives fiery
Bachelors Walk, Dublin. Three citi-
oration at the funeral of Jeremiah
zens are killed.
O’Donovan Rossa.
1914, August 4. Britain declares
1916, January
war on Germany. Home Rule for
Connolly joins the IRB Mili-
Ireland shelved for the duration of
tary Council, thus ensuring that
the First World War.
the ICA shall be involved in the
19–22. James
Rising. Rising date confirmed for 1914, September 9. Meeting
Easter.
held at Gaelic League headquarters between IRB and other extreme
1916, April 20, 4.15pm. The
republicans. Initial decision made
Aud arrives at Tralee Bay, laden
to stage an uprising while Britain
with 20,000 German rifles for the
is at war.
Rising. Captain Karl Spindler waits in vain for a signal from shore.
1916, April 21, 2.15am. Roger
for twenty-four hours. Hundreds
Casement and his two companions
of copies of The Proclamation of
go ashore from U-19 and land on
the Republic are printed in Liberty
Banna Strand. Casement is arrested
Hall.
at McKenna’s Fort. 1916, April 24, 12 noon, Easter 6.30pm. The Aud is captured by
Monday. The Rising begins in
the British navy and forced to sail
Dublin.
towards Cork Harbour. 22 April, 9.30am. The Aud is scuttled by her captain off Daunt’s Rock. 10pm. Eóin MacNeill as chief-ofstaff of the Irish Volunteers issues the countermanding order in Dublin to try to stop the Rising. 1916, April 23, 9am, Easter Sunday. The Military Council meets to discuss the situation, considering MacNeill has placed an advertisement in a Sunday newspaper halting all Volunteer operations. The Rising is put on hold
16LIVESMAPS
South America
The Congo Free State (1903)
CONTENTS
Introduction 15
1
1864-1883 Nomadic Upbringing
21
2
1884-1898 African Roots
35
3
1899-1902 Congo Consulate
65
4
1903-1904 Heart of Darkness
88
5
1904-1913 The Congo Reform Association
102
6
1906-1913 South America
128
7
1905-1913 Building an Irish Network
154
8
1913-1914 Raising and Arming the Irish Volunteers
173
9
1914 America
205
10
October 1914-April 1916 Imperial Germany
226
11
April-June 1916 Capture and Trial
267
12
July-August 1916 Appeal and Execution
314
13
1916-2016 History as Mystery: An Inside Story
351
Appendix
The Far-Extended Baleful Power of the Lie
374
Bibliography 387
Endnotes 390
Index 407
Introduction
T
he death of Roger Casement after a lengthy trial for treason closed the tragic events of the 1916 Easter Rising. In the eyes of the British authorities, Casement’s revolutionary turn was particularly loathsome because of his long and distinguished career as British consul in Africa and South America. For his service to the Crown, and his courage and integrity while carrying out investigations into crimes against humanity, he received a knighthood in 1911. During the course of his career he had corresponded with and influenced many of the leading statesmen of his age. For many years he operated inside the system and tried to bring about reform from within; when that failed, he emerged as its fiercest critic. Casement’s extraordinary and somewhat enigmatic life has intrigued a succession of journalists, authors and historians. His meaning has never been easy to discern because, as both Foreign Office trouble-shooter and Irish revolutionary nationalist, he operated between two diametrically-opposed spaces of secrecy. Although he left behind an extensive and at times labyrinthine paper-trail, in which the paradoxes underlying his dual existence as government official and revolutionary can be perceived, the ‘truth’ about Roger Casement 15
16 LIVES: ROGER CASEMENT remains deeply contested. But truth and history are not always compatible. One early chronicler of the War of Independence, Shaw Desmond, wrote of Casement: ‘Look well upon this man, because he carried in himself the whole story of Ireland. Learn the secret of this man and you have learnt the secret of Ireland.’1 What secret about both the man and Ireland did he mean? Was it what Éamon de Valera alluded to in 1934 when he commented: ‘No writer outside Ireland, however competent, who had not the closest contact with events in this country during the years preceding and following the Rising of 1916 could hope to do justice to the character and achievements of this great man … a further period of time must elapse before the full extent of Casement’s sacrifice can be understood and appreciated outside Ireland.’2 This biography attempts to unpick and explain the achievements of Casement by probing some of the interlinking secrets and conspiracies that have made him perplexing to historians. A century has elapsed since he openly turned from British official into Irish rebel leader, and we can now assess Casement in the light of much new evidence, including a box of material released as recently as 22 December 2012 by the National Library of Ireland. The veil of mystery has been lifted as far as it is ever likely to be, especially on the clandestine dimension of British state secrecy and Casement’s role as a consular representative of the Foreign Office. 16
Introduction In the last sixty years, much of the scholarship and journalism about Casement has been framed by the controversy over the authenticity of the Black Diaries. These shadowy documents, purportedly written by Casement and containing explicit evidence of homosexuality, were used during his trial by the British secret services as part of a coordinated campaign to discredit him and deter his allies from seeking a reprieve from the death sentence. After 1916, their very existence was denied until they were published in 1959 in Paris (at that time publication in Britain would have contravened the Official Secrets Act). While there is a fascinating sexual dimension to Casement’s interpretation, there has been a reluctance to assess the Black Diaries within their proper historical context: either as valid sources for analysing his investigation of crimes against humanity, or as components in a bitter propaganda attempt to undermine his moral authority as a whistle-blower and to demean his intervention in the struggle for Irish independence. In the century since his death, an often violent war of words has been fought over these documents, with various political and academic reputations resting on the question of their authenticity. Casement’s wider concerns about the fate of humanity and his relevance to modern Ireland have been conveniently obscured by an enduring and ultimately pointless anxiety about his sexuality. My own scholarship preceding the publication of this book has argued that the Black 17
16 LIVES: ROGER CASEMENT Diaries are indeed forgeries and with this biography I build on that over-arching argument. The ongoing debate over Casement’s meaning (the subject of the last chapter of this book) offers insight into why history matters and why the stakes involved in some aspects of historical representation are necessarily high. Casement’s life and death requires us to ask searching questions about the 1916 Rising and the last hundred years of Anglo-Irish relations. However, his legacy also obliges us to think about the ethics of international trade, slavery and his relevance to the modern discourse of human rights. More problematically, his flight to Germany in 1914 and the justification of his self-confessed treason sets us off down the thorny path of discussion on the causes of the First World War. Was Britain justified in declaring war in August 1914 (Casement did not think so) and what did Ireland’s sacrifice achieve? The historian Desmond Greaves alluded to these unsettling questions when he wrote: So we must ask ourselves, what is it that makes the powers that be so determined that this mystery shall not be probed? Why are they so determined to discourage enquiry that would settle matters once and for all? Is it possible that we are all underestimating Casement’s importance and the part he played on the stage of history?3
Since this comment was written in 1975, at the height of 18
Introduction the Troubles in Northern Ireland, Casement has been the subject of a series of revisionist biographies that have placed undue emphasis on his sexuality, downplayed his relevance to his age and presented his contribution to the Easter Rising as peripheral and ultimately incoherent.4 Sixteen years later in 1991, when Ireland commemorated the seventy-fifth anniversary of the 1916 Rising, Casement’s name and meaning had been largely written out of the canon of modern Irish history. In 2012, the Irish novelist John Banville claimed Casement as ‘not only one of the greatest Irishmen who ever lived but also a considerable figure on the world stage’ and asked: ‘Why then is he largely forgotten, or ignored, in Ireland and elsewhere?’5 In a country where history and politics mix uneasily, the reasons are not hard to see. Casement does not belong as wholly to Ireland as, say, the lives of Patrick Pearse or Thomas MacDonagh. His years in sub-Saharan Africa and Brazil are very much part of Britain’s imperial past. More than that, as this biography will argue, Casement represented a cosmopolitan nationalism and internationalism that cut against the grain of the image of the post-Treaty state. He had a definite sense of the future of Europe and Ireland’s place within the community of European nation states. While he may have turned decisively against the British Empire and returned to Ireland on the eve of the Rising to try and stop the rebellion, his reasons contained their own logic and integrity. In the narrating of 19
16 LIVES: ROGER CASEMENT 1916, Casement was himself betrayed, isolated and his intellectual contribution obscured. His presiding sense of Irish nationalism was rooted in his love for the province of Ulster. It is symbolically revealing that the largest GAA stadium in Northern Ireland is Casement Park in West Belfast, and that Casement expressed a desire to be buried in Murlough Bay in Antrim and not Glasnevin Cemetery, where his bones currently reside. He claimed Ulster as the critical constituent in the making of a stable and prosperous Ireland, a view that has never suited the history of two nations of the last century. His historical meaning has therefore required sustained manipulation in the histories of modern Ireland and Great Britain. Understanding the management of his historical legacy is now central to appreciating his revolutionary turn, and the irreconcilable contradictions and differences encoded into his interpretation. Angus Mitchell Limerick, 2013
20
Chapter One
1864-1883
Nomadic Upbringing
T
he plaque commemorating his birth is still visible above the front door of Doyle’s Cottage in a quiet street of Sandycove, where Roger Casement entered the world on 1 September 1864. It is a simple house in a respectable neighbourhood of Dublin, renowned as the area of the city where the Martello tower in James Joyce’s masterpiece Ulysses is located. This coincidence is highly apposite, as Casement’s life has fascinating connections with the modernist epic of the 20th century; indeed, his name is referenced in the ‘Cyclops’ chapter: Did you read that report by a man what’s this his name is? —Casement, says
the
citizen. He’s
an
Irishman.
—Yes, that’s the man, says J.J.
On 16 June 1904, the date Ulysses made famous as Bloomsday, Casement’s name was circulating not merely 21
16 LIVES: ROGER CASEMENT through the pubs of Dublin but in conversations across the globe, from the heart of central Africa to the outposts of the British Empire in India, Australia and Canada. But despite being born in Dublin, Casement spent a comparatively small amount of time residing in his native city; like Stephen Dedalus, he became a citizen of the world. Nevertheless, Dublin would eventually become the site for the rebellion in which he played such a defining part and where his bones would finally come to rest. Recent genealogical research has shown how the Casements moved from the Isle of Man to Antrim in the early eighteenth century. Different branches of the family held lands in both Wicklow and Antrim, and produced sons who generally went into either trade or the armed forces, and daughters who married into their own social class. Although Casement is inevitably categorised as ‘Anglo-Irish’, this is in some ways misleading.The extended Casement family might have had the airs and graces associated with the ascendancy class in terms of land, a big house and privilege, but for Roger Casement’s own family money was always scarce, and in references to his upbringing there is not the usual sense of either entitlement or advantage. Roger’s father, also named Roger (1819-77), served in the British army in India with the Third Light Dragoons. In 1848 he sold his commission and returned to Europe to take part in the Louis Kossuth-led liberation of Hungary. Stories relate 22
Nomadic Upbringing of how he held strong Fenian sympathies, identified with the Paris communards, and expressed beliefs in the principles of universal republicanism.1 He also dabbled in more esoteric interests, like Sikh mysticism; although, in line with Victorian parenting, he was quite a disciplinarian with his children. In 1855 he married Anne Jephson (1834-73), who was fifteen years his junior. The background of Casement’s mother Anne is harder to establish with much certainty. In later life, Casement tried to research her connection to an old landed family, the JephsonNorreys from Mallow in north Cork, but the information he uncovered was sketchy. It appears that she was baptised a Catholic, but quite possibly became an Anglican on marriage. Baptismal records show how she had Roger and his three elder siblings, Agnes, Charles and Tom, all secretly baptised as Catholics in Rhyl in north Wales. In Ireland, where religious difference is so accentuated, this unusual Protestant-Catholic duality is noteworthy, which might help to explain Casement’s early identification with the aspirations of the United Irishmen and his life-long desire to unite Catholic, Protestant and Dissenter. The little that is known about the circumstances of the family derives from personal reminiscences written by his cousins Gertrude and Elizabeth and his sister Agnes, or ‘Nina’, as she was affectionately called. According to these, the family moved around the European continent, living 23
16 LIVES: ROGER CASEMENT briefly in France, Italy, London, the Channel Islands and Ireland, although it is not known why they moved so frequently. This state of nomadism would come to define Casement’s life, as he was destined never to settle in any place for any length of time. He lived in a constant state of motion: staying with friends and relatives, living briefly in rented accommodation, moving across the world by steamship and railways, or sleeping rough on his journeys into the African and South American interiors. But in the midst of all this endless travelling, Casement came to develop a particularly deep attachment to Ireland, and this love maintained him wherever he found himself. The death of both parents by the time Roger was thirteen created a strong bond between him and his three siblings that would last for the rest of their lives. Roger’s relationship with his sister Nina was particularly close and in her memoir she lovingly described how from a very early age her little brother enjoyed the great outdoors. He learned to swim well and developed an exceptionally kind and empathetic nature, along with a hatred of injustice.2 She recalled, too, how he was an avid reader. Among his favourite books was James Fenimore Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans, a tale of the demise of Native American culture during the Seven Years’ War (1756–63), when France and Great Britain fought for control of North America. The family home still directly associated with Casement is 24
Nomadic Upbringing Magherintemple, a large and rather austere big house adjoining a lovingly-tended walled garden on the hills outside Ballycastle in County Antrim. This belonged to his uncle John, who took the orphaned Casement children in as his wards after the death of their parents. In his youth, Roger – or Roddie, as he was called by his immediate family – spent significant amounts of time at Magherintemple, and he returned there regularly to visit his relations throughout his life. To this day, the drafty rooms contain pieces of African furniture carved from tropical hardwoods, and a cabinet of ethnic curios that he presented like trophies to relations after returning from his African and Brazilian postings. But Magherintemple was not the only Antrim home where he was welcomed, and in several other ascendancy households, as well as the more humble abodes of local families, Roger was always made to feel at home. He attended the Ballymena Diocesan School, where the principal, the Rev. Robert King, was one of the greatest Irish language scholars of the day, and Casement’s love for the Irish language appears to have been nurtured from a very young age in this environment. In notes written to the scholar and revolutionary Eoin MacNeill (1867-1945), he recalled: My very old Master, the late Revd Robert King, of Ballymena, spoke and knew Irish well and often preached in Irish in his Protestant church of the Six Towns up in the Derry hills above Maghera and Magherafelt in the 1840s.3 … The 25
16 LIVES: ROGER CASEMENT first Irish I heard was in Ulster, in Co. Down in 1869, when I remember well often hearing the market people talk in it altho’ I was a tiny child then – also the boatmen from the Omeath Shore.4
By all accounts he was a diligent, quick-witted and intelligent pupil at school, and won several prizes for Classics. He enjoyed acting and singing, building up a repertoire of songs that included The Wearing of the Green and Silent O Moyle. According to Nina, he always stood firmly on the side of truth and integrity, while developing a strong sense of history. He read widely about the 1798 rebellion and how Presbyterian Antrim rose against English oppression. The nine Glens of Antrim, that stunning expanse of countryside within walking distance of Magherintemple, became the formative landscape for his youthful imagination. He took pleasure in linking the histories he studied to the surrounding environment. Nina remembered how he would walk around Donegore Hill, the site of a mass hanging of United Irishmen in 1798, and by connecting the landscape and local memory of sites of resistance to British rule in Ireland, he quickly cultivated a deep identification with the land and its people. ‘He learned much of the history of our country during those years. Long walks and visits to historic remains of antiquity, talking to the kindly Ulster folk who could tell many a tale of ’98 and the horrors perpetrated by the brutal soldiery of George III,’ Nina recalled.5 26
Nomadic Upbringing By his late teens he was writing poetry related to the history of Ulster, influenced by the melodies of Thomas Moore and the poetry of James Clarence Mangan and Florence McCarthy. Another inspiration was the late nineteenth century fashion for epic rhyme, while a familiarity with the Romantic tradition of Byron, Shelley, Keats and Tennyson was also evident. Metaphorically, this poetry was punctuated with the Celticist iconography and Gothic symbolism typical of the time: the silent harp, the mysterious ruined abbey, prophetic and spectral presences, and plenty of violence in the description of battles.6 O’Donoghue’s Daughter7 ’Twas a calm Autumn evening, from hunting returning I wearily spurred my poor steed thro’ the glade— And on thro’ the glen past the Abbey lights burning, Beneath its tall oaks and their far spreading shade— And as nearer I drew to the lake I sent pealing My bugle’s wild notes o’er the mist-shrouded water When, oh! Like the voice of an Angel came stealing From distance the song of O’Donoghue’s daughter.
Around 1880 Casement developed an interest in the politics of the Irish National Land League and the two principal figures involved in agitation for land redistribution and the protection of tenant farmers: the leader of the Irish Parlia27