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All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw Hill LLC, and McGraw Hill LLC does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. mheducation.com/highered
We dedicate this book to our wives, Ricky Karen Bordens and Stephanie Abbott, and to our children and grandchildren.
CONTENTS
Preface xvii
Chapter 1: Explaining Behavior 1
Practicing Science 3
What Scientists Do 5
Science as a Way of Thinking 8
Basic and Applied Research 9
Learning About Research: Why Should You Care? 10
Exploring the Causes of Behavior 11
Explaining Behavior 12
Science, Protoscience, Nonscience, and Pseudoscience 13
Scientific Explanations 16
Commonsense Explanations Versus Scientific Explanations 18
Belief-Based Explanations Versus Scientific Explanations 20
When Scientific Explanations Fail 21
Failures Due to Faulty Inference 22
Pseudoexplanations 23
The Emergence of New, Conflicting Information 25
Other Methods of Inquiry 26
The Method of Authority 26
The Rational Method 27
Steps in the Research Process 28
Developing a Research Idea and Hypothesis 28
Choosing a Research Design 28
Choosing Subjects 28
Deciding on What to Observe and Appropriate Measures 30
Conducting Your Study 30
Analyzing Your Results 30
Reporting Your Results 30
Starting the Whole Process Over Again 30
Summary 31
Key Terms 32
References 33
Chapter 2: Developing and Evaluating Theories of Behavior 35
What Is a Theory? 35
Theory Versus Hypothesis 36
Theory Versus Law 37
Theory Versus Model 38
Mechanistic Explanations Versus Functional Explanations 42
Classifying Theories 43
Is the Theory Quantitative or Qualitative? 43
At What Level of Description Does the Theory Operate? 45
What Is the Theory’s Domain? 49
Roles of Theory in Science 49
Understanding 49
Prediction 50
Organizing and Interpreting Research Results 50
Generating Research 50
Characteristics of a Good Theory 52
Ability to Account for Data 52
Explanatory Relevance 52
Testability 52
Prediction of Novel Events 53
Parsimony 53
Strategies for Testing Theories 54
Following a Confirmational Strategy 54
Following a Disconfirmational Strategy 54
Using Confirmational and Disconfirmational Strategies Together 55
Using Strong Inference 55
Theory-Driven Versus Data-Driven Research 56
Summary 60
Key Terms 62
References 62
Chapter 3: Understanding Ethical Issues in the Research Process 64
Ethical Research Practice With Human Participants 64
John Watson and Little Albert 64
Is It Fear or Is It Anger? 65
Putting Ethical Considerations in Context 66
The Evolution of Ethical Principles for Research with Human Participants 67
The Nuremberg Code 67
The Declaration of Helsinki 68
The Belmont Report 68
APA Ethical Guidelines 69
Government Regulations 69
Internet Research and Ethical Research Practice 71
Ethical Guidelines, Your Research, and the Institutional Review Board 76
Ethical Considerations When Using Animal Subjects 79
The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee 79
Cost–Benefit Assessment: Should the Research Be Done? 80
Treating Science Ethically 81
What Constitutes Misconduct in Research? 83
The Prevalence of Research Misconduct 84
Explanations for Research Misconduct 85
Detecting and Dealing with Research Misconduct 86
Summary 90
Key Terms 91
References 92
Chapter 4: Getting Ideas for Research 96
Sources of Research Ideas 97
Experience 97
Theory 99
Applied Issues 100
Developing Good Research Questions 101
Asking Answerable Questions 101
Asking Important Questions 102
Developing Research Ideas: Reviewing the Literature 104
Reasons for Reviewing the Scientific Literature 104
Sources of Research Information 105
Searching the Scientific Literature 112
Research Tools 112
Conducting an Electronic Database Search 114
A Note of Caution When Searching an Electronic Database 115
The Basic Strategy for Conducting a Thorough Search 115
Searching for Books and Other Library Materials 116
Reading a Research Report 116
Reading the Literature Critically 117
Factors Affecting the Quality of a Source of Research Information 122
Publication Practices 122
Statistical Significance 122
Consistency with Previous Knowledge 125
Significance of the Contribution 126
Editorial Policy 126
Peer Review 127
Values Reflected in Research 133
Developing Hypotheses 137
Summary 139
Key Terms 141
References 141
Chapter 5: Choosing a Research Design 145
Functions of a Research Design 145
Causal Versus Correlational Relationships 146
Correlational Research 147
An Example of Correlational Research: Bullying and Adolescent Suicide 148
Causation and the Correlational Approach 149
Why Use Correlational Research? 150
Experimental Research 152
Characteristics of Experimental Research 152
An Example of Experimental Research: Violent Video Games and Aggressive
Emotion 154
Strengths and Limitations of the Experimental Approach 155
Experiments Versus Demonstrations 156
Internal and External Validity 157
Internal Validity 157
External Validity 161
Internal Versus External Validity 163
Research Settings 164
The Laboratory Setting 164
The Field Setting 166
A Look Ahead 167
Summary 167
Key Terms 169
References 169
Chapter 6: Making Systematic Observations 171
Deciding What to Observe 171
Choosing Specific Variables for Your Study 172
Research Tradition 172
Theory 172
Availability of New Techniques 172
Availability of Equipment 173
Choosing Your Measures 174
Physical Versus Psychological Measures 174
Reliability of a Measure 175
Accuracy of a Measure 177
Validity of a Measure 178
Acceptance as an Established Measure 179
Scale of Measurement 180
Variables and Scales of Measurement 182
Choosing a Scale of Measurement 183
Adequacy of a Dependent Measure 186
Tailoring Your Measures to Your Research Participants 187
Types of Dependent Variables and How to Use Them 189
The Reactive Nature of Psychological Measurement 193
Reactivity in Research with Human Participants 194
Reactivity in Research with Animal Subjects 200
Automating Your Experiments 201
Detecting and Correcting Problems 202
Conducting a Pilot Study 202
Adding Manipulation Checks 202
Summary 203
Key Terms 205
References 205
Chapter 7: Choosing and Using Research Subjects 208
General Considerations 208
Populations and Samples 209
Sampling and Generalization 210
Nonrandom Sampling 211
Is Random Sampling Always Necessary? 214
Acquiring Human Participants for Research 215
The Research Setting 215
The Needs of Your Research 216
Institutional Policies and Ethical Guidelines 217
Voluntary Participation and Validity 217
Factors That Affect the Decision to Volunteer 217
Volunteerism and Internal Validity 219
Volunteerism and External Validity 221
Remedies for Volunteerism 222
Research Using Deception 223
Research Deception in Context 223
Types of Research Deception 224
Problems Involved in Using Deception 225
Solutions to the Problem of Deception 227
Considerations When Using Animals as Subjects in Research 232
Contributions of Research Using Animal Subjects 232
Choosing Which Animal to Use 233
Why Use Animals? 233
How to Acquire Animals for Research 234
Generality of Animal Research Data 234
The Animal Rights Movement 236
Animal Research Issues 237
Alternatives to Animals in Research: In Vitro Methods and Computer Simulation 241
Summary 243
Key Terms 244
References 244
Chapter 8: Doing Nonexperimental Research 251
Making and Assessing Direct Observations 251
Developing Behavioral Categories 251
Quantifying Behavior in an Observational Study 252
Recording Single Events or Behavior Sequences 253
Making Your Observations Live or from Recordings 254
Coding the Behaviors 254
Coping with Complexity: Sampling Strategies 256
Establishing the Accuracy and Reliability of Your Observations 257
Sources of Bias in Observational Research 262
Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches to Data Collection 263
Nonexperimental Research Designs 265
Naturalistic Observation 266
Ethnography 268
Sociometry 272
The Case History 274
Archival Research 275
Content Analysis 276
Meta-Analysis: A Tool for Comparing Results Across Studies 281
Step 1: Identifying Relevant Variables 281
Step 2: Locating Relevant Research to Review 282
Step 3: Conducting the Meta-Analysis 283
Drawbacks to Meta-Analysis 283
Summary 286
Key Terms 288
References 288
Chapter 9: Doing Survey Research 292
Survey Research 294
Designing Your Questionnaire 295
Writing Questionnaire Items 296
Assembling Your Questionnaire 302
Administering Your Questionnaire 303
Mail Surveys 304
Internet Surveys 305
Telephone Surveys 307
Group-Administered Surveys 307
Face-to-Face Interviews 308
Mixed-Mode Surveys 309
A Final Note on Survey Techniques 310
Assessing the Reliability of Your Questionnaire 310
Assessing Reliability by Repeated Administration 311
Assessing Reliability with a Single Administration 312
Increasing Reliability 312
Assessing the Validity of Your Questionnaire 313
Acquiring a Sample for Your Survey 314
Representativeness 314
Sampling Techniques 315
Random and Nonrandom Sampling Revisited 322
Sample Size 322
Summary 324
Key Terms 326
References 326
Chapter 10: Using Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects
Experimental Designs 331
Types of Experimental Design 331
The Problem of Error Variance In Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs 332
Sources of Error Variance 332
Handling Error Variance 333
Between-Subjects Designs 335
The Single-Factor Randomized-Groups Design 335
Matched-Groups Designs 339
Within-Subjects Designs 343
An Example of a Within-Subjects Design: Does Caffeine Keep Us Going? 344
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Within-Subjects Design 344
Sources of Carryover 346
Dealing with Carryover Effects 347
When to Use a Within-Subjects Design 352
Within-Subjects Versus Matched-Groups Designs 354
Types of Within-Subjects Designs 354
Factorial Designs: Designs with Two or More Independent Variables 356
An Example of a Factorial Design: Smoker’s Recall of Fear-Appeal Imagery 357
Main Effects and Interactions 357
Factorial Within-Subjects Designs 360
Higher-Order Factorial Designs 360
Other Group-Based Designs 361
Designs With Two or More Dependent Variables 362
Confounding and Experimental Design 362
Summary 364
Key Terms 366
References 366
Chapter 11: Using Specialized Research Designs 368
Combining Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs 368
The Mixed Design 368
The Nested Design 370
Combining Experimental and Correlational Designs 372
Including a Covariate in Your Experimental Design 372
Including Quasi-Independent Variables in an Experiment 373
An Example of a Combined Design: Is Coffee a Physical or Psychological Stimulant? 373
Quasi-Experimental Designs 376
Time Series Designs 376
Equivalent Time Samples Design 377
Advantages and Disadvantages of Quasi Experiments 378
Nonequivalent Control Group Design 379
Pretest–Posttest Designs 380
Problems with the Pretest–Posttest Design 381
The Solomon Four-Group Design 383
Eliminating the Pretest 384
Developmental Designs 384
The Cross-Sectional Design 384
The Longitudinal Design 386
The Cohort-Sequential Design 389
Summary 391
Key Terms 392
References 392
Chapter 12: Using Single-Subject Designs 394
A Little History 394
Baseline, Dynamic, and Discrete Trials Designs 396
Baseline Designs 397
An Example Baseline Experiment: Do Rats Prefer Signaled or Unsignaled Shocks? 398
Issues Surrounding the Use of Baseline Designs 400
Dealing with Uncontrolled Variability 404
Determining the Generality of Findings 406
Dealing with Problem Baselines 407
Types of Single-Subject Baseline Design 409
Dynamic Designs 418
Discrete Trials Designs 421
Characteristics of the Discrete Trials Design 421
Analysis of Data from Discrete Trials Designs 423
Inferential Statistics and Single-Subject Designs 424
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Single-Subject Approach 425
Summary 426
Key Terms 429
References 429
Chapter 13: Describing Data 431
Descriptive Statistics and Exploratory Data Analysis 431
Organizing Your Data 432
Organizing Your Data for Computer Entry 436
Entering Your Data 436
Graphing Your Data 438
Elements of a Graph 438
Bar Graphs 438
Line Graphs 439
Scatter Plots 442
Pie Graphs 443
The Importance of Graphing Data 444
The Frequency Distribution 444
Displaying Distributions 445
Examining Your Distribution 447
Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Center and Spread 448
Measures of Center 448
Measures of Spread 452
Boxplots and the Five-Number Summary 454
Measures of Association, Regression, and Related Topics 456
The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient 456
The Point-Biserial Correlation 459
The Spearman Rank-Order Correlation 459
The Phi Coefficient 459
Linear Regression and Prediction 460
The Coefficient of Determination 462
The Correlation Matrix 463
Multivariate Correlational Techniques 464
Summary 464
Key Terms 466
References 467
Chapter 14: Using Inferential Statistics 468
Inferential Statistics: Basic Concepts 468
From Samples to Populations 469
Sampling Error 469
Sampling Distributions 469
Standard Error 469
Degrees of Freedom 470
Estimation 470
The Dance of the Confidence Intervals 472
Sample Size and the Margin of Error 473
Estimation for a Two-Group Experiment 473
Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST) 475
Statistical Errors 477
Determining Statistical Significance 478
One-Tailed Versus Two-Tailed Tests 478
Statistical Power 480
Statistical Versus Practical Significance 482
Recent Changes in Reporting Practices 483
Balancing Type I Versus Type II Errors 484
Parametric Statistical Tests 484
Assumptions Underlying a Parametric Statistic 484
Inferential Statistics with Two Samples 485
The t Test 485
The z Test for the Difference Between Two Proportions 486
Beyond Two Groups: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 486
The One-Factor Between-Subjects ANOVA 488
The One-Factor Within-Subjects ANOVA 490
The Two-Factor Between-Subjects ANOVA 491
The Two-Factor Within-Subjects ANOVA 492
Mixed Designs 493
Higher-Order and Special-Case ANOVAs 493
ANOVA: Summing Up 493
Nonparametric Statistical Tests 494
Chi-Square 494
The Mann–Whitney U Test 495
The Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test 495
Parametric Versus Nonparametric Statistics 495
Data Transformations 495
A Bayesian Approach to Hypothesis Testing 497
NHST and the Replication Crisis 499
Suspect Practices 499
Addressing the Replication Crisis: Open Science and the “New Statistics” 501
Summary 503
Key Terms 507
References 507
Chapter 15: Using Multivariate Design and Analysis 510
Correlational and Experimental Multivariate Designs 510
Correlational Multivariate Design 511
Experimental Multivariate Design 512
Assumptions and Requirements of Multivariate Statistics 513
Linearity 513
Outliers 514
Normality and Homoscedasticity 515
Multicollinearity 516
Error of Measurement 516
Sample Size 517
Correlational Multivariate Statistical Tests 518
Factor Analysis 518
Partial and Part Correlations 520
Multiple Regression 522
Discriminant Analysis 525
Canonical Correlation 527
Experimental Multivariate Statistical Tests 527
Multivariate Analysis of Variance 527
Multiway Frequency Analysis 532
Multivariate Statistical Techniques and Causal Modeling 534
Path Analysis 534
Structural Equation Modeling 537
Multivariate Analysis: A Cautionary Note 538
Summary 540
Key Terms 542
References 542
Chapter 16: Reporting Your Research Results 544
APA Writing Style 544
Writing an APA-Style Research Report 545
Getting Ready to Write 545
Parts and Order of Manuscript Sections 548
The Title Page 548
The Abstract 550
The Introduction 551
The Method Section 553
The Results or Findings Section 556
The Discussion Section 561
The Reference Section 562
Footnotes 567
Tables 568
Figures 568
Elements of APA style 571
Citing References in Your Report 572
Citing Quoted Material 572
Using Numbers in the Text 574
Avoiding Biased Language 575
Expression, Organization, and Style 577
Precision and Clarity of Expression 577
Economy of Expression 579
Organization 579
Style 581
Making It Work 583
Avoiding Plagiarism and Lazy Writing 583
Telling the World About Your Results 584
Publishing Your Results 584
Paper Presentations 586
The Ethics of Reporting or Publishing Your Results 587
Summary 588
Key Terms 589
References 590
Glossary G-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-8
PREFACE
This, the eleventh edition of Research Design and Methods: A Process Approach, reflects a revolution in research practices that has overtaken psychology and other fields that have relied on null hypothesis significance testing (NHST). This revolution followed the discovery that many established research findings fail the test of replication. The “open science initiative,” whose elements are designed to increase the transparency and reliability of research, is being increasingly adopted by journals and funding agencies as requirements. Additionally, are being taken to supplement—or replace—traditional NHST methods with other analytic approaches such as Bayesian analysis and “the new statistics” (estimation, confidence intervals, and meta-analysis). We cover these changes and the issues that motivated them, especially in Chapters 3, 4, and 14.
We have also partially rewritten Chapter 1 to align its coverage with the “Next Generation Science Standards” (NGSS). The NGSS view science as a set of practices that researchers engage in at various times in the research process, rather than a set of steps called “the scientific method” that researchers follow in a rigid order. Primary and secondary schools are adopting the NGSS curricula for teaching science, so we thought it important to be consistent with the NGSS standards in our coverage.
One of the criticisms raised against psychology as a science is its failure to emphasize theory development over purely empirical research efforts. Scientific theories of the sort found in disciplines such as physics, earth sciences, and biology continue to be rare in psychology, and not just because of the difficulties inherent in probing the workings of highly complex biological systems whose behaviors can be altered through learning. Instead, most researchers have been content to investigate empirical questions, adding to what Forscher (1963) likened to mere “bricks” as opposed to building a theoretical edifice. We have included a chapter on theory (Chapter 2) since the first edition of this book because we believe that our science cannot truly progress without significant theoretical development. The widespread availability of powerful computers may provide the key to such progress, particularly in the form of computer simulation.
CHANGES IN THE ELEVENTH EDITION
Organization
Some of our reviewers suggested moving the chapter on research ethics closer to the front of the book to reflect its importance in the research process. Consequently, it now appears as
Chapter 3 (formerly Chapter 7). The chapter, as in previous editions covers ethical treatment of subjects as well as the ethical treatment of science. Among other important issues raised is the damage to science that arises from scientific misconduct.
Another organizational change is that references now appear at the ends of the chapters in which they are cited. The book includes 130 newly cited references. Also, glossary items now include chapter numbers in brackets to make it easier for students to find them in the text.
Throughout the Book
When revising each of the chapters we worked to improve the conciseness and clarity of the writing. We also made changes in content to keep abreast of current trends in research methods and views of scientific practice. The following sections summarize the changes made to each of the chapters.
CHAPTER 1: EXPLAINING BEHAVIOR
A new opening vignette emphasizes the danger of uncritical acceptance of information presented on the Internet and other places. This leads to a discussion of science as an approach to knowledge about the natural world characterized in part by the collection and critical evaluation of empirical evidence.
We rewrote the discussion of science and what scientists do to align it with the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) put out by the National Research Council for science teaching. The NGSS abandons the concept of “the” scientific method as a series of steps carried out by scientists conducting scientific research, focusing instead on a set of eight “practices” that characterize the work of scientists.
We removed the “Scientific Method” subsection from Methods of Inquiry for two reasons. First, the practices of science were already described earlier in the chapter, and second, we wished to avoid implying that there is only one acceptable method for doing science, called “the scientific method.” The revised section, now entitled “Other Methods of Inquiry,” presents the Method of Authority and the Rational Method as approaches to acquiring knowledge.
The final section presents the research process that is the organizational theme of the book, as followed in the typical empirical research paper published in scientific journals.
CHAPTER 2: DEVELOPING AND EVALUATING THEORIES OF BEHAVIOR
We moved the example of the Rescorla-Wagner model of classical conditioning, previously found in Chapter 3, to Chapter 2 to illustrate a model as a specific implementation of a more general theory.
We added the Åström and Murray (2020) model of predator-prey dynamics to show how computer modeling can account for cyclical changes in Canadian lynx versus snowshoe hare population sizes, replacing the Nerb and Spada (2001) example.
We shortened the description describing Norman Anderson’s (1968) information integration theory found in the section on quantitative theory and illustrated it with a study by Leon (1982) on how children make moral judgments.
The final section on theory-driven versus data-driven research now ends with a paragraph bemoaning the lack of attention to theory development and testing in psychology and related disciplines, and challenging the student to take up this essential scientific activity.
CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING ETHICAL ISSUES IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
We moved this chapter on research ethics (previously Chapter 7) forward in the book to emphasize its importance.
We added a new discussion of ill-gotten information (added as a new key term) to the section on the Nuremberg Code. This discussion includes a definition of ill-gotten information and the two ethical dilemmas posed by such information: Should the research yielding ill-gotten information be done and for existing ill-gotten information, should it be used? Arguments for and against using ill-gotten information are presented.
We clarified the Principle of Justice in the section on the Belmont Report.
We added the APA (2020) guidelines on ethical issues relating to Internet research to the section on Internet research ethics, and discussed the issue of ill-gotten information obtained in Internet research.
We clarified the definition of the least-publishable unit rule through Fishman’s (2011) example of “salami science.” Fishman likens getting as many publications out of one research project to getting salami sliced as thinly as possible to get as many sandwiches as possible. We thought this vivid image would help students better understand the idea of the leastpublishable unit rule.
A new paragraph in the section on detecting and dealing with research misconduct brings in Fanelli et al.’s (2015) finding suggesting that pressure to publish may be a larger factor in research misconduct for researchers early in their careers than for established researchers, based on what studies get retracted versus corrected. We also added a discussion of what to do about research misconduct, based on a survey of researchers by Pratt and colleagues (2015). We also added a discussion of the effectiveness of methods for dealing with research misconduct. We now discuss how journals can help guard against research misconduct by requiring that raw data be submitted as a condition of publication.
CHAPTER 4: GETTING IDEAS FOR RESEARCH
In Chapter 4 we deleted the extended example of using theory to get research ideas. In its place we provided a new example of how applied issues can be a source of research ideas, focusing on how naltrexone used for opioid addiction affects males and females differently. In the section on asking important questions, we added information on replicating existing research findings. This includes the importance of replications in science and questions that should be addressed in replication research.
In the section on scholarly journals as sources of information, we added a sub-section discussing open-access journals.
Because most students are most likely familiar with using databases to search the literature, we eliminated the extended example of using EBSCO in favor of a more general discussion of using EBSCO.
We updated the section on problems with peer review. It now includes reference to a study by Bornmann and colleagues (2010) that found a distressingly low level of interreviewer reliability. We also added new information on the problem of homophily in the selection of peer reviewers, showing that women are underrepresented as peer reviewers. We updated the information on bias against women authors to include reference to a study by Fox and Paine (2019) showing a bias against women authors in ecology and evolution journals. We updated the section on improving the peer review process to include a study by Sciullo and Duncan (2019) identifying five problems with the peer review process and solutions to those problems, and added a table (Table 4-3) summarizing them. Additionally, this section now describes a study by Horbach and Halffman (2019) comparing the effectiveness of several types of peer review and provides a new table (Table 4-4) showing the results.
We updated the section on values in science to include information on the bias in psychology against evolutionary psychology and on how ideology can affect interpretation of measures. We also added new information on how liberal ideas are described more positively than conservative ideas in the scientific literature and how liberal ideas are viewed as more normative than conservative ideas (Eitan et al., 2018).
The section on how values influence what and how scientists study now includes information on critical feminist psychology and how adherents maintain that the idea of objective science is a fallacy. The new information includes a discussion of five critical methodological questions raised by critical feminist psychology.
We updated the information on the role of gatekeepers in science to include the role of ideology in the gatekeeping process.
CHAPTER 5: CHOOSING A RESEARCH DESIGN
We clarified the definition of exploratory data collection and analysis and added an example. We provided a new example of correlational research that focuses on the relationship between being a victim of bullying and suicidal ideation among children and adolescents. We added a new example of experimental research that examines the relationship between playing violent video games and aggressive emotions.
In the section on external validity we added Meltzoff and Cooper’s (2018) questions to consider when evaluating one’s research with respect to external validity.
We updated the section on internal versus external validity to include a distinction between efficacy and effectiveness research when assessing the importance of the two types of validity.
To the section on using simulation methodology we added new information on virtual reality simulations.
The section on the field setting now features a new example of a field experiment. This example focuses on whether subtle forms of prejudice influence how church personnel respond to potential new members of different ethnic/racial groups.
CHAPTER 6: MAKING SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATIONS
We updated the section on choosing measures to discuss the differences between physical and psychological measures and provided examples of each type.
To illustrate a physiological measure, we added a new figure (Figure 6-4) showing a polygraph taken during sleep.
We deleted the section on choosing when to measure.
CHAPTER 7: CHOOSING AND USING RESEARCH SUBJECTS
We augmented the information on crowdsourcing sources for research participants to discuss how the increased use of sources such as Amazon Mechanical Turk may lead to a shift in research and theory in social psychology (the MTurkification of social psychology).
We updated the section on voluntary participation and cut down the previously extensive coverage of research on the topic published in 1975.
To the section on deception in research we added a discussion of two forms of deception: indirect (not disclosing the full purposes or goals of a study) and direct (deliberately providing misinformation). The section discusses how direct deception poses more serious threats to a participant’s well-being than indirect deception.
We updated the section on the effectiveness of debriefing to include a recent study (Miketta & Friese, 2019) showing that the effects of negative feedback about a participant’s intelligence persisted for two weeks and that a debriefing session with a trained psychologist helped to remove the negative effects of false information.
Results of more recent polls were added to the section on how the public views animal research, together with a new figure (Figure 7-3) showing how attitudes toward using animals in medical testing have changed between 2001 and 2019.
CHAPTER 8: DOING NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
We added an example of recording behavior sequences.
We updated and expanded the section on live versus recorded observations. There are discussions of the human observer as “low fidelity recorders of behavior” and of how recording can circumvent the problems of live observation.
To the section on qualitative data we added new information on the grounded theory approach to data collection and provided an example of how the grounded theory approach is used.
We updated the information on unobtrusive observation to include a discussion and example of contrived observation, where an observer elicits behaviors from participants.
In the section on observing as a participant or nonparticipant, we updated the discussion to include the use of polymorphous engagement technology (e.g., the Internet) in participant observation. We also added information on the problem of participant reactivity in participant observation.
A new example of ethnography focusing on the type of feedback received by medical students replaces the one we previously used.
A new example of content analysis focusing on how individuals with cognitive impairments communicate using Facebook replaces the older one.
To the section on data mining we added new information on digital traces research. We describe how you can use routinely collected data in research and how you can use those data to create digital dossiers of attitudes and behavior.
CHAPTER 9: DOING SURVEY RESEARCH
A new example of survey research opens the chapter. The new example focuses on attitudes toward technology companies. The subsequent examples of different types of survey questions have been updated to follow the new example.
We updated the data on the percentage of people who use the Internet and the demographics of those people.
In the section on telephone surveys we expanded and updated conducting surveys to include targeting smartphone users. We present research on the differences between landline and smartphone users and how those differences could affect survey methods and results.
We updated the final note on survey techniques to include research indicating that nonresponse bias may not be as large a problem as previously believed and that researchers should monitor ongoing survey research for nonresponse bias and take steps to correct it.
We rewrote the section on assessing the reliability of a questionnaire to clarify how to use the test-retest and parallel forms methods to assess the reliability of questionnaire questions.
CHAPTER 10: USING BETWEEN-SUBJECTS AND WITHINSUBJECTS EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
No substantive changes.
CHAPTER 11: USING SPECIALIZED RESEARCH DESIGNS
We added new examples illustrate equivalent time samples design, non-equivalent time samples design, and pretest-posttest design.
CHAPTER 12: USING SINGLE-SUBJECT DESIGNS
The discussion of multiple baseline designs now distinguishes three types: multiple baseline across behaviors, multiple baseline across subjects, and multiple baseline across settings.
CHAPTER 13: DESCRIBING DATA
No substantive changes.
CHAPTER 14: USING INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
The chapter now distinguishes two uses of inferential statistics: estimation and traditional null hypothesis significance testing (NHST). The section on the logic of inferential statistics now begins with estimation. It introduces point estimates and confidence intervals, then explains how a 95% CI around a point estimate (e.g., sample mean) can be expected in the long run to overlap the equivalent population parameter in 95% of random samples. We illustrate confidence interval variability across samples by portraying Geoff Cumming’s (2014) “dance of the confidence intervals.” An example two-group experiment includes a figure showing the 95% CIs around the two group means and the 95% CI for the effect size (difference between means).
New figures illustrate the logic of NHST, showing scenarios for a two-group experiment when the null hypothesis is true (no experimental effect present) and when it is not (effect present). Sample data from the two groups are represented by 95% CIs in the new figures.
A new section, “NHST and the Replication Crisis,” replaces “Alternatives to Inferential Statistics.” As the heading suggests, it addresses widespread replication failures in psychology and other disciplines that rely heavily on NHST to assess reliability, and identifies several unhealthy practices encouraged by the need for statistical significance as a criterion for publication (p-hacking and data mining). Solutions being implemented to address this problem in the form of the “open science” initiative are introduced, including preregistration, open data and code, and open access to research reports. Also emphasized are encouraging researchers to conduct replications of their own and other’s studies and to submit properly conducted studies with null results. The section ends by discussing the so-called “New Statistics” (estimation, confidence intervals, and meta-analysis) as a replacement for traditional NHST methods. While the latter only rule on whether an effect is either present or absent, the former indicate the likely sizes of effects in the population and the precision of those estimates.
We deleted examples illustrating various NHST analyses and a few figures and tables to make room for the added coverage. We now refer the reader to Internet sources for the information contained in the deleted tables.
CHAPTER 15: USING MULTIVARIATE DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
We updated the section on data transformations to include a brief discussion of the problem of interpreting transformed data.
We updated the formula for determining a sample size for multiple regression.
To the section on the types of multiple regression we added a discussion of logistic regression and an example of it.
A new example of multiple regression focusing on the relationship between types of humor used by adolescents and becoming a bully replaces the previous one.
CHAPTER 16: REPORTING YOUR RESEARCH RESULTS
We updated the entire chapter to be consistent with the seventh edition of the APA publication manual.
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David took the strong hold of Zion; the same is the city of David.
5. Thou shalt not come in hither]. Undoubtedly the Chronicler understood the resistance offered by the Jebusites to be of a military character, and the text of Samuel as translated in Authorized Version and Revised Version follows the same notion. See, however, the reinterpretation of the Samuel text by Barnes in the Expositor, January, 1914, where it is urged that the word (mᵉtsudah) rendered “strong hold” means not a well-fortified citadel but simply a natural hiding place, such as a thicket or a cavern (which in this case probably was used as a shrine by the Jebusites).
the strong hold of Zion] See the previous note. The site of this “hold” or cavern (afterwards “the city of David”) is on the south-east of the present city, on the south of the Haram (the Temple area), and on a level lower than that of the Haram (see Smith, Jerusalem, II. 39 ff.).
⁶And David said,
Whosoever smiteth the Jebusites first shall be chief and captain. And Joab the son of Zeruiah went up first, and was made chief. ⁷And David dwelt in the strong hold; therefore they called it the city of David.
6. Whosoever smiteth the Jebusites] The reference here is no doubt to military violence. See, however, the article by Barnes cited above. The text in Samuel is very difficult and corrupt, and has been simplified by the Chronicler.
Joab the son of Zeruiah] Zeruiah was David’s sister (ii. 16). It is not said in Samuel that Joab first became commander-in-chief on this occasion; on the contrary he appears in command (2 Samuel ii. 13) during the civil war against the house of Saul. Perhaps he was
first formally acknowledged as commander at the seizure of Jerusalem.
⁸And he built the city round about, from Millo even round about: and Joab repaired¹ the rest of the city. ⁹And David waxed greater and greater; for the L of hosts was with him.
¹ Hebrew revived.
8. from Millo even round about] Literally “the Millo,” meaning perhaps “The filling up,” was some part of the defences of the “city of David,” either a solid tower or perhaps an armoury, or a piece of supplementary work intended to strengthen an existing wall (LXX. 2 Chronicles xxxii. 5, ἀνάλημμα, “support”). See Smith, Jerusalem II. 40 f.
Joab] This tradition about Joab is not mentioned in Samuel.
repaired the rest of the city] literally revived, compare Nehemiah iv. 2 (= Hebrew iii. 34). Peshitṭa translates: “Joab gave his right hand to the rest of the men who were in the city”; and it has been proposed to render the clause spared or kept alive the rest of the city (i.e. the remaining people, the Benjamites who dwelt there with the Jebusites [Judges i. 21]). The rendering repaired is to be preferred.
10‒41a (compare 2 Samuel xxiii. 8‒39).
D ’ M M D .
This section seems to consist of elements drawn from different sources and brought together (probably by the author of Samuel) in order to give as complete a list as possible of the heroes who at different times in David’s career did good service to Israel.
The names of twelve of these heroes reappear in chapter xxvii. as the commanders of David’s twelve “courses.”
Verses 11‒14 (= 2 Samuel xxiii. 8‒12) deal with two (in Samuel three) heroes otherwise unknown.
Verses 15‒19 (= 2 Samuel xxiii. 13‒17) are independent of the foregoing and narrate an exploit of three unnamed heroes.
Verses 20‒25 (= 2 Samuel xxiii. 18‒23) seem in turn to be independent of 15‒19, and verses 21, 25 in particular seem to be quoted from some lost poem. These verses contain the eulogy of Abishai and Benaiah.
Verses 26‒41a (= 2 Samuel xxiii. 24‒39) contain thirty names of heroes whose exploits are not recorded. It is to be noted that Chronicles, verses 41b‒47, adds some sixteen names at the end which are not given in Samuel.
Joab is not included in the formal list because he has been already mentioned (verse 6).
Lists of names are favourite features in oriental Histories. Thus Ibn Hishām in his Life of Mohammed gives a list of the 83 Moslems who took refuge in Abyssinia from the persecution of the Koreish, of the 75 inhabitants of Medina who swore allegiance to the Prophet before the Hegira, and even of the 314 Moslems who were present at the battle of Bedr.
¹⁰Now these are the chief of the mighty men whom David had, who shewed¹ themselves strong with him in his kingdom, together with all Israel, to make him king, according to the word of the L concerning Israel.
¹ held strongly with him
10. Now these] This verse is the Chronicler’s own heading which he prefixes to the list of heroes taken from Samuel, while retaining
(in verse 11) the original heading given in Samuel.
who shewed themselves strong with him] Render as margin, who held strongly with him. Compare xii. 23.
to make him king] as though all the mighty men participated in the coronation at Hebron, whereas in reality many must have won their place and fame only in the later campaigns of David.
¹¹And this is the number of the mighty men whom David had: Jashobeam, the son of a Hachmonite, the chief of the thirty¹ ; he lifted up his spear against three hundred and² slew them at one time.
¹ Another reading is, captains ² Hebrew slain
11. this is the number] More suitably in Samuel, “These be the names.”
Jashobeam] Called “Jashobeam the son of Zabdiel” in xxvii. 2. The name “Jashobeam” is however uncertain. In 2 Samuel (xxiii. 8, Revised Version) it appears as “Josheb-basshebeth,” which is certainly wrong. LXX. (B) varies in reproducing the name, but it seems to have read “Ish-bosheth” in Samuel, and “Ish-baal” (Eshbaal) in both places of Chronicles. These readings are probably right. For the relation of the forms “Ish-bosheth,” “Esh-baal” see viii. 33, note.
son of a Hachmonite] Compare xxvii. 32. In Samuel (wrongly) “a Tahchemonite.”
chief of the thirty] So the Hebrew margin (Kethīb), but the Hebrew text (Ḳerī) reads chief of the captains, which the Authorized Version follows. Neither Authorized Version nor Revised Version gives satisfactory sense. In 2 Samuel xxiii. 8 the LXX. gives, chief of the
third part [of the army], compare 2 Samuel xviii. 2; and this is perhaps right; the Hebrew text of Samuel (if not faulty) probably bears the same sense. Ish-baal (Jashobeam) then is one of three “mightiest of the mighty” men, the other two being Eleazar (verse 12) and Shammah (= 2 Samuel xxiii. 11; omitted in Chronicles—see note on verses 12, 13).
he lifted up his spear] Literally “he aroused his spear,” a poetic expression.
against three hundred] Samuel “against eight hundred”; so Peshitṭa (good MSS.) of Chronicles Some light is thrown on this exploit by 1 Samuel xviii. 25‒27; the two hundred Philistines slain by David and his men were carefully counted and reckoned to the credit of David personally.
12, 13. These verses answer in part to verses 9 and 11 of Samuel, but since verse 10 and parts of verses 9, 11 of Samuel have no equivalent in Chronicles, two incidents are confounded, and the name of a hero (Shammah) is omitted, his exploit being ascribed to Eleazar.
¹²And after him was Eleazar the son of Dodo, the Ahohite, who was one of the three mighty men.
12. Eleazar the son of Dodo] Probably to be identified with “Dodai the Ahohite,” the commander of the second “course”; xxvii. 4.
the three mighty men] i.e. the three who were with David on the occasion mentioned in 2 Samuel xxiii. 9.
¹³He was with David at Pas-dammim¹ , and there the Philistines were gathered together to battle, where was a plot of ground full of
barley; and the people fled from before the Philistines.
¹ In 1 Samuel xvii. 1, Ephes-dammim.
13. at Pas-dammim] Perhaps the same place as “Ephesdammim” which is mentioned in 1 Samuel xvii. 1 as the gatheringplace of the Philistines. It was in the south-west of Judah.
barley] Samuel “lentils.” The two words resemble each other in Hebrew and might be confused by an unwary scribe.
¹⁴And they stood in the midst of the plot, and defended it, and slew the Philistines; and the L saved them by a great victory¹ .
¹ Hebrew salvation
14. they stood] The subject of the verb in 2 Samuel xxiii. 12 is Shammah, here David and Eleazar together.
¹⁵And three of the thirty chief went down to the rock to David, into the cave of Adullam; and the host of the Philistines were encamped in the valley of Rephaim.
15. to the rock] Samuel “in the harvest-time.” Probably both readings are wrong, and the original form of the verse was perhaps And three of the thirty went down at the beginning of harvest to David, etc. (see Driver, Notes on Hebrew text of Samuel², p. 366).
the cave of Adullam] So also in 1 Samuel xxii. 1; 2 Samuel xxiii. 13. In verse 16 below, and in 1 Samuel xxii. 4 it is called the “hold.” Probably “the ‘hold’ was a tangle of hill and forest, in the centre of
which the ‘cave of Adullam’ served as David’s headquarters” (Barnes, Expositor, January, 1914): the whole forming an admirable retreat for men acquainted with its intricacies. An identification with a commanding hill in the Shephelah, called “Aid-el-ma,” has been suggested (see G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land pp. 229, 230, note).
the valley of Rephaim] Probably the broad depression traversed by the road from Jerusalem to Beth-lehem. See Joshua xv. 8 (“vale of Rephaim” Revised Version; “valley of the giants” Authorized Version).
¹⁶And David was then in the hold, and the garrison of the Philistines was then in Bethlehem. ¹⁷And David longed, and said, Oh that one would give me water to drink of the well of Beth-lehem, which is by the gate!
16. in the hold] compare note on the cave of Adullam (verse 15).
¹⁸And the three brake through the host of the Philistines, and drew water out of the well of Beth-lehem, that was by the gate, and took it, and brought it to David: but David would not drink thereof, but poured it out unto the L , ¹⁹and said, My God forbid it me, that I should do this: shall I drink the blood of these men that¹ have put their lives in jeopardy? for with the jeopardy of their lives they brought it. Therefore he would not drink it. These things did the three mighty men.
¹ Hebrew with their lives.
18. brake through the host] or camp. The word “host” in the Hebrew regularly means a host encamped, not a host embattled. Perhaps this exploit took place by night; compare the deed of David and Abishai (1 Samuel xxvi. 6‒12).
poured it out] i.e. as a libation-offering.
²⁰And Abishai¹ , the brother of Joab, he was chief of the three: for he lifted up his spear against three hundred and² slew them, and had a name among the three. Of³ the three,
¹ Hebrew Abshai. ² Hebrew slain.
³ Or, Of the three in the second rank he was the most honourable
20. chief of the three] In 2 Samuel xxiii. 18 (Kethīb) Abishai is called by the same title (Hebrew rōsh hasshālīshi) as Joshebbasshebeth (2 Samuel xxiii. verse 8). This title probably means chief of the third part [of the army]; compare verse 11, note. Chief of the three is a faulty reading: it certainly ought not to be taken in connection with the three mighty men—Jashobeam (Ishbaal), Eleazar and <Shammah>—referred to in verses 10 ff. Probably a reading “chief of the thirty,” for which there is some MS. authority, is correct; but the references here and in the following verse are obscure (see Driver, Samuel², pp. 367, 368).
had a name among the three] Compare verse 24, where the same thing is said of Benaiah. The three meant are either the three of verses 15‒19 or else an unknown three; compare next note.
²¹he was more honourable than the two, and was made their captain: howbeit he attained not to the first three.
21. Of the three, he was more honourable than the two] margin “Of the three in the second rank he was the most honourable.” Neither of these renderings is satisfactory, and the text is certainly corrupt (compare 2 Samuel xxiii. 19), and should be corrected. Read perhaps: He was more honourable than the three, or perhaps, than the thirty. The verse probably comes from a lost poem. What is meant by the three and by the first three cannot be determined owing to the loss of the context.
²²Benaiah the son of Jehoiada, the son of a valiant man of Kabzeel, who had done mighty deeds, he slew the two sons of Ariel of Moab: he went down also and slew a lion in the midst of a pit in time of snow.
22. Benaiah] See 2 Samuel viii. 18; 1 Kings i. 8 ff., ii. 25‒35.
Kabzeel] It was in the south of Judah; Joshua xv. 21.
he slew the two sons of Ariel of Moab] So LXX. of 2 Samuel xxiii. 20. The phrase is very difficult. Some, emending the text, read “He slew two young lions, having gone down to their lair.” Another but an improbable conjecture is “he smote the two altar-pillars of Moab,” i.e. he overthrew the two high columns on which the sacred fire of the Moabites was kept (Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, Additional Note L). To injure or defile the sacred place of an enemy was a common practice in ancient war.
in time of snow] “The beast had strayed up the Judaean hills from Jordan, and had been caught in a sudden snowstorm. Where else
than in Palestine could lions and snow thus come together?” G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land p. 65.
²³And he slew an Egyptian, a man of great stature, five cubits high; and in the Egyptian’s hand was a spear like a weaver’s beam; and he went down to him with a staff, and plucked the spear out of the Egyptian’s hand, and slew him with his own spear. ²⁴These things did Benaiah the son of Jehoiada, and had a name among the three mighty men.
23. of great stature] Samuel has a better reading, “a goodly man” (man of presence), “goodliness” according to the Hebrews consisting in being well-built for warlike exercises.
a staff] Hebrew shēbhet, i.e. the “rod” or “club” carried by shepherds as a defence against wild-beasts; Psalms ii. 9 (“rod”); xxiii. 4 “rod”); 2 Samuel xviii. 14 (“darts”). This “rod” had a point at one end, so that it could on occasion be used as a stabbing weapon.
²⁵Behold, he was more honourable than the thirty, but he attained not to the first three: and David set him over his guard¹ . ¹ Or, council.
25. more honourable than the thirty] On the phrase, see verse 21, note. The verse probably comes from some poem written in praise of Benaiah. Compare xxvii. 6.
guard] The same Hebrew word, mishma‘ath, is translated “council” in the margin here and also in 1 Samuel xxii. 14. The literal
meaning is “obedience”; it seems both here and in Samuel (1 Samuel xxii. 14) to designate those who executed the king’s commands, i.e. his ministers. (Minister = “servant.”)
²⁶Also the mighty men of the armies; Asahel the brother of Joab, Elhanan the son of Dodo of Beth-lehem;
26. Asahel] Whose death at the hands of Abner, the general of Ishbosheth, was the cause of the famous feud between Abner and Joab, compare 2 Samuel ii. 18 ff., iii. 27.
Elhanan] Called here (= 2 Samuel xxiii. 24) “son of Dodo,” but perhaps to be identified with “Elhanan the son of Jair” of xx. 5 (= 2 Samuel xxi. 19, where Jaare-oregim is an error for Jair [see Driver, Samuel², pp. 367, 368]).
²⁷Shammoth¹ the Harorite, Helez the Pelonite² ;
¹ In 2 Samuel xxiii 25, Shamah the Harodite
² In 2 Samuel xxiii. 26, Paltite.
27. the Harorite] Read, the Harodite (so Samuel). Compare Judges vi. 23, vii. 1, whence it appears that Harod was in (or near) the valley of Jezreel. Compare also 1 Chronicles xxvii. 8 (“Shamhuth the Izrahite”), where the same person seems to be meant. “Elika the Harodite” (Samuel) is not found in Chronicles.
Helez the Pelonite] Compare xxvii. 10, where he is described as a captain of the children of Ephraim. In 2 Samuel xxiii. 26 however it is Helez the Paltite, i.e. (apparently) “the inhabitant of Beth-pelet” in the south of Judah (Joshua xv. 27).
²⁸Ira the son of Ikkesh the Tekoite, Abiezer the Anathothite;
28. Ira the son of Ikkesh the Tekoite] Compare xxvii. 9. For Tekoa see 2 Chronicles xx. 20, note.
Abiezer the Anathothite] xxvii. 12 and 2 Samuel xxiii. 27. Anathoth was in Benjamin; it was Jeremiah’s village (Jeremiah i. 1, xi. 21 ff.), now Anāta, 2½ miles north-north-east of Jerusalem.
²⁹Sibbecai¹ the Hushathite, Ilai² the Ahohite;
¹ In 2 Samuel xxiii. 27, Mebunnai.
² In 2 Samuel xxiii 28, Zalmon
29. Sibbecai] So xxvii. 11, but in 2 Samuel xxiii. 27 “Mebunnai.”
the Hushathite] Hushah is probably the name of some place near Beth-lehem (iv. 4). Shuah (iv. verse 11) may be another form of the name.
Ilai] In 2 Samuel xxiii. 28 “Zalmon.” The two words are perhaps only various readings of the name which originally appeared in the list.
the Ahohite] He was of a Benjamite family; viii. 4 (“Ahoah”).
³⁰Maharai the Netophathite, Heled¹ the son of Baanah the Netophathite;
¹ In 2 Samuel xxiii. 29, Heleb.
30. Maharai the Netophathite] So in xxvii. 13, with “of the Zerahites” (Revised Version) added. A Netophathite might come
either from Netophah (a village in Judah not far from Beth-lehem), or from the “villages of the Netophathites” (ix. 16, note).
Heled] In xxvii. 15 “Heldai,” a name found in Zechariah iv. 10. “Heleb” in 2 Samuel xxiii. 29 is probably a wrong reading.
³¹Ithai the son of Ribai of Gibeah of the children of Benjamin, Benaiah the Pirathonite;
31. Ithai] In 2 Samuel xxiii. 29 “Ittai,” the same name as in 2 Samuel xv. 19, xviii. 2, but a different person is meant.
Benaiah the Pirathonite] So in xxvii. 14; 2 Samuel xxiii. 30. Pirathon was a town in Ephraim; Judges xii. 15. Probably the place is mentioned also in 1 Maccabees ix. 50 (τὴν Θαμνάθα Φαραθών).
³²Hurai¹ of the brooks of Gaash, Abiel² the Arbathite;
¹ In 2 Samuel xxiii 30, Hiddai
² In 2 Samuel xxiii. 31, Abi-albon.
32. Hurai] In 2 Samuel xxiii. 30, “Hiddai.” The true form of the name is uncertain; neither form occurs elsewhere.
Gaash] A mountain in Ephraim; Judges ii. 9 (= Joshua xxiv 30).
Abiel] In 2 Samuel xxiii. 31 “Abi-albon.” “Arbathite” means “inhabitant of Beth Arabah”; a town on the border between Judah and Benjamin, Joshua xv. 6.
³³Azmaveth the Baharumite, Eliahba the Shaalbonite;
33. Baharumite] In 2 Samuel xxiii. 31 “Barhumite.” We should read in both places, Bahurimite, i.e. “inhabitant of Bahurim,” a town of Benjamin (2 Samuel iii. 16).
Shaalbonite] i.e. “inhabitant of Shaalbim” (Judges i. 35), or “Shaalabbin” (Joshua xix. 42), a town in Dan.
³⁴the sons of Hashem¹ the Gizonite, Jonathan the son of Shage the Hararite;
¹ In 2 Samuel xxiii. 32, Jashen.
34. the sons of Hashem the Gizonite] The corresponding clause in 2 Samuel xxiii. 32 is simply “the sons of Jashen.” The text is corrupt in both places. LXX. (Chronicles) for the sons of has the proper name “Benaiah.” Read perhaps “Jashen the Gunite” (compare Numbers xxvi. 48) omitting the sons of (Hebrew bĕnē) as arising from a mistaken repetition of the last three letters of Shaalbonite (Hebrew form).
Jonathan the son of Shage] Compare 2 Samuel xxiii. 32, 33, where the right reading seems to be “Jonathan the son of Shammah.” Nothing is known of the meaning of “Hararite,” nor is the reading certain.
³⁵Ahiam the son of Sacar¹ the Hararite, Eliphal² the son of Ur; ³⁶Hepher the Mecherathite, Ahijah the Pelonite;
¹ In 2 Samuel xxiii. 33, Sharar. ² In 2 Samuel xxiii 34, Eliphelet the son of Ahasbai
35. Sacar] In 2 Samuel “Sharar.”
35, 36. Eliphal the son of Ur; Hepher the Mecherathite] In 2 Samuel xxiii. 34 “Eliphelet the son of Ahasbai, the son of the Maacathite.” Chronicles has two heroes against one in 2 Samuel.
36. Ahijah the Pelonite] A mutilated reading of 2 Samuel xxiii. 34, “Eliam the son of Ahithophel the Gilonite.” For “Ahithophel” see xxvii. 33, note. “Gilonite” means “inhabitant of Giloh,” a town in the hill country of Judah (Joshua xv. 51).
³⁷Hezro the Carmelite, Naarai¹ the son of Ezbai;
¹ In 2 Samuel xxiii 35, Paarai the Arbite
37. Hezro] So 2 Samuel xxiii. 35 (Revised Version following the Kethīb); but Hezrai (Authorized Version following the Ḳerī).
the Carmelite] i.e. inhabitant of Carmel, a town in the hill country of Judah (1 Samuel xxv. 2 ff.).
Naarai] In 2 Samuel xxiii. 35 “Paarai.” The true form is lost.
the son of Ezbai] In 2 Samuel “the Arbite” (simply), i.e. (probably) “inhabitant of Arab” (Joshua xv. 52), a town in the hill country of Judah.
³⁸Joel the brother of Nathan, Mibhar the son of Hagri;
38. Joel the brother of Nathan, Mibhar] Mibhar is a corruption of a word (“of Zobah”) belonging to the first clause of the verse; compare 2 Samuel xxiii. 39, “Igal the son of Nathan of Zobah.” For “Zobah” compare xviii. 3.
the son of Hagri] In 2 Samuel “Bani the Gadite.”
³⁹Zelek the Ammonite, Naharai the Berothite, the armourbearer of Joab the son of Zeruiah;
39. the Berothite] Spelt generally “Beerothite.” Beeroth was a Benjamite town; 2 Samuel iv. 2.
⁴⁰Ira the Ithrite, Gareb the Ithrite;
40. the Ithrite] i.e. “member of the family (or ‘clan’) of Jether.” Compare ii. 17, note.
⁴¹Uriah the Hittite, Zabad the son of Ahlai;
41. Uriah the Hittite] Compare 2 Samuel xi. 3. The list in 2 Samuel xxiii. closes with this name and with the note “thirty and seven in all.” In Chronicles the list is extended to include sixteen additional names, which are all otherwise unknown.
41b‒47 (no parallel in 2 Samuel).
C L D ’ M M .
⁴²Adina the son of Shiza the Reubenite, a chief of the Reubenites, and thirty with him;
⁴³Hanan the son of Maacah, and Joshaphat the Mithnite;
42. and thirty with him] This clause may be a marginal note taken into the text at the wrong place. It was apparently meant to stand after the name of Uriah the Hittite (verse 41) by some scribe who followed our present text and referred “the sons of Hashem” (verse 34) to Azmaveth and Eliahba (verse 33), thus reckoning just thirty names from Asahel to Uriah. The clause should be read either “and up to him are thirty” or “and all of them are thirty” (compare 2 Samuel xxiii. 39). Another possibility is that the proper place of these verses, 42‒47, is in chapter xii., after verse 7: they describe on that view the
Reubenite gathering to David, and the names in verses 43‒47 are then to be regarded as a portion of the list of the thirty with Adina (verse 42). On the characteristics of these additional names and of those in xii. 1‒22, see G. B. Gray, Hebrew Proper Names, p. 230.
⁴⁴Uzzia the Ashterathite, Shama and Jeiel the sons of Hotham the Aroerite; ⁴⁵Jediael the son of Shimri, and Joha his brother, the Tizite;
44. the Ashterathite] i.e. inhabitant of Ashtaroth (vi. 71 [56, Hebrew]), a city of Manasseh east of Jordan.
the Aroerite] i.e. inhabitant of Aroer. There were two cities of this name, both east of Jordan; compare Joshua xiii. 16, 25.
⁴⁶Eliel the Mahavite, and Jeribai, and Joshaviah, the sons of Elnaam, and Ithmah the Moabite;
46. the Mahavite] Read perhaps, “the Mahanite,” i.e. inhabitant of Mahanaim, a town east of Jordan; compare 2 Samuel xvii. 27; or “the Meonite,” i.e. of Beth Meon, a Reubenite city, Joshua xiii. 17.
This section describes the gathering to David of helpers from Benjamin (verses 1‒7), Gad (8‒15), Benjamin and Judah (16‒18), and Manasseh (19‒22)—before the death of Saul. It is entirely natural to suppose that the men who followed David in the days of Saul’s enmity were rewarded when he became king, and their descendants might well be prominent families in the land. Whether any such survived the exilic period and continued in later Jerusalem we cannot say for certain, but it is probable that some names in this list are correct, though it is doubtful whether the Chronicler is drawing on contemporary family tradition or on written sources. The style, however, shows that the composition of the chapter is the Chronicler’s, and the impression made by the whole should be contrasted with the picture of this period of David’s life given in 1 Samuel xxii. 1 ff. In Samuel David is leader of a small band of his own immediate friends, augmented by adventurers and desperate men, and numbering in all some six hundred. In Chronicles one gathers that his followers were the choice spirits of Israel and Judah, who rallied to his support until he had “a great host like the host of God.” Beyond question the picture in Samuel is true to fact, that in Chronicles being part of the idealisation of David as the perfect king, which the Chronicler (doubtless in full accord with the temper of his age) consistently presents. Its worth lies not in its historical accuracy, but in the religious enthusiasm which has produced it.
1‒7.
B A D .
¹Now these are they that came to David to Ziklag, while¹ he yet kept himself close because of Saul the son of Kish: and they were among the mighty men, his helpers in war.
¹ Hebrew being yet shut up.
1. to Ziklag] David at Ziklag was a client of Achish, king of Gath (1 Samuel xxvii. 5, 6), so that Benjamites joining him put themselves under their hereditary enemies the Philistines.
while he yet kept himself close] Render, while he was yet shut up. David was shut in, as in a prison, and unable to move freely through the land of Israel.
²They were ¹ armed with bows, and could use both the right hand and the left in slinging stones and in shooting arrows from the bow; they were of Saul’s brethren of Benjamin.
¹ Or, drew the bow.
2. both the right hand and the left] In Judges xx. the Benjamites are said to have had seven hundred men lefthanded who could sling stones at a hair and not miss (Judges xx. verse 16). Compare Judges iii. 15.
they were of Saul’s brethren of Benjamin] Brother is used in Hebrew and Arabic for fellow-tribesman; compare 2 Samuel xix. 12. The loyalty of Benjamin to Saul even after his death is attested by 2 Samuel ii. 15, 25, 31. But the importance of Benjamites in the postexilic period would encourage such a tradition as is here recorded.
³The chief was Ahiezer, then Joash, the sons of Shemaah the Gibeathite; and Jeziel, and Pelet, the sons of Azmaveth; and Beracah, and Jehu the Anathothite;
3. The chief was A., then J.] Read (compare LXX.) A. the chief, J. the son (singular) of Shemaah.
Jehu the Anathothite] i.e. man of Anathoth. See xi. 28, note.
⁴and Ishmaiah the Gibeonite, a mighty man among the thirty, and over the thirty; and Jeremiah, and Jahaziel, and Johanan, and Jozabad the Gederathite; ⁵Eluzai, and Jerimoth, and Bealiah, and Shemariah, and Shephatiah the Haruphite;
4. among the thirty, and over the thirty] Ishmaiah’s name does not occur among the thirty (2 Samuel xxiii. 24‒39); the phrase is therefore perhaps only a kind of superlative; Ishmaiah was worthy to be ranked with the thirty or even above them. Probably however the list in chapter xi. and that in chapter xii. belong to different times.
the Gederathite] i.e. the man of Gederah. The only Gederah known was in the Judean Shephelah (Joshua xv. 36), so that it would seem that some men of Judah are reckoned along with the Benjamites in these verses. Similarly in verse 7 men of the Judean town of Gedor (iv. 4; Joshua xv. 58) are mentioned. Perhaps therefore some words introducing the names of Judean heroes have dropped out. But an identification with a Benjamite village Jedireh, North of Jerusalem, is also possible.
⁶Elkanah, and Isshiah, and Azarel, and Joezer, and Jashobeam, the Korahites; ⁷and
