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Migration,DiasporasandCitizenship
SeriesEditors: RobinCohen,FormerDirectoroftheInternationalMigrationInstituteandProfessorofDevelopmentStudies,UniversityofOxford,UK,and ZigLayton-Henry,ProfessorofPolitics,UniversityofWarwick,UK.
EditorialBoard: RainerBaubock,EuropeanUniversityInstitute,Italy; JamesF.Hollifield,SouthernMethodist University,USA; JanRath,UniversityofAmsterdam,TheNetherlands.
The Migration,DiasporasandCitizenship seriescoversthreeimportantaspectsofthemigrationprogress:Firstly,the determinants,dynamicsandcharacteristicsofinternationalmigration;secondly,thecontinuingattachmentof manycontemporarymigrantstotheirplacesoforigin,signifiedbytheword‘diaspora’;and,thirdly,theattempt, bycontrast,tobelongandgainacceptanceinplacesofsettlement,signifiedbytheword‘citizenship’.Theseries publishesworkthatshowsengagementwithandalivelyappreciationofthewidersocialandpoliticalissuesthat areinfluencedbyinternationalmigration.
Titlesinclude:
AnnaTriandafyllidouandIrinaIsaakyan(editors) HIGH-SKILLMIGRATIONANDRECESSION GenderedPerspectives
CindyHorst,GodfriedEngbersen,MariaLucindaFonsecaand OliverBakewell BEYONDNETWORKS
FeedbackinInternationalMigration
BridgetAndersonandVanessaHughes(editors) CITIZENSHIPANDITSOTHERS
BridgetAndersonandIsabelShutes(editors) MIGRATIONANDCARELABOUR Theory,PolicyandPolitics
FloyaAnthiasandMojcaPajnik(editors) CONTESTINGINTEGRATION,ENGENDERINGMIGRATION TheoryandPractice
FionaBarker
NATIONALISM,IDENTITYANDTHEGOVERNANCEOFDIVERSITY OldPolitics,NewArrivals
LorettaBass
AFRICANIMMIGRANTFAMILIESINANOTHERFRANCE
MichaelaBensonandNickOsbaldiston UNDERSTANDINGLIFESTYLEMIGRATION
TheoreticalApproachestoMigrationandtheQuestfora BetterWayofLife
GlendaBonifacioandMariaKontos MIGRANTDOMESTICWORKERSANDFAMILYLIFE InternationalPerspectives
MichaelCollyer EMIGRATIONNATIONS
PoliciesandIdeologiesofEmigrantEngagement
DanielConwayandPaulineLeonard MIGRATION,SPACEANDTRANSNATIONALIDENTITIES
TheBritishinSouthAfrica
RosieCox(editor ) SISTERSORSERVANTS
AuPairs’LivesinGlobalContext SaniyeDedeoglu
MIGRANTS,WORKANDSOCIALINTEGRATION Women’sLabourintheTurkishEthnicEconomy
AsuncionFresnoza-FlotandItaruNagasaka(editors) MOBILECHILDHOODSINFILIPINOTRANSNATIONALFAMILIES MigrantChildrenwithSimilarRootsinDifferentRoutes
JaneGarnettandSondraL.Hausner RELIGIONINDIASPORA
CulturesofCitizenship
EleonoreKofmanandParvatiRaghuram GENDEREDMIGRATIONSANDGLOBALSOCIALREPRODUCTION
CatrinLundström
WHITEMIGRATIONS
Gender,WhitenessandPrivilegeinTransnationalMigration
MajellaKilkey,DianePerronsandAniaPlomien GENDER,MIGRATIONANDDOMESTICWORK
Masculinities,MaleLabourandFatheringintheUKandUSA
AmandaKlekowskivonKoppenfels MIGRANTSOREXPATRIATES?
AmericansinEurope
DominicPasura
AFRICANTRANSNATIONALDIASPORAS
FracturedCommunitiesandPluralIdentitiesofZimbabweansinBritain
HelenSchwenkenandSabineRuß-Sattar NEWBORDERANDCITIZENSHIPPOLITICS
ShanthiRobertson TRANSNATIONALSTUDENT-MIGRANTSANDTHESTATE
TheEducation-MigrationNexus
OliviaSheringham TRANSNATIONALRELIGIOUSSPACES
FaithandtheBrazilianMigrationExperience
EvanSmithandMarinellaMarmo RACE,GENDERANDTHEBODYINBRITISHIMMIGRATIONCONTROL
SubjecttoExamination
HelenTaylor REFUGEESANDTHEMEANINGOFHOME
CypriotNarrativesofLoss,LongingandDailyLifeinLondon
HollyThorpe
TRANSNATIONALMOBILITIESINACTIONSPORTCULTURES
LouiseWaite,GaryCraig,HannahLewisandKlaraSkrivankova VULNERABILIY,EXPLOITATIONANDMIGRANTS
InsecureWorkinaGlobalisedEconomy
VronWare
MILITARYMIGRANTS
FightingforYourCountry
HaraldBauderandChristianMatheis MIGRATIONPOLICYANDPRACTICE
InterventionsandSolutions
Migration,DiasporasandCitizenship
SeriesStandingOrderISBN978–0–230–30078–1(hardback)and 978–0–230–30079–8(paperback) (outsideNorthAmericaonly)
Youcanreceivefuturetitlesinthisseriesastheyarepublishedbyplacingastandingorder.Pleasecontactyour bookselleror,incaseofdifficulty,writetousattheaddressbelowwithyournameandaddress,thetitleofthe seriesandtheISBNquotedabove.
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High-SkillMigrationand Recession GenderedPerspectives Editedby
AnnaTriandafyllidou Professor,EuropeanUniversityInstitute,Italy
IrinaIsaakyan ResearchAssociate,EuropeanUniversityInstitute,Italy
Selectionandeditorialmatter©AnnaTriandafyllidouand IrinaIsaakyan2016
Individualchapters©Respectiveauthors2016
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2016 978-1-137-46710-2
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AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Highskillmigrationandrecession:genderedperspectives/ AnnaTriandafyllidou,IrinaIsaakyan. pagescm.—(Migration,diasporasandcitizenship) 1.Skilledlabor.2.Laborsupply.3.Women—Employment. 4.Womenforeignworkers.5.Womenintheprofessions. 6.Emigrationandimmigration—Economicaspects.7.Recessions. I.Triandafyllidou,Anna,editor.II.Isaakyan,Irina,1970—editor. HD5706.H5352015 331.4086 912—dc23 2015023914
ListofFiguresandTables
PartIFemaleHigh-SkillMigration:Conceptsand Dynamics
1FemaleHigh-SkillMigrationinthe21stCentury:The ChallengeoftheRecession 3 IrinaIsaakyanandAnnaTriandafyllidou
2EuropeanPoliciestoAttractTalent:TheCrisisandHighly SkilledMigrationPolicyChanges 22 LucieCernaandMathiasCzaika
3FemaleHigh-SkilledEmigrationfromSouthernEuropeand IrelandaftertheCrisis 44 CarmenGonzálezEnríquezandAnnaTriandafyllidou
4CrisisandBeyond:Intra-EUMobilityofPolishandSpanish MigrantsinaComparativePerspective 69 PawełKaczmarczykandMikolajStanek
PartIIFemaleHigh-SkillMigration:ASector-Specific Approach
5MigrationofNursesandDoctorsintheEUandtheEuropean FreeTradeAssociation 103 GillesDussault,JamesBuchanandIsabelCraveiro
6MigrationofEngineersandtheGenderDimension
MatthewDixon
7SouthernEuropeanHighlySkilledFemaleMigrantsin Male-DominatedSectorsinTimesofCrisis:ALookintothe ITandEngineeringSectors 160 RubyGropasandLauraBartolini
8InternationalStudents’Mobility,GenderDimensionandCrisis193 MartaMoskal
9ExploringtheIntersectingImpactofGenderandCitizenship onSpatialandAcademicCareerMobility
215 KyokoShinozaki
PartIIIProblemsandSolutions:TowardsaNew UnderstandingoftheFemaleHigh-SkillMigrantin Europe
10TheProblemofSkillWasteamongHighlySkilledMigrant WomenintheUKCareSector
241 SondraCuban
11AmericanWomeninSouthernEurope:ANewSourceof High-SkillWorkforcefortheEurocrisisZone
265 IrinaIsaakyan
12Re-ThinkingtheGenderDimensionofHigh-SkillMigration293 AnnaTriandafyllidouandIrinaIsaakyan
FiguresandTables 2.1Salarythresholdsandratioscomparedtogrossannual
3.4Typeofemploymentcontractatthecountryoforiginand
3.5Reasonsforleaving(multipleunlimitedchoice)
3.6Typeofoccupationatthedestinationcountryandgender55
3.7Monthlyincomeandgender
4.1RealGDPgrowthratesofEU-27andselectedmemberstates
4.2GeneralgovernmentgrossdebtofEU-27andselected memberstates(%ofGDP)
4.3UnemploymentratesofEU-27andselectedmemberstatesin totalactivepopulationandunemploymentratesofactive personsagedlessthan25(%)
4.4Unemploymentratesoftertiary-educatedpersonsofEU-27 andselectedmemberstates
4.5StockofPolishandSpanishrecentmigrantsinEUcountries (2008–2014)(thirdquarter) 80
4.6StockofPolishandSpanishmigrantsinEUcountries 82
4.7StockofrecentPolishandSpanishmigrants(threeyearsor lesssincearrival)residingintheEU,selectedagegroups, 2008–2014(thirdquarter) 83
4.8ShareofwomenamongPolishandSpanishmigrantsinthe EU(threeyearsorlesssincearrival),2008–2014(third quarter) 84
4.9Shareoftertiary-andprimary-educatedpersonsamong PolishandSpanishmigrantsintheEU(threeyearsorless sincearrival),2008–2014(thirdquarter) 85
4.10Shareoftertiary-andprimary-educatedpersonsamong PolishandSpanishfemalemigrantsintheEU(threeyearsor lesssincearrival),2008–2014(thirdquarter) 86
4.11OccupationalpositionofPolishandSpanish tertiary-educatedfemalemigrantsintheEU(threeyearsor lesssincearrival)2008–2014(thirdquarter) 87
6.1Percentageofwomeninscienceandengineering professionaloccupations(ISCO210)inEUmemberstates, 1–highest‘FemaleFraction’ 148
6.2Percentageofwomeninscienceandengineering professionaloccupations(ISCO210)inEUmemberstates, 2–intermediate‘FemaleFraction’ 149
6.3Percentageofwomeninscienceandengineering professionaloccupations(ISCO210)inEUmemberstates, 3–lowest‘FemaleFraction’ 150
6.4Percentageofwomeninscienceandengineeringassociate professionaloccupations(ISCO310)inEUmemberstates, 1–highest‘FemaleFraction’ 151
6.5Percentageofwomeninscienceandengineeringassociate professionaloccupations(ISCO310)inEUmemberstates, 2–intermediate‘FemaleFraction’ 152
6.6Percentageofwomeninscienceandengineeringassociate professionaloccupations(ISCO310)inEUmemberstates, 3–lowest‘FemaleFraction’ 153
7.1Share(%)ofdegreesawardedtowomen,selectedfieldsof study(2012) 164
7.2Sectorofemploymentbeforemigration:Shareontotal employedbysexandcountryoforigin(%) 173
7.3Country/areaofdestination,bysexandcountryoforigin174
7.4Shareofemploymentbefore(incountryoforigin)andafter emigration(atdestination),bysexandcountryoforigin175
7.5Typeofemploymentafteremigration(atdestination),bysex andcountryoforigin(onlyemployed) 176
7.6Incomeclasses( )aftermigration(atdestination),bysex176
7.7Satisfactionwithincomeaftermigration,bysex 177
9.1‘Highlyqualified’categoryofmigrantsbygender 222
9.2‘Highlyqualified’migrantsfrom2005to2013 222
9.3Thenumberofnon-GermanacademicsatGermanHEIs226
9.4AcademicsinGermanHEIsbycitizenship 227
9.5Shareofwomenacademicsinnon-migrantandmigrant academics 228
2.1Immigrationrateandgendercompositionofhigh-skilled immigrantstocks(in%) 32
2.2High-skilledimmigrationundernationalschemesandEU BlueCard(inthousands) 33
2.3Gender–paygapsintheEU(in%) 36
3.1Occupationalsituationandfamilystatus 54
3.2Typeofworkcontract 55
3.3Difficultiesfacedatdestinationcountry(multipleunlimited choice),bygenderandcountryoforigin 60
3.4Socio-demographicvariablesandgender 63
3.5Labourmarketinsertionandgender 64
4.1OutflowsfromSpainbynationalityandcountryofbirth (2008–2014) 82
5.1Push-and-pullfactorsmotivatingthedecisiontomigrate112
6.1Structureoftheengineeringworkforce 129
6.2Broadworkareaswithinsomeengineering‘disciplines’ (showingsomesafety-critical/regulatedspecificactivities)134
6.3Graduatesfromtertiaryeducation,byfieldofeducationand sex,EU-28,2011 146
6.4Femalepercentagesofengineeringtertiary-education outcomesandinrelevantworkforceoccupations,bycountry147
7.1Totalandfemaleemigrationratebycountryofbirth(age 15+) 165
7.2HighlyskilledemigrantsinengineeringandIT,demographic characteristicsbysexandcountryoforigin 171
7.3Shareofemployedrespondentsbeforemigration,bysexand countryoforigin 172
7.4Orderedlogisticmodelforthelevelofincome(oddsratios)179
7.5Logisticregressionmodel–satisfactionwithcurrentincome (oddsratios) 183
8.1HEstudentsintheUKin2013/2014,bysexandselected domicile 195
8.2HEpostgraduatestudentenrolmentintheUKin2013/14195
8.3Topnon-EEAcountriesin2013/14and2012/13forHE overseasstudentsintheUK 196
8.4TopEEAcountriesin2013/14and2012/13forHEoverseas studentsintheUK 196
9.1‘Highlyqualified’migrantsfrom2005to2013 221
9.2Shareofacademicsbycitizenshipandgender 228
10.1Sampleof60participants 245
Preface Theideaforthisbookemergedthroughlongconversationsandexchanges thattookplaceduringthecourseofIrina’sMarieCurieFellowshipproject ‘FEMIDE: FemaleMigrantsfromDevelopedCountriesinSouthernEurope: AStudyofIntegration’. FEMIDE wasconductedundertheauspicesofthe MarieCurieActionsIntra-EuropeanFellowship(298752)in2012–2014and hostedbytheRobertSchumanCentreforAdvancedStudies(RSCAS)atthe EuropeanUniversityInstitute(EUI)inFlorence,Italy.ItlookedattheprocessesofUS-andBritish-nationalwomenlivinginItalyandGreece.Earlyon, whileIrinawasconductinginterviewswithAnglophonewomenindifferent partsofItalyandGreece,itemergedthateventhesehighlyeducatedwomen whousuallymigrateforpersonalreasons(marriage,love)facedimportant problemsoflabourmarketinsertionaswellasoverallintegrationwiththeir hostsocieties.Indeed,itcameasasurprisethathighlyskilledmigrant women,usuallywithastableresidencestatus,hadtroublesecuringemploymentintheirareaofexpertiseandwereoftenmetwithsuspicion.Itwas evenmoresurprisingthatoftenthesewomenwerethemselvesveryclosed towardsculturaldiversityandcamewithseveralpreconceptionsaboutwhat was‘good’andwhatwas‘bad’inlife.Throughouttheirlivesmanywent throughprocessesofbothacculturationandreskilling,onlyfortheircareers tobehamperedbytheeconomiccrisisthathasplaguedSouthernEuropein thelastfiveyears.ThismadebothofusdigdeeperintotheemergingliteratureonthecurrentglobalrecessionandontheEurozonecrisis,onlyto findthatnotmuchwaswrittenaboutwomenmigrants,particularlyhighly skilledones.
The FEMIDE projectalsoshowedthatthecategoryofhighlyskilled migrantsisveryslipperyasonemaybehighlyskilledandmovewithout avisaorwithatourismvisa,oronemaybeamarriage-migrantbutapplyfor ahighlyskilledmigrantstatus.Wethusstartedquestioning who actuallythe high-skillmigrantis, whatspecificproblems highlyeducatedwomenmigrants mayhavewhenfacingthecrisisand whatcopingstrategies thesemigrants maydevelop.Initially,thinkingaboutAnglophonewomeninSouthern Europe,weeventuallydecidedtolookatothernationalcontextsandprofessionalsectorsoffemalehigh-skillmigrationandtoengagemorescholars workingacrossarangeofacademicdisciplinesinthereconceptualizationof state-of-the-artwomen’shigh-skillmigrationinEurope.
WewantedtocomparetheexperiencesofbothtraditionalandnontraditionalfemalemigrantsinEurope,aswellastomakefurthercomparisonswiththeintra-EUmigrationsandbetweenandwithinspecificprofessionalsectorsofwomen’smigrationintermsofboththewomen’sexperiencesandpolicyresponses.Thisishowtheideaofthisinter-disciplinary bookcametolife.Wehavefoundastimulatingacademicenvironment intheGlobalGovernanceProgrammeoftheRobertSchumanCentrefor AdvancedStudiesoftheEUIinFlorencewherewedevelopedourarguments, recruitedcontributorsanddiscusseddraftversions.WewouldliketospeciallythankSabrinaMarchetti,RubyGropas,LauraBartoliniandDavide Calendaforthestimulatingdiscussionsandcomments. Wegreatlyappreciate thefinancialsupportoftheMarieCurieIntra-EuropeanFellowshipscheme(grant no.298752).
Wededicatethisbooktoallthehighlyskilledwomenmigrantsinthe EU,whoarenowstrugglingtowardssocio-economicintegrationandprofessionalsuccesswithintheextremelychallengingenvironmentoftheglobal financialcrisis.
Contributors LauraBartolini hasbeenworkingasaresearchassociateattheEUI’s GlobalGovernanceProgramme,Italy,since2011andcollaboratingwiththe InternationalandEuropeanForumonMigrationResearchForum(Forum InternazionaleedEuropeodiRicerchesull’Immigrazione/FIERI)since2013 onmigrants’transnationalismandintegrationatItalianandEuropeanlevels.ShehasworkedforvariousNGOsandconsultanciesondevelopment andmigrationissuesinItalyandSpain,developingasoundknowledgeof migrants’integrationpolicies,economictransnationalismandquantitative dataanalysis.
JamesBuchan isProfessor,FacultyofHealthSciences,QueenMargaretUniversity,UK,andAdjunctProfessor,WHOCollaboratingCentre,University ofTechnology(UTS),Australia.Hehas30yearsofexperienceinpolicyanalysis,researchandconsultancyinhealth-carehumanresources.Heoffersin policyadvicetoseveralministriesofhealth/governmentsonHRelements andtheimplicationsofhealth-sectorreorganizationandhealth-carereform.
LucieCerna isaresearchassociateattheCentreforMigration,Policyand Society(COMPAS),UniversityofOxford,UK.Previously,shewasalecturer inpoliticsatMertonCollege,UniversityofOxford,UK,andanassistant professoringlobalchallenges(politicaleconomy)atLeidenUniversity,the Netherlands.Herresearchinterestsincludethepoliticaleconomyofskilled migration,theinternationalizationofhighereducation,innovation,comparativepublicpolicyandEUpolitics.Inadditiontoheracademicwork,she hasbeenaconsultantforanumberofinternationalorganizations.
IsabelCraveiro isaresearcherattheInstituteofHygieneandTropical Medicine,NewUniversityofLisbon,Portugal.Herareasofresearchfocus onqualitativeandmixedmethodsappliedtosocialsciencesandhealth research.ShehasprofessionalexperienceinPortugal,Angola,Mozambique andGuineaBissau.Shehasbeeninvolvedin16nationalandinternational collaborativeresearchprojectsfinancedbytheEUandtheFoundationfor ScienceandTechnology(FundaçãoparaaCiênciaeTecnologia).
SondraCuban isaprofessoratWesternWashingtonUniversity,USA.She haspublishedextensivelyonwomenandimmigration.Her2013publication DeskillingMigrantWomenintheGlobalCareIndustry (Palgrave Macmillan)focusesonhighlyskilledimmigrantwomenwhowerecaregiverstoolderpersonsinEnglandandtheirdownwardmobilityinthe
labourmarket.Herscholarshipfocusesonthenexusofeconomicjustice andmigrancyintheUS.
MathiasCzaika isleadinganinterdisciplinaryresearchgroupon‘The DriversandDynamicsofHighSkilledMigration’attheInternationalMigrationInstitute(IMI),UniversityofOxford,UK,conductingresearchonthe determinantsofinternationalmigrationprocessesand,inparticular,on theroleandrelativeimportanceofmigrationpolicyinshapingpatterns ofinternationalmigration.Hiscurrentresearchinterestistounderstand internationalmigrationprocessesandtherelativeimportanceofmigration policy.
MatthewDixon isafellowattheCentreonSkills,KnowledgeandOrganizationalPerformance(SKOPE),UniversityofOxford,UK.Heisaskillspolicy researcherandconsultantspecializinginthelabourmarketsforengineeringandinformationtechnology(IT)skills.Hehasservedinseniorpositions bothintheUKandinternationally,spanningvariousfieldsaspublicpolicy, research,development,technologytransfer,trainingandenterprisesupport. Followingeightyearsataninternationalpolicyresearchinstitute,heheld seniorpositionsinnational-levelknowledgetransferandtechniciantrainingorganizationsforIT.HewasawardedHonoraryFellowshipoftheBritish ComputerSocietyandappointedanassociateoftheEngineeringCouncil.
GillesDussault isaprofessorattheInstituteofHygieneandTropical Medicine(IHMT),Portugal,andCoordinatoroftheWHOCollaborating CentreonHealthWorkforcePolicyandPlanning.BeforejoiningIHMTin 2006,heworkedasSeniorHealthSpecialistattheWorldBankInstitute, WashingtonDC.Between1985and2000,hewasProfessorandDirectorof theDepartmentofHealthAdministration,UniversityofMontreal,Canada.
CarmenGonzálezEnríquez isafullprofessorattheNationalUniversity ofDistanceEducation,Spain,andSeniorAnalystonImmigrationatthe thinktankElcanoRoyalInstitute.ShehastakenpartinseveralEU-funded researchprojects,suchasITHACA(Integration,TransnationalMobilityand Human,SocialandEconomicCapitalTransfers)andMETOIKOS(Circular MigrationPatternsinSouthernandCentralEasternEurope:Challengesand OpportunitiesforMigrantsandPolicymakers).
RubyGropasisaresearchfellowintheGlobalGovernanceProgrammeof theEUI,Italy.SheisavisitingprofessorattheCollegeofEurope,Belgium, andholdsaLectureshipinInternationalRelationsintheLawFacultyof theDemocritusUniversityofThrace,Greece.Sheiscurrentlyworkingon Europeanhigh-skillmigrationandtransnationalmigrationpatterns.She holdsaPhDfromCambridgeUniversity.
IrinaIsaakyan isaresearchassociateattheEuropeanUniversityInstitute, Italy,intheresearchareaofCulturalPluralismfortheITHACA(Integration, TransnationalMobilityandHuman,SocialandEconomicCapitalTransfers)project.SherecentlycompletedherMarieCurieIntra-EUFellowship awardedfortheproject FEMIDE/FemaleMigrationfromDevelopedCountries inSouthernEurope.SheholdsaPhDfromtheUniversityofEdinburgh,UK, andanMAfromtheUniversityofMinnesota,USA.Aftercompletingher PhD,shereceivedanESRC(EconomicandSocialResearchCouncil)PostDoctoralFellowship(2008–2009)forthestudyofEuropeanintegrationand newresearchers’mobilityinScotland.In2010,sheresearchedtheissuesof integrationandcivicengagementofUS-nationalacademicsintheUnited Kingdom.BeforejoiningtheEuropeanUniversityInstituteshewasareader attheRyazanStateRadio-EngineeringUniversityinRussia(2011–2012)and aresearchfellowattheUniversityofEdinburgh(2008–2010).Herresearch interestsincludenationalismanddiasporastudies,immigrants’identities andsocialremittances,andinterpretivesociology.
PawełKaczmarczyk isViceDirectoroftheCentreofMigrationResearch andAssistantProfessorattheFacultyofEconomicSciences,Universityof Warsaw,Poland.HewasamemberoftheBoardofStrategicAdvisersto thePrimeMinisterofPoland(2008–2011).Hismainresearchareasinclude causesandconsequencesoflabourmigration(withspecialattentionpaid toanalysisofmigrationprocessesinCentralandEasternEuropeancountries),highlyskilledmobility,methodologyofmigrationresearch,labour economics,internationaleconomicsandmigrationpolicy.
MartaMoskal isLordKelvinAdamSmithResearchFellowinSocialSciences attheUniversityofGlasgow,UK.ShewasMarieCurieResearchFellowat theCentreofEducationalSociology,UniversityofEdinburgh,UK,anda lecturerinSocialandPoliticalGeographyattheInstituteforEuropeanStudies,JagiellonianUniversity,Poland.Herresearchfocusesontheprocesses ofinternationalmobilityandeducationfromtheperspectiveofculture, identitychangeandsocialinclusion.
KyokoShinozaki isaseniorlecturerattheFacultyofSocialScience,RuhrUniversityBochum,Germany.Between2013and2014,shewasavisiting professorintheSociologyofCultureattheGoetheUniversity,Frankfurt. Shehasbeenlookingatprocessesofcontemporaryinternationalmigrationofboth‘less-skilled’and‘skilled’flows.Sheisparticularlyinterested inhowtheseprocessesrecreateandreconstituteinequalitiesalongtheintersectingdivisionsof‘race’/ethnicity,classandgender.Herlong-standingarea ofresearchismigrantdomesticandcareworkersandtheirtransnational familylife.
MikolajStanek isapostdoctoralresearcherattheUniversityofCoimbra, Portugal,withtheFCT-fundedproject‘ComparativeStudyonthe SegregationandConcentrationofImmigrantPopulationsinEuropean LabourMarketsduringEconomicCrisis’.Hiscurrentresearchinterests includeimmigrants’labourmarketintegration,internationalmobilitypatternsofpost-communistpopulations,migrants’copingstrategiesandstudy ofreligiouschangesinpost-authoritariancountries.
AnnaTriandafyllidou isProfessorattheGlobalGovernanceProgramme (GGP)oftheRobertSchumanCentreforAdvancedStudies(RSCAS), EuropeanUniversityInstitute,Italy.WithintheGGP,shecoordinatesthe researchareaonculturalpluralism.Since2002,shehasbeenVisitingProfessorattheCollegeofEuropeinBruges.Sheistheeditor-in-chiefofthe Journal ofImmigrantandRefugeeStudies.Herrecentbooksinclude MigrantSmuggling: IrregularMigrationfromAfricaandAsiatoEurope(2012,co-authoredwithT. Maroukis,PalgraveMacmillan); IrregularMigrantDomesticWorkersinEurope: WhoCares? (2013); CircularMigrationBetweenEuropeandItsNeighbourhood: ChoiceorNecessity? (2013); TheGreekCrisisandModernityinEurope (2013, withR.GropasandH.Kouki,eds,PalgraveMacmillan;alsoinGreek,by KritikiPublishingSA); EuropeanImmigration:ASourcebook (2014,withR. Gropas,secondedition); Employers,AgenciesandMigration:PayingforCare (2014,withS.Marchetti); WhatisEurope? (2015,co-authoredwithR.Gropas, PalgraveMacmillan); TheRoutledgeHandbookonImmigrationandRefugee Studies (2015).
Abbreviations APECAsia-PacificEconomicCooperation
DBISDepartmentforBusiness,InnovationandSkills(UK)
EHEAEuropeanHigherEducationArea
EMCEuropeanMonitoringCommittee(FEANI)
EMFEngineersMobilityForum
ENAEEEuropeanNetworkforAccreditationofEngineering Education
ETMFEngineeringTechnologistMobilityForum
EUR-ACE EURopean ACcredited Engineer
EURING EuropeanEngineer title(awardedbyFEANI)
FEANIFédérationEuropéenned’AssociationsNationales d’Ingénieurs
(EuropeanFederationofNationalEngineering Associations)
HRHumanResources
IEAInternationalEngineeringAlliance
IntETInternationalEngineeringTechnologist
IntPEInternationalProfessionalEngineer
ISCOInternationalStandardClassificationofOccupations
MACMigrationAdvisoryCommittee(UKHomeOffice)
MPIMigrationPolicyInstitute(US-based)
MRPQMutualRecognitionofProfessionalQualifications
NAFTANorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement
NMCNationalMonitoringCommittee(FEANI)
SKOPE(CentreofExcellencefor)Skills,Knowledgeand OrganizationalPerformance,UniversityofOxford
UKCESUnitedKingdomCommissionforEmploymentandSkills
UNESCOUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCultural Organization
PartI FemaleHigh-SkillMigration: ConceptsandDynamics FemaleHigh-SkillMigrationinthe 21stCentury:TheChallengeofthe Recession IrinaIsaakyanandAnnaTriandafyllidou
1.1Introduction
‘WhenIwaspackingforGreece,IthoughtthatmyMBAfromHarvardwould allowmetoeasilyfindagoodjobinAthens,somethinglikethechiefexecutiveofficeror,atleast,theprojectmanagerinalargefirm.’Georgia,who isnow47,movedfromBostontoGreeceinthemid-1990s,followingher Greekhusband.Sincethen,shehasbeenhelpingherfather-in-lawwiththeir familypoultrybusinessinasmallGreekcity,switchingbetweenthedutiesof theirfamily-ownedshopassistantandthatofthehousewife.Herco-national Vicky,whohadgrownupinWashingtonDCandreceivedthelawdegree fromtheUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles(UCLA),alsomovedtoSouthernEuropeasamarriage-migranttoreunitewithherItalianhusbandin Romeinthelate1990sandtodiscovereventuallythatshe‘hasalwaysbeen nomorethanahousewife’there.LikeGeorgia,sheadmits,‘Itwasnotonly thenewlanguagethatIhadtomaster.Itwaseverything:thechildren,the in-laws,thelocaleconomyandthegrowingcorruption.Manydoorswere closedformefromtheverybeginning.’Aformerbusinessexecutivefrom California,Odette,whoarrivedinGreeceonlyfiveyearsagoandwhohas beenunemployedallthistime,concludes,‘Itisbothveryfunnyandsadto seethatourAmericandegreeshavenotbeenreallydemandedhere.’
Thesetestimoniescomefromalargerstudy(IsaakyanandTriandafyllidou 2014)onAnglophonewomenwhomigratedtoItalyandGreeceinthelast 20yearsforpersonalorprofessionalreasons.Theytestifytothedifficultiesthatevenhighlyskilledmigrantwomenfaceintheirinsertiontothe labourmarketandinmaintainingthebalancebetweenfamilyandwork. Suchskilledmigrationfrommoreaffluenttolessaffluentcountrieswithin EuropeorfromtheUnitedStates(US)toEuroperemainsunder-researched. However,itcastslightontheimportantdynamicsofde-skillingamong university-educatedwomenandcomplementsthosemoreacutecasesof
downwardsocio-economicandprofessionalmobilitythatmigrantwomen fromlessdevelopedcountriesexperienceinEuropeortheUS.Indeed,the de-skillingthatEasternEuropeanwomenexperienceinbothWesternand SouthernEurope,wheretheyareoftenemployedascleanersorcarersregardlessoftheireducationalqualificationsorpreviousworkexperience,hasbeen extensivelyresearched(Cuban2013;NikolovaandMaroufof2010;Vianello 2013;VouyioukasandLiapi2013).Severalstudiesactuallydocument(Cuban 2013;Vianello2013)thedesireandhopeofthesehighlyskilledprofessionals fromGeorgiaorUkrainetofindemploymentintheirfieldofspecialization, butthehopehasseldommaterialized.
AccordingtotheEurostatreleasefrom2011,almost30%ofalltertiaryeducatedmigrantsinEurope(whichisaroundtenmillion)areover-qualified andde-scaledwomenofactiveworkingage.Alongsidethestructuralandculturalfactorsthatexplainthisdisadvantageofhigh-skilledwomenmigrants, thescholarlyliteraturedocumentsalsothenegativeimpactoftheglobal financialcrisisandrelatedeconomicausteritymeasuresonhigh-skillmigration(HSM)(Arslanetal.2014;Bettio2012;Cerna2010;CernaandHynes 2009;Ghosh2013;Kofman2013;Kuptsch2012).
Generallyspeaking,HSMremainsanunderdevelopedareaofresearch,particularlywhenappliedtowomenashigh-skillmigrants(BoydandGrieco 2003;Kofman2012;2013;Mahroum2001;Morokvasic1984;Piper2008; Rubinetal.2008).Inthisreference,Kofman(2013),however,notesthat similartotheoverallHSMscholarship,whichhaslargelyignoredthegenderdimension,studiesoftherelationshipbetweenthecurrenteconomic recessionandHSMflowshavebeenpersistentlygenderblind.Whatparticularsocio-economicneedsdohighlyskilledmigrantwomenhavewhen facingthecrisis?Whatstrategiesofeconomicintegrationandre-skillingcan theydevelopinsuchconditions?Howdoestheirabilitytosurvivethrough orsurrendertothecrisisinteractwiththesocialstructuresofthefamily andcommunity?TowhatextentistheEuropeanpolicyresponsivetotheir problemswhilefocusingonthepost-crisisrecovery?
Seekingtheanswers,thisbookexploresthecomplexrelationshipbetween genderandHSMingeneralandfocusesspecificallyontheimpactofthe currenteconomiccrisisonhighlyskilledfemalemigrants.Thepurposeof thebookistoproducenewinter-disciplinaryknowledgebringingtogether thesethreeareasofresearch– genderstudies,recessionscholarship and studies ofhigh-skillmigration –thathavesofardevelopedinisolation.Thisbook focusesspecificallyontheimpactoftheglobalfinancialcrisisonthehighskillmigrationofwomen–animpactthatisdifficulttomeasure.Itlooks notonlyattypicallygenderedlabourmarketsectors(suchasnurses)but alsoatengineers,entrepreneursoracademics,withaspecialfocusonthe crisis-afflictedeurozone(whichconsistsofIrelandandthefourSouthern EuropeancountriesofGreece,Italy,SpainandPortugal).Ourfindingslead tothedevelopmentofarelevantresearchagendaonfemaleHSM.
Thischapterstartswithacriticaldiscussionaboutwhoisconsidereda highlyskilledmigrantandwhatkindofgenderbiastherecanbebehindsuch definitionsandrelatedpolicymeasurestargetingthe‘bestandbrightest’of theworld.Weactuallydiscussinsomemoredetailthegenderedaspects ofHSMpoliciesbeforeturningtothespecialchallengeofgender,migration andtheeconomiccrisisthathasaffectedduringthelastsevenyearsboththe moreaffluentandthelessaffluentcountriesacrosstheworld.Althoughwe arefocusingonEuropeinrelationtocasestudiesandempiricaldata,non-EU countriessuchasCanadaandtheUSarealsodiscussedaspartoftheoverall policycontext.Thechapterconcludesbytyingthesethreadstogetherand outliningthespecificresearchquestionsthatthisbookposesandhowthese areaddressedinthedifferentchapters.
1.2BeyondtheHSMdefinition:Whoandhowmany? Whiletheterm‘highlyskilledmigrant’appearsunambiguousatthefirst instance,thereareseveralcompetingandcomplementarydefinitionsofwho thehighlyskilledmigrantsareorwhatisrecognizedas‘highskills’within amigrationpolicycontext.Indeed,high-skillmigrantsarebroadlycategorizedaspeoplewithtertiary(collegeoruniversity)educationandbeyond. However,itremainsunclearwhetherthisreferstotheactualhumancapital(theeducationandprofessionalskills)ofthepersonortothechannel throughwhichamigrantentered(orisapplyingtoenter)acountryoractuallytothejobthatthehighlyskilledmigrantdoesatthedestinationcountry. Asalreadydiscussedbrieflyintheprevioussection,thereisoftenagap,particularlyforwomenmigrants,betweentheiractualeducationorskillsand theirmigrationstatus.
EvenamongOECDcountrieswhereaneffortfordatastandardizationand comparativeanalysisismade,highlyskilledmigrationcategorizationsoften differandthusrelateddataonstocksandflowsofhighlyskilledmigrants maybemissing.Indeed,somecountriesdefinethehighlyskilledbythe levelofeducation(Borjas2003),whileothersbytheoccupation(Bouvier andSimcox1994),whilestillothersbythelevelofsalaryincludedin ajoboffer(seealsoIsaakyanandTriandafyllidou2014).Indeed,amere definitionofhighlyskilledmigrantsbythelevelofeducationislikely toincludestudents,researchers,spousesandintra-companytransferees,a highlyheterogeneousgroupofpeoplewhoarehighlyqualified.Thus,an education-focuseddefinitionofHSMtendstoobscurethemisrecognition ofeducationalqualificationsandprofessionalexperiencethatoftenhighly skilledmigrantsarefacedwith.Forexample,immigrantsmayhavecompletedtheircollegeeducationabroadbutbecauseofnon-transferabilityof theircredentialsmaybeunder-employedor‘brain-wasted’(Lowell2006). Thusthequestionisnotonlywhothehigh-skillmigrantisbutmostlyhow thisstatuscanbeprovenandwhattodowiththisstatusafteritisproven.
Combiningthethreecriteria–educationallevel,sectorofoccupationand salarythreshold–isoftenthestrategyadoptedbydestinationcountriesto ensurethatmigrants’actualqualificationswillmatchtheirmigrationstatus(BatalovaandLowell2007;Cerna2010;Iredale1994).AsLowell(2006) notes,‘theterm“skilledworkers”doesnothavethesamemeaningindifferentsocioeconomiccontexts’(e.g.,theeconomicboomvsthecurrent economiccrisis).
Thewayinwhichacertaincountry’smigrationpolicydefinestheeligibilitycriteriaforentranceas‘highlyskilled’hasimportantimplications forprospectivemigrants(IOM2008;OECD2012;WiesbrockandHercog 2010).Destinationcountriesemploytwobasicstrategiesthroughwhichall HSimmigrationpoliciesaredesigned:(a)the‘employer-driven’strategyand (b)theopenor‘points-based’system.1 ChaloffandLemaitre(2009)note thatmostHSMinOECDcountries(includingJapanandtheentireEuropean Union(EU))isemployer-driven.Anemployersecuresajobforahigh-skilled immigrantbeforehe/sheisallowedtoenterthecountry.Thisisaneffortto specifytheHSMdefinitionandpolicythroughthestrategyofjobplacement: migrantsarerecognizedas‘highlyskilled’onlyaftertheyfindadequatejobs (inadditiontoprofessionalqualificationsand/oreducationalcredentials). Thisemployer-drivenstrategyreducesoverallthenumberofHSMentries.
Inadditiontothisstrategy,someOECDcountries(e.g.,theUK,Canada, Australia,NewZealandandDenmark)implementpoints-basedsystemsof entrywherethehumancapitalofthemigrantis‘measured’.Naturally,in thiscasetheentryisbasedonanassessmentofthelevelofskillsthatthe migrantworkerbringsbutdoesnotsecurenorguaranteethatthehighly skilledmigrantwillfindemploymentathis/herlevelofskills.Oneproblematicaspectofthepoints-basedsystemisthatitdoesnottakeintoaccount thatyoungerpeople,forinstanceyoungprofessionals,maynothavethe necessaryworkexperiencetoscorehighbutmayhaveahighinnovation potential;or,forinstance,thatmigrantwomenmayhavehadlimitedprofessionalexperiencebecauseofchildrearingbutmaystillhavehighereducation degreesandactuallymoreversatilitythanemployees.
Overall,oneimportantpuzzlebothforHSMpolicydesignandfor analysingthedynamicsofHSMisthatofthematchingofmigrants’skills withanassignedpolicycategory.Thedefinitionalproblemsoutlinedabove arereflectedinproblemsofmeasurementandanalysisofHSM.While earningscanbepreciselymeasuredinconcrete–althoughconstantly state-modified–numbers,professionalexperienceisusuallythehardest toevaluate,especiallywhenitcomestotheassessmentofsoftskills(like teamwork,creativity,innovationandabilitytolearn).Inthisregard,itis importanttorememberthatsalariesandskillsaregender-constructedin mostcases.Womenareoftenpaidlessthanmenandmoreoftenbecome thebearersofsoftskillsrelatedtothefeminizedsectorsofpublicservices (Andall2003;Kofman2012;2013).Thismeansthattheyare,fromthe
verybeginning,epistemologicallyexcludedfromtheeconomicallyprivilegedcategoryofhigh-skillmigrantsastheyintrinsicallyhavefewerchances tobeappropriatelyevaluatedonthequalification-and-incomescaleofentry, especiallyintimesofeconomicausterity.
Dependingontheireconomicandpoliticalprerogatives,differentcountriesmayplacedifferentemphasisoneachoftheabove-mentionedcriteria (seeChapter2byCernaandCzaika,thisbook).Whilethereisadelicate balancebetweeneducationandqualifications,themajorityofOECDcountriesbasetheirHSMdefinitionsonthecriterionofeducation,andhigh-skill migrantsareusuallyassociatedwithtertiary-educatedpeople(Batalovaand Lowell2007;Lowell2001;WiesbrockandHercog2010).Takingintoaccount thisratherbroaddefinition,Arslanetal.(2014)notetheoverallimprovementoftheeducationallevelofOECDimmigrants:thereare35million tertiary-educatedforeignnationalsintheEU,whichisanunprecedented increaseof70%overthelasttenyears.Thirtypercentofthesepeopleare comprisedofuniversity-educatedwomenofactiveworkingage.Moreover, theirnumbergrowsrapidlyandnowshowsan80%increaseoverthelast tenyears,whichis17%higherthantheincreaseoftertiary-educatedmale immigrants.
1.3High-skillmigrationpolicydynamics Thinkingaboutglobalmigrationsofhighlyskilledpeople,aninteresting observationcanbemadeaboutthedynamicsofimmigrationlawandthe vulnerabilityoftheirstatus,especiallyduringtimesofcrisis.Whenevera crisesexpands,migrantsfeelthemostunprotectedastheyaresubjected todownsizingandalsotopublicxenophobia,whichoftenactintandem. Ontheonehand,immigrantsarediscursivelyconstructedasscapegoats responsiblefortheeconomicdownfallandunemploymentinthehost country(Ghosh2013;Kofman2012).Ontheotherhand,theyareoften employedinthe‘boom-and-bust’sectorsofconstructionandthereforeoften becomethefirsttobefiredorplacedinothertypesofdiscriminatoryconditions,suchasreducedpaymentorincreasedworkhours(Khitarishvili2013; UN2014).Inresponsetothedeterioratingeconomyandtheriseinmigrant phobia,governmentsoftenimposebansonimmigrationandmakerestricted immigrationpartoftheiroverallpublicpolicy(IsaakyanandTriandafyllidou 2013;Johnson2012;SoamesandField2013).Immigrationingeneraland high-skillimmigrationinparticularhavebeenhistoricallyimpairedbyeconomiccrises,whichcanbeilluminatedbytheimmigrationpolicydynamics duringthemainthreecrisesofthemodernhistory:(1)the1929Great Depression,(2)the1973oilcrisisand(3)thecurrentglobalfinancialcrisis. Intheaftermathofthehugepost-FirstWorldWarimmigrationwaveto AmericaandEurope,theGreatDepressionin1929immediatelyledtothe restrictionofentrytosuchcountriesastheUSandGermany(Kofman2013;
Wennersten2008).Followingtheno-lessglobalimmigrationwavewithin thepost-SecondWorldWarcontext,the1973oilcrisisthendrastically changedtheworldeconomyandcausedanewseriesofimmigrationlaw restrictions(Kubat1993).Thus,in1974,theformerlyimmigrant-friendly Franceenactedanimmigrationstopduetorisingunemploymentinthe country,whileGermanyintroducedabanontherecruitmentofskilled workersaroundthesametime(Hammar1985;Hollifield1992).
Inthe1990s,leadingworldeconomieswerecompetingforinternational leadershipandprestigeandmadeHSMastrongtoolforconstructing competitivenationalknowledgeeconomies(Ghosh2013;Kofman2013; Martin2012).Attractionofskilledimmigrantswasespeciallyimportant forEuropeancountriessuchastheUK,GermanyandFrance,whichsoon becametheglobalrivalsoftheUSintheirwaroverinternationaltalentand innovation.EvennewimmigrantstatessuchasGreeceandItalystartedto attractHSMandattemptedtodeveloptheirimmigrationlaws.
TheHSM-friendlyenvironmentchangedquiteradicallyinthelate2000s withtheonsetoftheglobalfinancialcrisis.Thiscrisis,coupledwithadominantviewofneo-liberalausteritypoliciesaimingatfiscalbalancing,has contributedtoturningleadingHSMmagnetsintoquiterestrictivehosts(De Witte2013;Ghosh2013;IsaakyanandTriandafyllidou2013;Kofman2013). Forexample,inresponsetothecrisisandtotheimmigrantapplication backlog,Canadamodified–orseverelyrestricted,tobemoreprecise–its FederalSkilledWorkerProgram(FSWP)forHSMon4May2013(Boyd2013; IsaakyanandTriandafyllidou2013).TheFSWPis,nevertheless,probablyone oftheveryfewOECDschemesthattriestokeepthebalancebetweenthe restrictionandnaturalizationofitsimmigrants.Thus,byshowingmaximum respecttotheCanadianexperience,theFSWPmakesthetransitionfromthe studentstatustotheHSMstatusautomatic,whichisinsharpcontrastwith Europe.
AninterestingcaseofanOECDcountrythatinaperiodoflessthanten yearshasconvertedfrombeinganinternationaltalentmagnettoaclosed labourmarketandanextremelyrestrictiveHSMhostistheUK.In2008, thecountryintroducedaratherflexibleHSMpolicyassociatedwithTier1 orthepoints-basedsystemofentry.However,in2010,thenumberofhighskillmigrantsbecamemuchhigherthanprojected(255,000)andthenew governmentstartedclosingthedoorstothird-countrynationals(TCNs)by imposingaverylowcaponthenumberofpermitsfornon-EUworkers, whichinrealityisequivalenttoalmostnullentry.Asaresult,thenethighskillimmigrationin2012was163,000persons(IsaakyanandTriandayfllidou 2013;Martin2012;SoamesandField2013).
Adoptedasthechiefinstrumentformonitoringlabourmigration,the HSMcontrolintheUKincludes(1)completeerasureofTier1(andconsequentlyamoreobstructedentryfornewprofessionals);(2)establishment ofpersistentlyraisedcapsonHSMtonon-EUnationals;and(3)incessant
reconsiderationoftheshortlistoccupationallist(SoamesandField2013). Moreover,thelattertwoprinciplessignificantlylimitthetraditionalworkpermitentrytoskilledmigrants.Suchover-nationalizationoftheBritishjob marketisunderthedirectinfluenceofanegativepublicopiniononhighskillimmigrantsas‘asylumseekers’and‘jobstealers’,whichisobserved moreandmorefrequentlythroughouttheOECDcountries(Soamesand Field2013).Eveninthe‘promisedland’oftheUS,theH1Bvisascheme forHSMisrepresentedinmassmediaandperceivedbythegeneraltertiaryeducatedpublicas‘anationalabuse’and‘Americanmiddleclassdestruction’ (Johnson2012).Althoughthecurrentfinancialcrisisissaidtoblocklowskillmigrationtoamuchgreaterextent,HSMflowshavebeensignificantly affectedwhiletheeconomicallydesirablebalancebetweenrestrictingand sustaininginternationalhigh-skilllabourhasnotbeensuccessfullymanaged inEurope(IsaakyanandTriandafyllidou2013).
Theeurozonecountriesthathavebeenmosthardlyhitbytheeconomic crisis(notablyGreece,Portugal,SpainandIreland)arelosingtheirhighly skilledyouthwho,facedwithrampantunemploymentrates,havechosento emigrate(seealsoChapter3byTriandafyllidouandGonzálezEnríquezand Chapter7byGropasandBartolini,thisbook;TriandafyllidouandGropas 2014).ItmaybearguedthatthecrisishascausednewHSMpatternsfrom Europeancountriestoothercontinents.Mediareportsputthenumbersof newemigrantsfromSouthernEuropeatextraordinarilyhighlevels:98,000 high-skillprofessionalsarereportedtohaveleftPortugalsince2009forthe oil-richAngola;30,000oftheirco-nationalsarereportedtohaveleftforthe construction-sector-welcomingBrazil;while75,000tertiary-educatedpeoplefromIrelandandanestimated50,000high-skillGreeksarereported bythemediatohavemovedtoAustralia(BBC2013;BuggeandSimoes 2012;Khaaledietal.2013;Pidd2011).Thevalidityofthesedataistobe takenwithapinchofsaltbecausetheyarebasedonjournalisticreportsor expert‘guesstimates’whicharenotsubstantiatedbyactualresearch(with theexceptionoftheIrishcase,seeGlynnetal.2013).Thepresenceofa high-skilledlabourforceisstrategicallyimportantforplanningthepostcrisisrecoveryinEurope,whilethereisextremelylimitedknowledgeabout thedynamicsofsuchmigrationpatternsandtheirimpactupontheEU,as wellasabouttheinteractionbetweentheausteritymeasuresandemerging genderissues.
1.4Femaleemploymentandeconomiccrisis Ingeneralterms,therelationshipbetweenrecessionandgenderisrather controversialaswomenareportrayedasbothvictimsandwinnersofausteritymeasures.Theeffectofaneconomiccrisisuponfemalelabourforce participation(LFP)isnotunderstoodcompletelyastherearevariousforces atplaywhiledirectingwomen’slabour-marketactivityatsuchtimes(Ghosh
2013;Khitarishvili2013;Kofman2012;2013).Specifically,inrelationto theglobalfinancialcrisisof2008,thereisafrequentfalseassumption–anepistemologicalillusion–thatmigrantwomenhavebeenlesservictimsofthecurrentrecessionanddownsizingthanmigrantmen.Theinitial failuretorecognizethechangingdynamicsoftherecession–aswellas theintrinsicallygendereddivisionofthelabourmarketintothemaledominanteconomicsector(suchasconstruction)andthefemale-dominant non-economicsectors(suchaspublicspheresortheservicesector)–has shapedtheoverallscholarlyandpublicunderstandingthatwomenmight haveexperiencedlessdamagefromtherecessionthanmenandtherefore shouldnotbeplacedattheheartofanyanti-crisispolicy(Bettio2012;UN 2014).Themajorityofstudieshavefalleninsofarintothemethodological trapofmakingspeedyassumptionsbasedentirelyontheoutcomesofthe firststageofthecrisis–during2008–2010(Khitarishvili2013;UN2014). Thisfirstwaveofthecrisishitmostseverelythefinancialandconstructionsectors,knownfortraditionalover-representationofmen.Therefore, thepre-2010reportsonthecrisistendtoconceptualizeitasthe‘he-cession’ andassociateitsadverseeffectandrelatedrecoverypolicyentirelywithmen (BairdandWilliamson2010;Rampell2009;Salam2009).
Duringtheconsequenttwoyears,whenthesecondwaveoftherecession hit,non-economicspheresofproduction,includingthesectorsofpublicand socialservices,werealsoaffected.The2010–2012timeshifthasthuscaused unrecognized–yetsevere–damagetowomen,whohavebeentraditionally employedinthepublic/servicedomain.Therefore,post-2010studiesand reportsaremakingemergencycallsforincorporatingthegenderaspectinto post-crisisrecoverypoliticsandpolicymaking(Khitarishvili2013;RodinoColocino2014).
Iftorealisticallyassessthesocio-economicsufferingofwomeninEurope overthelastfive–sevenyears,therecessionhasactuallyhadatriplenegative effectupontheirwell-being.Inadditiontotheunavoidablejoblosseswithin thedefactofeminizedpublicsectorin2010–2012,theunemploymentof womenhasbeencausedbyinappropriatepolicyplanning,attheheart ofwhichhasbeenthereductionofthepublicsector.Also,thepost-crisis recovery–withitsemphasisontheeconomicproduction–isnowgatheringmomentummuchfasterformen,whoseunemploymenthasshown a0.7%declineoverthelastthreeyears,whilethatofwomenhasbeen markedbya0.5%increase(UN2014).Asaresultofthiscompoundeffecton theEuropeanlabourmarket,thehistoricallymale-favouringgendergapin employmenthasbeenpersistentlywidening,havingalreadyreachedalevel higherthanthatbeforethecrisis(Kofman2012;Rodino-Colocino2014;UN 2014).
Theoveralleconomicactivityofwomenduringausteritytimesisanother complexissue.Manystudiesnotethe‘discouragedworkereffect’,associated withhighunemploymentratesduringanyrecessionandconsequentuneasy
transitionbacktothelabourmarketasaresultofsuchprolongedinactivity (Bettio2012;Khitarishvili2013;UN2014).Itmeansthatwomen,whohave beendownsizedandjoblessoverthelastfewyears,mayeventuallyfeeldiscouragedbecausetheywerede-skilledandthereforenotcompetitiveenough toresumetheirjobsearchafterthecrisis.
Atthesametime,scholarsnotethefrequentlyincreasedLFPofwomen acrosstimeshiftsandnation-statecontextsatsuchausteritymoments.For example,thelargestfemaleLFPwasobservedin1993–1995inBuenosAires duringtheMexicanPesoCrisisofthe1990s(Cerrutti2000;Skoufiasand Parker2005).Scholarsoftenattributesuchgrowthtothe‘addedworker effect’ofthecrisis,meaningthatwomenenterthejobmarkettemporarily tocompensatefortemporalunemploymentoftheirhusbandsandthusturn into‘additionalworkers’ormen’s‘substitutes’(Khitarishvili2013;Skoufias andParker2005).ThereisanimplicationherethatsuchLFPsuccessisshort termandcyclicalasitisrelatedtoaparticularphaseofacrisisratherthan towomen’sabilitytoresistthecrisis.Scholarsalsoadmitthatduringsuch times,employersoftenwelcomethecyclical‘buffering’ofwomen:astemporaryemployees,theyareusuallypaidmuchlessthanmenandmaynot demandimprovementofworkingconditions.Theyareactuallyexpectedto returntotheirhousewiferoleoncethecrisishaspassed.
Itcanbeassumedfromthediscussionabovethat,regardlessofimposed austeritymeasures,womenarealwayssubjectedtogenderdiscrimination inemployment.Eventheadded-workereffect,whichseemstowelcome womentothejobmarketwhilemenarejobless,isverydeeplygenderconstructedaswomen,fromtheverybeginning,areassumedtobebound totheirhouseholdsandactiveonlyontemporary–substitute–grounds. Thus,fromtheverybeginning,womenseemtobeconstructedasoutsiders tothehigh-skillprofessionalcategory.Thepoliticalinterestinsavingand raisingthenationaleconomyonthebasisofwomenbuffers’lessersalariesis anotherconfirmationoftheextremelygenderedimaginationofthepublic andthestate,throughwhichvariousformsofgenderdiscriminationagainst womenandinappropriateemploymentconditionsforthemareconstantly reproduced.
Deteriorationofworkingconditionsforwomenisanothercriticalissue relatedtotheireconomicactivityduringtimesofcrisis.Especiallynow,more andmorequalifiedwomenarebeingplacedininsecure(suchasshort-term contracts,lowsalariesandunsalaried/informalwork)andevendangerous conditions(suchasinformalwork)(Arslanetal.2014;Bettio2012;Cuban 2013;Kofman2012;2013).
Thepersistentgenderbiasinemploymentandthecyclicalnatureofcareer successforwomenalsoaddtokeyattributesoftheirinternationalmobility. Thede-scalingofwomenmigrantsisacommonfeatureoftheirmigration,whichhasbecomeextremelyacuteduringthecurrentrecession.Ithas beengenerallynotedthatmanyhighlyeducatedwomen(includingnurses
anddoctors)mayworkwithinthelower-levelemploymentsector,suchas domesticworkinemigration(Cuban2013;Marchetti2014).Inthisreference,studiesprovethat,morethaneverbefore,womenmigrantsnow sufferfromthelabourmarketdoubledisadvantageorunfairtreatmenton thejobmarketand/orinemploymentcomparedtobothlocalwomenand foreignmen(Cuban2013;Ghosh2011;2013;Khitarishvili2013;Kingand Sweetman2010;Kofman2012;2013;Kuptsch2012;Rubinetal.2008; Solimano2008).Moreover,duetothecurrentlyrestrictedwork-permitquotasindestinationcountriesandstricterreturnprogrammes(specificallyin theEU),highlyskilledfemalemigrantsarethefirsttobefiredandthereforethefirsttoforcefullyreturnand/orenterillegalwork(Arslanetal.2014; OECD2012).
Therearethusunnoticedpointsofintersectionbetweentheflowsofhighskillmigrationandlow-skillmigration,whilewomen’smigratorytrajectories inthecurrentmilieuareespeciallyilluminativeofthistrend.Thecomplexity iscompoundedbytheunconventionalityoftheirmigrationbiographies,to whichisaddedthecurrentrecessionandrelateduncertaintyoftheirsocial status.Forinstance,foreignwomenmayentertheEUasstudentsorworkpermit-holdingprofessionalsbutconverttofamilymigrants(uponmarriage) onlytoreconverttolow-skillordisqualifiedmigrantsinthecourseoftheir furthersettlement(IsaakyanandTriandafyllidou2013).
1.5Gender,migrationandrecession:Whatthisbookisabout ThinkingaboutcurrentHSMflowsandpoliciesacrosscrisis-strickenEurope, Kofman(2013,p.116)notesthatalthoughwomenmigratemoreoftenthan men,labourmigrationpolicies,includingEUpolicies,donotspecifically respondtotheirneedsandremainhighlygenderedintheirgeneralconstruction.Thelong-standinggenderdifferencesinsalariesandthetraditionally genderedeconomicdivisionsoflabourcannotbeappropriatelyreflectedin existingHSMdefinitions.Bettio(2012)concludesthat,despiterecognizing theimportanceofgenderequalityinbothemploymentandimmigration policy,policymakersareunabletofindsolutionsbasedonthegenderbalanceandthereforefailtodesigngender-sensitivepoliciesoneitherhigh-skill labourforceorHSM.
Theproblemisthattheimpactofthecurrentfinancialcrisisonfemale high-skillmigrationisparticularlydifficulttopindown.Onechallengeis ofamethodologicalnature.HSMisgenerallyhardtomeasureduetothe absenceofreliabledatabases(Arslanetal.2014;ChaloffandLemaitre2009; Haas2012;Lowell2001).Highlyskilledwomenmigrantsareespeciallydifficulttostudybecauseoftheirfrequent‘irregularmigrant’statusandbecause oftheabove-mentionedinstabilityoftheirprofessionalsituation(Cuban 2013;Kofman2012).
Thecomplexityiscompoundedbythedifficultyinevaluatingtheimmediateeffectsoftheglobaleconomiccrisisasresearchershavenotmanaged
tofollowtherapidlychanginglabourmarketsituationandtherelateddevelopmentsinmigrationlaw(Ghosh2011;2013).Eventhemostrecently publishedstudiesofHSM(e.g.,Cuban2013;Halkiasetal.2010;Labrianidis 2010)areactuallybasedonfieldworkand/ordeskresearchconducted,inthe majorityofcases,eitherbeforeorattheverybeginningofthecrisis.Thatis whyithasbeensofarveryproblematictofindanswerstoanumberofstrategicallyimportantquestions.InwhatwayshasfemaleHSMbeenaffectedby thecrisis?HowdoHSMpoliciesshaperelatedflowsandwhataretheoverall lessonsthatwelearnfrompastandcurrenthigh-skillmigratoryflows?
ThisbookexploresthecomplexrelationshipbetweenHSMandtimes ofrecessionwhileparticularlyaddressingthegenderdimensionandthe Europeancontext. Thepurposeofthisbookistoproducenewinter-disciplinary knowledgeaboutthegenderedfeaturesofHSM,forinstanceitsoverlapswith family-relatedmigrationaswellasitsconnectionswithatypicalformsofmobility likeaupairwork;thedynamicsofhighlyskilledfemalemigrationinsectorsthat aretypicallymaledominated(likeengineering)versussectorswherewomenplaya leadingrole(suchasmedicaljobsandparamedicsoracademics);andtheimpact oftheglobalcrisisonfemalehigh-skillmigrationinavarietyoflabourmarket areas.
Ourbookbringstogetherresearchattheforefrontoflabourmarketdevelopments,focusing(a)onspecificlabourmarketsectors(nurses/doctors, engineers,academicsandentrepreneurs,seechapteroutlineinthefollowing paragraphsfordetails)and(b)onspecificsetsofcountries(notablyfemale HSMbetweenOECDcountriesandalsoemigrationfromthecrisis-ridden countriesoftheEU(SouthernEuropeandIreland)).Thebookhasadoublefocus:ontheonehand,itdiscussesfemalehigh-skillmigrationand itsdynamicsinspecificsectorsandgeographicalareas;ontheotherhand, ittakesasector-specificapproachwhileparticularlyconcentratingonthe impactofthecrisisonspecificjobsectors.
Fromtheempiricalpointofview,thisbookfocusesonthecaseofthe crisis-afflictedeurozone,whichconsistsofIrelandandtheSouthEuropean countriesofPortugal,Italy,GreeceandSpain.ThesefivecountriesarecharacterizedbythehighestlevelsofpublicandprivatedebtintheEU(De Witte2013;Ghosh2013).ThisiscompoundedbythehighestintheEU ratesoflabourmarketdisadvantagefor(migrant)women,particularlyinthe SouthernEuropeanstates(Rubinetal.2008). WithregardtoEurope,wethus lookparticularlyattheemigrationofhighlyskilledwomenfromthemostcrisisafflictedcountries(Portugal,Italy,Ireland,GreeceandSpain)(seeChapter3by TriandafyllidouandGonzálezEnríquez;andChapter7byGropasandBartolini, thisbook).
WhileplacingemphasisonEuropeanimmigrationanddrawingfrom themostrecentempiricaldatafromthecrisis-afflictedeurozone,thebook alsotouchesuponthetransatlanticaspectoffemalehigh-skillmigration, lookingatNorthAmericanwomeninSouthernEurope,atforeignfemale studentsandresearchersintheUKandGermany,andattheproblemof
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