TECHNE 2024-2025

TECHNE

2024-2025

Published by Department of Architecture at City Tech, CUNY

TECHNE is the annual print and digital publication of faculty-selected student work from City Tech, CUNY.

FACULTY ADVISORS

Elena M’Bouroukounda, exhibition

Jieun Yang, publication

STUDENT EDITORIAL TEAM

Safa Amer

Briana Carrasco, editor-in-chief

Flaminia Cedeno

Mari Kiguradze

Nouha Lekhzoumy

Nasir McIntosh

Vladislav Molchanov

Amanda Mostafa, design lead

Anthony Phung

Elijah Roman

Pierre Theodat, design lead

Elisabet Tolentino

Catherine Valenzuela

Aaron Verdugo

Karen Yascaribay

SOCIAL MEDIA DIRECTORS

Amanda Mostafa

Pierre Theodat

@nycct_techne

TYPEFACE

Univers Next Pro

IMAGE CREDITS

Casual photography has been provided by members of the City Tech Community.

For more information, please write, call, or visit us at:

Department of Architecture City Tech, CUNY

Voorhees V-817 / 186 Jay Street Brooklyn, NY 11201 +1 718 260 5263 architectech@citytech.cuny.edu

©2026 Department of Architecture at City Tech, CUNY

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission from Department of Architecture at City Tech, CUNY.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

008 ARCH 5112 & 5212 - Architectural Design IX & X

032 ARCH 4812 - Architectural Design VIII

040 ARCH 4712 - Architectural Design VII

046 ARCH 3612 - Architectural Design VI

054 ARCH 3512 - Architectural Design V

066 ARCH 2412 - Architectural Design IV

076 ARCH 2312 - Architectural Design III

088 ARCH 1212 - Architectural Design II

100 ARCH 1112 - Architectural Design I

112 ARCH 1101 - Intro to Architecture 120 College Now Summer Architecture & Urban Design 126 Architectural Electives

ARCH 1231 - Building Technology I

ARCH 2331 - Building Technology II 146 ARCH 2431 - Building Technology III

158 ARCH 3531 - Building Technology IV

162 ARCH 5112 & 5212 - Architectural Design IX & X

This edition of TECHNE focuses on spotlighting students’ work through the use of whitespace.

Its format allows images to stand alone and shine, while also being in harmony with the work that surrounds it. Through space, our students’ intentions breathe freely.

Briana Carrasco Editor-in-Chief

B.Arch Class of 2026

EDITOR’S NOTE

In architecture, the void is as critical as the mass. It is within the spaces between that life unfolds and design intention is truly felt. This latest edition of TECHNE, continuing its vital role as a living archive of student exploration, embraces this fundamental spatial concept through its deliberate curation and design.

If last year’s volume asked us to pause and look to history to understand our trajectory, this year’s edition invites us to pause and look closely at the immediate work before us to find a way to move forward. As noted by our student editorial team, the generous use of whitespace within these pages is not an absence, but a purposeful framing. It provides necessary breathing room, allowing the brilliance, complexity, and rigor of our students’ projects and influences beyond the classroom to stand on their own and speak for themselves.

In a world – and a discipline – increasingly defined by density, speed, and noise, carving out quiet space for reflection is a powerful editorial act. By surrounding these architectural stories, experiments, and ideas with visual clarity, this publication fosters a deeper, more intimate engagement with the evolving discourse of our built environment and within our department.

I am incredibly proud of the editorial team for their vision, and of the students whose work fills these pages. We hope this edition of TECHNE allows you to step into these intentionally crafted spaces and experience the future of architecture breathing freely.

Jieun Yang

Faculty Editor / Assistant Professor Department of Architecture

March 2026

“The measure of a human is what they do with entropy”

— Norbert Wiener [American computer scientist, mathematician, and philosopher]

It is impossible not to feel the weight of the social, political and environmental convulsions shaking the nation, and our city. The pressures are visible in our neighborhoods, our institutions, and our public life. In this context public design education emerges as both necessary and urgent. If entropy is the condition of our time, architecture remains a discipline that teaches us how to collaborate, and how to respond. We tackle complexity, give it structure, and transform uncertainty into shared possibility.

The Department of Architecture is founded on access - the radical idea that higher education should not be reserved for the privileged, but open to talent wherever it exists. In a city defined by density, diversity, and inequality, public design education is not abstract; it is immediate and consequential.

Over my eleven years of service as the Department Chair, I witnessed a steady rise in enrollment and the growth of a studio culture rooted in solidarity and ambition. The camaraderie among students is not incidental - it is born of shared experiences, culture and values. Our student clubs, exhibitions and events reflect a department pulsing with creative energy and purpose. We are demonstrating the relevance of a public program of architecture in an increasingly privatized environment.

When asked to imagine their future beyond employment, licensure, or advanced degrees, students consistently articulate a vision larger than individual advancement. They speak of “giving back” - to neighborhoods that nurtured them, to their communities on the margins and to play a part in the city that is constantly remaking itself. Students recognize architecture as a manifestation of public service and cultural representation. Design justice that promotes equity, stewardship, and responsibility.

The work in this year’s TECHNE reflects that conviction. It confronts the climate crisis through adaptive and resilient strategies. It addresses housing inequity and public space with intelligence and empathy. It explores material innovation alongside social accountability. It engages New York as an active civic landscape - shaped by tension, diversity, and possibility.

“Tú nos dices que debemos sentarnos Pero, las ideas sólo pueden levantarnos

Caminar, recorrer, no rendirse ni retroceder Ver, aprender, como esponja absorber

Nadie sobra, todos faltan, todos suman Todos para todos, todo para nosotros”

-Ana Tijoux

If the measure of a person is what they do with entropy, then the measure of our department is found in the optimism, resilience, and generosity of its students and faculty. In a city that never stands still, we are learning not merely to adapt to change, but to give it form - to transform turbulence into architecture that belongs to everyone.

Sanjive Vaidya, Architect

Department Chair, 2015 - 2026 Department of Architecture

ARCH 5112 & 5212

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IX & X

Design IX and X are yearlong thesis studio working closely with a faculty advisor. Students assemble comprehensive research on a preapproved topic. Research includes user needs, precedent studies, site analysis, along with social, cultural, historical and technical implications of a proposed architectural intervention. Thesis research clearly focuses on the selected area of study presenting well-formed arguments to advance student approaches to architectural design and methodology. Students prepare a comprehensive document that includes their research and analysis, a written project statement along with all design methodology as part of their final presentation.

Professor Lia Dikigoropoulou

Khadija Akther

Kaylynn Daoud

Chris Mancia

Luis Rendon-Vazquez

Lindsey Tlahuextl

Professor Michael Duddy

Vincent Cheung

Alyssa Duran

Kawall Jagmohan

Luckasz Klertiashvili

Javon Morgan

Yiyi Zhong

ALYSSA DURAN

Institute for Humanity

Today is the time to be here and now. We are living in a series of global events that pose risks to humanity’s future—from human rights, democracy, religion, housing, food access, and environmental pollution. To bring these concerns into a space for debate and research that will lead to future solutions, the Institute for Humanity will serve as an asset for cooperation and dialogues to develop understanding of the critical issues that are and will be affecting the future of the human race. The intersection of over-pollution—specifically microplastics— and human life is currently threatening the holistic future of our well-being. It is essential to explore how today’s problems can become tomorrow’s solutions. As designers, we have a responsibility to recognize and develop innovative strategies to better understand the challenges of environmental pollution caused by the pervasive nature of microplastics and their impact on ecosystems and public health. Through the integration of science, technology, and architecture, the Institute for Humanity will become a global hub for addressing these complex, interconnected challenges.

The institute for Humanity will be home of six research centers dedicated to focused research on pressing social and political challenges of our time and will convene conferences to promote discussion and debate to promote a more equitable future.

LUKAS KLERTIASHVILI

Yale University Center for Humanities Center for Religious Understanding

The proposed religious center at Yale would supplement the further acceptance and knowledge to the new generation of young minds of the many cultural and ideas of beliefs that are most popular in the present world. A center holding such aspects should aid the incoming population to achieve advanced knowledge in the beliefs that a majority of the individuals identify and hold a deep connection with. To respect the beliefs of each individual and be knowledgeable of the differences and the entire basis of what religion has to do in society.

The interior spacial layout is designed to resemble the notion of an infinite everlasting stacking of modules or rooms that would be relatable to the fractals and system of patterns and continuations that come from the resulting repetitive forms.

This circulation space would accompany all the spaces to unify them and give a uplifting feeling when you circulate through. The uplifting feeling is supposed to deepen sense of divinity and a sense of spiritual sensation when moving from class to any room via the hallway.

YIYI ZHONG

Sustainable Agriculture Center

The center’s primary goal is to redefine agricultural systems by integrating technological advancements, ecological research, and socio-economic studies. By doing so, we aim to enhance crop yields while preserving soil health and biodiversity, optimize water management to combat scarcity and ensure efficient usage, develop resilient farming techniques that adapt to climate variability, and promote awareness of sustainable practices among communities and policymakers.

This center will serve as a hub for innovation, bringing together students, researchers, farmers, and policy-makers to collaborate on transformative agricultural practices.

VINCENT CHUENG

Gateway to the Future

The Research Center focuses on the between social media and human rights. Also, it is mainly in the context of elevating equality and civil rights. The center’s work is reported by the learning that social media platforms have become crucial areas for the talk and help of civil rights and social equality. It examines how these platforms can be inspired to improve democratic attention and address issues of inequality and injustice. The center’s research includes studying the impact of social media on the visibility and importance of civil rights movements.

The Arcade acts as a public, hybrid space that is central for tying individual research centers together.

the Conference Center sectional

small auditoriums, classrooms, events, and space, rather than the connection space, the large and small auditorium. The top

The Conference Center is for the fellows, administration, and publicity. conference center is extended to arcade, giving it more presence. The conference center faces directly on the Yale Building and the private courtyard.

It creates a sense of various circulation and platforms, adding to the vibrancy of the internal spaces within the hybrid spaces of the arcade.

JAVON MORGAN

Research Center of Academic Freedom

The Center for Academic Freedom represents a vision for preserving and advancing the principles of intellectual autonomy in an era where these values are increasingly under threat. Academic freedom is the foundation of democratic societies, enabling scholars to question, explore, and innovate without fear of censorship or retaliation. Yet, political, economic, and cultural pressures continue to challenge this essential liberty, stifling progress and narrowing the scope of inquiry. Drawing on historical precedents, key intellectual figures such as Malcolm X, Noam Chomsky, and Edward Said, and contemporary movements advocating for intellectual autonomy, this study identifies the profound risks posed by restrictions on academic freedom. From governmental censorship to corporate influence on research, the barriers to open inquiry threaten not only academia but also the broader fabric of democratic society.

This thesis explores the theoretical framework, site analysis, and architectural design strategies that underpin the Center, offering a vision for how academic freedom can be preserved and strengthened in a rapidly changing world.

KAWALL JAGMAHON

Humanistic Horizons

The objective of this design is to establish a Center of Humanity within the central heart of Yale University campus, opposite the Sterling Memorial Library within 451 College St. My design involves the concept of dividing the institute into two “J-Shaped” wings. Connecting these two wings is a glass Hybrid Spine that interlocks them together and opens into each of the individual research centers’ public hybrid spaces as well as acting as the primary entrance for the research center.

Prominently facing Sterling Library is the Conference Center, a joint building that acts as the presentation and exhibition space for each of the individual research centers.

LUIS RENDON VASQUEZ

Canal Stone Elementary

Nurturing Haven

Sunset Park, a diverse NYC neighborhood, struggles with a hidden challenge: immigrant children aged 5-10 lack access to mental health support due to parental barriers including language differences, demanding work schedules, financial constraints, and cultural perspectives on mental health. With most local children coming from immigrant families, a trauma-informed elementary school could address their mental health needs without placing additional burdens on parents. The school must serve as a haven where children can escape difficult home circumstances, feel safe, and discover themselves. By creating an environment that emphasizes safety, independence, and personal choice in learning approaches, we can help these children adapt, develop their identities, and foster genuine growth and education free from the burdens they experience at home as we build a community.

A Nurturing Haven

A neighborhood corridor that bridge the connection between the community and the school as the design language draws inspiration from rip rap stones, resembling a stronghold to reflect safety and growth.

KAYLYNN DAOUD

Cedars of Hope

Lebanon hosts the highest number of refugees per capita and per square kilometer globally, with an estimated 1.5 million refugees. However, the country is grappling with its worst socio-economic crisis in decades, compounded by ongoing clashes in the south. This crisis has deeply impacted vulnerable populations, leading to a sharp increase in poverty, and limited access to housing, education, and essential services. As a result, both Lebanese citizens and refugees living in Lebanon face immense challenges, exacerbating an already unstable situation. Lebanon, a country noted for its rich history and culture, has encountered various challenges that have strained its economy and society, including economic insecurity, poverty, and limited access to essential services. Creating community and temporary housing spaces for children and families who are experiencing being displaced or impoverished begins to address gaps in housing, mental health, and communities’ spaces. With millions of people forcibly displaced worldwide, Lebanon’s high refugee population highlights the urgency of creating living and community spaces that provide children and families, safety, support, and hope.

Residential and community spaces in Tripoli, Lebanon, designed to support families and children impacted by trauma.

Guided by principles of healing by design, the project provides resources that nurture physical and mental well-being; encouraging recovery, stability, and community.

KHADIJA AKTHER

From Body to Soul Wellness Center

Just as trees develop layers in response to their environment, the wellness center offers a layered healing experience structured around the journey of the Body, Mind, and Soul. The design is guided by the symbolic concept of tree rings, which represent the natural process of growth, resilience, and the passage of time.

Designed for sustainability, it reduces heat island effect, stores rainwater, and enhances comfort through evaporative cooling and thermal mass.

The green roof of the wellness center seamlessly blends architecture with nature, forming a continuous, walkable landscape that supports healing and connection.

CHRISTOPHER MANCIA

Colonia de Arte

This thesis proposal intends to activate the historical city center of Guatemala City through the expression of the country's arts, heritage and ecology. Providing a flexible space promotes community integration and adapts to cultural and social needs as they develop over time.

40 MM

POLYCARBONATE PANEL - COLOR 1

POLYCARBONATE PANELS TO BE BUTT JOINTED WITH 3/8" GAP. FILL JOINT WITH STRUCTURAL SEALANT

40 MM

POLYCARBONATE PANEL - COLOR 2

NEW LIGHTING IN ALUMINUM FRAME

2 1/2" X 7 1/2" ALUM CHANNEL

TPO COVER BOARD R-50 RIGID INSULATION

8" REINFORCED CONC. SLAB

2" RIGID INSULATION

3/8" ACM PANEL

WOOD CLADDED-STEEL COLUMN BEYOND

LINE OF 2 1/2" X 7 1/2" ALUMINUM FRAME BEYOND

This detail focuses on the connection between the Polycarbonate and the Exterior Slab condition recognizing the Double Skin conditions.

The intention for the facade is for it to be removable and used as another way of expressing the work of artists.

The use of the polycarbonate gives a canvas similar to the base developed within the backstrap weaving.

LINDSEY TLAHUEXTL

Museum of Emotion

This research addresses the issues of traditional museum designs that often prioritize the display of artifacts, education and exhibit curation over the wellbeing of visitors and may not effectively integrate natural elements or address the emotional and psychological needs of visitors. By proposing architectural solutions to enhance visitor experience and create a deeper connection with nature in order to design a museum to not only educate but also provide a soothing, healing atmosphere, combining learning with wellness. In the context of today’s current events there is a growing need for spaces that support mental and physical wellbeing, especially in urban environments where access to natural environments are limited.

This thesis investigates the design of a naturefocused museum that evokes emotions to enhance visitors' mental and physical wellbeing through senses in immersive natural environments.

It addresses the gap in traditional museum designs by proposing architectural solutions that combine education with therapeutic experiences, promoting a deeper connection to nature and supporting overall wellness in urban settings.

ARCH 4812

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN VIII

Environmental sustainability is explored as the focus of the studio to benefit both occupants and the environment while investigating material consumption, thermal comfort, and energy practices. A bioclimatic design approach is assumed to tie how we interact with the microclimate and pursue thermal comfort and delight with low- carbon solutions. To determine the bioclimatic performance, the studio incorporates quantitative methods throughout the design process, especially concerning the site, building form, spatial organization, and façade system. Students, as a team, work through a series of design reviews and workshops to develop a project that addresses performance criteria. Students integrate their full knowledge of life safety systems, structural systems, environmental control systems, and envelope systems and assemblies, while adopting the measurable outcomes of building performance in the course.

Professor William Antozzi

Bryant Ariza

Nouman Arshad

Santiago Bello

Kezang Dorji

Alyssa Duran

Mohamed Hassan

Fatima Ikhmais

Fareda Isherif

Jean Lucas

Eugenia Parra

Steven Romero

Axel Sanchez

Alejandro Veras Cruz

Aaron Verdugo

Yiyi Zhong

Professor Daniel Kidd

Anthonio Forbes

Zijie Li

Aia Mahmoud

Maisha Meem

Joseph Otchere

Ravendra Ramnarace

Cody Smith

Giuliana Romero

Shantal Tapia

Professor Sergio Saucedo-Huerta

Alina Beznos

Briana Carrasco

Reilly Gillen

Pablo Herrera

Alexander Mendoza

Adam Pepere

Kevin Sierra

Pierre Theodat

Mokhira Toirjonova

Briana Carrasco Alexander Mendoza Pierre Theodat

EGRESS DIAGRAM

Our design addresses the characteristice of this site in West Chelsea through:

LANGUAGE OF THREE

SOFT GEOMETRY

PUBLIC LANDSCAPE

REINFORCING LOWER GROUND

EXTERIOR VIEWS

Pablo Herrera Adam Pepere Kevin Sierra

NORTHEAST ELEVATION

NORTHEAST SECTION

Alina Beznos Reilly Gillen Mokhira Toirjonova

ARCH 4712

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN VII

This design course covers a range of urban and architectural design issues and the cultural aspects in the development of cites. As an advanced design class, this course incorporates previous studio and lecture coursework to tie together topics of urban planning, architectural design, environmental sustainability, urban infrastructure and historic preservation.

Professor Kevin Hom

Briana Carrasco

Kezang Dorji

Hailey Lopez

Adam Pepere

Emmanuel Tejada

Jasmine Vidal

Professor Vessilin Milev

Pamely Abreu Henrique

Randy Abundiz-Jimenez

Erik Asatryan

Christina Benguechea

Niamke Cole

Geovany Flores

Reilly Gillen

Sarawat Juthy

Britny Lopez

Luis Medina

Mariana Lozano

Mokhira Toirjonova

Joselin Zarate

Reilly Gillen Britny Lopez Mariana Lozano Mokhira Toirjonova

Pamely Abreu Henrique

Randy Abundiz-Jimenez

Erik Asatryan Niamke Cole Sarawat Juthy

Geovany

Flores Luis Medina

ARCH 3612

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN VI

An investigation of the adaptive resure of buildings with a focus on projects involving the redesign and expansion of existing structures. Research, domuentation and redesign of an existing structyre from concept to design development are integral to the course. Addresses the integration of structure, lighting, interior materials, finishes, meet current design and functional needs of the design problem's program as well as code requirements.

Professor Naomi Langer-Voss

Julia Kolpak

Michael Ray Malonjao

Anthony Ramos

Professor Federic Levrat

Yenifer Rivera

Pierre Theodat

Aaron Verdugo

Professor Paul King

Bryant Ariza

Nouman Arshad

Raymoundo Gomez

Mohamed Hassan

Elisabet Tolentino

Lissette Torres

ARCH 3512

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN V

An investigation of the adaptive reuse of buildings with a focus on projects involving the redesign and expansion of existing structures. Research, documentation and redesign of an existing structure from concept to design development are integral to the course. Addresses the integration of structure, lighting, interior materials, finishes, space programming and furniture layout. Students are required to meet current design and functional needs of the design problem’s program as well as code requirements.

Professor Alexandre Delaunay

Michael Morales

Bryan Santiago

Professor Lia Dikigoropoulou

Nick Antoine

Jeremyah Herrera

Anthony Ramos Nabor

Brailyn Ventura

Professor Miguel Maldonado-Torres

Ashton Estevez

Julia Kolpak

Kiamfan Tang Liang

Michael Ray Malonjao

Annie Mejia

Vladislav Molchanov

Louis Raiola

Professor Juan Roque Urrutia Vitores

Professor Paul Bailey

Andrew Aucanzhala

Arbenita Berisha

Danielle Gibson

Monisha Sooklall

Professor Michael Woods

Avril Garcia

Amanda Mostafa

Chris Tellez

Elisabet Tolentino

Lissette Torres

Chris Vila

ARCH 2412

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IV

The course emphasizes the architectural process involved in designing small to medium size projects for specific building types. The process includes initial research and analysis, program development, flow diagrams, schematic design, and massing studies, the development of schematic 3D models, plans and sections, through final presentation. Students propose a specific theme and content for “A Museum of Culture”, imagining the new museum as an exciting destination for local, regional, national, and international visitors. The curatorial theme draws from a particular culture or cultural phenomena, ranging from a topic directly related to the student’s own identity to a particular area of interest shared by a group of people.

Professor Claudia Hernandez

Samanta Lopez Gil

Steven Marquez

Natalie Santacruz

Professor Elisabeth Martin

Priya Babu

Gianni Colucci

Santiago Gonzalez

Jaimie Miave

Professor Elisabeth Parks

Abdulbaset Elfgeeh

Arianna DiLillo

Pavlo Havryshko

Diego Lopez

Professor Jordan Parnass

Willeiris Difo Guzman

Noelia Lazo

Professor Jieun Yang

David Bailey

Sofia Bilbao

Vladislav Molchanov

Perpective Section A & wind circulation

HILOS DE HERENCIA

(Threads of Heritage)

Colombia is known for its rich cultural heritage, which is vividly expressed through its traditional clothing. These garments reflect the country’s history, indigenous roots, and regional diversity. Traditional fashion holds deep cultural significance, acting as a powerful form of storytelling that conveys the values and traditions of different communities. By preserving and promoting these traditional garments, we celebrate their origins and keep indigenous traditions alive.

A generation of designers is incorporating traditional fashion techniques that incorporates the artisan’s craftsmanship techniques into more modern designs, reflecting the artisan’s craftsmanship while also telling compelling stories. Whether through intricate techniques, vibrant colors, or meaningful patterns, these designers are creating pieces that honor Colombian heritage and sharing its rich history to the world.

BUILDING SECTION 1

LA CLAVE: NEW YORK MUSEUM OF SALSA

Rooted in the cultural heartbeat of Latin New York, La Clave: New York Museum of Salsa celebrates salsa not only as a musical genre but as a collective narrative of migration, resilience, and identity. The museum’s program is anchored by a series of immersive exhibits—highlighting salAfro-Caribbean origins, its evolution in Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Venezuela, and culminating in the explosive legacy of the Fania All-Stars New York. Together, they trace a rhythm of cultural convergence and diaspora, including nods to figures like Phideas Danilo Escalona, whose pioneering radio work in Venezuela helped amplify salsa across Latin America.

Architecturally, the project unfolds through a terracing system that steps wraps around the urban site—transforming the museum into a publandscape as much as a building. These outdoor platforms interconindoor and outdoor exhibit areas, creating a fluid public realm that enclosure and encourages gathering. The museum blurs the boundary between institution and street, making culture accessible at evelevation.

façade employs a vertical fin system and metal panels configured rhythmic pattern inspired by the clave beat—the syncopated 3-2 or structure that defines salsa. This formal gesture doesn’t merely referrhythm; it enacts it, turning architecture into a performative skin that with cultural meaning.

core, La Clave is not only an archive of sound and history, but a of affirmation—a built manifesto for visibility, rhythm, and joy in the of the city.

ARCH 2312

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN III

An exploration of abstract architectural design theory in the expression of three-dimensional space. The creation of comprehensive architectural design projects are developed following a building program and incorporating elements of site, enclosure, structure, material and technology. Design concepts and vocabulary are introduced and strengthened through design projects. A juried presentation takes place at the completion of each project.

Professor Paul Coughin

Dion Chand

Almani Ferreira

Samanta Lopez

Albert Mensah

Angel Mirabal

Marti Tapia

Professor William Fryer

Caetana Abreu

Daria Tourkova

Professor Margot Kleinman

Barbara Carrion

Professor Eugene Park

Saira Bano

Emerson Say Garcia

Maya Shaqiri

Nia Roberts

Sonya Weinstock

Prof. Ammr Vandal

Gladys Vigil

Professor Yan Wang

Iris Alarcon

Gianni Colucci

Santiago Gonzalez

Jonathan Green

Ashley Guillen

Anita Kovaci

Mengyi Lin

2ND FLOOR PLAN ( 3/32” = 1’-0”)

CHANGING ROOM

REHEARSAL ROOM

1ST FLOOR PLAN ( 3/32” = 1’-0”)

SECTION ( 3/32” = 1’-0”)

ARCH 1212

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN II

A first-year foundational course that advances students’ ability to perceive visual cues, create visual design, formulate concepts and render ideas in two or three dimensions. Students use a combination of hand and digital skills to aid in the creation and interpretation of three dimensional objects and space, and the delineation of the same using standard projection systems. The Visual Studies component of the course builds on the student’s knowledge of architectural representation and visualization and focuses particularly on: precise crafting of physical and analogue models, architectural presentations, analogue and digital rendering techniques.

Professor Colin Carpenter

Elisa Nabijan

Nathan Ramphal

Professor Colin Carpenter

Professor Ann Le

Isaac Lati

Nouha Lekhzoumy

Sonya Weinstock

Professor Claudia Hernandezfeiks

Safa Amer

Dion Chand

Abraham Curay

Armani Ferreira

Daniela Guzman

Anita Kovaci

Nakeri Samuel

Prof. Elena M'Bouroukounda

Flaminia Cedeno

Brenda Minan

Elijah Roman

Professor Jason Okoren

Sebastian Cordero

Leah Jerome

Nia Roberts

Joshua Rodriguez

Professor Shaad Zaidi

Fardeen Ahmed

Michael Osei Antwi

Reanna Rabina

ARCH 1112

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN I

A first-year foundational course that increases students’ ability to perceive visual cues, create visual design, formulate concepts, and render ideas in two or three dimensions. Students use a combination of hand and digital skills to aid in the creation and interpretation of three-dimensional objects and space, and the delineation of the same using standard projection systems. The Visual Studies component of the course equips students to make aesthetic evaluations and translate information into graphic representations and visual designs.

Prof. Alexandre Delaunay

Chelsea Escandon

Yormayorix Holguin

Joshua Munoz

Danieliz Siqueiros

Prof. Elena M'Bouroukounda

Yasmeen Aucapina Francisco

Michelle Gonzalez Diaz

Moustafa Hydara

Angelina Mateo

Luciana Ortega

Prof. Caitlin Mcmanus

Khan Fahad

Ivan Yair Lopez

Prof. Katie Rotman

Julio Guillen

Mohammed Irfan

Prof. Arie Salomon Betech

Algirdas Blazys

Amanda Clare

Jonathan Linares Tejada

William Winckelman

ARCH 1101

INTRO TO ARCHITECTURE

Understanding architecture is achieved by developing a visual literacy of New York City’s built environment. Using the city as a living laboratory, students explore concepts of design, composition, and construction by sketching and writing about their direct experience of buildings. Focus workshops on freehand drawing techniques, basic drafting skills, graphic standards, 2D and 3D composition, writing about buildings and their construction, and reading architectural drawings are central to this course. Students develop graphic skills and the basic foundation to talk, write, and graphically express architecture and its construction.

Professor Mark Fagan

Amira Abdelmaged

Eric Acevedo

Sebastian Acosta

Eduardo Amador

Elicia Ayub

Mayzu Chong

Aliza Dominguez

Kevin Gadsden Vargas

Bryan Garcia

Lesly Humala

Moustafa Hydara

Naomy Lopez

Penelope Perez Castillo

Jordy Polanco

Brandon Rosario

Malak Saleh

Marieli Santiago

Danieliz Siquieros

Diurn Kerby Ulysse

Wei Yu

Professor Lynn Gernert

Alex Lavandero

Prof. Peter Hsi

Richard Alejandro

Jonathan Linares

Duscian Marcillo

Prof. Benjamin Kaufmann

Mohammad Alam

Mariam Dzhaniashvili

Mohammed Irfan

Brian Mendez

Melany Piedrahita

Akobir Ravshonov

Mahmoud Tigselema

Fernanda Yugsi

Professor Nicole Vlado

Niyaila Whittington

COLLEGE NOW SUMMER 2025

ARCHITECTURE & URBAN DESIGN

College Now at City Tech guides well-qualified high school students interested in pursuing architecturedegrees. The program uses New York City as a living laboratory to contextualize and comprehend forms and experiences of different neighborhoods and communities through the cultural lens – of architecture being influenced by cultural complexity and how it can shape our environments. The course frames these issues through multiple layers of documentation and representation learned from lectures, workshops with guest lecturers, laboratory work, and hands-on fieldwork/ weekly trips.

Professor Naomi Langer-Voss

Professor Jieun Yang

Maxwell Botshon

Aaron Carberry

Lucy Chen

Sasha Cheung

Angelica Khandros

Heena Imtiaz

Emmett Lieb

Jaylenee Marin

Jacob Miles

Mika Ohashi

Joseph Pagliuco

Asha Rivera

Stephanie Santana

Fairuz Tarannum

ARCHITECTURAL ELECTIVES

ARCH 3592 - MEDIA AND REPRESENTATION I

Space visualization using a combination of photo-realistic renderings, animations, and interactive 360-degree panoramic renderings. Creation of computer-generated scenes that can be viewed and explored as virtual and augmented reality

ARCH 3609 - MEDIA AND REPRESENTATION II

This design seminar explores how authorship, storytelling, and advanced architectural representation are interconnected. Students explore design, composition, data visualization, and construction concepts by writing descriptive texts to generate input for digital visual modeling systems. Students think critically about the intersection of authorship and technology.

Professor Esteban Beita Solano

Saida Akbarova

Auhtumn Archibald

Mohamed Hassan

Jean Lucas-Pavon

ARCH 3550 - BUILDING PERFORMANCE WORKSHOP

Review of the fundamentals of sustainability in architecture. The course fosters the students' understanding of climate change resulting from current waste, water, and energy practices, and introduces them to innovative building materials, systems and technologies to mitigate this change. The course introduces the criteria and the technological tools by which green buildings are measured, assessed, and funded.

Professor Uroosa Ijaz

Alina Beznos

Fatima Rahman

Victor Daniel Vega Jr.

7TH FLOOR

Warm ration of the budling, in the east side of the building is climate is warmer. The

4TH FLOOR

1ST FLOOR

• At 3pm almost all three floors receiving it’s heights sunlight.

ARCH 1231 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY I

An introduction to basic materials of construction and the fundamental principals of hand drafting and system analysis. The coursework includes surveying existing conditions, development of plans, elevations, and sections, and basic details as well as the study of material properties and applications.

Professor Lynn Gernert

Chelsea Escandon

Fahad Khan

Professor Benjamin Kaufmann

Brian Chong

Amna Shah

Amarda Shpata

Professor Michael Loo

Sachi Barr

Bryan Isaias Castillo Fermin

Chasity Christolin

Jose Joshua

Nouha Lekhzoumy

Cindy Sosa

Adriana Suarez

Professor Mi Zhang Chan

Susan Gao

Anita Kovaci

Noah Mcleod

Joshua Munoz

ARCH 2331 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY II

A study of the basic materials of construction as well as the theory and practice of building technology. The course includes investigation of the assembly of building components and methods of construction while developing proficiency in both analog and digital drawing techniques, and professional level construction drawing.

Professor Alexander Aptekar

Emilia Cando

Louis Raiola

Badr Serri

Professor Chitra Mamidela

Juan Luna

Angel Mirabel

Faleha Omar

Marti Tapia

Professor Patricia Semmler

Fardeen Ahmed

Pavlo Havryshko

ARCH 2431 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY III

This is the third in the required sequence of four building technology courses. This course studies the development of building systems and their assembly as they occur during the design development phase of architecture with a focus will be on steel construction. A series of studio lab assignments will develop an understanding of steel building assembly while introducing the students to the use of Building Information Modeling (BIM) software. Using case study research methods students develop a comprehensive drawing set and using materials and assembly research, students will develop façade studies.

Professor Eugene Colberg

Michael Ray Malonjao

Dayana Navarro

Scarlet Nunez

Emilio Tlacomulco

Professor Paul King

Mardakhaev Arkadiy

Geovany Flores

Montesdeoca Jay

Nasir McIntosh

Joselin Zarate

Professor Andrew Novillo

Santiago Bryan

Ashton Estevez

Avril Garcia

Professor Justin Sherman

Omneya Aboelkasem

David Bailey

Aleesha Hafeez

Michael Portillo

TRIPLE WINDOW CASEMENT W/ MIDDLE TRANSON 61"x48"

WINDOW FORMED ALUMINUM PANEL @1'-5/8" x 4'-0"

MULLION

SPANDREL GLASS

VERTICAL MULLION

6" THICK CONCRETE SLAB

1/4" THICK 14" LONG REBAR

HALFEN ANCHOR CHANNEL

SPLICE PLATE ATTACHED TO VERTICAL MULLION

HALFEN BRACKET BOLTED INTO VERTICAL MULLION

HORIZONTAL MULLION

RIGID INSULATIO N BEHIND METAL PANELS

METAL PANEL

WINDOW GLASS

WINDOW SILL

TYP. 6" ALUMINUM C STUD 16"O.C BATT INSULATION BETWEEN STUDS

3/8" THK. PLYWOOD SHEATHING

WATER VAPOR RETARDER (SHOWN BY HIDDEN LINE)

Joselin Zarate

ARCH 3531 - BUILDING

TECHNOLOGY IV

The final course in a four-part sequence. Using digital technologies, the student explores the mechanics of building enclsures and structures and creates a set of working drawing. Emphasis is on communication and collaboration skills necessary in the professional office. Building information modeling (BIM) techniques and tools emphasized this course.

Professor Blake Kurasek

Jeremyah Herrera

Anthony Ramos

Elisabet Tolentino

Karen Yascaribay

ARCH 5112 & 5212

Kanshou emerges from the earth raw, grounded, and rooted in the Nature acts as origin and guide. Biomimicry informs every gesture. The form grows organically, like a living organism: irregular, untamed, There is no symmetry, no imposed control—only the logic of life unfolding.

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IX & X

2ND

3RD

Within, a contrasting reality takes shape: structured, rigid, algorithmic. A glitch is revealed—an artificial order applied to what resists containment. Geometry attempts to rationalize the irrational, to discipline the

At the core, spatial boundaries collapse. Floors bleed into each other, platforms overlap, and levels dissolve. Orientation is destabilized. Certainty is lost.

Design IX and X are yearlong thesis studio working closely with a faculty advisor. Students assemble comprehensive research on a preapproved topic. Research includes user needs, precedent studies, site analysis, along with social, cultural, historical and technical implications of a proposed architectural intervention. Thesis research clearly focuses on the selected area of study presenting well-formed arguments to advance student approaches to architectural design and methodology. Students prepare a comprehensive document that includes their research and analysis, a written project statement along with all design methodology as part of their final presentation.

4TH

You begin to question..

Where does nature end, and the glitch begin?

5TH

Professor Phillip Anzalone

Star Aiken

Osaruyi Amadasun

Salimatou Doumbouya

Zijie Li

Keven Logrono

Cody Smith

Jayda White

PERSPECTIVE

Professor Jill Bouratoglou

Jennifer Camas

Kevin Giron

Yousif Nasr

Paloma Nunciato

Joseph Otchere

Ravendra Ramnarace

Tylee Rivera

Mariela Saavedra

OSARUYI AMADASUN

Miles to Home

The home is built on a series of ramps—not just for accessibility, but as a metaphor. Each ramp represents a memory, a transition, a movement from one stage of life to another. The act of walking, slowly, with intention, allows the client to relive moments from his journey—almost like moving through a personal museum. The layout isn’t rigid. It’s layered, open, and flexible reflecting his multicultural background. Elements of different cultures, textures, and motifs are woven into the interiors, creating a tapestry of his lived experiences.

Ultimately, this project is about transition—from movement to stillness, from chaos to calm, from memory to meaning.

JAYDA WHITE

Forms of Solitude

This project is an exercise in introspection, using design as a mirror to explore the deeper layers of self. The fictional client—an abstracted reflection of myself—represents my truest desires, values, and emotional states. The house is not only a place of dwelling but a spatial narrative of identity, memory, and solitude. Each architectural element, from material choices to spatial sequences, is designed to evoke moments of pause, contemplation, and personal clarity. Through the interplay of light, shadow, and mirrored volumes, the home becomes both a sanctuary and a canvas for internal reflection.

To protect the body and mind from the desert heat, I placed daytime spaces underground — the living room, the workspace,dinning room, meditation room — where the earth insulates and quiets. These rooms stay cool, dim, and slow, encouraging reflection during the brightest hours.

As the sun softens and the air cools, night spaces rise above ground — bedrooms, bathing areas, and moments of stargazing. Open to the breeze and sky, they invite rest, imagination, this vertical choreography mirrors the rhythm of introspection: The house breathes with its climate, and with the soul.

CODY SMITH

Petal Ridge

This project is more than the design of a home — it is the creation of a lived artwork. Rooted in the expressive brushstrokes of Viola’s paintings and grounded in the natural richness of Stony Hill, Jamaica, the design explores the relationship between art, architecture, and landscape. Each move — from the curved walls to the petal-like plan, from the carved views to the surrounding stream — was made with intention, emotion, and clarity of purpose. The home reflects Viola’s dual need for connection and retreat, balancing her desire for access to Jamaica’s urban cultural life with the serenity of nature. The architecture does not isolate her from the world; instead, it amplifies her ability to see, feel, and respond to it creatively.

Here, the house becomes more than a shelter — it is a studio, a sanctuary, and a source of continuous inspiration.

KEVEN LOGRONO

Kanshou

Kanshou emerges from the earth raw, grounded, and rooted in the real. Nature acts as origin and guide. Biomimicry informs every gesture. The form grows organically, like a living organism: irregular, untamed, adaptive. There is no symmetry, no imposed control—only the logic of life unfolding. Within, a contrasting reality takes shape: structured, rigid, algorithmic. A glitch is revealed— an artificial order applied to what resists containment. Geometry attempts to rationalize the irrational, to discipline the wild. At the core, spatial boundaries collapse.

Floors bleed into each other, platforms overlap, and levels dissolve. Orientation is destabilized. Certainty is lost. You begin to question - Where does nature end, and the glitch begin?

ZIJIE LI

Curve of Stillness

Designed as an antidote to the client’s high-velocity New York City life, this Staten Island residence prioritizes tranquility through architectural contrast. The interplay of ‘high’ and ‘low’ and shift from ‘fast’ to the ‘slow’ rhythm of domestic serenity, creating a balanced and restorative sanctuary. The curves of the roof and glass walls echo the energy and dynamism of James’s city life — a nod to his identity and success. But as you move through the space, the architecture guides you into a slower rhythm.

Time is a concept created by humans—a framework to organize our lives, track progress, and make sense of our experiences. But what if architecture could influence our perception of time?

It could slow us down, inviting us to pause and engage with the present. By using time as a tool to explore space, architecture can reveal the quiet, often overlooked moments that add depth and meaning to our lives.

SALIMATOU DOUMBOUYA

Bring the Aurora

Bring the Aurora Home explores self-improvement through the concept of “receiving guests,” blending public and private spaces with controlled accessibility. The owner navigates the duality of these spaces, merging them based on readiness and intention to build meaningful relationships.

After a long journey, the owner finally understands and confirms that the way to ultimate authenticity is not isolation but connection with the outside world.

Letting people into his home allowshim to face and understand parts of himself that he has chosen to hide for the longest time. This elevates the art of his leadership.

STAR AIKEN

Rethinking Boundaries

Rethinking Boundaries is a thesis that explores how modernization can coexist with cultural identity through spatial design. Set in Les Parcs de SaintTropez, France, this project questions the limitations of traditional architecture and proposes a home that challenges the idea of fixed boundaries physically, culturally, and emotionally. The design is a house for Camille Laurent, a French artist whose vision of home blends abstract art, color, and architecture. Using color theory, form, and spatial fluidity, the project investigates how boundaries can be redefinedmoving from rigid separations to flexible, interconnected environments. The contrast between a traditional exterior and a free-flowing interior reflects the larger theme of cultural preservation versus progressive reinterpretation.

Renders

The final result is not just a house. It’s an architectural expression of movement, color, and identity.

Through research, precedent studies, and site analysis, the design incorporates Mediterranean climate strategies, sustainable local materials, and indooroutdoor integration.

By redefining boundaries through design, this project offers a response to the growing need for culturally sensitive, emotionally resonant modern spaces.

JOSEPH EPHRAIM OTCHERE

Architecture Tailored to Fit

This thesis project seeks to realize a multifamily residential building prototype in Ghana that reflects both Ghanaian and African design philosophies, and uses vernacular building techniques and materials in its construction.

The final design iteration is based on drawing a link between the philosophy and the design of the house.

The whole massing of the model is based on the woven hairstyles of African women. Some facade openings on the wall are based on the tribal marks of some African cultures. The roof openings mirror the umbrellas used to cover chiefs at functions.

RAVENDRA RAMNERACE

Renewal Through Renewal

Architecture moves according to the activity of people, on a basic level all things are made because people wanted it to look a certain way or needed it to for structural or efficient reasons. Imagine a home that moves to your every need, empty without activity but operable furniture and appliances all molded into the wall. Pulling down a cabinet for your spices sends an electrical signal allowing the walls to open up giving just the perfect amount of light.

A visual interaction of micro-apartments.

KEVIN GIRON

Futbol Central Queens

This thesis re-envisions a city park as a soccer hub with an emphasize on indoor soccer, designed to promote the growth of the sport in the United States and foster cross-cultural exchange through diverse soccer cultures from around the world. A significant issue that faces our current times is the excessive use of electronic devices which detracts from living a productive and physically active life. People may also be restricted to outdoor sports areas year round due to weather conditions. Indoor options are also scarce. With an emphasize on the indoor soccer facility, I would also provide other program that will help create connections between various cultures. This also doesn’t limit outdoor program which I will also provide through full sized soccer fields and junior fields.

PERSPECTIVE VIEW

Creating a soccer hub would provide year round access to the sport and could lead to the growth and exploration of new talent which in turn can open up opportunities to successful career paths.

IMMERSIVE THEATER

PALOMA NUNCIATO

Breathing House

The main focus of my thesis is to create flexible modular designs that can be combined and arranged in various ways depending on the user needs. These modular houses will also adapt to different environments. I will work with two different sites that I closely relate to, each with a client who has different needs. The goal is to demonstrate that my modular design can be applied to various family sizes and environments.

SPACE USE

Breathing House is all about creating harmony among people, space and nature.

JENNIFER CAMAS

Cross-Generational Connections

Located in a small town named El Tambo in Ecuador, this thesis focuses on creating a new educational center that fosters connection, growth, and inclusion by addressing issues related to healing emotional and physical wellbeing of all age groups. Using the surrounding agriculture and culture of the residence this educational center aims to include vibrant materials and sustainable strategies like rainwater collections, natural cross-ventilation, photovoltaic panels, wind energy devices, as well as green roofs and courtyards. This project seeks to prioritize a learning environment with better access to light, air, and outdoor space while also including new adaptable teaching zones that can merge with the surrounding nature and create a teaching environment both inside and outside of this center.

This project aims to tackle the challenges of outdated eduactional spaces in El Tambo,Ecucador, by creating a flexible primary school for children and an elderly community hub, connected through a shared space that bridges both generations while also strengthing intergenerational connections, cultural preservations, and educational growth.

MARIELA SAAVEDRA

Underneath the Highway

This thesis aims to address the growing homelessness in New York City by providing a permanent community in underutilized spaces. In recent years, homelessness in New York City has reached its highest level since the Great Depression of the 1930s. As concerned citizens of New York City, we are witnessing a growing mental health crisis and homelessness issue affecting our community due to the lack of affordable housing. New York City built the world's first elevated highway, like the Cross Bronx Expressway, which has had a detrimental effect on neighborhoods like the Bronx.

Often, the spaces beneath these elevated infrastructures become neglected and discouraged.

This dead space can be used as an opportunity for urban revitalization to increase the vibrancy and resiliency of our neighborhoods by addressing and reclaiming the spaces underneath the highway.

TYLEE RIVERA

Bridging Communities

NYC is a city of much diversity, unites people from many different backgrounds. Communities full of rich history and culture, enriches NYC land. However, one major issue disrupting these communities is rising sea levels. Sea levels are to rise by 8–30 inches by 2050s. Leaving riverbank communities great pressure of tackling a major threat. This thesis is rethinking on how communities unite and interact over the rising sea level plane. Through a set of notions extracted from history and the journey to the site. Mill Rock Island becomes the node of three major bridge communities. The project bridges existing communities, to create a new community.

With single adult New Yorkers housed in residential modular apartments, a new community is created.

While providing a new way of living and excellent views, the bridge communities will have started a new way of providing community to a constant growing city.

YOUSIF NASR

Revitalizing Azbakeya Wall

This thesis proposes a cultural and architectural intervention in the Azbakeya district of Cairo by reviving its historic identity as a center for books and literacy. Drawing from the area’s legacy of the Azbakeya Wall and the famed second-hand book market, the design reclaims public space through a new book market building and an interpretive garden. Together, they restore the district’s role as a cultural and intellectual hub, countering the congestion and neglect that have overtaken the site today.

The massing balances form and function. It rises dynamically, invites public entry, and integrates landscape as connective tissue.

This iteration embodies a cultural synthesis, where preservation meets invention, and the built form becomes both archive and author of urban memory.

ARCH 1121: Architecture History to 1900

As the first course in a three-part sequence, this class introduces the history of architecture from early civilizations to the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Students learn methods of architectural analysis, practice describing structures through close visual observation, and develop critical questions about form, function, and historical context.

At the end of the semester, each student constructs a visual archive and research report on a building selected from a unit in the second half of the course, spanning the Early Modern period to Modernity. Students analyze the building’s physical attributes—plan, section, elevation, and perspective—assemble an accompanying image archive, and write a historical narrative that integrates visual evidence with architectural analysis.

Constructing Archives as Architectural Study

The students featured in the following pages represent a broad geographic range of architectural study, with most sites dating to the early modern and modern periods.

During Fall 2024 and Spring 2025, Abrahman Curry examined St. Patrick’s Cathedral in New York City, while Chance Wade studied Mother Bethel AME Church in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Edelina Rousseau analyzed the Palace of Westminster in London, England, and Natalie SantaCruz investigated the Royal Palace of Madrid in Spain. Angelina Mateo researched the Cathedral of Santa María la Menor in the Dominican Republic, and Alexis Cordoba explored the Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte in France. Christopher Boyd focused on the rock-hewn Church of Saint George in Ethiopia, and Fahad Khan writes about the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul.

St. Patrick’s Cathedral, New York, USA (1858–1878)

Abraham Curry

St. Patrick’s Cathedral was designed by James Renwick Jr., who is often depicted holding a perspective drawing of the cathedral, indicating his profession as an architect. He studied at Columbia College and later Columbia University; although he graduated in engineering, he demonstrated a strong talent for architecture. Renwick was inspired by Gothic styles from English, French, and German traditions (Wu, 2012). In 1843 the Grace Episcopal Church in New York held a design competition, which Renwick won in 1846 with a medievalinspired design. Despite limited experience, he continued to receive major commissions. Recognizing his previous work, Archbishop John Hughes asked Renwick in 1853 to design a new St. Patrick’s Cathedral in New York City (La Farge).

St. Patrick’s Cathedral is a functioning Catholic church dedicated to Saint Patrick. Construction began in 1858, paused during the Civil War, and was completed in 1878. The original St. Patrick’s Cathedral stood on Mulberry Street—now the Basilica of St. Patrick’s Old Cathedral—but a larger structure was required as the Catholic population expanded. Archbishop Hughes declared the intention “to erect a Cathedral in the City of New York that may be worthy of our increasing numbers, intelligence and wealth as a religious community”(SPC). Work halted in the early 1860s due to the Civil War between the Union and Confederacy. During this period many Irish immigrants and soldiers marched from nearby Irish headquarters along Mott Street and Prince Street, symbolizing the resilience of Irish Catholics.

After Hughes’s death, Archbishop John McCloskey, later the first American cardinal, oversaw continuation of the project (SPC). In October 1866 a fire damaged parts of the Basilica of St. Patrick’s Old Cathedral, which was rebuilt by 1868. This event reinforced the revivalist ideals shaping the new cathedral. Construction of the new building resumed and continued toward completion in 1878.

[left] Renwick, James. St. Patrick’s Cathedral, New York. Avery Architectural and Fine Arts L James Renwick and James Renwick Jr: architectural drawings and papers, 1813-1960. Library, Columbia University.

Tuesday, April 23d, 1861, the Irish Headquarters around St. Patrick’s Cathedral, for D.T. Valentine’s Manual, 1862.

The cathedral embodies Neo-Gothic Revival architecture through clustered columns, clerestory windows, and ribbed arches in the interior, along with symmetry and vertical height on the exterior. Clerestory glazing illuminates the nave, side aisles, transept, and apse, while tall columns divide spaces yet preserve circulation. The transept arms and front narthex contain large rose windows, symbolizing connection to heaven while maintaining axial symmetry along the nave. Because Renwick drew inspiration from English, French, and German Gothic traditions (Wu, 2012), the cathedral represents a revival of medieval architectural language.

St. Patrick’s Cathedral functions as both a religious center and architectural landmark, contrasting with the surrounding modern cityscape. Through Neo-Gothic verticality and symmetry, it stands as a revival of Christian identity in mid-nineteenth-century America. The new cathedral, intended to be “worthy of our increasing numbers” (SPC), reflects the growth of Catholic communities and the continuation of Gothic traditions from the old cathedral to the new structure while retaining the traditional Latin cross plan.

Mother Bethel AME, Philadelphia, USA (1888–1890)

Chance Wade

Reverend Richard Allen was born into an enslaved family and sold at a young age. By the age of twenty-two he became a passionate preacher. After purchasing his freedom, he moved to Philadelphia and joined a church where he was invited to preach. Because the congregation was white and followed restrictions on gatherings for free Black people, Allen was inspired to create a place of worship for his own community. He purchased an old blacksmith shop and converted it into a church where Black worshippers could gather freely. Attendance quickly grew, and his vision emerged: a place where Black believers could praise God without limitation. Eventually, a Romanesque Revival style church was constructed on the site in dedication to Reverend Richard Allen and his congregation.

Allen lived during slavery, when Black people were denied basic rights despite the signing of the Bill of Rights during the era of James Madison. Literacy was uncommon among enslaved people, so faith and oral teaching became central sources of hope. Preachers held particular importance within the community, especially when they were members of the same oppressed group. The earliest phase of the church reflected these conditions. Its architecture developed from necessity, using whatever structures enslaved or formerly enslaved Christians were permitted to occupy for worship.

Mother Bethel began without the grandeur typical of established churches. The original structure, converted from a blacksmith shop, lacked elements such as a transept that were common in formal church design. Despite its modest appearance, it became an active gathering place. Over time architectural interest expanded, including clerestory window forms that suggested Romanesque influence. The later Mother Bethel AME Church, built in the nineteenth-century Romanesque Revival style by the architects Hazlehurst and Huckel, presented a more monumental presence.

[left] Wartts, Adrienne. “Mother Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church [Philadelphia] (1794- )

At the front of the building stands a campanile beside the entrance steps leading into the narthex. Rounded arches supported by columns frame the doorway, and decorative crosses line the roofline. Small circular clerestory windows appear around the structure, while most windows are rectangular with rounded arches rather than strict geometric rectangles. The façade emphasizes the entrance, which faces west in accordance with traditional church orientation. A fence once bordered the building but was later altered as the façade expanded. Together these features create a clear Romanesque Revival character while maintaining the building’s connection to its earlier origins.

In conclusion, Mother Bethel AME Church represents both architectural development and social history. It served as a place of trust, faith, and community for formerly enslaved people seeking spiritual freedom and mutual support. Although Richard Allen was not an architect, his vision inspired the creation of a more permanent and dignified structure. The church has endured through slavery, Jim Crow, and the Civil Rights era, symbolizing the determination of the Black community. Its Romanesque Revival architecture transformed a humble gathering space into a lasting monument of faith, hope, and resilience, demonstrating how architecture can communicate belief and collective identity.

[top] Caldwell, Charlette. The Crucible of the Freedom Church: The African Methodist Episcopal Church and the Culture of Building in the United States.buellcenter.columbia.edu/

[bottom] Newman, Richard. “Print.” Religion in America Mother Bethel A M E Church Comments, 2008, www.religioninam erica.org/ rahp_objects/ mother-bethel-a-m-echurch/.

Palace Of Westminster, London, England (1840–1876)

Edelina Rousseau

[above] Walker, Edmund. Westminster Palace, 1851. © Parliamentary Art Collection, WOA 742.

The Palace of Westminster, situated on the north bank of the River Thames in London, serves as the seat of the United Kingdom’s Parliament. After the catastrophic fire of October 16, 1834, which destroyed much of the palace, the structure was rebuilt under the designs of Sir Charles Barry with decorative contributions from Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin. Constructed in stages between 1840 and 1876, the complex includes Westminster Hall (a surviving medieval component), the Victoria Tower at the southern end, the Elizabeth Tower (Big Ben) at the northern end, and the Central Lobby connecting the House of Commons and the House of Lords.

The fire of 1834, captured in Joseph Turner’s painting "The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons", marked a turning point in British architectural history. The blaze devastated most of the medieval structure, leaving Westminster Hall and a few chambers intact. In response, a nationwide competition sought a new parliamentary building reflecting Britain’s status as a global power. During the Victorian era, national identity, progress, and industrial advancement were symbolically embodied in the new palace.

[above] Turner, Joseph Mallord William. The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons. 1835

Barry and Pugin’s design restored functionality while honoring England’s architectural heritage through the Gothic Revival, a major nineteenth-century movement. The palace also symbolized resilience during political upheaval, including nineteenth-century reforms satirized in Tom Merry’s 1891 lithograph *Britannia and Her Lion Begging. Monumental structures such as the Elizabeth Tower (Big Ben, 1856), with its specially cast bell, highlighted Britain’s technological achievements during the Industrial Revolution.

The Palace of Westminster represents the Gothic Revival style through vertical emphasis in the Victoria Tower and Elizabeth Tower, which dominate the skyline with pinnacles and spires. Westminster Hall’s hammer-beam roof demonstrates advanced medieval timber construction and remains one of the palace’s most remarkable surviving features.

The restored interiors of St. Stephen’s Crypt include ribbed vaults, groin vaults, and diagonal ribs that provide structural support while enhancing decoration. Clerestory windows, rose windows, and stained glass incorporate intricate stone tracery that fills the House of Lords and Westminster Hall with light. Exterior walls are reinforced with slender buttresses and pilaster columns that create vertical decorative lines, while corbelled arches appear around entrances both structurally and decoratively. The elaborate carvings, grotesques, and heraldic symbols reflect the Gothic Revival aesthetic and Pugin’s belief that architecture should be moral, beautiful, and functional.

In conclusion, the Palace of Westminster remains an enduring symbol of British identity, governance, and architectural achievement. Its design, merging medieval inspiration with Victorian innovation, expresses the ideals of the Gothic Revival movement. From the destruction of 1834 to political reforms and modern restoration efforts, the building underscores Britain’s cultural and historical importance. Its survival—from the casting of the bell for Big Ben to the twenty-firstcentury Restoration and Renewal program— ensures that it continues to function as both a parliamentary building and a testament to the lasting significance of Gothic Revival architecture.

[above] Bluck, John, Active 1791–1831, British. Westminster Hall, 1809. Westminster Hall. Yale Center for British Art.

The Royal Palace of Madrid, Spain (1738–1755)

Natalie SantaCruz

King Philip V, founder of the Bourbon Dynasty and ruler of Spain from 1700 to 1746, was the first Bourbon king to occupy the Spanish throne. His reign reshaped Spain’s political and cultural landscape through administrative reforms and strengthened royal authority. A major achievement was commissioning the Royal Palace of Madrid, a focal point of the 18th-century monarchy and symbol of Bourbon legitimacy. Designed by architects Filippo Juvarra and Giovanni Battista Sacchetti, the palace represented the new Bourbon age of royal power. After the Alcázar burned in 1734, Philip V supervised reconstruction as a demonstration of Bourbon resilience. The new Baroque palace functioned as both residence and statement of Spain’s cultural prestige during the Enlightenment.

Diego Velázquez’s *Las Meninas* offers insight into courtly life later associated with Bourbon rule. Although painted before Philip V’s accession, it captures a political and cultural environment he would later reshape. Velázquez emphasizes the importance of the arts by portraying the royal family while inserting himself into the composition. This aligns with Philip V’s effort to unite culture and authority to strengthen the monarchy and elevate Spain’s status.

The painting’s layout reinforces authority: the royal family becomes both subject and focus of the viewer’s attention. Velázquez highlights court culture as a source of royal power, just as the Royal Palace expressed Bourbon determination. His presence illustrates the relationship between monarchy and intellectuals during a period when the arts flourished under royal patronage. Through artistic support, Philip V promoted cultural advancement similar to that depicted in the courtly setting of *Las Meninas*. The composition’s complex framing anticipates the sophisticated expression of authority later reinforced in Bourbon court culture. Ultimately, the painting portrays a court that, though predating Philip V, foreshadows the political and cultural transformations of his reign.

[left] The Sabatini Garden located north of the Royal Palace with various statues surrounding the fountain.

[above] Gómez De Mora. Alcázar of Madrid. Ground floor plan. [Spain] Photograph. Retrieved from the Library of Congress.

The connection between the painting and royal space further anticipates Bourbon reforms. The relationship between figures and surrounding architecture parallels the design strategy of the Royal Palace of Madrid after the 1734 fire. Because the earlier palace was destroyed, reconstruction emphasized power, order, and elegance. The gardens surrounding royal residences symbolized authority through harmony and restraint. Similarly, *Las Meninas* links court life to broader royal environments where art, architecture, and nature reinforce monarchical authority.

Velázquez’s self-representation demonstrates the importance of artists and scholars within the royal court, a value central to Philip V’s cultural program. By aligning artistic representation with royal spaces, the painting anticipates ideas realized in Bourbon architectural projects. Though depicting daily court life, the image expresses the political and cultural ambitions that defined the Bourbon era. Together, the Royal Palace of Madrid and *Las Meninas* show how visual culture, architecture, and patronage functioned as tools of power, projecting stability, legitimacy, and sophistication for the Spanish monarchy.

The Cathedral of Santa María La Menor, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic (1514–1541)

Angelina Mateo

The Cathedral of Santa María La Menor, located in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, was constructed between 1512 and 1540, making it the oldest cathedral in the Americas. Pope Julius II, head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States, ordered its construction. The original plans were created by Alonso de Rodríguez in 1512 and later continued by Luis de Moya and Rodrigo de Liendo in 1522 under Bishop Alessandro Geraldini, before being formally declared by Bishop Alonso de Fuenmayor in 1541. The building follows a Latin cross plan and was constructed with coral limestone suited to the Caribbean climate. Mixing Gothic, Romanesque, and Plateresque styles, it used vaulting, buttressing, arches, domes, thick walls, and small windows to withstand storms and heat.

The cathedral’s creation reflects Spain’s imperial expansion. After the Catholic Monarchs unified Spain in the late fifteenth century, the country rapidly expanded into the New World. Christopher Columbus claimed Hispaniola for Spain in 1492, leading to the founding of Santo Domingo in 1496, the first permanent European settlement in the Americas. As the city grew, the Spanish crown constructed churches, cathedrals, and government buildings to establish order. The labor force included enslaved Indigenous and African people brought through the transatlantic slave trade and forcibly converted to Christianity. Commissioned by Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, the cathedral served to spread Catholicism and reinforce Spanish authority overseas.

The cathedral stands near Parque Colón, the city’s social and political center, emphasizing its importance as a religious and administrative institution. Housing Christopher Columbus’s tomb, it functioned as both spiritual center and symbol of colonial power. Spanish authorities used religion to control Indigenous populations through forced baptisms and mass attendance while suppressing native practices. Architect Alonso González drew inspiration from Spanish cathedrals, including the cross layout of Seville Cathedral, the pointed arches of Toledo Cathedral, and the vault patterns of Burgos Cathedral. Combined with Renaissance Spanish influences and the Caribbean climate, these models shaped the cathedral’s final form.

[left] "Mapa de la isla de Santo Domingo." Map. Paris ; Paris: Lané e, succr. de Longuet, Graveur-Editeur des Cartes Gè ographiques. 1858.

[above] Catedral Santa María La Menor, Santo Domingo. 1855.

[below] Briones, Ricardo. Fachada plateresca de la Catedral Metropolitana Santa María de la Encarnación, Primada de América 2012.

Architecturally, the cathedral reflects early sixteenth-century European traditions, blending Spanish Gothic and early Renaissance forms. Ribbed vaults, pointed arches, and buttressed walls demonstrate the Isabelline Gothic style, directing the viewer’s gaze upward. The coral limestone façade shows Plateresque ornamentation through arches, pilasters, and religious reliefs. Thick walls and simplified exteriors adapted the structure to local weather conditions. The vaulted nave, carved altars, side chapels, and stained glass illustrate Spanish traditions and later renovations. Among its artifacts is the "Virgen de la Antigua", reportedly recovered from a shipwreck by Captain Francisco Vara,

depicting the Virgin Mary holding Christ while angels crown her. Together with the angel reliefs at the entrance, it emphasizes Catholic belief and Spanish cultural influence.

The Cathedral of Santa María La Menor stands as a monumental symbol of early Spanish colonial authority and religious expansion. Built to promote Catholicism and imperial control, it combines Gothic, Renaissance, and Plateresque styles adapted to its environment. The structure reinforced Catholic doctrine while asserting European power over Indigenous and African populations. It marks a significant historical moment when Spain expanded into the Americas, functioning both as a place of worship and a tool of empire. Through its geometry, imagery, and enduring architecture, the cathedral continues to convey spiritual meaning while preserving the complex history of its origins.

[left] Kubler, George, Art and Architecture in Spain and Portugal and their American Dominions: 1500 to 1800. Penguin Books, 1959. Figure 28.

Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte, France (1658–1661)

Alexis Cordoba

In the *Portrait of a Man with the Louvre*, a portrait of Louis Le Vau, the architect of the Louvre, the Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte, and later the Palace of Versailles, he is shown casually seated beside a plan of the Louvre, with the pavilion north of the Petite Galerie in the background. Le Vau was born into a family of architects and builders and participated in numerous projects involving private mansions and castles. Although he never visited Italy, he studied architectural plans and books that influenced his designs, particularly the works of Bernini and Pietro da Cortona.

The Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte, built between 1656 and 1661, marked Le Vau’s major success. A defining feature was the two-story oval salon facing the garden. The structure also incorporated a triple opening on the ground floor, a motif characteristic of Le Vau’s projects. The Citadel of Belle-Île, connected to Nicolas Fouquet, Marquis de Belle-Île and Viscount of Melun and Vaux, influenced aspects of the château. Fouquet’s experience with fortifications and strategic planning contributed to defensive features such as the moated platform.

Nicolas Fouquet, superintendent of finances for Louis XIV, purchased the manor of Vauxle-Vicomte and expanded it to impress the king and court. He commissioned grand formal gardens designed by André Le Nôtre, featuring basins, terraces, and optical illusions. Fouquet hosted an elaborate opening celebration in honor of Louis XIV, including a play by Molière and a formal dinner. Jean-Baptiste Colbert, former secretary to Cardinal Mazarin, grew jealous of Fouquet’s success and accused him of embezzlement. Louis XIV imprisoned Fouquet for life and confiscated his property, yet the château remained a landmark of French Baroque architecture and a model for Versailles. The king adopted Fouquet’s artistic team—Louis Le Vau, Charles Le Brun, and André Le Nôtre—for his own palace project. Le Brun had designed a ceiling for the Grand Salon honoring the king with solar imagery, reflecting Louis XIV’s identity as the Sun King, though the design was never completed). The château also appears in later imagery depicting the Queen of France with the building in the background.

[above] Marot, Jean, and Louis Le Vau. “Plan of Vaux Le Vicomte,”c.1660.

This plan of the main floor emphasizes how the chateau adapts to its surroundings, incorporating features like a moat, wing walls, and garden organization.

The château embodies Baroque symmetry and grandeur. Perspective views contrast natural landscape with geometric gardens and emphasize the scale of Le Nôtre’s terraces. The design combines monumental symmetry, theatrical interiors, and landscape integration. Le Vau created balance through an axial layout with a central pavilion flanked by two wings The domed oval hall breaks the traditional rectangular salon and emphasizes vertical movement. Another innovation was arranging rooms side-by-side rather than stacked vertically. Charles Le Brun contributed ornate frescoes and gilded decoration enhancing the dramatic atmosphere. André Le Nôtre extended architectural symmetry into the landscape using geometric layouts, water basins, and optical perspective. The gardens at Vaux-leVicomte became a masterpiece and influenced the later gardens of Versailles, where Le Nôtre perfected long vistas, fountains, and terraces. His *jardin à la française* style spread throughout Europe and made him one of the most influential figures of the seventeenth century.

The Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte illustrates the ambition of Nicolas Fouquet and the creativity of Louis Le Vau, Charles Le Brun, and André Le Nôtre. Despite Fouquet’s downfall and the confiscation of his estate by Louis XIV, the building’s architectural and landscape innovations endured. The château directly influenced the Palace of Versailles and shaped the future of French classical architecture. Today it remains a preserved cultural landmark that continues to inspire visitors and historians.style for submission.

[below] Pfnor,Rodolphe.Section of Chateau de Vaux-Le-Vicomte, 1888.

left page

[eft] Anonymous (French) Portrait of a Man with the Louvre. 1662.

[right] Silvestre, Israël. Perspective of the Chateaux de Vaux. 1660.

Church of Saint George, Lalibela, Ethiopia (c.1200)

Christopher Boyd

St. George’s Church of Lalibela is carved from a single piece of rock. The structure was formed by excavating a trench around the footprint of the church and then carving downward and inward over time. The trench measures approximately twelve meters deep and about twenty-three meters wide on each side. Among the three groups of rock-hewn churches in Lalibela, St. George stands alone, isolated from the others. The site also functions as a burial ground, with trenches and cavities surrounding the church.

Ethiopia was one of the earliest nations to adopt Christianity, dating to the fourth century. The exact details of the construction of the Lalibela churches remain uncertain. In 1187 Jerusalem was captured by Muslim forces, making it inaccessible to Christian pilgrims. King Gebre Meskel Lalibela of the Zagwe Dynasty responded by creating a “New Jerusalem” in Ethiopia, with Lalibela serving as the capital at the time. The Zagwe dynasty, a medieval monarchy that ruled parts of Ethiopia and Eritrea, is still not fully documented in historical records.

St. George’s Church is part of a larger complex of eleven rock-hewn churches created under King Lalibela’s vision of the New Jerusalem. The site was described in the sixteenth century by the Portuguese priest Francisco Álvares, who regarded the churches as a wonder of the world. Today the complex remains one of the most significant religious sites in Ethiopia.

The church represents rock-cut architecture, a technique in which structures are carved directly into stone rather than constructed from assembled materials. St. George is unique within the complex because it stands fully detached on all sides from the surrounding rock mass. Rock-cut architecture appears in several ancient civilizations, with early examples including monuments such as the Dwarfie Stane in Scotland.

St. George’s Church remains a remarkable and mysterious example of this architectural method. Many aspects of its construction are still unknown, and the limited historical record of King Lalibela and the Zagwe dynasty adds to its complexity. What is clear, however, is the powerful impact the structure has on visitors. The precision and scale of a building carved entirely from a single stone continue to inspire awe.

Today thousands of pilgrims travel to Lalibela to worship at St. George’s Church and the surrounding sacred complex. The church stands not only as an architectural achievement but also as a living religious monument, preserving centuries of faith and devotion while connecting Ethiopia’s early Christian traditions to the present.

[above] Lalibala: Church of St. George: Ext.: Rock-Cut Church Entrance. Visual Arts Legacy Collection.

[below] Scaffolding supporting workers at Rock-Hewn Coptic Churches. 1167-1207.

[left page] Anonymous. Aerial View of Saint George Church

Süleymaniye Mosque, Istanbul, Türkiye

(1550–1557)

Fahad Khan

Koca Mi'mâr Sinân was an architect appointed by the Ottoman Sultan to design the Süleymaniye Mosque. Born to a Christian family in Southeast Anatolia, he was recruited at age twenty-one into an elite Ottoman infantry force drawn from Christian territories of the empire. Sinan converted to Islam and served Suleiman the Magnificent in military campaigns as both a soldier and engineer. His engineering experience contributed to his architectural expertise. At age forty-seven, Suleiman appointed Sinan (1491–1588) chief architect of Istanbul. He designed hundreds of structures in the city, most notably the Süleymaniye Mosque. Construction began in 1550 and lasted eight years, completing in 1557. The mosque functioned as a religious building while its surrounding complex served broader social purposes, reflecting the principles of classical Ottoman architecture.

Between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries the Ottoman Empire expanded across Eastern Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa, developing a distinct architectural style. Constantinople, the imperial capital, became the center of these projects. The nearby Golden Horn protected the city from naval attack using a chain barrier and also supported trade and commerce, contributing to imperial prosperity. The Süleymaniye Külliyesi (complex) extended beyond the prayer hall, courtyard (sahn), and tomb gardens. It included four madrasas dedicated to Islamic law, a hadith school, a Qur’an school, a medical school, hospital, hospice, public kitchen, baths, and fountains. Sinan himself was later buried within the grounds. These structures demonstrate the Ottoman emphasis on public service and education, making the külliye a center of cultural, religious, and social life.

A defining aspect of the Süleymaniye Mosque is its strong influence from Byzantine architecture, particularly the Hagia Sophia, originally a Byzantine church later converted into a mosque. Suleiman sought a structure rivaling its grandeur. The Ottomans adapted the Byzantine method of supporting a central dome on four large pendentives, flanked by halfdomes on the sides. This produced a unified interior space blending Islamic and Byzantine elements. Islamic practices shaped interior features: a carved mihrab indicating the qibla, a stepped minbar for sermons, and clerestory windows around the dome providing natural light. Intricate patterns and Arabic calligraphy decorate the dome and pendentives in accordance with aniconic tradition. Exterior elements include an ablution fountain in the courtyard, wall-mounted ablution tap, and prominent minarets, all essential components of mosque architecture. Together these elements illustrate how Ottoman architecture integrated multiple cultural influences while maintaining Islamic identity.

The Süleymaniye Mosque dominates the Istanbul skyline, its dome and slender minarets rising above surrounding neighborhoods and the Golden Horn. The structure represents the Ottoman synthesis of religion, culture, and imperial authority. By combining Byzantine structural methods with Islamic spatial and decorative principles, Sinan created a masterpiece of classical Ottoman architecture. The mosque stands as a testament to the fusion of traditions and the innovative architectural ideas produced by the Ottoman Empire.

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2. Süleyman I (the Magnificent), detail of an engraving of a panel by Pieter Coecke van Aelst showing a procession through Istanbul, 1533.

3. Interior of the Suleymaniye Mosque. Library, Rare & Manuscript. Cornell University. 1888. Collections

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NOTES

Kramer, Howard. “CATHEDRAL of SANTA MARIA LA MENOR”. The Complete Pilgrim - Religious Travel Sites, 3 June 2014.

Kubler, George, and Martin Soria. Art and Architecture in Spain and Portugal and Their American Dominions: 1500 to 1800. Penguin Books, 1959.

Niell, P. Late Gothic in the sixteenth-century Cathedral of Santa María la Menor, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. Postmedieval 6, 258–271 (2015).

Sullivan, Alice Isabella, and Kyle G Sweeney. Lateness and Modernity in Medieval Architecture. BRILL, 2023.

Alexis Cordoba - Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte

Fazio, Michael W, et al. A World History of Architecture. Boston, McGraw-Hill, 2008.

Lavin, Irving. PAST-PRESENT Essays on Historicism in Art from Donatelfu to Picasso. Library of Congress Cataloging in Data, 1993.

Le Brun, Charles. “Design for the Cupola of the Grand Salon of the Château de Vaux-Le-Vicomte,” The Artistic Adventure of Mankind, 1650.

“Château de Vaux-Le-Vicomte, Maincy, France" Spottinghistory.com. 2025.

“French Painting of the Grand Siècle, Conclusion.” The Artistic Adventure of Mankind, WordPress, 10 May 2024.

Christopher Boyd - Church of Saint George, Lalibela

Editors, Charles River. The Lalibela Churches the History and Legacy of the Medieval Cave Churches in Ethiopia.

Maffei, Bonita. Lalibela, Priest King of Ethiopia: The Rock Hewn Churches.

Findlay, Dr. Louis. The Monolithic Churches of Lalibela in Ethiopia.

Bidder, Irmgard. Lalibela: The Monolithic Churches of Ethiopia.

Sanceau, Elaine. The Land of Prester John a Chronicle of Portuguese Exploration. Alfred A Kopf, 1944.

Fahad Khan - Süleymaniye Mosque

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“Byzantine Design Meets Islamic Design,” “The Magnificent’s Magnificent Mosque,” and “The Urban Imagination.” Hum54-15. omeka.fas. harvard.edu/exhibits/show/suleymaniye/design.

“Süleymaniye Külliyesi.” www.archnet.org,  www.archnet.org/sites/2024.

“Hagia Sophia and its Influence on Ottoman Architecture,” Sutori, 2024, www.sutori.com/en.