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RAPID FIRE REVISION PAPER 1
UNIT 1 – TEACHING APTITUDE
6
Concept of Teaching , Objectives of Teaching , Levels of Teaching , Characteristic of Effective Teaching , Basic Requirements for Effective Teaching , Maxims of Teaching , Important Theories of Teaching , Bloom’s Taxonomy , Edgar’s Dale Cone of Experience , Learner’s characteristics , Learning Disorder , UNESCO Four Pillars of Education , Characteristics of adolescent and adult learners (Academic, Social, Emotional and Cognitive) , Factors affecting teaching , Methods of teaching , SWAYAM , NATIONAL COORDINATORS , SWAYAMPRABHA , MOOCs, Teaching Support System , Evaluation Systems , Formative , Summative , Norm-Referenced , Criterion-Referenced , Choice-Based Credit System (CBCS) , List of Important Days , BONUS FACTS.
UNIT 2 – RESEARCH APTITUDE
47
Meaning of Research , Why Research? , Objectives of Research , Characteristics of Research , Types of Research , Positivism and Post-positivistic approach in Research , Steps of Research , Thesis and Article writing , Formats and Styles of Referencing , Academic Events , Application of ICT in research , Important Government Schemes Related to Research , Research Ethics , BONUS FACTS.
UNIT
3
– READING
Reading Comprehension , EXAM TIPS and SUGGESTIONS FOR RC.
Reading Comprehensions Set – I , Set – II , Set – III , Set – IV , Set – V , Set – VI , Set – VII , Set – VIII , Set – IX.
UNIT 4 – COMMUNICATION
98
Meaning of Communication , Elements of Communication process , Models of Communication , The 7 Cs of Communication , Characteristics of Communication , Barrier to Effective Communication , Mass-Media and Society , BONUS FACTS.
NUMBER SERIES , Arithmetic Series questions , Geometric Series questions , Fibonacci Series , Squares/Cubes Series questions , Prime Numbers Series , Letter series , Missing Letter Series , Repeated Letter Series , Vowel-Consonant Alternation Series , Reverse Alphabetical Series , Coding and Decoding , Blood Relations , Time and Distance , Ratio and Proportion , Percentage , Profit and Loss , Interest and Discounting.
UNIT 6 – LOGICAL REASONING
Categorical Propositions , Arguments , Mood and Figures , Classical Square of Opposition, Distinction between Inductive and Deductive Reasoning , Venn Diagram , Formal and Informal fallacies.
Indian Logic: Means of knowledge , Pratyakṣa , Anumāna , Upamāna , Śabda , Arthāpatti, Anupalabdhi , Structure of Anumana (inference) , Vyapti (invariable relation), Hetvabhasas (fallacies of inference).
UNIT 7 – DATA INTERPRETATION
Graphical representation - Bar-chart, Histograms, Pie-chart, Table-chart , Line-chart , Some tips to solve Data Interpretation questions , Basic Formulas commonly used in Data Interpretation, Q&A DATA INTERPRETATION QUESTIONS WITH EXPLANATION .
What is ICT? , ICT in Education , General abbreviations and terminology of ICT , Computer - Generations , Functionality , Size , Basic components of a Computer , Memory Devices - Primary Memory Devices , Secondary Memory Devices , Memory Hierarchy in a Computer , Input Devices , Output Devices , Hardware , Software , Malware (Malicious software) and it types , Internet , Intranet , Types of Computer Networks , Email , What is IP Address ? , Different types of search engines , Synchronous Messaging , Asynchronous Messaging , Digital Initiatives in Higher Education , E-Governance, Digital India Initiative.
UNIT 9 – PEOPLE, DEVELOPMENT & ENVIRO
NMENT …275
Development and Environment , MDGs - Millennium Development Goals , SDGsSustainable Development Goals , Anthropogenic Activities , Air Pollution , Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants , Impacts of Air Pollution , Ways to prevent Air Pollution ,
National Green Tribunal (NGT) , Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) , National Air Quality Monitoring Programme , National Air Quality Index , National Clean Air Program (NCAP) , Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) Emission Standards , Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) , National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) , Water Pollution , Point Source vs Non-Point Source of Water Pollution , Main Types of Water Pollutants, Ways to prevent Water Pollution , Initiatives to curb water Pollution , National Water Mission (NWM) , National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) , Namami Gange Programme , Clean Ganga Fund (CGF) , Jal Shakti Abhiyan , Soil Pollution , Sources of Soil Pollution , Types of Soil Pollutants, Impact of Soil Pollution , Noise Pollution , Sources of Noise Pollution , Effects of Noise Pollution on Human Health , Environmental Impacts of Noise Pollution , CPCP Noise Standard in India , Solid Waste Management , Liquid Waste Management , Biomedical Waste Management , Hazardous Waste Management , Electronic Waste Management , Ozone Depletion , Greenhouse Gas Emissions , Acid Rain , Renewable Energy Resources , Non-Renewable Energy Resources, Solar Energy , Wind Energy , Hydropower , Geothermal Energy , Biomass Energy , Nuclear Energy , International Solar Alliance (ISA) , Natural hazards and disasters , Environment Protection Act (1986) , Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981) , Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1974) , Wildlife Protection Act (1972) , Forest Conservation Act (1980) , National Action Plan on Climate Change , International Treaties/ summits/ agreements on Environment Protection.
UNIT 10 – HIGHER EDUCATION
Higher Education During Ancient India - Salient Features , Sources of Education , Ancient Education System in India , Ancient Universities , Major Institutions of Ancient India , Decline of Ancient Education.
Higher Learning and research in Post Independence India - Pre-Independence era . List of Important Commissions/Committees in Higher education Pre -Independence India , List of Important Commissions/Committees in Higher education Post-independence India.
National Education Policy 2020 , NEP 2020 on School Education , NEP 2020 on Higher Education , Objectives of NEP 2020.
Oriental Learning in India , Conventional Learning in India , Non – Conventional Learning in India , Professional Education , Technical Education , Skill-based Education , Value education and Environmental education , Types of universities in India , Important Bodies in Higher Education , National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF), Important Schemes and Policies in Higher Education (Including latest schemes).
UNIT 1 – TEACHING APTITUDE
Teaching: Concept, Objectives, Levels of teaching (Memory level, Understanding level and Reflective level), Characteristics and basic requirements.
CONCEPT OF TEACHING
Teaching aptitude evaluates candidates for the teaching profession based on their knowledge and skills.
It encompasses the essential qualities required to be a successful teacher, including qualification, intelligence, and attitude. [December-2014]
It is an activity that influences students to learn, acquire knowledge and skills, and develop desired ways of living in society. [June-2011]
Teaching is the purposeful direction and management of the learning process. November-2017]
It involves providing opportunities for students to learn and acquire knowledge and skills.
OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING July-2018]
Therefore, the general objectives of teaching are:
1. To develop all round personality of the learner through the curriculum.
2. To shape the behaviour of the learner in a desired direction.
3. To help the student to adjust and live harmoniously in the new situation environment.
4. To encourage the student to learn and think for themselves to solve the problems. [26th June 2019- IInd Shift]
5. To acquaint the student with the content of the subject to be taught.
The specific objectives of teaching are as follows:
1. To Develop Critical and Logical Thinking
2. To Create Interest in the Study
3. To Develop Understanding
4. To Develop of Knowledge
Levels of Teaching
The teacher has to choose the level of teaching based on the concepts and the intensity of the subject matter.
LEVELS OF TEACHING
A teacher takes different roles in a classroom based on the situation.
1. Memory Level
2. Understanding Level
3. Reflective Level
1. Memory Level
Memory level of teaching, as the name suggests, is a level of teaching where the objective is just to impart the textbook knowledge and make the students memorize it rather than going to the roots of it. December-2014] Herbart is the main proponent of the memory level of teaching. It is the initial stage of teaching.
It induces the habit of rote memorization of facts and bits of information. It enables the learner to retain and also to reproduce the learned material whenever required.
Good memory includes rapidity in learning, the stability of retention, rapidity in recalling, and ability to bring only desirable contents to the conscious level.
[21st June 2019-Ist Shift
Its emphasis on presentation of fact and information and it‘s all about cramming. Knowledge is gained by the learner through the memorization. It is the initial stage of teaching to induce the habit of rote learning of
facts and subject matters.
Students learns to identify, recall or remembers the objects, events, ideas and retain them in memory.
The role of teacher is active and primary and that of the students is secondary.
21st June 2019- IInd Shift]
It does not improve intelligence and increase students ‘capability but this is required for others types of teaching levels.
2. Understanding Level
Understanding level of teaching is a more thoughtful teaching process wherein the students connect with the concepts and as the name suggests, understand the subject matter. [2nd Dec. 2019-IInd Shift.
Morrison is the main proponent of an understanding level of teaching. It is memory plus insight ‘as it goes beyond just memorizing of facts. It focuses on mastery of the subject. [21st June 2019-Ist Shift
It makes pupils understand generalizations, principles, and facts. It provides more and more opportunities for the students to develop intellectual behaviour.
"Seeing of relationship" involves understanding the relationships between concepts, it aligns with the objectives promoted at the understanding level. 2021 shift-2
It provides an active role for both the pupil and the teacher for the assimilation of facts. It talks about generalization of principles, theory and other key important fact This helps to build the thinking level of students to make use of their acquired knowledge on the basis of previously known facts and subjects.
It provides more and more opportunity for the students to develop skills of memory and insight.
3. Reflective Level
The Reflective Level of teaching is also called the introspective level of teaching. This is considered the highest form of the teaching -learning process. This is primarily because the teaching does not stop after making the students understand the concept. Hunt is the main proponent of reflective level of teaching. It is the highest level of teaching and includes both ULT and MLT.
It is problem-centric approach of teaching. [21st June 2019-Ist Shift
The students are assumed to adopt some sort of research approach to solve the problem.
The classroom environment is to be sufficiently ‗open and independent‘. The learners are motivated and active.
The aim is to develop the reflective power of learners so that they can solve problems of their lives by reasoning, logic, and imagination, and lead successful and happy lives.
The pupil occupies the primary place and teacher assumes the secondary place. It talks about both understanding level and memory level. Its main objective is to develop problem solving. [2nd Dec. 2019-IInd
Shift
The emphasis is laid on problem identifying, defining it and finding the solution. The teaching at this level is not teacher cantered or subject centred, its learner centred. The classroom environment should be sufficiently open and independent. The students are assumed to adopt some sort of research approach to solve the problem
Characteristic of Effective Teaching
1. Clear objectives: Effective teaching sets clear and specific learning objectives, outlining what students are expected to achieve. 2023 June shift-2
2. Knowledge of subject matter: Effective teachers have a deep and comprehensive understanding of the subject matter they are teaching.
3. Engaging instructional strategies: Effective teaching employs a variety of engaging instructional strategies to cater to different learning styles and needs. 2023 June shift 2
4. Effective communication: Effective teachers possess strong communication skills. They can articulate ideas clearly, listen actively to students, and encourage open dialogue.
5. Adaptability: Effective teaching is adaptable to the diverse needs and abilities of students. Teachers are flexible in their instructional approach, recognizing that students learn in different ways and at different paces. Appropriateness for the learner’s age and level. 2023 June shift-2
6. Classroom management: Effective teachers create a well-managed and organized classroom environment.
7. Assessment and feedback: Effective teaching includes ongoing assessment and feedback to monitor student progress and provide guidance for improvement.
8. Differentiated instruction: Effective teachers differentiate their instruction to meet the individual needs and learning styles of students.
9. Passion and enthusiasm: Effective teachers demonstrate a genuine passion for their subject matter and for teaching.
10. Continuous professional development : Effective teachers are committed to their own professional growth. They stay updated with the latest research, instructional strategies, and educational technologies.
Basic Requirements for Effective Teaching
1. Subject Knowledge
2. Pedagogical Skills
3. Communication Skills
4. Adaptability
5. Classroom Management
6. Student Engagement
7. Differentiation
8. Assessment and Feedback
9. Relationship
10. Continuous Professional Development
Maxims of Teaching
1. Simple to complex: Start with simple concepts and gradually progress to more complex ideas.
2. Known to unknown: Connect new knowledge to what students already know.
3. Seen to unseen: Teach about the present before exploring the past and future.
4. Concrete to abstract: Begin with concrete objects and gradually introduce abstract concepts.
5. Particular to general: Use examples and specific cases to introduce general laws and principles.
6. Whole to part: Present an overview of the topic before delving into its individual components.
7. Indefinite to definite: Help students clarify their understanding and transform vague knowledge into clear understanding.
8. Psychological to logical: Consider the psychological development of learners, emphasizing logical order for older students.
9. Analysis to synthesis: Analyse complex problems by breaking them down into parts, then synthesize the knowledge to understand the whole picture.
Important Theories of Teaching
Behaviorism
Constructivism
➢ Focuses on observable behaviors and stimulusresponse associations.
➢ Emphasizes reinforcement and rewards to shape desired behaviors.
➢ Key theorists: B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov.
➢ Learners construct knowledge through active engagement and interaction with their environment.
➢ Emphasizes hands-on, inquirybased learning and problemsolving.
➢ Key theorists: Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky.
Cognitive Load Theory
Social Learning Theory
Experiential Learning
Multiple Intelligences Theory
Sociocultural Theory
Andragogy
➢ Focuses on the cognitive limitations of learners' working memory.
➢ Emphasizes managing the complexity of instructional materials to optimize learning.
➢ Key theorist: John Sweller.
➢ Learning occurs through observation, modeling, and imitation of others' behaviors.
➢ Learning is based on personal experience and reflection.
➢ Emphasizes active involvement, reflection, and application of knowledge.
➢ Key theorist: David Kolb.
➢ Defines intelligence as a range of different abilities and talents.
➢ Emphasizes the importance of addressing diverse learning styles and strengths.
➢ Key theorist: Howard Gardner.
➢ Learning is influenced by cultural and social factors.
➢ Emphasizes the role of language, interaction, and cultural tools in learning.
➢ Key theorist: Lev Vygotsky.
➢ Focuses on adult learning principles and characteristics.
➢ Emphasizes self-directed learning, practical relevance, and learners' experiences.
➢ Key theorist: Malcolm Knowles
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
➢ Learning occurs within the range between a learner's current ability and their potential with guidance.
➢ Emphasizes scaffolding and providing appropriate support to facilitate learning.
➢ Key theorist: Lev Vygotsky. Humanism ➢ Focuses on individual learners' needs, motivations, and selfactualization.
➢ Emphasizes learner-centered approaches, personal growth, and holistic education.
Key theorists: Carl Rogers, Abraham
➢ Maslow.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom's Taxonomy is a hierarchical framework that classifies educational objectives and cognitive processes. It was developed by Benjamin Bloom.
Three Broad categories-
1. Cognitive domain 2019 DEC
2. Affective domain 2019 DEC
3. Psychomotor domain
Cognitive Domain- It includes the following level June-2015]
EVALUATION
SYNTHESIS
ANALYSIS
APPLICATION
COMPREHENSION
KNOWLEDGE
Affective Domain- It includes the following level December-2014]
CHARACTERIZATION
ORGANISING
VALUING
RESPONDING
RECIEVING
Psychomotor Domain- It includes the following level
NATURALIZATION
ARTICULATION
PRECISION
MANIPULATION
IMITATION
Edgar’s Dale Cone of Experience
The Edgar Dale Cone of Experience, also known as the Cone of Learning, is a visual model that illustrates different levels of learning experiences. It was developed by Edgar Dale, an American educationist. 20th June 2019-Ist Shift
Learner’s characteristics
Learner Characteristic
Learner characteristics refer to the individual traits and qualities that influence how learners acquire, process, and retain information. Understanding these characteristics is essential for effective teaching. Here are some key learner characteristics in teaching aptitude: 25th June 2019IInd Shift]
1. Curiosity: Good learners have a natural curiosity and a desire to explore and understand new concepts. [21st June 2019-IInd Shift , 2023 June shift-1
2. Motivation: They are intrinsically motivated to learn, driven by personal interest and a genuine desire for knowledge. 2023 June shift-1
3. Self-discipline: Good learners have the ability to set goals, manage their time effectively, and stay focused on their learning tasks.
4. Adaptability: They are flexible and open-minded, willing to adapt their strategies and approaches based on feedback and new information.
5. Persistence: Good learners are determined and resilient, willing to overcome challenges and setbacks in their learning journey.
6. Critical thinking: They possess strong analytical and problem-solving skills, enabling them to evaluate information critically and make reasoned judgments. [20th June 2019- Ist Shift
7. Active engagement: They actively participate in the learning process, asking questions, seeking clarification, and actively seeking opportunities for hands-on learning.
8. Self-reflection: Good learners engage in self-reflection, assessing their own progress, strengths, and weaknesses, and actively seeking ways to improve.
9. Collaboration: They recognize the value of collaboration and are willing to work effectively with others, engaging in discussions, sharing ideas, and learning from peers.
10. Resilience: Good learners embrace challenges and setbacks as learning opportunities, bouncing back from failures and setbacks with a positive mindset 2023 June shift-1
Learning Disorder
• Learning disorders, also known as learning disabilities, refer to a group of neurological conditions that affect an individual's ability to acquire, process, or express information effectively. Here are the types of learning disorders:
1. Dyslexia: Dyslexia primarily affects reading and language skills. People with dyslexia may have difficulty decoding words, reading fluently, and comprehending written material. [5th Dec. 2019-Ist Shift
2. Dysgraphia: Dysgraphia affects a person's ability to write coherently and express their thoughts in writing. It can involve difficulties with handwriting, spelling, and organizing ideas on paper. [5th Dec. 2019-Ist Shift
3. Dyscalculia: Dyscalculia is a learning disorder related to mathematical abilities. Individuals with dyscalculia may struggle with understanding and manipulating numbers, memorizing arithmetic facts, and grasping mathematical concepts. [5th Dec. 2019-Ist Shift
4. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD ): While not solely a learning disorder, ADHD can significantly impact learning. It involves difficulties with attention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, which can interfere with concentration and focus on academic tasks. [ 5th Dec. 2019-Ist Shift
5. Auditory Processing Disorder (APD): APD affects the processing and interpretation of auditory information. Individuals may have difficulty distinguishing between sounds, following verbal instructions, and comprehending spoken language.
6. Visual Processing Disorder (VPD): VPD affects the interpretation and understanding of visual information. It can lead to difficulties with visualspatial skills, recognizing shapes and symbols, and visual memory.
7. Non-Verbal Learning Disability (NVLD ): NVLD is characterized by weaknesses in non- verbal skills, such as visual -spatial abilities, understanding body language, and social interactions. People with NVLD may have difficulty with tasks requiring visual -motor coordination and abstract reasoning.
UNESCO (1984) classified the following types of learning settings:
Formal Learning Settings:
Schools: Traditional educational institutions where structured learning takes place, following a prescribed curriculum.
Universities and Colleges: Higher education institutions offering specialized academic and professional courses, Vocational Training Centres and Adult Education Centres.
Non-formal Learning Settings:
Community Centres: Local centres that offer educational and skillbuilding programs outside of traditional school settings.
Workplaces: Learning that takes place on the job or through workplace training programs.
Voluntary Organizations, Non-profit organizations and Libraries and Museums
Informal Learning Settings:
Family and Home: Learning that occurs within the family and home environment, often through daily activities, conversations, and experiences. 22nd September 2022 shif t 1
Peer Groups, and Online Platforms and Digital Spaces.
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) identified four pillars of learning in its report titled "Learning: The Treasure Within" in 1996. These four pillars serve as a comprehensive framework for lifelong learning. Here are the UNESCO's four pillars of learning : December 2018, 2019 june
LEARNNG TO KNOW
LEARNING TO BE
PILLARS OF EDUCATION
LEARNING TO DO
LEARNING TO LIVE TOGETHER
1. Learning to Know: This pillar emphasizes the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies.
2. Learning to Do: This pillar highlights the importance of developing practical skills and competencies necessary for productive work, employment, and active participation in society.
3. Learning to Live Together: This pillar emphasizes the development of social skills, values, and attitudes that foster peaceful coexistence, mutual respect, and understanding among individuals from diverse backgrounds
4. Learning to Be: This pillar focuses on holistic development, nurturing
individuals personal and emotional well-being, and fostering a sense of identity, self-esteem, and autonomy.
Characteristics of adolescent and adult learners (Academic, Social, Emotional and Cognitive)
Adolescents are typically engaged in formal education, attending schools or educational institutions.
➢ Varied academic interests. Active learning
Social Aspect:
➢ Peer influence
➢ Developing social skills
➢ Exploring independence
Emotional Aspect:
➢ Emotional volatility: Adolescents often experience emotional ups and downs due to hormonal changes and the challenges of adolescence.
Identity formation: They undergo a process of self-discovery and self- definition.
Adult Learners (20+ years)
Academic Aspect:
➢ Diverse motivations: Adults engage in learning for various reasons, such as career advancement, personal growth, or pursuing new interests.
➢ Life experience integration Goal-oriented learning
Social Aspect:
➢ Networking opportunities: Adults may engage in professional networking within their learning. Collaborative learning
Emotional Aspect:
➢ Emotional maturity: Adults generally have greater emotional stability and selfawareness compared to adolescents.
Balancing multiple roles: They often juggle multiple responsibilities, such as work, family, and personal commitments, which can impact their emotional well-being.
Cognitive Aspect:
➢ Abstract thinking: Adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly, understand complex concepts, and engage in hypothetical reasoning.
Cognitive Aspect:
➢ Drawing from experience: Adults apply their existing knowledge and experience to new learning situations, making connections and integrating new information
Developing critical thinking: They refine their analytical and problem- solving skills, becoming more capable of independent thinking and decision- making. into their existing frameworks.
➢ Self-directed learning
Practical relevance
Factors affecting teaching
Factors affecting teaching related to Teacher
Several factors can significantly influence teaching and impact the effectiveness of educators. Here are some key factors related to teachers that can affect the teaching process:
1. Methods of Teaching Used:
• Proficiency in various teaching methods keeps classes engaging.
• Examples include teacher-centered, student-centered, content-focused, and interactive methods.
2. Classroom Environment:
• Physical factors include infrastructure, furniture, library facilities, etc.
• Social factors involve relationships between teachers, students, parents, and among students.
3. Skills of a Teacher:
• Effective communication, interpersonal skills, and continuous learning contribute to effective teaching.
• Teachers' subject matter expertise and pedagogical skills are vital.
4. Institutional Policies:
• Institutional policies can limit creativity and impose specific curricula and teaching methods.
• The scope for innovative teaching may be restricted.
5. Rewards:
• Adequate remuneration motivates teachers and improves teaching methods.
• Competitive salaries based on qualifications and performance enhance learning outcomes.
6. Knowledge and Expertise:
• Subject matter knowledge enables accurate information conveyance and meaningful discussions.
7. Pedagogical Skills:
• Effective planning, organization, and delivery of instruction.
• Differentiation to meet diverse student needs.
8. Reflective Practice:
• Regular assessment, evaluation, and adjustment of teaching methods.
• Seeking professional development and feedback.
9. Communication and Interpersonal Skills:
• Clear communication, active listening, and fostering open dialogue.
10. Motivation and Enthusiasm:
• Passion for teaching and subject matter inspires student engagement and motivation.
Factors Affecting Teaching Related to Learners:
1. Prior knowledge and background
2. Learning styles and preferences
3. Motivation and engagement
4. Individual differences
5. Cultural and linguistic diversity
6. Developmental stage
7. Learning needs and goals
8. Personal factors
9. Peer interactions
10. External influences
Instructional Facilities
• Instructional facilities refer to physical spaces, equipment, and resources specifically designed and utilized for educational purposes. These facilities provide a conducive environment for teaching and learning. Here are the main benefits of using instructional facilities: 2021 shift-2
• Teaching instructional facilities capture learners' attention and make classroom teaching more effective.
• The use of instructional facilities is based on teaching principles.
• Learners retain information better when multiple sensory channels are engaged through instructional facilities.
The main benefits of using instructional facilities:
1. Enhanced Learning Environment
2. Hands-on Learning Opportunities
3. Access to Specialized Resources
4. Active and Collaborative Learning
5. Technology Integration
6. Simulations and Virtual Learning
7. Specialized Training and Practice
8. Professional Development for Educators
9. Increased Student Engagement
10. Real-World Application
Types of Instructional Facilitiess
They are broadly categorised into two types
1. Projected instructional facilities are visual instructional devices that are shown with a projector, such as slides, filmstrips, silent films, and cartoons. They are typically projected using an opaque projector (epidiascope) or an overhead projector.
2. Non-projected instructional facilities are visual instructional devices that are presented without any projection equipment. Examples of non -projected instructional facilities include the blackboard and charts.
Projected Instructional Facilities
1. Films
2. Slides
3. Overhead projectors
4. Epidiascope
5. Video projectors
6. Film strips
Non Projected Instructional Facilities
Graphic
Display Boards
3-D
Audio
Activity
1. Charts
2. Flash cards
3. Posters
4. Pictures and photographs
5. Graphs
6. Map diagrams
1. Blackboard
2. Whiteboard
3. Bulletin Board
4. Flannel Board
5. Magnetic Board
6. Peg Board
1. Models
2. Mockups
3. Objects and specimens
4. Puppets
1. Radio
2. Recordings
3. Digital Audio Player
4. Television
5. Telephone and Mobiles
1. Filed Trips
2. Experimentation
3. Dramatics
4. Teaching Machines
5. Programmed Instructions
Methods of teaching :
Difference between Teacher centred and Learner centred Teaching Methods
Teacher-Centred Methods of Teaching: Learner -Centred Methods of Teaching:
Focus: Teacher-centred methods place the teacher at the centre of the instructional process, with the primary focus on the teacher delivering information and students receiving it.
Knowledge Transfer: The teacher acts as the primary source of knowledge and expertise, while students are passive recipients of information.
Focus: Learner-centred methods prioritize the active involvement and engagement of students in the learning process. The focus is on the needs, interests, and individuality of the learners.
Active Learning: Students are actively engaged in constructing their knowledge, participating in discussions, problem- solving, and hands-on activities.
Teacher's Role: The teacher has a more authoritative role, leading and directing the learning process.
Teacher's Role: The teacher serves as a facilitator, guiding and supporting students' learning journey rather than being the primary source of information.
Instructional Approach: Instruction is typically delivered through lectures, presentations, and demonstrations, with limited student participation.
Instructional Approach: Instruction is designed to be interactive, collaborative, and inquiry-based, encouraging critical thinking, problemsolving, and self-directed learning.
Assessment: Assessment is often based on teacher evaluation, such as tests or assignments that measure students' understanding of the content delivered by the teacher.
Methods of Teaching
Teacher - centred
Lecture Method:
Assessment: Assessment includes various forms, such as projects, portfolios, presentations, and group activities, to evaluate students' understanding, skills, and abilities beyond traditional tests.
• Delivery of Information: The lecture method involves the teacher delivering information or a presentation to the students, typically in a one-way communication format.
• Teacher's Role: The teacher takes on a central role as the primary speaker and knowledge provider.
• Passive Learning: Students are passive recipients of information, listening and taking notes during the lecture.
• Content Focus: The lecture method is suitable for conveying a large amount of content or complex concepts within a limited time frame.
• Limited Student Interaction: Interaction between the teacher and students is usually limited, with minimal opportunity for student engagement or participation.
• Assessment: Assessment is often conducted through tests or assignments to evaluate students' understanding of the lecture content.
Team Teaching:
• Collaboration: Team teaching involves two or more teachers working together to plan, deliver, and evaluate instruction.
• Shared Expertise: Each teacher brings their unique knowledge and skills to the teaching process, creating a dynamic and diverse learning experience.
• Active Learning: Students have increased opportunities for active learning through discussions, group work, and different perspectives presented by the team of teachers.
• Differentiated Instruction: Team teaching allows for differentiated instruction, catering to the diverse learning needs of students.
• Collaboration Skills: Students observe collaboration among teachers, promoting teamwork, communication skills, and respect for different viewpoints.
• Assessment: Assessment methods can vary, including individual and group assessments to gauge student understanding and collaboration skills.
TV or Video Presentation:
Visual Learning: TV or video presentations utilize visual and audio media to deliver
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The officials became so alarmed that just before the death of Philip II. he was requested to prohibit any further enumeration of the Moriscoes, because it acquainted them with their power and must eventually prove prejudicial to the interests of the monarchy. Besides their menacing increase, which no supervision, however effective, could prevent, they possessed qualities that made them highly obnoxious to their masters. Their frugality and thrift, their shrewdness and enterprise, rendered competition with them impossible. There was no profitable occupation in which they did not excel. In agriculture they had no rivals. They monopolized every industrial employment; all of the most useful trades were under their control. They undersold the Castilian peasantry in their own markets. Even the most opulent, instructed by previous experience, sedulously avoided every exhibition of luxury; but the Moorish artisan had not lost the taste and dexterity of his ancestors, and the splendid products of the loom and the armory still commanded high prices in the metropolitan cities of Europe. It was known that the Moriscoes were wealthy, and popular opinion, as is invariably the case, delighted in exaggerating the value of their possessions. While they sold much, they consumed comparatively little and purchased even less. Although the offence of heresy could no longer be consistently imputed to them, specious considerations of public policy, as well as deference to ineradicable national prejudice, demanded their suppression. Their prosperity, secured at the expense of their neighbors, and a standing reproach to the idleness and incapacity of the latter, was the measure of Spanish decay. In the existing state of the public mind, and under the direction of the statesmen who controlled the actions of the King, a pretext could readily be found for the perpetration of any injustice. The Moriscoes of Valencia, the most numerous, wealthy, and influential body of their race, protected by the nobles, had always shown less alacrity in the observance of the duties of the Church than their brethren, and had thus rendered themselves liable to the suspicion of apostasy It was declared that after a generation of espionage, prayer, and religious instruction they were still secret Mussulmans. This opinion, perhaps in some instances not without foundation, amounted to absolute certainty in the narrow mind of Don Juan de Ribera, Archbishop of Valencia, a
prelate of vindictive temper, arbitrary disposition, limited abilities, and violent prejudices. He owed much of his reputation for piety to the fact that he had denounced to the Inquisition more than four thousand alleged Moorish apostates. Knowing his feelings towards them, the Moriscoes generally turned a deaf ear to his admonitions and threats, and thus further incurred his displeasure. The energy of Ribera was incessantly exerted for the ruin of these supposed heretics, either by exile or by extermination. With this end in view he addressed several memorials to Philip III., who had now ascended the throne, in which the objects of his wrath were accused of every crime against the civil and the moral law,—treason, murder, kidnapping, blasphemy, sacrilege. In these appeals the Moriscoes were called “the sponge that absorbed the riches of Spain.” He enforced his arguments by the extraordinary statement that the destruction of the Armada was a divine judgment for the indulgence exhibited towards these enemies of the Faith, and that Philip II. was aware of it, for he himself had informed him of that fact. The recent occurrence of earthquakes, tempests, and comets was also sagely attributed to the same cause. The Moriscoes were not ignorant of the designs which the Archbishop was prosecuting to their injury, and endeavored to obtain the assistance of France and England, both of which countries were then hostile to Spain. They offered King Henry IV. the services of a hundred thousand well-armed soldiers if he would invade the Peninsula. The Duke of Sully says they even signalized their willingness to embrace Protestantism in consideration of support, it being a form of worship not tainted with idolatry, like that of Rome. Negotiations were privately opened with the courts of Paris and London, and commissions were even appointed by the latter to verify the claims of the Moriscoes; but no conclusion was arrived at, and the plot was eventually betrayed by the very sovereigns whose honor was pledged to the maintenance of secrecy. An embassy was also sent to the Sultan of Turkey by the Moors, soliciting his aid and tendering him their allegiance. No plan which promised relief was neglected. The furious Ribera again urged upon the King the dangers that the toleration of such a numerous and perfidious people implied; he alleged their prosperity and their superior intelligence as crimes against the state; and as absolute
extermination did not seem to be feasible, he suggested expulsion as of greater inconvenience, but of equal efficacy. Once more the nobles interposed in behalf of their vassals, and while the King was hesitating the Moriscoes endeavored to anticipate his decision by the formation of an extensive conspiracy. Again they were betrayed, this time by one of their own number. Public opinion, aroused by these occurrences, and further inflamed by ecclesiastical malice and by the pernicious influence of the Duke of Lerma, the all-powerful minister of Philip III., now imperatively demanded their banishment. This nobleman, of base antecedents and unprincipled character, and whose dominating passion was avarice, was Viceroy of Valencia. His brother was the Grand Inquisitor Their influence easily overweighed the remonstrances of the Pope, whose voice was raised on the side of mercy.
On the fourth of August, 1609, the royal decree which announced the fate of the Moriscoes of Valencia was signed at Segovia. No precaution which prudence could suggest was neglected to prevent disaster consequent upon its enforcement. Great bodies of troops were placed under arms. The frontiers of the kingdom were patrolled by cavalry. Seventy-seven ships of war, the largest in the navy, were assembled on the coast. In every town the garrison was doubled. Several thousand veterans disembarked from the fleet and were distributed at those points where the Morisco population was most numerous. Such preparations left no alternative but submission, and the Valencians, anticipating the final movement which would deliver the unhappy Moors into their hands, began to rob and persecute them without pity. Even after all had been arranged for the removal, the nobles urged Philip to revoke an order which must cause incalculable injury to his kingdom. The most solemn and binding guarantees were offered for the public safety and for the peaceable behavior of the Moriscoes. It was demonstrated that the manufacturing and agricultural interests of the entire monarchy were involved; that a population of a million souls, whose industry represented of itself a source of wealth which could not be replaced, would be practically exterminated; that the educational and religious foundations of the realm alone received from Moorish tributaries an annual sum exceeding a million doubloons of gold. It was also
shown that the vassals of the Valencian nobles paid them each year four million ducats, nearly thirty-two million dollars. The alleged conspiracies were imputed to the malice of the monks, who invented them in the cloister; the heresies to ignorance of the clergy, too idle or too negligent to afford their parishioners instruction. The evil results of the iniquitous decree had already begun to manifest themselves. The cultivation of the soil had almost ceased. The markets were deserted. Commerce languished, and the Moriscoes, to avoid the insults of the populace to which they were now subjected, only appeared in the streets when impelled to do so by absolute necessity. The Archiepiscopal See of Valencia, which derived its revenues almost entirely from Morisco taxation, was threatened with bankruptcy, and Don Juan de Ribera, realizing when too late the disastrous consequences of the project he had so sedulously advocated, now in vain endeavored to stem the tide of public bigotry and official madness. While bewailing his unhappy condition to his clerical subordinates, he was heard to plaintively remark, “My brethren, hereafter we shall be compelled to live upon herbs and to mend our own shoes.”
Philip refused to reconsider his determination, and the nobility manifested their loyalty by the unflinching support of a measure running directly counter to their interests. On the twenty-second of September, 1609, the edict of expulsion was proclaimed by heralds throughout the kingdom of Valencia. It represented that by a special act of royal clemency “the heretics, apostates, traitors, criminals guilty of lése-majesté human and divine,” were punished with exile rather than with death, to which the strict construction of the laws condemned them. It permitted the removal of such effects as could be carried, and as much of their harvests as was necessary for subsistence during their journey; all else was to be forfeited to their suzerains. They were forbidden to sell their lands or houses. Three days of preparation were granted; after that they were declared the legitimate prey of every assailant. Dire penalties were denounced against all who should conceal them or in any way assist in the evasion of the edict. Those who had intermarried with Christians could remain, if they desired; and six per cent. of the families were to be reserved by the lords, that the horticultural and mechanical
dexterity which had enriched the country might not be absolutely extinguished. These subjects of interested clemency refused to accept this invidious concession, however, and hastened to join their countrymen beyond the sea.
The wretched Moriscoes received the tidings of their expatriation with almost the despair with which they would have listened to a sentence of death. Astonishment, arising from the suddenness of the notice and the inadequate time allotted them for preparation, was mingled with their dismay. The traditions of centuries, the souvenirs of national glory, the memory of their ancestors, contributed to endear them to their native land. There were centred the most cherished associations of a numerous and cultivated race. All around were the visible signs of thrift and opulence and their results, won by laborious exertion from the soil. The disfigured but still magnificent monuments of fallen dynasties recalled the departed glory of Arab genius and Moslem power. The loss of their wealth, the sacrifice of their possessions, portended the endurance of calamities for which they were ill-prepared, and of whose dreadful character their most gloomy apprehensions could convey no adequate conception. In every Moorish community appeared the signs of unutterable misery and woe. The shrieks of frenzied women pierced the air. Old men sobbed upon the hearthstones where had been passed the happy days of infancy and youth. Overcome with grief, life-long friends met in the streets without notice or salutation. Even little children, unable to comprehend, yet awed by the prevailing sorrow, ceased their play to mingle their tears with those of their parents.
As the disconsolate and sobbing multitude, urged on by the ferocious soldiery taught by their religion to regard these victims of national prejudice as the enemies of Christ, left their homes behind forever, their trials and sufferings increased with their progress. The government provided them with neither food, shelter, nor transportation. The difficulties of the march were aggravated by clouds of dust and by the pitiless heat of summer. Many were born on the highway. Great numbers fell from exhaustion. Some, in desperation, committed suicide. Every straggler was butchered by the armed rabble which, equally ravenous for plunder or blood,
constantly hung on the flanks of the slowly moving column. Many were assassinated by Old Christians, men of Moorish ancestry, the conversion of whose forefathers dated before the Conquest, and who told their beads and muttered prayers after each murder, as if they had committed an action acceptable to God. The armed brigands who composed the escort vied with the mob in their atrocities. The men were openly killed, the women violated. Their property was appropriated by force. Some died of hunger. Parents, in their extremity, became so oblivious of the instincts of nature as to barter their children for a morsel of bread. When they embarked for Africa they fared even worse than they had done on land. On the sea the opportunities for outrage were multiplied, the means of escape and detection diminished. No pen can portray the horrors visited upon the unhappy Moriscoes, helpless in the midst of savage enemies who were insensible to pity, hardened by cruelty, and dominated by the furious lust of beauty and gold.
The decree was not received everywhere with the same submission as at the city of Valencia. There the exiles, overawed by the large military force, yielded without disturbance. Half-crazed by misfortune, they even feigned exultation, marched on board the ships dressed in holiday costume and headed by bands of music, and in token of delight gave themselves up to the most extravagant exhibitions of joy. Some kissed the shore, others plunged into the sea, others again quaffed the briny water as if it were a delicious beverage. Before embarking they sold much of their property, and articles of great elegance and beauty—curiously wrought vessels of gold and enamel, silken veils embroidered with silver, magnificent garments—were disposed of for a small fraction of their value. During these transactions, and in settlement of their passage to Africa, the Moriscoes succeeded in placing in circulation an immense amount of counterfeit money which they had obtained in Catalonia, thus literally paying the Spaniards in their own coin. The portable wealth of which the kingdom was deprived by their banishment cannot be estimated. It amounted, however, to many millions of ducats. Some of the exiles were known to possess a hundred thousand pieces of gold, an enormous fortune in those times. It was ascertained after their departure that their lords, in defiance of law,
had purchased many of their estates, and had connived at the sale or concealment of a great amount of their personal property. Those who succeeded in reaching the cities were received with courteous hospitality, but the desert tribes showed scant mercy to the multitudes that fell into their hands.
Elsewhere in the kingdom the Moriscoes stubbornly resisted the decree of expatriation. The Sierra de Bernia and the Vale of Alahuar were the scene of the most serious disturbances, and at one time twenty thousand insurgents were in the field. Armed for the most part with clubs, their valor was ineffectual in the presence of veteran troops. The women alone were spared; the men were butchered; the brains of children were beaten out against the walls. The garrison of the castle of Pop, which for a few weeks defied the Spanish army, alone obtained advantageous terms. Of the one hundred and fifty thousand Moors exiled from Valencia, at least two-thirds perished. A large number had previously succumbed to persecution or had escaped, and including these the total number of victims of the inauguration of the insane policy of Philip III. was at least two hundred thousand. The continuance of that policy until its aim had been fully accomplished had already been determined on by the councillors of the King. The secrecy which concealed their design did not impose upon those who were the objects of it. They began by tens of thousands to emigrate quietly to Africa. Then the decree, which had been signed a month before, was published, with an attempt to give the impression that it had been provoked by a circumstance of which it was really the cause, namely, the agitation of the Moriscoes. The latter were peremptorily commanded to leave the kingdom within eight days. They were forbidden to take with them money, gold, jewels, bills of exchange, or merchandise. They were not permitted to dispose of their estates. In Catalonia their property was confiscated, “in satisfaction of debts which they might have owed to Christians,” and three days only were allowed them in which to prepare for departure. Their little children were to be left behind to the tender mercies of their oppressors, in order that their salvation might be assured. Those of the northern provinces were prohibited from moving southward; those of Andalusia were directed to emigrate by sea. Within the allotted time all were in motion. The
embarkation of the exiles destined for Africa was effected without difficulty. But their brethren of Castile and Aragon were refused admission into France, by the direct order of Henry IV., to whose agency was largely attributable their deplorable condition. His opportune death somewhat relaxed official severity, and a great number entered Provence. Although they were peaceable and inoffensive, the French were anxious to be rid of their unwelcome guests. Free transportation was furnished them by the city of Marseilles, and they were distributed through Turkey, Italy, and Africa. So many died during the passage by sea that their dead bodies encumbered the beach, and the peasants refused for a long time to eat fish, declaring that it had the taste of human flesh. The progress of the unfortunates driven northward was marked by daily scenes of persecution and agony. The commissioners appointed to supervise the emigration connived at the evasion of the decree for their own profit. They extorted enormous sums for protection, which their duty required them to afford without compensation, and which, even after these impositions, was insolently denied. Those things which the ordinary dictates of humanity delight to bestow were sold to the hapless wanderers at fabulous prices. For the shade of the trees on the highway the grasping and unprincipled peasant exacted a rental; and the water dipped from the streams in the trembling hands of the sufferers commanded a higher price than that usually paid for the wine of the country. The little which the commissioners overlooked was seized by rapacious French officials, and the condition of the Moriscoes was still further aggravated by the absconding of those of their number to whom the common purse had been intrusted.
In the merciless proscription thus imposed upon an entire people, an insignificant number temporarily escaped. In the latter were included young children torn from their parents to be educated by the Church, and such persons “of good life and religion” as the clergy, through interested or generous motives, chose to recommend to royal indulgence. In 1611 the exemption enjoyed by these classes was removed; searching inquiry was instituted throughout the kingdom, and every individual of Moorish blood who could be discovered was inexorably condemned to banishment or slavery. By
the persecution of the Moriscoes and the losses by war, assassination, voluntary emigration, and enforced exile, Spain was deprived of the services of more than a million of the most intelligent, laborious, and skilful subjects in Christendom. Those who were finally excluded were probably not more than half of the entire Moorish population. No statistics are accessible in our day from which an estimate can be formed of the vast number that perished by famine, by torture, by massacre. Their trials were not at an end even in Africa; they were pursued for sectarian differences, and some who were sincere Christians returned to Spain, where they were at once sentenced to the galleys. The skill and thrift of the Moriscoes, qualities which should have made them desirable, rendered them everywhere unpopular; they monopolized the trade of the Barbary coast, even driving out the Jews; in Algiers the populace rose against them, all were expelled, and large numbers were remorselessly butchered. Hatred of their oppressors induced many of hitherto peaceful occupations to embrace the trade of piracy, and the southern coast of the Peninsula had reason to long remember the exploits of the Morisco corsairs.
The ruthless barbarity, the blind and reckless folly of this measure, was followed by an everlasting curse of barrenness, ignorance, and penury. The sudden removal of enormous amounts of portable wealth deranged every kind of trade. The circulation of counterfeit money impaired public confidence. In Valencia four hundred and fifty villages were abandoned. The absence of the most industrious and prosperous class of its inhabitants was apparent in every community of Castile. Catalonia lost three-quarters of its population. The districts of Aragon rendered desolate by Moorish expulsion have never been repeopled. Agricultural science and mechanical skill disappeared. The hatred and disdain entertained by the Spaniards for the conquered race had never permitted them to profit by the experience and ingenuity of the latter. Intercourse with a Moor brought moral and social contamination. Still less could the admission of inferiority, which the adoption of his methods implied, be tolerated by the haughty, the vainglorious, the impecunious hidalgo.
The effects of the discouragement of all forms of art and industry consequent upon war and persecution had been felt long previous to the expulsion of the Moriscoes in every part of the Peninsula. For many years after the capture of Cordova by Ferdinand III., it was found necessary to bring provisions from the North, not only for the support of the army, but to rescue from famine the sparse and thriftless population of a province which under the Ommeyade khalifs maintained with ease the great capital, as well as twelve thousand villages and hamlets.
The decline in the number of inhabitants under Spanish rule indicates the utter stagnation of trade and agriculture. In 1492 the population of Castile was six and three-quarter million; in 1700 there were in the entire kingdom of Spain but six million souls—such had been the significant retrogression in two hundred years.
The combined revenues of the Spanish Crown at the close of the fifteenth century amounted to a sum equal to three hundred thousand dollars, about one-thousandth of the annual receipts of the imperial treasury at the death of Abd-al-Rahman III., seven hundred years before.
Fifty years after the banishment of the Moors, the combined population of the cities of Cordova, Seville, Toledo, Granada, had decreased by more than four-fifths; it is now about one-tenth of its amount during the Moslem domination. In 1788 there were fifteen hundred and eleven deserted towns in the Peninsula. Toledo, celebrated for its silken fabrics, in the latter part of the fifteenth century had sixty thousand looms; in 1651 it had five thousand; today it has none. The same industry was pursued with great success at Seville; in the seventeenth century the number of its looms had decreased from sixteen thousand to sixteen. All other branches of manufactures declined in the same proportion. Even a large part of the kingdom of Valencia, the garden of Europe, was for years an uninhabited wilderness. With the Moslem expulsion the knowledge of many arts, once the source of great profit, was hopelessly lost.
To the pious Spaniard all these sacrifices were as nothing when compared with the triumph of the Faith. The ports were unoccupied,
the quays grass-grown, but the armies of the Cross had conquered. The manufactories had fallen into decay, the streets were silent, the highways were deserted except by the timorous traveller and the lurking robber, but not a Moslem or a Jewish heretic was to be encountered in His Most Catholic Majesty’s dominions. At the close of the seventeenth century, throughout the entire Peninsula, once the centre of learning in Europe, the resort of scholars of every land, the seat of the greatest educational institutions of the Middle Ages, not a single academy existed where instruction could be obtained in astronomy, natural philosophy, or any branch of mathematics. A hundred years later no one could be found who understood even the rudiments of chemistry. To-day, among the inhabitants of Spain, according to the published tables of statistics, only one person in every four can read. But what mattered the destruction of commerce, the decay of production, the dearth of intelligence, if the land was purged of false doctrines?, Was it not a source of national congratulation that ecclesiastical authority was once more paramount; that half of the able-bodied population, male and female, were devoted to monastic life; that magnificent religious foundations, such as the world had never before seen, arose on every side; that, though the royal treasury was bankrupt, the annual revenues of the Church amounted to nearly fifty-three million dollars? Surely these manifold divine blessings were not to be weighed with the transitory benefits derived from the labors of a mass of perverse and unregenerate heretics!
The results, both immediate and remote, of this crime against civilization thus proved fatal to Spain. Its principal sources of subsistence removed, the kingdom was desolated by famine. It became necessary to extend public aid to many noble families, once affluent, but now impoverished by the suicidal course of the crown. Popular sentiment, exasperated by distress, denounced in unsparing terms the authors of the national calamity. The Archbishop of Valencia, unable to endure the daily reproaches to which he was subjected, and overcome by the sufferings for which he was responsible, died of remorse. Silence and gloom occupied vast tracts formerly covered by exuberant vegetation. In the place of the farmer and the mechanic appeared the brigand and the outlaw. Deprived of
protection, the open country was abandoned; the peasantry sought the security of fortified places, and all occupations whose pursuit implied exposure to the danger of violence were necessarily suspended. The conditions controlling every rank of society which were established in the Peninsula by the blind and savage prejudices of the seventeenth century are largely prevalent to-day. A dreadful retribution has followed a tragedy whose example happily no other nation has ventured to imitate; and which, from the hour of its occurrence, has afflicted with every misfortune to the last generation the people responsible for its hideous atrocities.
CHAPTER XXVII
GENERAL CONDITION OF EUROPE FROM THE VIII. TO THE XVI. CENTURY
700–1500
Effects of Barbarian Supremacy on the Nations of Europe Rise of the Papal Power Character of the Popes Their Vices and Crimes The Interdict Corrupt Practices of Prelates and Degradation of the Papacy Institution of the Monastic Orders Their Great Influence Their Final Degeneracy Wealth of the Religious Houses The Byzantine System Its Characteristics Power of the Eunuchs Splendor of Constantinople Destruction of Learning Debased Condition of the Greeks The People of Western Europe Tyranny of Caste and its Effects Feudal Oppression Life of the Noble His Amusements The Serf and his Degradation His Hopeless Existence Treatment of the Jews Prevalence of Epidemics Religious Festivals General Ignorance Scarcity and Value of Books Persecution of Learning—The Empire of the Church—Its Extraordinary Vitality
In order that the reader may thoroughly understand and properly appreciate the moral and intellectual supremacy of the Spanish Arabs and their prodigious advance in the domain of science and the arts, I have thought it advisable, by way of contrast, to present to him a short and superficial sketch of the religious, political, and domestic conditions which prevailed in the society of contemporaneous Europe. The extent of this vast and comprehensive subject—one which has exhausted the erudition of many great historians, whose works of themselves would constitute a considerable library—must, therefore, excuse the incomplete and cursory character of this chapter; while its importance as a standard of comparison will account for an apparent deviation from the general plan embraced by these volumes.
The elegant luxury and refined civilization of the Romans had disappeared amidst the universal anarchy which followed the
dissolution of their empire. The boundaries of great states and kingdoms had been obliterated. Provinces once famed for their fertility were now the haunts of prowling beasts and truculent barbarians. The despotic but generally salutary government of the Cæsars had everywhere, save in the immediate vicinity of Byzantium, been replaced by the capricious and irregular jurisdiction of petty chieftains, whose violent passions were restrained only by their weakness, and of marauding princes, ambitious to destroy every vestige of that architectural magnificence and mental culture whose monuments they despised, and whose example they had neither the desire nor the capacity to emulate. Instead of a smiling landscape, everywhere exhibiting the traces of agricultural skill and laborious and patient industry, a prospect of universal desolation met the eye of the anxious and hurrying wayfarer. Moss-grown heaps of rubbish alone marked the site of many a once flourishing and opulent city. The towering aqueducts,—those engineering marvels of the ancient world,—whose majestic ruins still excite the admiration of all mankind, were broken and fallen into decay. The peerless temples and altars of the gods had been desecrated by the hands of sacrilegious Goth, Hun, and Lombard. Bands of brigands, insensible to pity, swarmed upon the highways. In the cities the equitable decisions of the prætor had been supplanted by the extortions of ecclesiastical fraud and barbarian insolence. The vices prevalent during the most abandoned period of Roman licentiousness had survived, and had been aggravated by the unfeeling cruelty of the conquerors. No scruples of humanity or delicacy suggested the concealment of the most revolting orgies. The streets of the Eternal City exhibited enormities whose very mention the rules of modern propriety do not tolerate. Banquets where the brutal propensities of the turbulent and uncouth guests were indulged to the utmost constantly afforded provocation for bloodshed and murder. Knowledge of letters, understanding and appreciation of the arts, had already wholly vanished. The literary masterpieces of classic genius remained unknown or forgotten in the insignificant collections of scattered libraries, or had been buried under the smoking ruins of those institutions of learning which once adorned the capitals and the provincial cities of Greece and Italy.
By the accident of geographical position, by the adoption of familiar political maxims, and by the incorporation into its ritual of many ceremonies long endeared to the votaries of Paganism, the Church of Rome had secured an influence over the minds of men which under any other circumstances it could scarcely have acquired. The revered name and dignity of Supreme Pontiff imparted authority to its decrees and gave prestige to its decisions on questions of doctrine. The five Christian emperors, from Constantine to Gratian, adopted without alteration the attributes and wore the insignia of the sacred office established by Numa and usurped by Augustus. The assumption of imperial power is shown by the extent of Papal jurisdiction long sharply defined by the ancient limits of the empire. The adoption of the Latin idiom enabled the Church to communicate secretly with its servants in the most distant countries; while at the same time it invested the proceedings of its worship with a mystery which awed the ignorant and fanatic believer. The splendid ceremonial, the imposing temples, the elaborate vestments, the costly furniture of the altar enriched with gold and jewels, the incense, the solemn chants, the consecration of the Host,—all powerfully impressed the superstitious children of the slaves of ancient mythology, in whose minds still lingered traces of those traditions which had been received by their fathers with the implicit faith due to the oracles of the gods.
In the course of centuries, the primitive simplicity of the Gospel and the purity of life which distinguished the first Christians had been lost in the complex theology, in the unseemly contests for precedence, in the crimes and the licentiousness which distracted the society of the Eternal City. From a simple priest, whose tenure of office was dependent on the pleasure of his associates, the Bishop of Rome had been exalted into a mighty sovereign, responsible only to the powers of Heaven. The palace of the Vatican exhibited all the vices of the most corrupt of courts. The assumption of infallibility,— an inevitable result of the preposterous claims of the Papacy,— through the contradictory interpretations of different individuals whose interests were conflicting led to the most opposite conclusions, often to results fatal to the peace and honor of the Church. The faith of the populace was weakened. Infidelity in the
priesthood became too common to excite remark. The universal depravity was incredible and appalling. The general demoralization resulting from the example of the clergy, whose atheism and debauchery were proverbial, threatened the existence of society, a catastrophe which the thorough organization of the hierarchy alone prevented. Even in the fifteenth century Machiavelli wrote, “The nearer a nation is to Rome the more impious are the people.” When the German Schopp called the famous scholar, Casaubon, an atheist, the latter retorted: “If I were an atheist I should now be at Rome, where I have often been invited.” The effects of this superb ecclesiastical organization were not long in manifesting themselves. The legitimate resources of power were aided by every device of fraud, of oppression, of imposture, of forgery. A succession of able and unprincipled pontiffs fastened on Christendom a yoke which the intelligence and the science of subsequent generations have not even yet been able to entirely remove. The temporal supremacy of the Cæsars was re-established over Europe; the dogmas of Catholicism were preached in distant continents unknown to the ancient world; and a tyranny far more terrible in its consequences than that experienced under the cruel rule of Nero and Domitian was imposed upon the intellectual aspirations of mankind.
No branch of history affords such a significant illustration of human craft and human weakness as the story of the ambition, the intrigues, and the vices of the Popes. In its consideration, the fact must never be lost sight of that the Holy Father was, as a necessary consequence of his creed, the earthly embodiment of spiritual perfection,—the vicegerent of Almighty God. Either the admission of a single error of judgment, or a controversy involving the most insignificant tenet sustained by one pope and disputed by his successor, was fatal to the claim of infallibility, which was the foundation of the entire ecclesiastical system. The omniscience conferred by the apostolic succession, which traced its origin to the Saviour Himself, could never be mistaken. The example of the Supreme Pontiff, the relations he sustained to the great officials of his court, his occupations, his diversions, his tastes, his habits, his conversation, were of far greater importance in the eyes of the meanest peasant of some remote kingdom who acknowledged his
mission than were the most glorious achievements of any temporal sovereign. The possibilities for the attainment to positions of such authority and influence as were offered by the Roman Catholic hierarchy had been unknown to Paganism. These opportunities enabled men of base origin, but of extraordinary talents, to reach the chair of St. Peter, men whose faults were overlooked or palliated by the indulgent spirit of the age on account of the successful prosecution of their schemes and the veneration which attached to their calling.
Thus, among the powers of the earth, highest in rank, greatest in renown, supreme in influence, pre-eminent in infamy, was the Papacy of Rome. The maintenance of an uniform standard of orthodoxy was little considered by the spiritual potentate whose will was the law of Christendom. It is well known to every student of Church history that Jewish doctrines predominated in the early days of Christianity and controlled the policy of its priesthood. The Pagan ideas and ceremonies inherited from the Roman pontiffs it never laid aside. Every form of heterodox belief was entertained at different periods by the incumbents of the Holy See. St. Clement was an Arian; Anastasius a Nestorian; Honorius a Monothelite; John XXII. an unconcealed atheist. The contradictory dogmas, the acrimonious disputes, the frightful anathemas, that resulted from the adoption of these heretical principles of doctrine were the public reproach of the Christian world. As the power of the Papacy increased, its possession became more and more an object to ambitious and unscrupulous adventurers. It was sought and obtained by arts countenanced only by the vilest of demagogues. It was sold by one Pope to another; and, like the imperial laurel appropriated by the Pretorian Guards, it was put up at auction by cardinals and became the property of the most wealthy purchaser. Some of the Holy Fathers had not taken orders; others had not even received the sacraments of baptism and communion before being invested with the pontifical dignity. In some instances the tiara and the mitre were placed upon the brows of children. Neither John XII. nor Benedict IX. had attained the age of thirteen years when intrusted with the direction of the spiritual affairs of Christendom. An infant of five years was consecrated Archbishop of Rheims. Another who was only ten
was placed upon the episcopal throne of Narbonne. Alonso of Aragon, the natural son of Ferdinand the Catholic, was made Archbishop of Saragossa at the age of six. The origin of the vicars of Christ was sometimes of the most obscure and often of the most disgraceful character. Stephen VII., John X., John XI., John XII., Boniface VII., Gregory VII., were the sons of courtesans. In some instances the infamy was further increased by the additional stigma attaching to the crime of incest. The famous courtesan Marozia, who for the greater part of her life disposed of the Papacy at her will, is credited with the installation of eight Popes, all her lovers or her children, one of whom was at once her son and grandson. The empire she acquired by her talents and her beauty lasted almost a quarter of a century. To that epoch is ascribed an occurrence that many writers have designated as fabulous, but which is established by evidence far more convincing than many events that have successfully withstood the most formidable assaults of hostile criticism. It was long asserted by chroniclers of the orthodox faith, and universally credited, that in the capital of Christianity, hallowed by the glorious deaths of countless martyrs, linked with the proud associations of the rise and progress of the spiritual power of the Papacy, and ennobled by the most signal victories of the Church, a monstrous prodigy had occurred. It was said that Pope John VIII., whose sex had hitherto been unsuspected save by those favored with her intimacy, while returning from the celebration of a solemn festival, at the head of a procession of cardinals and bishops and surrounded with the glittering emblems of pontifical power and majesty, had been seized with the throes of parturition in one of the most public thoroughfares of Rome.
The original acceptance of and belief in this portentous catastrophe, and its subsequent denial, form one of the most curious episodes in the annals of the Church. For five centuries it was implicitly received as historic truth. The life of Pope Joan long occupied a prominent place in the biographies of the successors of St. Peter, dedicated to eminent prelates, often to the Pontiffs themselves. The occurrence—whose locality was marked by the statue of a woman wearing the Papal insignia and holding a child in her arms—was minutely described in the works of learned and
respectable historians. This memorial was thrown into the Tiber by the order of Sixtus V. Her bust, destroyed by Charles VIII. during the French invasion of Italy, was long an ornament of one of the churches of Sienna. Until the time of Leo X. certain ceremonies, which cannot be described, were publicly instituted at the election of every Pope to determine his sex. To these even the licentious Borgia was forced to conform. John Huss, when arraigned before the Council of Constance, amidst an unbroken silence, reproached the ecclesiastical dignitaries assembled to condemn him, and whom the slightest heretical assertion roused to tumultuous fury, with the imposture which had so signally demonstrated the weakness of the vaunted inspiration of the Papacy. More than five hundred writers, whose interests were identical with those of the Vatican—among them chroniclers, polemic divines, authorities on the history of the Church and its discipline, all enthusiastic members of the Roman Catholic communion—have confirmed the existence of a female Pope.
But, whether true or false, the disgrace consequent upon this gigantic scandal was insignificant when compared with the moral effect of the long series of crimes which disfigure the annals of Papal Rome. The shameless venality of the Princes of the Church had from the most remote times disgraced the proceedings by which was elevated to the throne of the apostles the immaculate Vicar of God. So corrupt was the ecclesiastical society of the capital that no Pontiff who endeavored to live a moral life was secure for a single hour. Celestine was poisoned at the instance of the cardinals eighteen days after receiving the tiara. Adrian V. was poisoned in the conclave itself before his election. The partisans of antagonistic claimants of the Papacy pursued each other with a vindictiveness scarcely equalled by the most intense bitterness of political faction. Each aspirant to the pontifical dignity denounced his opponent as an antipope, and exhausted the rich vocabulary of clerical invective in consigning him to the vengeance of Heaven. The defeated candidate was subjected to every variety of torture; to the deprivation of his nose, his eyes, his tongue; to the suffering of confinement in noisome dungeons; to the pangs of prolonged starvation. The temporal enemies of the Holy Father fared even worse than his rivals
